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N CHIGA MICHIGAN MICHIGAN A CHI G C N IGGA ICH A G OY-F M MIF NIVERSITYMOF UNIVERSITY O MI 이 N 이 N NIVERSI AN CHIG UNIVERSITY C UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY CH GA MI A G TY MICHIGAN MICHIGAN MICHIGAN O MICHIGAN ΛΙ Ν Π O MFI N ICHIGA UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN MICHIGAN FMICHIGAN UNIVERSIT.Y UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN MICHIGAN MICHIGAN N A G O-M TY F O SIVERS OF OF ITY.OF UNIVERSI M NIVERSI I MICH IG AN UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY AN UNIVERSITY TY MICHIGAN MICHIGAN CHIG .M MICHIGAN TY MICHIGAN MICHIGAN ΓΙ ΛΙΝ 이 N MICH N A A CH MI N A MIC AN GG IG IG UNIVERSITY MICHIGANUNIVERSITY UNIVERSI MICHIGAN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY CHIG UNIVERSITY I G UNIVERSITY UNIVERSIT HII TY OY -A F - O M .N I A C ICHIGAN VERS ICHIGAN CHIGA MICHIGAN VEPA MICHIGAN MICHIGAN 13 1281 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Addresses and Proceedings OF THE SIXTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA JUNE 28-JULY 3, 1925 VOLUME 63 1925 Published by the National Education Association 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. Washington, D. C. MEMBERSHIP FEES AND PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The National Education Association has three classes of membership: 1. The $2 membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive The Journal of the National Education Association for one year. (9 issues .) 2. The $5 membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive for one year : ( a ) The Journal of the National Education Asso- ciation; ( b ) The annual volume of Addresses and Proceedings ; (c) The Research Bulletin ; ( d ) Occasional bulletins and reports. 3. The $100 life membership, which entitles one to the publications and privileges of the $5 membership for life. MEMBERSHIP FEES AND PUBLICATIONS 5 OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Several departments of the National Education Association have separate membership fees and issue departmental publications. One must be a member of the National Education Association before he can become a member of any department of the Association. The payment of one of the membersnip fees of the National Education Association does not include menship in any department having membership fee. The membership Dartments which issue publications follow : Department of Superintendence-$5 membership entitles one to or one year : ( a ) The Yearbook of the Department of Superintend- 3) The Official Report of the Winter Meeting; and ( c) bulletins. 2. The Department of Elementary School Principals-$2 membership en- tities one to receive for one year: ( a) The Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals ; ( b) The Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals issued in October, January, and April. This volume of Addresses and Proceedings is sent to all members of the National Education Association paying an annual fee of $5, or it may be purchased by non-members for $3 . A space schedule for the departments was adopted by the Executive Committee in Cleveland, February, 1923. In accordance with this plan of space allotment, the officers of the departments have coöperated in deciding the selection of material for their respective departments. Membership fees of the National Education Association and its depart- ments and inquiries concerning all publications should be sent to 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. Foreword Each meeting of the National Education Association during recent years has risen to a new high point of general interest and excellence. On every hand there are evidences of expansion combined with deeper insight into our varied educational problems. The first meeting of the National Education Association in 1857 brought together fewer than a hundred leaders. Each of the Association's two annual congresses now brings together many thousands of workers representing various branches of education. The two 1925 meetings were held in what Meredith Nicholson calls the Valley of Democracy-the superintendents' conven- tion at Cincinnati and the general convention at Indianapolis. Both were largely attended. Both were notable for the number and variety of care- fully prepared papers. Speakers at the Association's meetings are more and more aware of the larger audience reached through newspapers, periodicals, and these Proceedings. The need for rearranging this volume in the readers' interest and for convenience in assembling material has been apparent for several years. This year under "Associational Records and Information" is gathered what has heretofore been published under the heading "Introductory Matter," and other material relating to organizational activities. This volume therefore opens with addresses before the general sessions, followed by reports of the Association's committees and the National Council of Education, followed by the Association's departments arranged alphabet- ically, followed by Associational Records and Information. The Association does much of its work through committees and depart- ments . More than a hundred pages are devoted to reports of committees and over half the volume to departments. The Department of Immigrant Education has broadened in scope under the name of Adult Education. The Department of Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges has come to include the American Association of Teachers Colleges by an arrangement with that organization. Attention is especially called to historical notes which appear at the beginning of reports of various departmental and committee activities. A more or less complete list of the Association's publications from 1857 to date was included in the 1924 volume, pages 1041-60. It is supplemented by the table in this volume. The eight-foot shelf of Proceedings of the National Education Asso- ciation is everywhere recognized for the excellence and variety of its con- tent. It is a great encyclopedia of source material. In these volumes appear the utterances of our greatest educational thinkers. They reflect also the inspiring devotion of a growing band of men and women to the public school. The technique of teaching may be changed, the organiza- tion of the school may be radically altered, but our devotion to the public school as an agency for perpetuating our best ideals and customs is in- creasing. JOY ELMER MORGAN, Director of the Division of Publications. Sinnat of Education CONTENTS Paven GENERAL SESSIONS INDIANAPOLIS ADDRESSES PAGE Address of Welcome-Dearing . 1 Address of Welcome-Powell ... 2 Response to Address of Welcome-Bradford .. 3 The Faith of the American People in Public Education-Tigert .. 5 Educational Progress in the First Quarter of the Twentieth Century : The Science of Education-Ballou . 11 Administration and Support-Strayer . Building of Character-Bryan .......... 22 Types of Schools and Curricula-Gwinn .. 27 Progress in Colleges and Universities-Elliott . 32 The Educational Outlook at the End of the First Quarter of the Twentieth Century-Newlon 38 President's Report- Our Association and Its Work-Newlon .. 47 Interpreting the Schools to the Public: The State Program-Abercrombie . 52 To the Home-Fraser .... 56 Strategic Position of the Principal-Monroe . 57 The Rural School Program-Johnson . 62 The Colleges and the People-Lindley . 63 Functions of Teachers' Organizations-Dobbs .... 68 Responsibilities of Educational Journalism-Morgan . 69 Responsibility of the Press- Frank ... 73 Culture and Brass Tacks-Nicholson . 74 Steady as She Goes-Beveridge . 81 The National Education Association as a Formative Force-Blair 84 The Representative Assembly-A Guarantor-Smith ... 87 Our Constituents-Pound . 90 Teacher Participation in the Determination of Policies: From the Viewpoint of the Classroom Teacher-Peterson . 93 From the Viewpoint of the Classroom Teacher-Adair . 98 From the Viewpoint of the Principal-McSkimmon ... 102 From the Viewpoint of the Principal-Longshore ... 107 Willard .. From the Viewpoint of the Superintendent-Willard 110 Work of Teachers' Organizations : Financing State Teachers' Associations-Goodrich .. 114 The State Association Journal-Marsh ... 117 Journals of Teachers' Associations-Morgan .... 119 Relation of Local to State Organization and of Both to the National- Gray 120 Work of Teachers' Organizations and its Recognition by School , Civic, and Political Organizations and Officials-Jones . 123 Moral Education : Building the Child's Philosophy of Life-Engleman ... 127 How the Teacher Molds Character-Gray . 130 The Morals of Modern Youth-Sherwood ... 133 The Parents' Responsibility for Moral Education-Reeve . 135 Moral Code for Children-Saunders . 139 [v] vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Report of the Illiteracy Commission-Stewart . 140 Report of Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor-Sims . 172 Report of Committee on Character Education-Bennion ..... 182 Report of Committee on Relationships of the National Education Association- Jones 184 Report of Committee on Homes for Retired Teachers-Jones . 185 Report of Committee on Thrift Education-Chamberlain . 188 Report of Committee on the Teaching of Democracy-Engleman ..... , 191 Report of Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of Education Associations-Thomas 196 Report of Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems- Teacher Rating-Riddle ... 200 Report of Committee on American Education Week-Johnson ........ 216 Report of Committee on Teacher Tenure in Colleges and Normal Schools- Hunter 220 Report of Committee on Standards, Requirements, and Credits of Teachers in Service-Rosier 237 241 Report of Committee on Ethics of the Profession-Muir . Report of the Legislative Commission-Strayer ...... 244 Report of Committee on Community Relations-Carrothers ... 249 Report of Committee of One Hundred on Co- Inclusive Membership of the National Education Association-Marsh . 253 Report of Committee to Coöperate with the American School Citizenship League-Andrews 254 Report of Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education-Wood .. 261 Report of Committee on Partial Payment of Expenses to Annual Conven- tion-Adair 264 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CINCINNATI MEETING Secretary's Minutes ... 266 The Need the Council Has for Departments of the National Education Asso- ciation-Gwinn 269 The Service the National Council Can Render the National Education Asso- ciation-Newlon 271 The Service the National Council Can Render the National Education Asso- ciation and Its Several Departments-Spooner . 276 The Improvement of Teacher Training for Health Education in the Schools-Dolfinger 278 281 The Responsibility of Schools for the Conservation of Vision- Carris . Discussion on the Responsibility of Schools for the Conservation of Vision- Murphy 287 Report of Committee on American Teachers Colleges-McKenny 289 The Teaching or Service Load in State Teachers Colleges-McMullen ...... 290 The Still Picture in Education-Salser . 294 Organization of Visual Instruction-Balcom . 302 A Last Word-Hines .. 306 INDIANAPOLIS MEETING Secretary's Minutes. 308 List of Officers for 1925-26 . 311 The Year's Progress in Education- Tigert . 315 CONTENTS vii Report on Status of the American Woman Teacher- Force . 321 Teacher Growth in Service- Threlkeld . 329 Suitable Texts for Adult Beginners - Holloway . 332 336 Continuity of Education, Outline for Open Forum-Gwinn . DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes .. 337 Outstanding Accomplishments in the Field of Adult Education Since the War-Herlihy 340 Public Support of Adult Education from the Standpoint of the Employer- Bowman 342 Outstanding Needs in the Development of Programs of Adult Education for Native Illiterates-Bloodworth . 345 State and Local Support and Leadership for Adult Education-Lawson ..... 348 Inculcation of Ideals in Civics-Bradstreet . 352 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Program 354 ✓The Place of the Typewriter in History and Education-Spillman . 355 ✔Secretarial Training in the High School-Pitts . 356 Coördinating Business Education with Vocational Opportunities-Roth. 356 Vitalizing the Bookkeeping Recitation-Miller . 357 Are We in Step ?-Perry... 358 Business Aspect of School Activities-Seay . 359 The Teaching of Bookkeeping and Calculating Machines and Its Relation to Business-Springman 360 The Use of Calculating Machines in Classes in Commercial Arithmetic- Loomis 360 Junior Business Training-Its Content and Scope-Mallott . 361 Standard Procedures in Functionally Organized Business and their Applica- tion to Business Training-Hyre .. 363 The Function of the Commercial Supervisor-Killam . 364 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes .. 365 Report of Committee on the Sabbatical Year-Morgan . 369 Report of Committee on Single Salary Schedule- Thompson . 372 Report of Committee on Teacher Rating-Thompson . 375 Reduction of Clerical Work-Sullivan ... 377 Report of the Committee on Women as Administratives in the Educational Field-Sullivan 378 Progress Report of the Committee on Retardation Costs Due to Overcrowded Classes Hunter 380 Interpreting the Schools to the Public-What to Interpret-Whitney . 383 Federal Aid to Education-Wilson .. 388 The Development of the Teachers' College-Hill. 394 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN CINCINNATI MEETING Secretary's Minutes . 403 President's Report-Wells . 407 Report of Chairman on Relations to Other Organizations-Blitz 409 Report of Membership Committee-Amos . 412 viii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Character Building-Purdy 414 426 New Devices and Desires in Colleges for Women Comstock . Pressing Needs in the Field of the Dean of Girls-Sturtevant . 434 Student Government-Amos ... 440 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CINCINNATI MEETING Secretary's Minutes . 450 INDIANAPOLIS MEETING Secretary's Minutes ..... 451 Analysis of the Principalship as a Basis for the Preparation of Elementary School Principals-Morrison 453 Pupil Administration and Character Training-Gillet ... 462 Educational Values Derived from the Teaching of Science in Grades I to VI in the Elementary Schools-Woody .... 468 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 478. Kindergarten Progress During the Past Twenty-five Years-Gage. 480 Changes in Curricula and Method During the Past Twenty-five Years in Kindergarten Education-Hill ... 484 General Practice in Kindergartens in the United States-Davis .. 492 Importance of Miss Davis' General Survey of Kindergarten Practice in the United States-Strayer 497 Discussion of the Value and Implication for Supervisors of the Report on the Study of Kindergarten Practice-Holmes .. .... 498 Discussion of the Value and Implications of the Study for Future Progress- Joslin 500 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ..... 504 Interpretation of School Music to the Public-Krull.. 504 High School Music from an Administrative Viewpoint-Stuart . 508 512 Rural School Music and County Supervision-Burns . The Orchestra in the Public Schools-Humberger .. 520 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION CINCINNATI MEETING 522 Secretary's Minutes ...... 526 A Study of Rural School Attendance-Ayer . Distribution of Consolidated and One-Teacher Schools-Cook . 539 The State's Financial Responsibility to the Public Schools-Harris . 549 554 A State Program of Training Rural Teachers-Hillman ....... INDIANAPOLIS MEETING Secretary's Minutes . 563 Administration and Supervision of Rural Schools Under the County Unit Plan in Ohio- Pore ... 564 567 The Helping Teacher Plan in Maine-Hale .. Lessons in Supervision of Rural Schools from the Indiana Experiment- Hughes 568 CONTENTS ix DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes .... 577 Twenty Years of Medical Inspection in the Public Schools of Milwaukee- Barth 578 Health Problems in Teacher Training Institutions-Suhrie . 583 Preparation for School Life- Young ... 588 Is Sex Education Properly a Part of Our Program of Health Education ?- Van Buskirk 591 Moral Obligation to be Physically Fit-Norris .. 592 School Health Program in Relation to Mental Hygiene-Rice . 596 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Program 598 Scientific Education as a Defense Against Propaganda and Dogma- Gruenberg 598 What is It That Science Teaching Ought to Accomplish in the Schools ?- Harap 607 The Aims of the Nature Study Movement Comstock .. 608 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Secretary's Minutes 609 Extra -Curricular Activities-Lamar 609 Education and International Relations-Aiken . 614 The Place of Interscholastic Athletics on the High School Program-Whitten 618 628 The High School Principal's Job in Athletics-Trester .. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes and Official Program . 633 Salutation-Dyer 646 The Faith of the Founders- Condon .. 648 President's Opening Address-McAndrew . 655 Why Is Superintendence ?-Newlon . 657 What Is Superintendenc ?-Meek .. 664 What Progress Has Superintendence Made ?-Smith . 669 Equality of Educational Opportunity- Tigert . 676 Equal Rights to Community Benefits in the Field of Rural Education in Ala- bama-Harman 682 In the North, Equality of Educational Opportunity-Butterfield . 686 Health Education versus Physical Education-Judd .. 696 What the Educator Should Know About Modern Medicine-Haggard . 702 Justice for Children-Dietrich .. 710 Justice for Teachers-Gugle .. 722 Justice in High Places-Perry . 729 Student Self-Government-Chewning . 737 Controversial Subjects in the Schools-Houston . 742 How the Schools May Provide for the Common Defense-Bogan . 749 Defense Through the Educated Quota : The All-Year School-Weber . 751 Fortification by Public Opinion-Hopwood 759 Defense Against Accidents-Elkin . 768 Safeguarding Peace-Beals .... 772 Outlawry of War-The Next Step in Civilization-Robins . 775 Dollar for Dollar-Gibson ... 779 How We Use Vocational Information-Borden .. 781 X NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Introducing Educational Research Into Washington Public Schools-Ballou .. 783 Function of the Central Library for a School System-Johnson . 787 Home for Retired Teachers-Jones . 790 Baltimore's New School Building Program-West 793 The Personnel Audit of the Teaching Staff-Lewis . 795 The Superintendent of Instruction and the Business Manager of Schools-An 797. Anomaly-Strayer How We Observed Education Week in Hutchinson, Kansas-Gowans . 798 Taking the School to the Parents-Mathewson .... 801 Outcomes of Our Curriculum Program-Newlon . 802 Introduction to Curriculum Commission-McAndrew . 803 The Commission on the Curriculum-Broome. 804 The Curriculum-A Paramount Issue-Judd . 805 The Curriculum Problem Attacked Scientifically-Horn . 812 Adapting the Curriculum to Individual and Community Needs-Withers ..... 815 Curriculum Revision: How a Particular City May Attack the Problem- Threlkeld 826 A Coöperative Plan for Curriculum Revision-Scott . 834 The Function of the University-Bryan ...... 838 What the Colleges Can Do for the Public Schools-Doudna . 841 845 What the Colleges Can Do for the Public Schools-Boynton . 855 Life, Liberty, and Happiness Through Art Expression-Hollister The Gospel of Beauty-Taft . 858 A Coöperative Plan for Curriculum Revision . 859 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note 863 DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 864 Secretary's Minutes President's Address- Crandall 868 870 Administration of Visual Education-Strayer . DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CINCINNATI MEETING 872 Program Theoretical Principles Underlying Tests and Measurements in Vocational 873 Education-Toops Uses and Limitations of Standardized Tests in Junior High School Industrial 890 Arts -Edgerton Relation of Measurements to Vocational Education and Agriculture-Myers 898 Use of Measurements and Objective Tests in Home Economics-Conley ..... 902 905 Objectives in Industrial Education-Profitt ....... INDIANAPOLIS MEETING 911 Secretary's Minutes WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 913 Program Constitution of the World Federation of Education Associations ... 914 CONTENTS xi Report of the Committee on the Revision of the Constitution of the World Federation of Education Associations Relative to the Herman-Jordan Plan 916 Resolutions of the World Federation of Education Associations .... 916 Presidential Message to the Delegate Assembly- Thomas . 919 ASSOCIATIONAL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Act of Incorporation 929 By-Laws 934 Calender of Meetings 945 Officers for 1924-25 947 Headquarters Staff 952 954 List of Committees, 1924-25 Officers for 1925-26 969 Program of General Sessions 974 Minutes of the Fifth Representative Assembly. 983 Report of the Executive Committee . 989 Minutes of the Executive Committee . 998 Minutes of the Board of Directors . 1006 Minutes of the New Board of Directors . 1008 Report of Committee on Resolutions . 1009 Treasurer's Report 1011 Report of the Trustees 1015 Report of the Auditor 1015 Secretary's Report 1025 Business Division 1034 Division of Records and Accounts . 1036 Division of Publications 1039 Research Division 1042 Division of Classroom Service . 1046 Legislative Service 1048 Department of Superintendence and Division of Administrative Service . 1052 Division of Records and Memberships . 1053 Report of Committee on the Revision of Departments . 1054 Report of the Committee on Necrology. 1058 The Fifth Representative Assembly 1060 Life Memberships 1077 Publications of the National Education Association .. 1080 GENERAL SESSIONS¹ INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA ADDRESS OF WELCOME W. P. DEARING, PRESIDENT, INDIANA STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION OAKLAND CITY COLLEGE, OAKLAND CITY, INDIANA Indiana has been honored before by the presence of distinguished guests, but never more signally honored than today. It is our esteemed privilege to welcome to our commonwealth, to our capital city, to our hearts and homes, the teachers of America. The teachers of America what a name to conjure with ! Through the streets of this city great soldiers have ridden, and we greeted them with the blare of trumpets and the roll of drums-our wel- come to the defenders of our Nation. You have come in silence, wearing no gorgeous uniforms, no medals of valor upon your breasts; but the Nation knows, when it thinks, that the teachers of America have brooded over its children and have breathed into their souls the very spirit of America without which she could never have had her honor roll of mighty warriors. On other days we have thrown up our hats and with lusty yells we have greeted Presidents and statesmen who honored us by pausing within our gates. You have come without distinguished titles. The very names of most of you we have never heard and probably never shall hear, but our historians know that if you, the teachers of America, had not kept alive and handed down the living traditions of our Government the very breed of American statesmen would have perished with the death of the Colonial generation. Great financiers of the Nation have come to our capital and we listened with appreciation to their words of wisdom concerning the laws of business and the creation of National wealth. Today we welcome you, the teachers of America. You boast no millions. Some of you are worrying already about your trivial expense account at this convention, but you have given to the fields and factories an intelligent, efficient American workman, and without him the financial capital of the world would never have crossed the Atlantic to our shores. Material delivered before the general sessions is arranged in the followng pages in more or less logical order. The date and occasion of each address may be found by referring to the program of the general sessions which appears else- where in this volume. [1] 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The teachers of America-what a name to conjure with-Kiwanians build, but you rear indestructible, spiritual, intellectual pyramids of Ameri- can character which look down upon the crumbling pyramids of stone beside the Nile. Rotarians serve, but you are the volunteer bondservants of American childhood whose unrequited toil has enriched the Nation. GREETINGS OF THE AMERICAN LEGION GARLAND W. POWELL, CHAIRMAN OF THE AMERICANISM COMMISSION OF THE AMERICAN LEGION , INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA I need not say what a real pleasure and honor it is for me to appear before this great organization and to extend to you the greetings of the American Legion. The National Commander asked me to extend his greetings and best wishes to you for a successful meeting. At the same time he requested me to express his deep regret in being unable to bring this message to you in person. It has been my honor and my privilege during the last your years to have worked with the National Education Association through its officers and members . I am convinced that many undertakings have been accomplished that have had for their effect better educational facilities and a keener interest in educational matters by the public generally. The American Legion has in its ranks many educators who also belong to the National Education Association. Knowing this I come to you as one who fully realizes the great work your organization is doing and the great responsi- bility that is yours in building future America. The United States Commissioner of Education, the Hon. John J. Tigert, who is well known to all of you and who enjoys the respect of everyone, emphasized last night that the faith of all Americans is in our school system. Let me join with the Commissioner in saying to you that we of the Legion not only have great faith in our school system, but we have the greatest of faith in our teachers, and desire at this time to pledge you the coöperation of our organization in the future as we have tried to serve you in the past. I represent a great body made up of the men and women who had the privilege of serving in the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps of our Nation at a time of imminent peril. We have been criticized at times for taking a too active interest in the schools of our land. I maintain that it is not only our patriotic duty, but it is the duty of every organization and every citizen to take an interest in our schools and other public institutions. It is said that we are a military organization trying to preach militarism on every hand. This is not true. We know better than anyone else what war means; of the sacrifices and hardships it inflicts upon a nation, for we were a part of war and know full well its meaning. Therefore, we are not only working in every way to promote peace, but we have a com- mission which devotes its whole time to the study of this great question. GENERAL SESSIONS 3 Of course, we do not believe in extreme pacifism any more than you do ; but we have pledged ourselves to safeguard and transmit to posterity those principles of justice, freedom, and liberty; and every American man, woman, and child should feel the same about this as we do for this constitutes citizenship . I desire to say at this time that our educational activities are directed through the suggestions and criticisms of Legionnaires who are prominent members of the National Education Association. Upon you rests the destiny of future America. Yours is the greatest peace-time responsibility in our Government. The Legion believes, and rightly so, that many great American lives have been sacrificed to safeguard and protect the ideals and principles upon which our Nation was founded, to insure the perpetuation of our public institutions, and to guarantee to the world that the ideals of liberty, justice, and democracy shall live. You have dedicated your lives to public service. We have dedicated our lives to God and Country. Both represent a great peace-time service. I want you to know the Legion has great faith in this organization, and we feel sure that you are working for those things that we have dedicated our lives to-for better citizenship, a greater America, and untiring service for God and Country. THE WIDER WELCOME AND RESPONSE MRS . MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLORADO No keener joy can come to members of a profession than to be welcomed by comrades in the same great calling to which they belong. Therefore, as the representative of the one hundred twenty-five thousand members of the National Education Association, and the nearly seven hundred thousand who make up the remainder of the teaching profession in this country, I accept with pride and appreciation the welcome extended to us by the Superintendent of Schools of Indianapolis, the State Teachers Association of Indiana, and the American Legion. And I feel that they have voiced the educational attitude of Indianapolis and the State of Indiana. Even more than this seems to me to be true. If " education be the chief business of the Republic," and the teacher's task be the fundamental under- taking among a people like ours, then, indeed, the welcome to a group like this must inevitably come from the hearts and minds and wills of all good citizens. So I like to believe that the echo of millions of Indiana voices is sounding in the messages of greeting that have been given this evening, and that the National Education Association has been made at home in the hearts of millions of Indianians who have welcomed us by proxy. When in my own State I am called upon to welcome guests from afar, I am fond of saying that through my voice there ring the voices of all the teachers and all the school children and all the loyal citizens of the Com 4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION monwealth of Colorado. I sometimes say that the accompaniment to my greeting may be found in the chiming voices of children who are finding health and recreation on the school playgrounds of the State; in the deeper voices of the creative business and professional people who are striving to build a mighty commonwealth; in the plans of municipal, county, and State authorities, whose effort is to translate into governmental action the vision of communities founded upon clear thinking and righteous living; in the earnest voices of the teachers who are eager to find the best way to mould the soul-stuff of humanity in the likeness of the ideal citizenship. And what I feel back of me when I welcome people to my State is also evident behind the group that is welcoming us to your city and State. The great united heart-throb that times the measure of advance for the people of Indiana is one with the heart-throb of those of us who have come from the other forty-seven States and from across the sea. The vision of a united profession is taking form in great accomplishments throughout the Republic. The mighty undertaking of America to give to all children in this land such educational opportunity as will meet their fullest needs through a training that recognizes the threefold nature of humanity is gradually taking shape. Deeper thoughts, a wider vision, a more laborious preparation, and a more consecrated devotion are each year being brought to the service of the child, and those of us who are here are doubly consecrated to this task. It has been well said that "what we wish to bring out in the Nation must first be put into the schools," and therefore we school people have come to recognize that the supreme profession of all professions is that of American citizenship. Why do I call it a great profession ? Because citizenship bears the five marks of a great profession-it possesses an accu- rate and ample body of knowledge, a group of fundamental principles, a set of standards and a method of practice, and also a flaming devotion to the great ideal which is the heart of each profession. Our supreme task is to prepare for this great profession-this profession that is the one inevitable profession, the one that each person who lives to be twenty-one enters inevitably and leaves only by the door of death. There is no choice for us Americans. We can practice this great profession well or ill, but we are members of it, no matter how we discharge its obligations. This is the vision we must give to our boys and girls. This the obligation that we must lay upon their souls. And because we, the welcomed and the welcoming, are one in our majestic and sacrificial yet joyful and triumphant calling, this happy and exalted response from the teachers of America comes to you of Indiana and Indianapolis in the name of the National Education Association. GENERAL SESSIONS 5 THE FAITH of THE AMERICAN PEOPLE IN PUBLIC EDUCATION JOHN J. TIGERT, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON, D. C. The founders of our Republic sought to establish a government which would guarantee freedom to its citizens in the exercise of social, political, and religious rights. They had fervent faith in the capacity of the people to control their public affairs with intelligence and wisdom, and they had equal faith that the citizen could work out his religious salvation without interference by the State. For them the State was merely the most con- venient vehicle through which a liberty-loving people might transact all those social and legal matters which are necessary for order and the peace- ful pursuit of the purposes of existence. They were convinced that the personal rights of the citizen should not be circumscribed or restricted by law except in the interest of the greater happiness and the superior wel- fare of all the people. Salus populi suprema lex est was the cardinal doctrine upon which their scheme of law and authority was builded. Lim- itation of personal rights in this regard does not enslave but emancipates. The citizen retains the free exercise of all rights which do not conflict with the public welfare, and is protected under the law from invasion of his rights and property where conflict of interest might occur. Such a conception of government is essentially based upon a general diffusion of knowledge among all the citizens. Madison voiced this neces- sity in his luminous letter to Barry, in which he wrote: "A popular gov- ernment without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or perhaps both. Knowledge will for- ever govern ignorance; and a people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives." The longing of our fathers for that liberty that finds expression in self- government and the recognition that enlightenment alone can establish, preserve, and perpetuate a free people, stimulated the earliest settlers to look immediately to the establishment of schools as soon as the necessary tasks of clearing the wilderness, building homes, and providing the physical essentials of living had been attended to. The earliest immigrants who came to North America, particularly those from Britain and the Netherlands, were imbued with the most progressive ideas of that time in matters of education. The conditions of pioneer life naturally emphasize the need of schools. This fact explains in a large measure the faith and generous support accorded in recent times to schools by our younger States in the West. It is not surprising, therefore, that among the first colonists steps were taken at the outset to establish facilities for learning. The colony of Virginia began as early as 1619 to undertake the establishment of schools, but war, which has ever been the most per- sistent check to constructive human progress, broke out with the Indians shortly after and blasted for a time the educational plans of the Virginia 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION settlers. In New York the sturdy Dutch colonists were more successful, and public elementary schools, supported by public funds and open to all the people, were established almost from the beginning of the colony. But, if one should seek the earliest systematic expression of the faith of our were charged with the duty of seeing that the children could read and history which relates to Massachusetts. The town of Boston, five years after its foundation, in 1633, ordained that "our brother Philomon Purmont shall be entreated to become school- master for the teaching and nurturing of children with us." Harvard College was established the following year, and a few years later, in 1642, the Massachusetts General Court, the supreme law-making body, enacted a significant measure, which gave to the selectmen in every town the power to oversee the education and employment of children. The selectmen were charged with the duty of seeing that the children could read and understand the principles of religion and the laws and were employed in useful work. Five years later the Massachusetts General Court invested with legisla- tive authority the will of the people of that colony and made it obligatory upon every town of fifty householders to establish a school and provide a master who should be paid either by the parents of the children he taught or by public tax, as the majority of the town committee might prefer. Furthermore, every town of 100 families or householders was required under this law to establish a grammar school in which pupils might be pre- pared for Harvard University. This, the first compulsory education law, had teeth that some of our later laws do not have, for it provided a penalty for its neglect in the form of a fine to be paid toward the maintenance of the nearest school . This act more than any other one thing in our history gave formal ex- pression to the need and the faith of our fathers in universal public edu- cation, and it became the basis of the public-school system of the Common- wealth of Massachusetts and the prototype of similar State systems through- out the United States. With reference to this epoch-making act, Horace Mann, the greatest of all of our apostles of universal public education, made this comment: "It is impossible for us adequately to conceive the boldness of the measure, which aimed at universal education through the establishment of free schools. As a fact it had no precedent in the world's history; and, as a theory, it could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable array of argument and experience than was ever marshaled against any other institution of human origin. But time has ratified its soundness. Two centuries of successful operation now proclaim it to be as wise as it was courageous, and as beneficent as it was disinterested." The time that has elapsed since Horace Mann voiced this sentiment has only served to deepen and enlarge the faith of the American people in the fundamental soundness, the rare wisdom, and the general benefits which attach to this far-spreading law. GENERAL, SESSIONS 7 There is no mention either of God or education in the Constitution of the United States, but certainly the American people have a faith in re- ligion and education which is more truly the expression of an ideal of all the people than any other matter that has ever concerned us as a Nation. If we are not a religious Nation, and if we do not have faith in knowledge, then this is not true of any people on the face of the earth. The founders of the Republic, in their eagerness to promote religious freedom, took no chances of confounding the things of God with the things of Caesar, and, in their desire to limit National Government to those functions which could not be so well carried on by the States, conceived of education as a local responsibility. Today in these United States we can see dotting every mighty city pulsating with its people and adorning every tiny hamlet and the wide-open spaces the churches of God and the schools of the people. No other institutions are so universal. We are a Nation of steeples and domes, of Gothic temples of religion and learning, of infinite variety of structures of brick, stone, clapboard, and logs, a perpetual embodiment and visible manifestation of the faith of the American people in religion and knowledge, echoing and reverberating through the centuries those words of the famous ordinance of July 13, 1787, when the representatives of the people assembled at Philadelphia declared : "Religion, morality and knowl- edge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." Although we have no religious or educational system established by our Federal Government, yet to one who flits about as I do into every corner of every State in our Union, nothing is so obviously National and so clearly in the mind of the people as religion and education. The countless churches, chapels, colleges, and schools are a constant memorial to the faith of our fathers, deepening and waxing firmer with the flight of each new period in our history. To the traveler these edifices of worship and learning do not stand mutely by the roadside, but their chimes and bells speak an unmistakable language. From the belfries of the churches come these words : I am the Church. " I am of Gothic, Romanesque, and simple design. I am in the heart of the population and in the trackless prairie. I am the Rock of Ages upon which all human hope is founded. I am the teacher of patience, forbearance, and love. I am the solace of the sick, the suffering, and the wretched. I am the bearer of joy and good tidings. I proclaim that 'God's in His heaven-all's right with the world.' I am the author of theGolden Rule. I sing 'Glory to God in the Highest, and on earth peace, goodwill toward men.' I am the Church." The school bells speak also to the wayfarer and in them he hears : 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I am the Public School. "I am of many-storied stone, soaring above busy city thoroughfares, or I am a mere cluster of weather-beaten boards in a wilderness that is track- less save for the path leading to my door. I am the guardian of the hopes of every generation, and I am true to my trust. In me all things are equal; in me are no distinctions among those who come to me except the paramount distinction between those who are proud to serve and those who seek only to be served. It is my duty not alone to teach, but equally to learn; to keep per- petually a light upon my altars, kindling them forever afresh from the inextinguishable flame that burns in every young heart, the sacred fires of love of knowledge and love of freedom and love of country, for as I succeed, America succeeds. I am the true democracy. I am the public school." I would not exalt the school above the church. No human institution, however beneficent, can claim to serve humanity more than the institutions of God. But, in a certain sense, the public school is more distinctively the expression of the faith of all the people than the church. We have many creeds, churches, and forms of religion. The cathedrals of Rome and of England, the synagogue of the Jew, the churches of the varied followers of Luther, the countless chapels and manifold meeting-houses bear eloquent tribute to the fact that the hope of the founders that every citizen should enjoy the freedom of worshiping God according to the dictates of his conscience has been abundantly realized. But there is just one public school in America and in the whole world. The public school is, therefore, our most typical institution. Without regulation and without control from the Federal Government or other centralized authority, but emanating from the people themselves, we have evolved a system of education in forty-eight sovereign common- wealths which is everywhere based upon the same principles, guided by the same educational policies, and devoted to the same ideals. The faith of America is so deeply rooted in the public school that citizens of all races, nationalities, and creeds support it morally and materially, without prejudice and without protest. They began with a meagre stipend for its support and today they are taking over a billion and a half dollars out of their pockets for its annual support, or approximately fifteen dollars for each man, woman, and child in the land. In the public school mingle the children of all races and all creeds. The Christian and the Jew, the Protestant and the Catholic, the Theist and the Atheist, the native born and the foreign born, all sit down together to learn the most fundamental things of life in an institution in which they have a common faith and to which they give a united support. It may be asserted, likewise, that the principle is now generally accepted that education beyond the rudiments may be supplied by the State, and that GENERAL SESSIONS 9 opportunity should be provided at public expense for those who desire college and professional training. There is no counterpart of the American high school and college any- where in Europe. In the old world, those who are fitted for the rudi- ments and those who are fitted for higher education are conceived of as two essentially different groups. The European system of education is horizontal, but the American system is vertical. It may be asserted that the American elementary system of education, which began its evolution from the principles set down in the epoch-making act of the Massachusetts General Court in 1647, is a result of the belief of all our people that the success of our political and social system demands universal education of the youth; that, while responsibility for educating their children rests primarily upon the parents, yet a State government has a right to enforce this obligation and may determine, in a measure, the kind and amount of education for the children of the State, and may raise money by general taxation for the support of such education as the State may require, though attendance be local. The public high school is the bridge that the American system of educa- tion has erected to make practical its faith that equal opportunities should be provided for the education of all the regardless of wealth, birth, or oc- cupation. Originally, influenced by European standards, American colleges were set up without any provision whereby the boy or girl who was without means could cross the aching void that separated the college from the pub- licly supported elementary school. This limited the opportunity for higher education and leadership very largely to those who were favored by birth or material circumstances . Old-world ideas cannot live indefinitely in American soil. The vestiges of feudal and aristocratic ideas displayed in a dual eductional system could not long survive in the democratic atmosphere of America. American faith in the possibility that the son of the poorest citizen or the humblest artisan might rise to the highest places of responsibility, trust, and accom- plishment, supplied the public school, making a free road to knowledge for every child from the kindergarten to the university. The first high schools were established a little over a hundred years ago, but a general desire for education in the higher reaches has only developed of late. In 1890 there were only 200,000 boys and girls in the high schools of the Nation, and the colleges and universities were everywhere soliciting stu- dents. Today, there are about three and a half million children in the high schools of the Nation, and the colleges are so crowded that the problem of limiting students is now more serious than the difficulty of securing them was a quarter of a century ago. In such a system of education our people can well have faith. Our schools are not perfect. They are still in a state of evolution. We have not convinced ourselves that we have the best type of schools suited for training in a democracy. We have many criticisms passed upon our schools , 10 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION some of which no doubt are just. But certainly our educational system has been efficient enough to inspire an ever-increasing faith in the American people and probably no other human institution has achieved results com- parable to it. No other institution is so cosmopolitan and democratic. No other institution is so permeated with sentiments of patriotism. The child who enters the American school system knows that he is living in a land of equal opportunity, and experience has proved that there is no ambition so high that the poorest or lowliest boy or girl may not achieve it through the schools. The American public school promotes health and happiness, creates cul- ture, imparts knowledge, molds character, and makes worthy citizens. Other institutions, such as the home and the church, share the responsibility of these accomplishments. The criticism that the school sometimes falls short of these objectives fails to take account of the fact that some of these objectives are more largely a function of the home than of the school. In fact, many criticisms of today are merely continued evidence of the fact that the faith of the people is so great in the schools that they expect them to make good the deficiencies of the home and of other institutions, which have a responsibility equal to that of the school, or greater than it in some particulars. Our school system is remarkably successful in its attempt to produce an educated citizen, who is well defined by former Governor Harding of Iowa as "an individual whose mind is trained to enjoy and appreciate the noble things of life; whose hands are trained to do some useful labor well; whose body is symmetrically developed; whose heart is attuned to the highest impulses; and whose patriotism is grounded on the fundamentals of our government." In spite of doubts and criticisms, defects, and imperfections, and an in- sistent but healthy desire for constant improvement, in my judgment the people of this country have confidence in their schools, and all loyal Amer- icans would gladly add to their religious and patriotic creeds these articles of educational faith : I believe in the school system of the United States of America as an in- stitution of the people, by the people, for the people, conceived by the founders of this Republic, nurtured for nearly three centuries by our fathers, sustained today by the consent and support of all our citizens. I believe in free universal education, equal opportunities for all our chil- dren, which guarantee our democracy within a Republic established upon the principles of freedom, equality, justice, and humanity. I therefore believe it my duty to the school to love it, to support it morally and ma- terially, to send my child to it, to help my neighbor's child to have the same opportunity, and to defend it against all enemies. GENERAL SESSIONS 11 PROGRESS IN THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION IN THE LAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS FRANK W. BALLOU, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS WASHINGTON , D. C. The first quarter of the twentieth century has witnessed some of the most marvelous developments in human history. The increase in knowl edge through the developments of science has made possible many human achievements heretofore never considered possible. The ingenuity of man in experimenting with natural forces has given him more complete con- trol over nature at the present time than in any preceding age in history. From the science of physics, which reveals the laws of nature, has been developed the aeroplane, by which man has conquered the air as the steamship conquered distances on the water and the railroad on land. The circumnavigation of the globe by aeroplane represents a human ac- complishment due to thoroughgoing knowledge, infinite care in planning and the daring of youthful enthusiasm of American aviators. The science of chemistry is particularly responsible for the advance- ment of knowledge of matter and for the improvements in conditions of life. It is through the results of chemical research that the pharmacologist and bacteriologist seek for better medicines, specific curatives, preventives and serums . Through increased knowledge of physical conditions throughout the world coupled with the courage and determination born of confidence in possibilities of achievement, man has reached, during this period, the fore- most points of the earth at the north and south poles. Today man may travel not only by railroad on land, by steamships on the surface of the water, by aeroplane in the air, but also in submarines beneath the water. Today we communicate not only by telephone and telegraph but by wireless and by radio. God's world is a world of law and order. What we appear to see as chaos, disaster and calamity, in earthquakes, cyclones, tornadoes, drouths and floods are but unavoidable results of natural conditions governed by the law of cause and effect. If the physical world were not governed by unchangeable laws, man's mastery over the forces of nature would be impossible. Man, as a part of God's world, is subject to the laws of the universe. Man himself develops in accordance with laws which are part of the divine order of things. The youthful mind is developed according to certain psychological prin- ciples which must be known and observed if success in his training is to be achieved. Like the physicist and the chemist, the educator must know the nature of laws according to which the minds of young people develop in order to be able to control and guide their education and training . 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Birth of science of education-The first quarter of the twentieth century has likewise witnessed developments in education equally im- portant in human progress to those in natural and chemical science. Man's control of himself and his own development is not less conspicuous nor less important than his control over natural phenomena. The couplet of the philosopher is as true today as when he uttered it centuries ago. Know thyself; Think not God to span. The greatest study of mankind is man. The quarter of a century ending this year of 1925 will stand out in the history of education as an epoch of remarkable development in the science of education. It has witnessed a transition from the time when educa- tional thought and procedure were predicated mainly on tradition, to a new era in which the educational aims, values and educational thought and procedure are based mainly upon demonstrable facts. In the earlier period our aims were philosophical and idealistic, while in this day and generation our aims are scientific. In the former day the traditions of a school system were inherited from an immediate or remote past. Today our practices are coming to be established on the basis of facts derived from scientific investigation. Scientific investigation has become the rec- ognized basis for the establishment of our educational procedures and practices. It may be confidently asserted that the science of education of today was born during the first quarter of the twentieth century. Evidences of science of education-The recognition on the part of edu- cators of the necessity for the adoption of the scientific method in the solu- tion of educational problems has brought about a complete change of at- titude toward education, all of which has resulted in a vastly broader conception of the whole educational problem. The modifications in our school organization looking toward meeting the individual differences among pupils is the outstanding result of scientific educational research. The effect is being shown in classroom instruction, in grade organization, and in the revision of the curriculum. Progress in the science of education along lines directed toward the intellectual development of the child has been paralleled by a remarkable improvement making for the physical well-being of the child. The relation of health to progress in school has been the subject of important scientific study in recent years with the result that physical education is receiving more attention than ever before. Improved standards of living and better home conditions have led to a new emphasis being placed upon proper lighting, ventilating, and general sanitary conditions in and around our school buildings. The educational survey, the establishment of departments of educa- tional research, the measurement of educational results, the conducting of general intelligence tests, the reorganization of our teacher training courses are all evidences of the change in educational thinking which has char- acterized the first quarter of the twentieth century. GENERAL SESSIONS 13 School surveys-The school man's scientific attitude of mind toward the problems with which he deals first found expression in the school sur- vey. Every worthy school survey was conducted for the purpose of find- ing out what the schools were doing, how well they were doing it, and whether they were doing what they ought to be doing. Perhaps the most important result of these surveys was to develop a method of scientific inquiry which could be applied generally by those in charge of school systems. While fewer surveys by outsiders are being organized at present than heretofore, an increasing amount of scientific investigation of school systems is being undertaken from year to year. Surveys are now being conducted from within rather than from without. Research departments-The scientific attitude of mind among educators has resulted in the establishment of more than one hundred Departments of Research throughout the country. These departments are to be found in cities of all sizes, ranging in population from less than five thousand to over five million in New York City. About thirty Research Departments have been established in connection with State Normal Schools and Universities: There are also well or- ganized Departments of Research in the four State Departments in Con- necticut, New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. These departments have been organized for the purpose of carrying on continuous surveys of the educational activities in their respective States and cities. They are the experiment stations in education. They are con- stantly appraising the results of our educational theories and practice. They are accumulating knowledge from scientific educational research. They are educational laboratories of the educational systems. They are making it possible to establish educational procedure on the basis of facts scientifically accumulated rather than on the basis of personal opinion. Measurement of educational results-It is a striking fact that the Courtis Standard Tests in the four fundamental operations in arithmetic were first used in the New York School Inquiry in 1911-12. Within the period of less than fifteen years since that time, there have been developed all the hundreds of standard tests for the measurement of educational results. Tests for the measurement of general intelligence have likewise been developed within the last twenty years. Whatever may be their limita- tions, the results secured from the application of intelligence tests to school children give more accurate, more definite and more valuable information than has heretofore been available to indicate the educational capacity and the educational needs of school children. Methods of teaching-No educational development in America can be considered of first importance unless it ultimately finds application in the methods of teaching in the classroom. Teacher training institutions are today training prospective teachers not as formerly, largely in the technique of the trade, but rather in the scientific principles of the profession. No teacher training institution worthy of the name is today devoting itself 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION merely to manipulative methods of classroom instruction. On the con- trary, the instruction in our teachers' colleges and normal schools is based upon the fundamental principles of child psychology, and the educational methods by which the child is to be transformed from what he is when he enters school into "the kind of citizen that God intended him to be." (H. G. Wells ) . Some results from the science of education-The scientific method of attacking any problem involves a clear definition of the problem, accurate information concerning the factors which enter into the problem, and carefully thought out methods in attacking its solution. The scientific attitude has required us to redefine our educational ob- jectives. In the earlier period of our history, education was conceived to be primarily an individual matter. The appeal to the boy or girl to continue his or her education was a personal and financial appeal. Today, emphasis is being placed not upon the value of education to the individual, but the necessity that in a democracy the citizens shall be in- telligent. The whole structure of our educational system emphasizes this point of view. Compulsory attendance laws are universal; the State insists that the child shall be educated; a parent may not keep his child from attending school. Moreover, the wealth of the state is taxed for the support of schools. The citizen without children must pay for public education in proportion to his wealth just as must the citizen with a family. The child-The scientific attitude toward education has promoted a demand for greater knowledge of the children who are to be taught. The more thoroughgoing study of child life has clearly indicated the necessity of a better understanding of sociological, of the psychological, and of the moral and ethical aspects of child life. If the school is to perform its fullest service those in charge must have a complete understanding of the children. A study of children from a psychological point of view, reveals varying intellectual differences among children. Some pupils work with great speed ; others work slowly. Some pupils work accurately; others work inaccurately. Some pupils work without apparent emotion and others are deeply emotional. Out of the consideration of these differences has come the movement for the reorganization of our schools and school sys- tems to the end that these children, of varying needs and capacities, shall be taught in accordance with their needs. From a sociological point of view, children in our public schools represent all classes to be found in the body politic. The public school deals with school children of all ages and representing all groups of society. Likewise the public school must prepare these boys and girls of varying social standing, for life in demo- cratic society, which is likewise made up of many groups of citizens who vary in their social and economic status. GENERAL SESSIONS 15 The necessity for considering the proper education of the whole child resulting from the scientific attitude of mind, demands that not only shall his sociological and psychological needs be known, but also that his moral training shall be included in the educational program. Religious instruc- tioncannot be made a part of public education . Character education, how- ever, is a rightful and necessary part of public education. Systematic in- struction in those characteristics which make up praise-worthy conduct must be a part of school instruction. The respect for authorities in school , community, State and Nation; proper respect for the rights of others ; proper respect for private and public property should all be as much a part of the course of study in the public schools as reading, writing and arithmetic. Unless character education accompanies intellectual training, the public schools will not be preparing the boys and girls, now in our schools, for citizenship of tomorrow. What of the future?-Having reviewed some of the evidences of the science of education and some of the results which have been brought about because of the science of education, it would be appropriate for us to consider "what of the future." As teachers and school officials adopt the scientific point of view more generally, still greater improvements may be hoped for within the next twenty-five years than have been witnessed during the last twenty-five years. I look forward during the next twenty-five years to a better defini- tion of our educational objectives in elementary education and secondary education. As our educational objectives are more clearly defined, our methods of instruction may likewise be more clean cut and purposeful. We will have been able to eliminate all false motions and waste, both of time and energy, of pupil and teacher. I look forward within the next twenty-five years also to the develop- ment of standardized tests for the measurement and evaluation of many aspects of education, which have not heretofore been subjected to scentific measurement. It may be confidently predicted that the next twenty-five years will witness even greater developments in the scientific measurement of the in- tellectual proficiency of children and of the educational results of teaching. I predict that within the next twenty-five years the supervision of in- struction will be characterized by the scientific procedure which has not heretofore characterized such supervision. Supervision as a phase of school administration is today less affected by the science of education than has been classroom teaching or the organiza- tion of our schools. Teaching has been greatly improved because it has become more purposeful and has been carried on more scientifically. I confidently predict that corresponding progress in the supervision of instruction will be made during the next generation. Supervision of instruction is difficult. It is a complex problem. It 16 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION has heretofore been too largely a personal problem. As research depart- ments make available more information as to pupils and as to the results achieved in classroom instruction, supervisors are able to lift the problem of supervision out of the realm of personal opinion into the impersonal realm of scientifically attained facts. Summary-The development of a science of education during the past twenty-five years has both broadened and intensified our interest and control over educational theory and practice. It has enormously increased our knowledge of the children with whom we deal and given us a more definite basis for the evaluation of the educational material which we use in classroom instruction. It has extended our interest from the intel- lectual side of child life to the physical and moral aspects of youth and manhood. Today, more than ever before, the whole child is going to school. Beyond the child the vision of the educator must see clearly the re- quirements of citizenship in a democracy for which the teacher is preparing boys and girls. Democratic society for which the public schools must prepare the future citizens of the Republic is more complex today than ever before. Conscious consideration of that complexity and of its signif- icance is as important to the teacher as a knowledge of the laws of psychology. As the members of a great profession it should be our solemn obligation and responsibility that the boys and girls now in our schools shall leave them for the school of life possessed of that knowledge, that power to think straight and those ideals of citizenship which are essential to the preservation of Democracy itself. GENERAL SESSIONS 17 PROGRESS IN THE ADMINISTRATION AND SUPPORT OF SCHOOLS DURING THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Progress in the administration and support of public education must be measured by the degree in which we realize our educational ideals. We propose in our democracy that opportunity for education shall be provided for all. We know that individuals vary in interests and in abilities. The problem of educational administration is most certainly not the providing of uniform opportunities for education, but rather types of opportunity as varied as are the individuals who constitute our society. We must judge of the progress that has been made in the administration of our schools by asking ourselves this most important fundamental question : To what extent are our schools providing for each individual that unique opportunity which will enable him to make the most of himself and to serve most adequately in the society of which he is a member ? That the administration and support of education during the past twenty- five years has contributed to the realization of the ideal of equality in educational opportunity is evident to the most casual observer. When one inquires concerning the organization of the school system, the buildings and equipment furnished, the adjustment of our courses of study to the needs of individual pupils, the financing of the program, the supervision of the work done, or the management of the personnel, the answer in every case must be that substantial progress in the realization of our ideal has been made in the quarter of a century about to end. It was during this period that the significance of administration in the development of efficient schools has been recognized, and this new efficiency has been related constantly to the adjustment of the school system to the needs of individual boys and girls. Our public has come to recognize that there is a special technical field of work in the administration of schools which can be handled only by one who has been trained for this type of service. In some cases the responsibilities of the superintendent of schools have been defined by law in such manner as to give him power to initiate and to carry through certain professional activities subject only to con- firmation by the board of education. This recognition of the importance of professional service has extended throughout our school system. The cities were the first to recognize this new type of professional activity, but in recent years this recognition has been extended to include the office of county superintendent of schools and of the State superintendent or commissioner of education. It is not too much to hope that during the period of the next twenty-five years the selec- tion of all professional executives will be placed in the hands of boards of education and that the qualifications required by law will be such as to 18 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION preclude the possibility of placing in office, by virtue of political considera- tions, men or women not adequately trained for this most important public service. Considerable progress has been made in the development of the larger unit of school support and administration. This movement is significant because it contributes to the realization of the ideal of an equalized oppor- tunity for education for all of the children of the State. The county as the local unit of administration has developed to the point where it is acknowledged by the profession as offering a better basis for the adminis- tration of schools than the township or district. This development has come about because of the recognition of the needs for expert professional service in the supervision and administration of rural schools. Paralleling this movement, and in some cases growing directly out of the development of the larger unit of administration, has come the consolidation of schools. This movement in whatever administrative relationship it may occur spells progress because it means a more adequate opportunity for education for the children who are assembled in this type of school organization. The necessity for separating the administration of schools from those political considerations which so commonly operate in our cities has been acknowledged by the development of the principle of the separate financing of schools under an elected board of education. We know that the most important business of the present generation is the education of our children . Where the issue has been clearly drawn the people have not been willing to sacrifice the efficiency of their schools to political consideration. Other striking evidence of our attempt to realize our ideal is found in the better buildings and more generous facilities which we are providing, especially for activities other than those ordinarily conducted in the class- room. Shops, laboratories, libraries, gymnasiums, and auditoriums have come to be acknowledged as a necessary part of the equipment of our schools as contrasted with the classrooms which satisfied the demand of the old uniform and theoretical education which we provided only a genera- tion ago. Quite as significantly we have provided, even in our larger cities, for school sites ranging in size from five acres to one hundred acres in order that playground facilities may be made available for children. Programs of physical education and the organization of school health service have done much to promote the physical well-being of school children and of the community as a whole. In the reorganization of schools possibly the outstanding contribution of the period under consideration is to be found in the development of the junior high school. This new unit of our school system, offering as it does an opportunity for exploration and in its last year for some degree of specialization, promises large dividends in the adjustment of education to the abilities and interests of pupils. When in the junior high school an adequate program of educational and vocational guidance has been de GENERAL SESSIONS 19 veloped, we may propose that we are seeking directly to achieve our ideal of equalization of educational opportunity. A very real achievement during this period is to be found in the organi- zation of vocational schools. This new type of educational endeavor, stimulated and aided by the Federal Government, means an opportunity for education and for increased efficiency to thousands of boys and girls who were formerly denied education because they did not profit by the restricted opportunities offered in the traditional school. The comprehensive senior high school with its distinctive curricula, the continuation school with the stimulus which it brings to those who have entered actively into the pro- ductive enterprises of their communities, the junior colleges bringing as they do an opportunity to boys and girls for the completion of the first two years of college work living at home, and the development of adult education are worthy of mention. The fundamental consideration in the realization of our educational ideal is to be found in the securing of a regular attendance upon the work of the school of the children and youth of our land. We have made con- siderable progress. Compulsory education is everywhere acknowledged as necessary, even though inadequately enforced. The period during which children are required to attend some kind of school has been extended to sixteen and even to eighteen in some of our States. The continuing census , together with the development of more adequate attendance service, has meant a large increase in the percentage of the school population actually in attendance in our schools. The social and educational service rendered by visiting teachers has made for a better understanding by the schools of the needs of pupils and has contributed largely on this account to the efficiency of the school service. The insistence upon school attendance for all children has contributed both directly and indirectly to the organization of schools and courses that more adequately meet the needs of individual children. It has been found necessary to organize special classes for certain groups of children. As these opportunities have been provided for the mentally backward, the delinquent, and the physically handicapped there has come a greater reali- zation of the need of differentiation in the classification of those who vary less extremely. We have a right to expect better results from the homo- geneous grouping of pupils. Progress already made in this field of organi- zation and classification has contributed definitely toward eliminating the depressing record of retardation and elimination which were characteristics of our schools at the beginning of the century. Genuine progress has been made in the selection, payment, tenure, and pensions for teachers. It is becoming increasingly true that teachers obtain their places by virtue of the special qualifications which they have for the services to be rendered, and that they hold their positions so long as they are efficient, without fear of the politician. In like manner, salary schedules have been adopted and retirement allowances provided which guarantee support even if on a somewhat more restricted level than is desirable. The 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION principle of a single salary schedule providing recognition for professional training and efficiency in service at whatever level in the school system a teacher is employed has been accepted in theory and we may confidently expect to see it carried into practice. The participation of teachers in the formulation of plans and policies for the development of the school systems in which they work has done much to improve the status of the profession. We have developed new ideals and new practices in the field of the super- vision of instruction. The supervisory staff, which once consisted primarily of special teachers, has come to be composed in its best form of a group of highly competent professional workers who are responsible for the training of teachers in service. The measurement of the achievements of children and of their intelligence, the demonstration of methods of teaching based upon scientific inquiries, the revision of courses of study in the light of objectives closely related to our modern social life-these are some of the contributions which supervision is today making to the increased efficiency of our school system. It is important to note, as well, that there is coming to be recognized a distinction between the line and the staff organization necessary for the most efficient administration and supervision of our schools. The work of the line officers-assistant superintendent, general supervisor, and principal-has to be supplemented by the staff worker in the bureau of research, in the psychological, medical, or social clinic, or in the attendance department, if the proper adjustment between the needs of the children and the services which the school offers is to be brought about. School surveys have come to be acknowledged as an important factor in the administration of public education. In both local and State school systems, the survey has evaluated current practice, has presented a diagnosis of the educational situation, and has proposed programs for the advance- ment of these school systems. The validity of the work done has been established by the successful programs of education which have been carried forward upon the basis of the recommendations of these surveys. Departments of research are everywhere active in evaluating procedures and thereby contributing to progress. Possibly the most striking character- istic of the period is that we ask for evidence rather than for enthusiasm from those who would propose changes in our methods of teaching, in our courses of study, or in the organization of our schools. The experimental school associated with the university schools of education has contributed largely to the development of this scientific attitude. It has often furnished a sound basis for changes in our procedures. This idea of the experimental school has been extended to our public school systems and promises large returns for improvement of educational administration. One has only to note the scientific attitude of many of those who are experimenting with the platoon school, the Dalton and Winnetka plans of classroom procedure, and the like, to be convinced that we are entering upon a new era in the development of scientific investigation in the field of educational admin- istration. GENERAL SESSIONS 21 In the financing of schools, the principle of State responsibility for the support of education has received new and important recognition. Several of the States have passed laws within the past ten years which seek to equalize the opportunity provided for education while allocating the burden of support for the maintenance of this program in such manner as to make it rest with equal weight upon all of the people of the State. The further acknowledgment of this principle of support is required, if we would realize our ideal in the great majority of our States and in the Nation as a whole. We have made progress in the development of more adequate financial accounting for our schools. An analysis of costs which makes available to the board of education and to the community at large the true cost of each of the many services rendered by the school system furnishes the only sound basis for asking for support. On the basis of this analysis of costs and a definite statement of the program of service to be rendered our efficient administrators are preparing budgets which are known to be reliable. Other developments in the business administration of schools have resulted from the study of these problems by our school executives. With the very great increase in the percentage of the total population served by the schools, there has come a very great increase in cost. As we should have expected there has been some criticism of this increase in expenditure for public education. Most of our critics have, however, omitted from their discussions any adequate statement with respect to the changing value of the dollar. Many of them seem not to have been at all aware of the very great increase in the load which the school has been called upon to carry. Almost all of them fail to appreciate the fact that we can afford to spend even more than we are now spending for education, if we value education above other goods which we may purchase either privately or as a matter of public service. It is not too much to claim that the belief of our American people in education is closely related not only to the scale of values which they acknowledge, but also to the actual productivity of our school system. We have learned that it is important to take the public into our con- fidence and to supply to all interested citizens adequate information con- cerning our plans and our results. Better school reports and a wider use of the daily and weekly press and of other agencies of publicity have con- tributed to the development of public confidence in the work of the schools. Further progress in the administration of public education is clearly indicated. Principals, supervisors, and superintendents of schools are in attendance in our university schools of education in ever-increasing num- bers. These mature professional students in association with their col- leagues of the faculty are developing more significant professional courses for the training of school administrators and supervisors. The leaders among this professional group have come to appreciate the importance of professional organization for all who work in this branch of the public service. Progress is assured because of the activities of our local, State, 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and national educational associations. In each of them we may confidently count upon the support in increasing measure of scientific attack upon our common problems. We may just as certainly count upon their enthusi- astic support of that ideal which proposes that education shall offer to every individual a chance to make the most of himself in order that he may render the largest possible service to the society of which he is a mem- ber. Continued progress is assured upon the basis already established in ideals which we commonly acknowledge, and in the carrying forward of the scientific inquiries to which we are devoted. SCHOOLS AND THE BUILDING OF CHARACTER WILLIAM L. BRYAN, PRESIDENT, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON INDIANA The hardest thing in the world is to make really better the moral habits of oneself or of anyone else. It is enormously difficult to change any habit. Last month at Indiana University Dean Pound of the Harvard School of Law recited a list of grammatically unlawful phrases which he had found in the examination papers of his students all of them post graduates, all of them in the upper levels of ability and attainment as compared with average college men. These superior men coming up through many of the best schools and col- leges of America had mastered a thousand hard tasks but had not escaped from the bad speech habits of childhood. In morals the task is far harder. In a matter of morals one must fight habit and also passion. A man has no passionate interest in saying "I seen" or "he don't" or "I ain't." But his bad moral habits are intrenched in hungers and hates which cry out from every cell of his body. "I find then a law," says Paul, "that when I would do good evil is present with me. For I delight in the law of God after the inward man; but I see another law in my members warring against the law of my mind bringing me into captivity to the law of sin which is in my members . O wretched man that I am who shall deliver me from this dead body." ( Romans VI, 21-24.) To make a plan for moral improvement is a joyous enterprise. Το bring about real improvement in oneself or in anyone else is the hardest thing in the world. Nevertheless we must think of plans and methods, and I shall at this time name four. First: Moral education requires good teaching of the regular school subjects. A few years ago I inspected a high school which was abnormally bad. I saw first-year students of algebra trying to multiply one quantity by another when they did not know anything with certainty from the first of the book to the lesson of the day. They did not know exactly how to add or subtract or multiply. They did not know a coefficient from an GENERAL SESSIONS 23 exponent. They could not have had one good lesson since school began. They were stumbling about trying by hook or crook to get the answers in the book. I found very much the same condition in other classes. Of course there was disorder. A glance across the room would show every- where potential anarchy. I was not surprised to hear later that the prin- cipal had been dismissed and that a lively school war had broken out in the community. The whole school situation in that town was sick. A principal part of the blame doubtless was that children were going to school day after day without being made to work steadily at good tasks. Afew years later I found a new situation-a new man at the head-a new policy. Lessons in the outset short. A few alphabetic things exactly learned. Children having the satisfaction of little successes. Learning to like work. Getting the habit of work. Energies turned from wrong, disease-making channels to right, health-making channels.. The whole school situation growing healthy and health giving. In a word here was real moral progress which came largely (not wholly) from the fact that children were properly led to work at the tasks which make civilized men. Here I wish to say a word for those teachers who are not much touched by emotion, who never preach and seldom sing, whose lives are slow and gray but who lead children to work steadily and in good temper from September to June at the A B C's of civilized knowledge and who there- fore develop in children the habit of steady, hard work. These teachers are the hidden builders of society. They are not seen among the heroes on horseback. They are on foot, in the dust, lost in the crowd, but theirs is the heroism which bears up and carries forward most of the work of civilization. Second: Right principles of morality must be taught. The teaching of morals is a thing not to be despised or neglected. This is proved by the experience of the best races through thousands of years of time. The best example that I know is the practice and experience of the Hebrews. The bare fact that the Hebrew race has survived under the most difficult con- ditions, producing generation after generation of healthy men and women, producing century after century great men, makers of civilization, is com- plete proof of the fundamental morality of that race and makes them au- thoritative counselors as to the moral education of children. If the test of truth is experience then this experience in producing men through the greater part of historic time has a weight far beyond the most plausible theorizing whose claim for consideration is that it is fresh. Apart from any theological consideration, I believe that the best book on the methods of moral education is the Hebrew Bible. In the forefront of their moral theory and practice the Hebrews put the teaching of the law. From end to end the Old Testament rings with this counsel : The Law is thy Life. Teach it to thy children when thou liest down and when thou risest up and when thou art by the way. Lay up these my Words in thy heart and in thy soul and bind them as a sign upon thy hand and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes . Wherewithal shall a young man cleanse his way ? 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION By taking heed thereto according to thy Word. Thy Word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path. The same counsel is given to the people as a whole. The law is your life. Forsake it and you will be scattered and destroyed. Keep it and you shall live among the nations forever. This curse and this blessing have been fulfilled even unto this day. The same evidence of the value of moral teaching comes to us from the history of the Christian church in its best estate, both ancient and modern. Christianity through the church and family and also during most of its history through the schools has taught its children its principles of faith and practice. Most men of whatever faith recognize the value of much of this teaching and all recognize its efficiency. The Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount sink deep into the marrow of a society whose children learn them by heart. I shall not here and now discuss the calamitous fact that in avoiding as we must the entanglement of church and state we are not free to use in our schools the greatest book of morals which the human race possesses. We must do the best we can in spite of this handicap. There is no adequate compensation for it. Third: Moral education requires the help of art. The most distin- guished advocate of art as a means of moral education known to me is Plato. Plato believed as severely as the writers of the Bible that there is no law for children or for men or for nations except the eternal Truth. He thought, however, that children could not comprehend the truth in its abstract purity and must receive it through the forms of art. He there- fore urged that rigid selection be made of the few best poems, songs, et cetera, which were true and pure as well as beautiful so that through them the children might get a first sense of the truth necessary for their lives. Thirty years ago in this town I heard a disciple of Plato, an educa- tional statesman, Nebraska Cropsey, tell of the coming of art into the schools of Indianapolis. "Here are tens of thousands of children," she said, "that are touched by no uplifting institution except the school. We teach them to read and to spell and to add, and presently thousands of them go out to be hewers of wood and drawers of water for life, without a glimpse of beauty and without the hunger for it. We give them," she said, "an art museum and no interest in going there." I remember the nun-like quiet, the white fire of this woman as she said : "If we are to save Indianapolis from damnation we must bring to all these children of the people the greatest music in the world that they can like, the greatest pictures in the world that they can like, the greatest poetry in the world that they can like. They will like some of these things if they have the chance." And then she said in substance as Plato said before her : "Our youth will dwell in a land of health amid fair sights and sounds, and beauty, the effluence of fair works, will meet the sense like a breeze and GENERAL SESSIONS 25 insensibly draw the soul even in childhood into harmony with the beauty of reason." Within the thirty years since Nebraska Cropsey and Wilhemina Seeg- mueller made the vision of Plato in some degree a reality in Indianapolis, the American schools elsewhere and almost everywhere have done the like. In this connection I wish to indicate a certain new movement from which I have good expectation. I have for years hoped to see made a list of books for children which should have these three characteristics : 1. The list would be small, perhaps 100 books. 2. Every book would be of course first-rate. 3. The men and the methods of selection would be such as to give the excellent small list the greatest possible prestige. Then I would hope that this small group of first-rate books would go into every school of America, not only to benefit millions of children in- dividually but so as to unite them. Dr. Newlon has said that if any group of propagandists could control the curriculum and textbooks of the Amer- ican schools, they could in large part control the ideas of America in twenty years. Sundry groups of propagandists are trying to do that thing. I propose another propaganda. I propose that every school in America along with whatever else it has shall have the same small shelf of books, every book chosen as a work of genius that children can like. Not all the chil- dren will read or care . But millions of children from ocean to ocean, millions of children of diverse race and breeding and occupation will grow together in mind by knowing together and loving together a few eternally great things. America will be rightly united when in such fashion its children grow together in mind. Let me add that committees of the Association of American Universities, of the American Library Association and of the National Education Asso- ciation are working together at this plan. Fourth: Moral education requires just and wise administration of the school. The most important influence affecting a boy's character is not what is said to him but how he is dealt with. The opening exercises may . go in one ear and out the other, but an unfair deal in discipline is not for- gotten in forty years. What kind of deal the boy gets depends first upon the teacher. If she is mean, uncandid, unfair, petty, vindictive, her school is as if stricken with a plague. Her moral diseases are catching and re- appear in a score of evil ways in the children. On the other hand if the teacher is good-tempered, honest, fair, magnanimous, these qualities of health are also catching. I agree heartily with the old commonplace saying that by far the most important factor in moral education is the character and disposition of the teacher. It is, however, necessary to re- member that the kind of deal a boy gets in school depends upon many who stand behind the teacher-the superintendent, the trustees, the city council , or the city boss. If the situation behind the teacher is corrupt, if men can reach through the teacher and determine the treatment that falls to the children, not for the children's sake but for their own corrupt ad- 26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION vantage, then the school, which ought to be a kingdom of righteousness, tends to become a kingdom of iniquity. When this mortal offense against the life of the children is tolerated, all the ordinary means of moral educa- tion become futile or worse. When the things done are a shock to the justice of the school, the presentation of noble ideals there seems a kind of blasphemy. What can the teacher do in such a case ? Two things are possible. You can fight as Chancellor Lindley fought for us all in Kansas . You can stand at the door of your school between the kingdom within which should be sacred and those who would ravish it, and can fight there until you fall-not less heroically than one who falls in battle. But there is another possibility. Men are not divided into good and bad. All men are both good and bad in varying proportions. A school man needs to remember that he is far from perfect himself and then to dis- cover that his worst opponent is not without elements of goodness. The best school men know these things well. They face a corrupt city as they face a bad school-to convert, to rescue, to win the city up to its own best convictions. In this way the so-called bad man who was running amuck through the school system has been led to come around and join the guard about the school where his children go. He has done this not through the fine diplomacy of anyone, but because at the bottom of his heart there is a good man. I often think that the most dangerous position which any man among us holds is that of school superintendent. The Government cares for the soldier and for his family. But the school man at the height of his capacity and usefulness may be struck down and turned out with wife and children and without resources. It is a fearful calling. It is no wonder that many falter and droop and seek only to creep from year to year in safety. It is no wonder that some of a finer sort turn aside in despair and seek only to save their own honor in a wicked and perverse generation. But it is a wonder, a wonder none the less because again and again we see it happen, when the schoolmaster makes the community his charge and through a generation of service, with a scant living and at peril of his daily bread, leads his people and their children some way on the upward road. GENERAL SESSIONS 27 SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS IN SCHOOLS AND CURRICULA J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA The fundamental causes of the significant developments in schools and curricula in the United States during the past twenty-five years are found in the new meanings of democracy;in the better understanding of the nature of the child and of youth; in the clearer and more scientific knowledge of the nature and processes of education; and in the attempts to apply these new meanings, understandings, and knowledge practically and consistently in programs of education. The educational development of the quarter century may be characterized as democratic, psychological, and scientific. The dominant democratic influence has been the attempt to make explicit in our educational programs all that is implicit in that democratic ideal- equal educational opportunities for all the children of all the people. The conception of equality as meaning the same, which, when applied to educa- tion provided one school and one prescribed course of study for all children whether intellectually able or dull; whether physically and morally fit or defective; whether American-born or foreign-born, or whether bound for college or for the corn-field, had to be discarded when all the children of all the people came to school. The one school grew into many different types of schools, and the one narrow and prescribed course of study widened and diversified. The old studies have not been discarded. They are still the backbone of the course; but the newcomers into the schools needed something different and additional, and it has been given them. Growing out of a better understanding of the individual being educated, whether child or adult, the most powerful force influencing education during the period has been the recognition of the differences that exist among these individuals and the belief that these differences must be respected and that programs of education both in their matter and method must be so shaped as to give each child his chance. The quarter century has seen a powerful reaction against the "lock step" and along a single track in education. The picture of a modern city school system in 1925 is quite different from the picture of 1900. This difference is largely due to the adjustments to the needs of the individual child to the end that each child might be given opportunity according to his abilities to work at 100-per cent efficiency and in ways and upon matter suited to him and attractive to him . In 1900 there were sincere attempts at lessening the evils of the "lock step." The main effort then was not in differentiating the courses, but in shortening the distance between promotion points for the child as he advanced along the uniform course with uniform quantitative and as far as possible uniform qualitative achievements. The annual plan of pro- motion was being changed into the semi-annual or quarterly plan. There were discussions of the Elizabeth Plan, the Cambridge Plan, the plan used in St. Louis, the Batavia Plan, and the Pueblo Plan, where some gulped 28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION down the course and others partook leisurely, but all took the same in quantity and quality as far as they got on their way. Lines of strength in the individual child were ignored; he was held back where he was strong and compelled to exercise along the lines of his native or acquired weak- nesses . These devices for varying the speed of consumption of the table d'hote educational menu helped much, but it was observed that in spite of the use of the Elizabeth knife, the Batavia spoon, and the Cambridge fork many quit after the soup course; others after the entrée; few survived to the dessert. It was further observed that many could not reach up to the table at all. There were no low tables for those who had been "born short" or had acquired shortness through hard conditions. Viewing the starvelings under the table, the consumption of soup or salad by some while others had done with the dessert, and the frightful falling away from the educational feast, we consulted, about 1910, our educational diagnosticians. They said the trouble was retardation and elimination . They made a most formidable display of facts in proof that the schools were in a bad way, due to retardation and elimination. These bad results were due to an educational pellagra and starvation from im- proper and inadequate foods. There was imperative need for a new menu, so we entered the curriculum reconstruction period of our quarter century. 1925 finds us deep in this important movement. The second most powerful psychological influence has been the weaken- ing of our faith in the doctrine of formal discipline and the recognition of the need for development and training of specific abilities, habits, and atti- tudes with the consequent need for making the school a real part of life, closely related in its motives, subject matter, and processes to the out-of- school life, whether domestic, political, vocational, or recreational. One of our educational philosophers has thus summed up this influence: "The school must, therefore, reproduce the actual conditions of working, thinking, and feeling that exist in the democratic life outside the school and must give practice in them." Under this influence schools and curricula have become much more practical than in past years; practical, in the sense that real life needs and processes determine what is taught in the school, how it is taught, and how learned. The scientific influence that has most affected schools and curricula has been the creation of standards of measurement of mental ability and educa- tional achievement, and the development of a technique for the application of these measures in the organization and control of education. The appli- cation of the ways and means of science has greatly modified curricula and has even caused the establishment of special types of schools. In addition to these influences there have, of course, been others and also certain practical considerations such as the cost of education, the char- acter of the teaching personnel, and buildings and equipment. These prac- tical considerations have sometimes caused the modification of school or GENERAL SESSIONS 29 curriculum, or even the invention of a new type, the new element being later justified in theory. Among the most significant developments in schools during this quarter century must be listed : 1. The junior high school. 2. The junior college. 3. The consolidated rural school . 4. The part-time school. 5. Vocational schools of various types-agricultural, trade, home-making-the influence of the Smith-Hughes Law. 6. Special schools and modification of type schools. These are attempts at ad- justment to new democratic, psychological, and scientific demands producing : The platoon school . Individual instruction schools. Schools for atypical children. Among developments in curricula we must note : 1. Making curricula practical-elimination of non-essentials-relating curricula to real life needs . 2. Broadening curricula-all the children of all the people now attend school. This development expresses itself in: (a) Minimum, middle, and maximum courses in elementary schools. (b) Junior high school courses with limited election and exploratory courses. (c) Cosmopolitan high school course of study with wide electives. 3. Better method curricula, including projects, socialized activities, activity pro- grams, motivated work, work-study-play plan. The most important new school of the period is the junior high school . It came following twenty years of criticism of the 8-4 plan and more par- ticularly of the work of the seventh and eighth grades. The colleges said entering students were too old, the universities complained of the age of graduates from the professional schools. Saving time was the primary urge for a reorganization of the schools. There followed a period of in- vestigations and reports on minimum essentials. The old eight-year elementary school course was to be pared down to six. We came almost in sight of the lost two years. But while the time-savers were operating on the old course there was another group looking out of the school windows into the ever-growing more complex and expanding social condi- tions. They found that times had changed and that there was need for the schools to change and to teach many things not previously taught. So it has happened that when the time-savers cut away a large section of use- less matter from the old course these social efficiency experts shoved into its place a larger mass of new materials. The lean years have become fat but not shorter. With lengthened school term and lengthened school day we find that 6 and 3 and 3 are no less than 8 and 4. It now seems not improbable that the fellows who started all this trouble back in 1888, the colleges, when they pointed the finger of criticism at the elementary and high schools, may find themselves shorn of the two years ifthey lose not their whole four. The public high schools are already con 30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION suming the lower two years of the college course, and the upper two years are being devoured by the university professional schools. Who knows but the end of another quarter century may find that the junior high school has sloughed off the junior and become the high school, and the high school in consuming a part of the college course may have been transferred into the college, leading directly into the extended professional school of the universities . The junior high school as a separate unit, an organization of the work of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, had its real beginning about 1910 in Berkeley, California. At first it spread slowly, but during the last five years its growth has been rapid. The consolidation of schools had its origin before 1900, but during this quarter century this movement has become of so great importance and has grown so rapidly that it is entitled to rank among the significant educa- tional developments. The consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils are both ex- pressions of the attempt to equalize educational opportunities, giving to the rural communities as good schools as those already provided in urban centers and giving to the less favored rural districts with many children as good schools as those in rural districts of more wealth and fewer chil- dren. Consolidation has advanced slowly under many adverse conditions. Laws for consolidation are yet only permissive, and not mandatory. The small school cannot provide the type of education demanded whether in rural or urban centers. Consolidation in rural areas has had its counter- part in the movement for larger schools in cities. The earlier concepts of a city school system involved many small schools of four to twelve teach- ers. The requirements of present-day education are forcing a school of amuch larger size so that with children of varying abilities and interests, classes and courses may be adjusted to their needs. The breadth of mind and the ability to coöperate doubtless vary directly with the area of the school district. The consolidated rural school and the larger urban school will make better citizens. The industrial developments of this period and the application of scien- tific methods with resulting complexity of production and distribution and the need for vocational reeducation of thousands of disabled men returned from the World War have greatly increased the demand for vocational education. The Federal Government recognized the demand, and in 1917 Con- gress passed the Smith-Hughes Law, which makes annually at this time a total appropriation of more than four million dollars for vocational educa- tion. Many more millions are being expended by the Government on voca- tional education for former soldiers who were partially disabled. This period has seen a multitude of vocational education laws passed by the several States. With all this help from both National and State govern GENERAL SESSIONS 31 ments vocational education has not yet assumed the proportions neces- sary to meet the demands of this industrial period of our development. The platoon school is distinctly a contribution of this quarter century. Its origin and organization are properly linked with the name of William Wirt and with the Gary ( Indiana) schools. Beginning about the middle of this period the platoon, or duplicate, or work-study-play school has been modified and has grown till eighty-one cities have experimented with it. It is now emerging from the experimental stage. The platoon school being mainly an administrative device for meeting the problems of too many children and too many subjects, opinions of its value vary widely. Former Assistant Superintendent of Schools Cox of Oakland, California, stated that after two separate trials in the Oakland schools, one about ten years ago and another more recently, in each instance the device was abandoned as of little value. On the other hand, Superin- tendent Davidson of the Pittsburgh schools said: "The platoon plan has solved the real problem of the elementary school. In this plan we have adistinct advance over the old type, thanks to William Wirt, who brought over the horizon the biggest and finest advance of the century in elemen- tary education." The curriculum for the typical elementary school has not changed in its content as much in the quarter century as most people think. There has been sifting out of useless materials and an introduction of more useful matter ; there has been a recasting of the organization of the subject matter for the purposes of teaching and learning, but on the whole the elementary school course has remained fairly stable. At the beginning of the period the well-known three R's now scheduled as language, reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic occupied 58 per cent of the time and at the end of the period they still occupied more than 50 per cent of the time. The content subjects-history, civics, geography, and science-increased from 14 per cent in 1900 to 16 per cent in 1924, while the great change came in the so-called special subjects-physical education, drawing, music, shop- work, and home economics-which increased from 28 per cent to 34 per cent. The most marked change among the subjects has been the advance of physical education from eleventh place of importance in time allotment as late as 1914 to fourth place in 1924. Civics and a study of the Consti- tution have also recently acquired considerably more importance. Time forbids a further discussion of development in curricula. I must be content to state again that the developments in curricula have followed three principal objectives : 1. Making curricula practical by relating to real life needs in matter and methods. 2. Broadening the curricula to meet the needs of the differences that exist among children and the complex need of society. 3. Methodizing the curricula in application of the findings of modern psychology, resulting in projects, activity programs, motivated work, socialized activities, and plans for work-study-play. This movement seems 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mainly a reincarnation of the old ideas of learning to do by doing and a reaction against teaching so many different subjects with the correlative demand for relating experiences, so that there may be greater continuity in education. PROGRESS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, PRESIDENT OF PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LA FAYETTE INDIANA I. I have recently estimated that the chances of the normal American boy or girl to have the advantages of collegiate, professional, or technical training have been multiplied tenfold since we began to count the years nineteen hundred plus. The official, though incomplete, records reveal the fact that the number of institutions of higher rank has risen from fewer than five hundred in 1900 to nearly eight hundred in 1925; that the number of students has increased in round numbers from 160,000 to 600,000, or from 2000 per million of population to 6000 per million of population; that collegiate and professional graduates in our population have become twice as numerous as was the case twenty-five years ago. These are some of the distinctive markings made during the first quarter of the century by American institutions of higher learning. Such numbers accompany the phenomenon of giganticism; the commonplace of our age. One shoots, however, at hidden targets with these statistical arrows. II. It may be doubted that the particular corner allotted to higher insti- tutions in this quartile-centenary exhibition of school progress and educa- tional prowess will permit the display of more than a mere thumbnail sketch; or a crude, impressionistic outline of but few of the significant changes that have taken place during the years belonging to this twentieth century, or, at the best, a disconnected array of personal observations. Only an extraordinary good fortune will enable me to use the one best way of assembling and presenting the evidence in defense of that dubious and debatable thing called the progress of our colleges and universities, without at the same time fracturing the rules limiting my time, and without violating the laws governing your tempers. A program proposes; but only a patient and generous audience finally disposes . III. It has been said that "the historian is a prophet looking backwards." Equally true would it not be to say that a prophet is a historian looking forwards. As I interpret the high motives of this session, my own com- mission is not that of an impersonal historian; neither am I granted the indulgence of an irresponsible prophet. Rather, it seems to be anticipated that partial proof should be here furnished that the higher schools of the country have kept proper pace with the other parts of the educational system of the country in the march towards the ever-advancing needs of the frontier of the years. The traditional conservatisms of the college, the university, and the professional school, especially during the hectic drama GENERAL SESSIONS 33 of these modern years, have aroused more than one suspicion of intellectual lagging, of moral procrastination, and of social inertness and isolation. As one who chooses to labor industriously, rather than to belabor labor invec- tively, as one who recognizes the impossibility of marshaling in this presence all the evidence in the case, it will, I am sure, contribute to our common understanding if I here admit that my brief argument in support of the general progressive movement of our higher schools flows from a certain pronounced personal bias. This may be expressed somewhat as follows : Whatever may have been its failings in the past, whatever may be its evident shortcomings in the present, there is no single essential enterprise of American life that even approaches the success of the organized school system in contributing to the greatness and stability of American life. This school system serves as the hidden arch for the support of our entire social structure. To this arch the group of higher institutions-colleges, universities, professional, technical, and normal schools-State-supported and non-State supported-have contributed the keystone. Political enemies may attempt to undermine, critics may cavil, bigots may bluster, but the cold, indisputable fact remains that higher education , during the quarter of century just passing, has furnished more than ever before the germinal nuclei for the permanency and the potency of the doctrine of educational opportunity ; and has become the great driving force for the advance of both material and spiritual things. Our existing organization for higher education represents a process of continual flowering of human destiny through, by, and for opportunity. Whether we pursue the route of sentimental aspiration, or that of stern statistics, we inevitably reach the conclusion that what we, as a people, are in this American world of ours, and what we are accomplishing for the cause of civilization, are more directly the products of the services and the skills of our colleges, our universities, and our professional schools than of any other existing agency or group of existing agencies. These institutions distinctly more than any other embody the best of our American idealism, the firmest of our confidence in the present and the most stable of our faith in the future. They, above all, have been the means for giv- ing a human reality to philanthropy. They have stimulated, as no other force could possibly do, the things that make for the soundness of our social structure. They are today the touchstones for the forward movement to our agriculture, our industries, and our political life. IV. From a number of points of view it may be maintained that the proper exploitation of this theme requires that one have a fundamental interest in the things of yesterday, inclinations toward the pessimistic, and finally, that one have a pronounced propensity for prophecy. In no other field of human endeavor, more than education, does there seem to be greater opportunity for those thus triply endowed. If one uses today's current of printer's ink as a guide, a really capable and worth-while discussion, analysis, interpretation, evaluation of American 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION higher schools can be made only by him who is one third mossy philosopher, one third monitorial pessimist, and one third melodramatic prophet. I know, as do all of those richly and humanly experienced in the affairs of our modern colleges and universities, that all the things therein are not as they should be; that during the past decade in particular there has been too much wasted effort in teaching things that could not be taught to any useful end; that we have been teaching too much youth who display real incompetency to do at all the things we think they should do well; that many American youths of promise should be with us who are not; that we are graduating too many students who have the mistaken notion that the possession of a sheet of sheepskin with one's name thereon represents nine of the reputed ten facts of an education. Yes, all this and much more. Yet I cannot be a pessimist. My life interest is not in a glorious yesterday ; or even exclusively in the going present. For we and our youth live in a day of great expectations. V. From the confusing diversity of character, of aim, and of fortune of that educational conglomerate, we have learned in this country to call higher schools, there may, perhaps be chosen for this occasion a few items indicative of the more important and influential trends of development through the period of time we here celebrate. 1. The conflict, which appeared inevitable thirty years ago, between the State-founded, State-controlled institutions and those on private or denomi- national foundation, happily, will not need to be recorded in our educa- tional history. It is not without interest to recall that at the meeting of this Association in 1900 several of the important addresses were deeply concerned with this feature of the educational situation. The people of the States and of the country have provided a greater demand for higher training than could be met by all our institutions-State and non-State. And this is as it is bound to be. Advancing America will always require the maximum effort, both public and private, to secure those facilities which signify equality and opportunity for training in college, university, professional school, and technical school. 2. The principle of public taxation for higher schools, and what is vastly more important, for scientific research, has been more widely and more firmly adopted. The stupendous sums, inadequate though these may be, now being appropriated annually for the maintenance and the upbuild- ing of the State higher institutions throughout the country, are proof of the determined philosophy of our citizenship. The United States today is the center of gravity of the educational world. The retention of this primacy is dependent upon the disposition of the States to continue and to augment the resources available for the best training of the most of our youth. 3. The colleges of liberal arts have been, and continue to be tested in the fires of modern life. By a slow but gradual process of more or less peaceful penetration the older, exclusive disciplines each year find them- selves obliged to "carry on" in the company of strange and alien neighbors. GENERAL SESSIONS 35 The adaptations which have taken place promise to give an enriched mean- ing to the term "liberal education." Already one may detect a backward swing of the pendulum which for two decades moved steadily toward the practical and the vocational. In spite of its vicissitudes the college of arts yet remains as the heart of that culture which leads men to learning, qualifies men for earning, and inspires men for that yearning without which the world becomes a spiritual desert. 4. Without using unfairly my present point of vantage, I cannot refrain from expressing chagrin for the readiness with which the members of the largest and most influential section of this Association, at its last winter meeting, displayed their lack of confidence in the motives and the practices of our leading colleges and universities. After more than thirty years of professional experience I had come to consider that the anciently estab- lished gap between our secondary schools and our colleges and universities had been permanently, effectively, and harmoniously bridged. I am certain of the compelling evidence that I have already lived to see the doors of practically all of our higher educational institutions opened wide to all of those who have completed the recognized secondary school curriculum and who are anywise fit to be benefited by further education and training. If my friend from New York doubts, let him send his high school grad- uates to Indiana for their advanced work . 5. The newer professions of journalism, of commerce, and of education have apparently gained distinctive recognition. In spite of appearances there is ground for reservation of judgments as to the permanency and worth of the training provided for these professions of modern technologies. In this connection there is a lasting satisfaction from the country-wide move- ment of recent years to elevate the standards of our normal schools, and, by officially designating them as teachers' colleges, to place them unre- servedly among the higher institutions of the land. Who, may I ask, is more entitled to the highest and the best of the culture and the training of today than are the teachers of any and all grades of schools? 6. Contrary to a widespread, deep-grained, and long-established opinion, I venture to assert that there has been an amazing improvement in the quality of the teaching in our higher schools of all kinds. I do not know an institution in the east or west, that today does not place high premium upon skilful human teaching. The ancient college call to culture, "they shall not pass," has given place to the injunction, "these are ours to teach, not to destroy." 7. Some years ago one of the great leaders of American industry answered the riddle of executive success by the words, -organize-deputize-su- pervise. Efficiency for American higher schools has been sought for by a different though somewhat similar formula. Organize, criticize, stand- ardize, energize, have been the mystic words. This has been the period of the authority of external administration. The great educational founda- tions of the United States have all the power for good and ill which great wealth always possesses. Through the agency of these foundations, and the 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION influence of National and regional associations and professional organiza- tions, American higher institutions have been standardized and determined. All in all it may be said that the results of this external government have been beneficial and wholesome for the upbuilding of the levels for both general and professional education. At least American higher schools have been relieved of many of their burdens of provincialism. A common language of values has resulted from the criticism, the surveying, the standardizing. 8. Not even a journalistic survey of the changes in our higher education would be complete without reference to the growing professional self- consciousness of the teachers of our higher institutions. The organization of the American Association of University Professors, ten years ago, is a landmark in the history of American education. Through this association it may confidently be expected that the professional, social, and economic status of the teachers in American colleges and universities will be safe- guarded and promoted as never before. VI . I am keenly aware of the skimming, skipping manner by which my title has been elaborated. Scores of tempting items of progress are in my unused notes. The munificent and never-ending benefactions for the sup- port and endowment of higher schools and scientific institutions must be rated among the wonders of this educational age. The decline of institu- tional provincialism and the acquisition of a world character by our higher schools, the monumental contributions of our institutional research lab- oratories to the structure of civilization, the valiant struggle for the free- dom to know, to teach, and to preach the truth, the development of the college of agriculture, the establishment of the junior college and the municipal university, the enlarged opportunities for women in higher schools, these and others signify high achievement for which those of the remainder of the century must be grateful. VII . The going years of the century have yielded not alone achieve- ments by which changes and progress may be evaluated. These critical years have produced their own crop of issues, new, and as yet, unsolved. 1. The complex, and well nigh uncontrolled social life of students in our higher schools, the attractions and demands of those curious appendages to modern academic life-called extra- curricular activities-invasive and destructive to student and teacher alike, the growing, consumptive im- portance of athletics and the strategic influence of alumni are well known illustrations of some of the pains of growth. 2. A marked decline in the efficacy of the hortatory moral appeal in education is readily recorded in the experience of the workers in the field of all higher education. Somewhere, and somehow, we must find a new way of interpreting the moral ideal of the world to our college and uni- versity youth. Perhaps they will do this for themselves. At any rate, the goals of character, of loyalty, of service, and perhaps of reverence, are problems of new explosiveness. GENERAL SESSIONS 37 3. Our higher schools-those that educate and those that train-must in the years just ahead find effective ways and means for contributing to the universal problems of labor. This emerges as a challenge to their purpose and their strength. Science has been the master of labor; science has been the servant of labor. The final excellence of higher education will be found when science becomes the companion of labor. VIII . A final word of personal interpretation of the present for the future. Sixty-five years ago Herbert Spencer illuminated the dark processes of education by his famous statement that "To prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge." It was not until near the close of the nineteenth century that our own great educational seer, John Dewey, gave to the teachers of the world the dynamic formula : "Education is not a preparation for life education is life." These two utterances have, I am convinced, served as the stimulating thoughts for the greater part of the real educational progress of our schools of the last generation and of this one. Some time since I chanced upon a moving thought in one of the brilliant essays of the British chemist, Frederick Soddy. It was thus expressed : "It is the birthright of youth to start anew." From this I gained a new confidence in the multiform tasks of all higher schools-too often discour- aging, and always disconcerting to the witnessing age. The acknowledg- ment of the right of youth to start anew would furnish us with a clue to the training for the high leadership of the world, looking ever at lowly things and seeing ever the exalted spirit of truth in the service of man. From our higher schools must flow the essences of ancient hopes and of the abiding faiths of free peoples to be distilled into the eternal ambitions of each new generation . America, the well founded, the well fed, the well schooled of all the world. Have you found the elixir of that immortal spiritual life called democracy ? If you have, then you have found the usefulness of your colleges, your universities, and your scientific schools. As long as they have you, from them will come the ministers and the masters of your fate. 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK AT THE END OF THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY JESSE H. NEWLON, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , DENVER, COLORADO What is the educational outlook at the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century? I do not pose as a prophet. No one can foretell in any detail what the future holds for education. It should be possible, by con- sidering present tendencies to discern some of the problems which we shall face in the years just ahead. The great builder considers the future. We have come to the time in American education when much thought is given to a consideration of future needs and future problems. This morning we listened to the story of the progress in the past quarter century. Such an inventory is invaluable in the study of present tendencies and future problems. Without making close distinctions, it may be said that our feet are now guided by two lamps-by experience and by investiga- tion. In proportion as we attempt to foresee the issues that will arise shall we be able wisely to direct the development of our schools and best to serve the State and the Nation in our capacity as teachers. It has been our privilege to live in an heroic age. It is true that we are too close to the events of the last few years properly to evaluate them in all respects. Some tendencies which we consider of most importance may be adjudged of little importance when Time renders his final verdict, but no one who is familiar with history will question that we are living in one of the crucial periods in the development of civilization. This period has witnessed astonishing progress in science and industry, resulting in a vast accumulation of wealth. Scientific discoveries and in- ventions have profoundly affected social and economic conditions. The economic and social order has been shaken to its foundations by the World War. Education has been profoundly influenced by these events. The last quarter century has witnessed tremendous changes in education in this coun- try. Public schools have prospered. In enrolment, in types of service, in financial support, in buildings and equipment, in good-will, their unusual growth has been in keeping with the character of the period. I wish to note certain tendencies that have been apparent in these years , which to my mind are indicative of some of the tendencies which will be dominant in the immediate future. I shall consider briefly the importance and need of educational research, the curriculum revision movement and the new demands that are being made of the schools, the new relationship be- tween school and home, the support of public education, the growing con- sciousness that education is a matter of national concern, the problem of interpreting the schools to the public, and the work of education associa- tions and the World Federation of Education Associations . GENERAL SESSIONS 39 First, educational research. This movement is almost entirely the product ofthis century. No critical student will claim that we have as yet a com- prehensive science of education. Only a beginning has been made. There are many problems which we have been unable to subject to scientific in- quiry. But notwithstanding these facts, we have in the last quarter cen- tury developed a scientific method for the study of education. Through the application of this method, which has been borrowed largely from the natu- ral sciences, many important facts concerning the educative process have beendiscovered. These discoveries have resulted in a marked improvement in teaching. For example, the teaching of spelling has been revolutionized as a result of statistical inquiries and the application of the laws of learning. Present methods of teaching spelling are incomparably superior to those of a generation ago. Spelling offers a simple problem compared to most problems of teaching, and yet advance has been made in practically every field. There are, of course, thousands of teachers who have had no profes- sional training and who do not keep abreast of educational knowledge and whose teaching has not been affected by this scientific study. Good teach- ing is now dependent on the acquisition of specific, organized facts and skills that constitute the body of knowledge pertaining to education that has been created through scientific inquiry and investigation. Educational research, then, which hardly antedates the beginning of the twentieth century, has, through the accumulation of a body of professional knowledge, created a profession of teaching. Itmay be said with assurance that our schools are ineffective today to the extent that we do not have that information supplied by research which enables us to make the most intelligent attack on the problem of education. There are vast regions as yet entirely unexplored. Many of the findings have been proved beyond any question of doubt, but many are still tentative and are yet to be verified. The American people are spending two billion dollars annually on educa- tion. If our courses of study and methods of instruction are ten per cent inefficient, the resultant economic waste is two hundred million dollars an- nually. Who will maintain for a moment that our courses of study and methods of instruction are as much as ninety per cent efficient ? Measured solely in terms of dollars, then, the vital importance and necessity of educa- tional research is immediately apparent. It is impossible to estimate what the country loses in character, in good citizenship, in future productiveness, through ineffective teaching. A proposal to spend two hundred million dol- lars annually on educational research would meet with a howl of protest from the advocates of economy at any cost, of tax reduction at any price. But we have come to the point in our educational development when larger sums of money must be made available for research. The best interests of the country demand it. In the present mood of the politicians, such funds may not be easily obtained. There is great danger that in our enthusiasm for economy we may adopt a penny-wise and pound-foolish policy. It behooves 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the friends of public education to have courage to demand funds for re- search in order that the progress of the past twenty-five years may not be interrupted. Failure to increase appropriations for research will greatly retard the development of schools and will be done at the expense of the good citizenship of tomorrow. At no time in the history of education has there been a deeper interest in aims and purposes and in basic principles. In this period has come a general acceptance of the theory of biological and sociological evolution as the foundation of educational method. The findings of research in the social sciences, such an anthropology, sociology, and economics, have had a marked influence on theories of education. The pragmatic educational philosophy of John Dewey, who has best stated the philosophical considerations under- lying the present tendencies in American education, assumes the fact of social evolution. The result of the newer philosophy has been the concept of the school as a dynamic social institution, constantly adapting itself to changing conditions, and the development of this concept may well prove to be the most far-reaching achievement of this period. We now conceive of education as life. The child is best prepared for life's duties by the performance of the duties of life as he finds them in in the school and home. Education is growth. The child grows in citizen- ship through the performance of the duties of a citizen of the school. In discipline, direction has replaced repression. The curriculum must be adapted to the child's nature and must be as many-sided as his interests. Interest is the mainspring of effort. Motivated effort is the most effective and productive. The individual emerges better disciplined, better informed, more appreciative of the finer values, more capable of initiative, self-control, and coöperation-in a word, a more effective social being. As a result of the factors I have been discussing, there has arisen in America one of the most important movements in the history of education- namely, the present attempts to revise and improve the course of study. Partly as a result of the findings of the scientific study of education and partly as a result of the startling social and economic changes that have been brought about by inventions and scientific discoveries, by the World War, and other influences, the people have suddenly awakened to the fact that our public school curriculum is not adapted as it ought to be to the needs of the individual and of society. We are therefore witnessing a feverish attempt to revise our courses of study and bring them into line with the findings of research and our present knowledge of social and civic needs. Frequently this revision consists only of tinkering. So far it has been altogether too much a process of tinkering. To an increasing extent, however, it has consisted of detailed, scientifically controlled, thorough- going investigation. The most vital questions are being raised. We are asking ourselves what, after all, is the purpose of public education. What should be its methods ? How much responsibility should the school assume in the education of the individual ? GENERAL SESSIONS 41 This process of curriculum revision is only in its beginning. It will be the dominant issue in education in the next twenty-five years. Courses of study and methods will assume major importance not only in the minds of teachers but in the mind ofthe public as well. Already there are numerous attempts by contending groups in our body politic to influence or dictate the curriculum. Certain patriotic societies would write our histories in a par- ticular manner. Capital and labor do not always agree as to what economic and social phenomena may be properly treated in the schools nor as to what viewpoints may be properly presented. Advocates of particular religious beliefs have voiced their opposition to the presentation of certain scientific hypotheses. Teachers must stand firmly for the teaching of the truth, and the truth bears the imprint of no particular social, economic, or religious group. In controversial questions, we must demand that both sides be pre- sented. The astonishing charge was recently brought against the schools that they are responsible in large part for the failure of the American people to exercise the right of suffrage. Only about fifty per cent of the legal voters exercised the franchise in the last presidential election. The school is likewise largely blamed for the wave of crime and lawlessness that is al- leged to have been sweeping the country since the close of the war. What is the meaning of all this ? Simply that the schools are being charged with unheard-of responsibilities. The fathers of the Republic believed in public education. They believed in a system of schools that would give the individual the tools with which to inform himself regarding civic problems. Only within recent years have we heard men and women of consequence asserting that the school must be held responsible for the way in which its pupils think and act when they have become men and women. The American people have awakened to the power of education. They are beginning to see that the character of the people a century hence or fifty years or even twenty-five years hence will be determined in large part by the type of education they received in the schools. In view of these facts, the content of the curriculum and the methods of instruction employed become a matter of supreme concern. Those who hold definite views regarding the kind of a citizenship that we want in this country are becoming intensely interested in our educational program. Let us not deceive ourselves. The years ahead will be filled with many controversies. The best service the schools can render is to foster the search for truth, to teach boys and girls to think for themselves, inculcate in them capacity for coöperation and self-control, and a high sense of personal and civic duty and loyalty. Any program that is aimed at teaching youth what to think in controversial matters is a menace. There are already those among us who insist that youth shall be taught to hold particular views. Such a policy is inconsistent with the ideals of liberty and freedom on which our government was founded. Such a procedure is dangerous and the schools must stand constantly against it. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In the past generation there was a rapid expansion in the school program. This expansion involved numerous additions to the curriculum and the addition of new types of schools, particularly vocational and technical schools. The junior high school and the junior college were deliberately created for the purpose of improving the existing organization, and repre- sent refinements rather than additions. It is unlikely that there will be so many additions in the way of entirely new types of schools and curricula in the next twenty-five years, but in many directions the present system will be reorganized and perfected and its procedures refined. This will be an inevitable result of the continued advancement of the science of educa- tion and of the study of the curriculum. The next tendency which I wish to note is the increasing intimacy be- tween the school and the home. The Congress of Parents and Teachers which has developed almost entirely within the last quarter century typi- fies this movement, and this organization has been chiefly responsible for the great benefits that have come from this closer coöperation and better understanding. Education cannot be accomplished by a single institution. The child isbeing educated every hour of his life. The joint study of edu- cational problems by teachers and parents is, therefore, of supreme im- portance. Every teacher knows that we as yet fall far short of effecting a complete articulation between the school and the home. This problem of articulation of home, school, church, and of all other educative agencies will be a dominant problem in the next quarter century. The American people have repeatedly expressed their faith in public education . The investment which they have been willing to make in build- ings and equipment, in teachers' salaries, in endowments and scholarships bears testimony to this faith. Dr. Strayer has told us how financial support has been increased since 1900. There is no evidence that we have reached the limit of the expenditures which we can afford for this purpose. Less than two per cent of the national income is expended on public education. Measured in terms of dollars, expenditures have greatly increased, but when enrolment and the depreciation of the dollar are taken into con- sideration the increase is far less than it appears to be, and the total expendi- ture is not much greater in proportion to the national income than it was a generation ago. The great problem which America will face in the next generation is the problem of national values. If we as a Nation place material things above spiritual things, if we prefer the luxuries of the flesh to the high idealism and individual discipline that the welfare of this Nation requires, then we may conclude that we cannot afford to carry out an adequate educational pro- gram. National stability and security and the perpetuity of our form of govern- ment depend upon a citizenship thoroughly disciplined, intelligent, and well informed, with a capacity for appreciation and enjoyment of the finer values of life, and with a stern sense of civic duty. Such a citizenship is GENERAL SESSIONS 43 dependent upon an educational program that will involve adequate support for public schools and coöperation between the school, the home, and the church, and all other agencies that affect the education of our people. Public school executives and teachers must and will be held responsible for an economical expenditure of funds, but equal and adequate educational opportunities are not yet provided for the youth of America, and our people must be prepared to expend more money on education if they expect to safe- guard the future of the republic.. One of the most notable tendencies in the past generation has been the growing consciousness on the part of the people that education is a national as well as a local problem. This union is a union of States. Our Nation will be as strong as the weakest link in this chain of States. Ours is a mobile people. Population is constantly shifting, moving about from State to State. If we believe that the character of our citizenship is determined to any great extent by the quality of our public schools (and if we do not be- lieve this we have no faith in public education), then we must recognize the fact that the educational system of any State is a matter of national concern. If any State fails to maintain an effective public school system, that State is failing in its duty of preparing its youth for the responsibilities of American citizenship, and to the extent to which it fails it jeopardizes the future sta- bility and happiness of our country. I shall not recount what the war taught us concerning our national edu- cational problems. Thirty per cent of our young men were unfit to bear arms. A large per cent were illiterate. In a national crisis such conditions constitute a serious liability. It is important that our young men should be able to bear arms and perform the duties of the soldier in time of war. It is of far greater importance that both men and women should be prepared for all the duties of citizenship in times of peace and war. As a Nation, therefore, we are vitally interested in the educational program of every State . Ours is the only great Nation that has not a ministry of education. This Association, ably supported by millions of citizens, has proposed that our government should recognize the national importance of education by the creation of a department of education with a secretary in the President's cabinet, and should through this department give greater encouragement to the development of schools in all our States, territories, and possessions . The Educational Finance Inquiry revealed the fact that whereas one State has a wealth of $7000 per capita, another State has a wealth of only $1200 per capital. The amounts of wealth per capita of the other forty-six States fall between these two extremes . It is readily apparent that the edu- cational burdens in the various States are very unequal. This constitutes a National problem of the utmost importance. The Federal Government almost from its beginning has followed the policy of encouraging public education. Through land grants and in many other ways our Nation has invested in the education of its people. It will be a National calamity if the policy of economy at any cost should blind us to the fact that the welfare of 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the Republic is dependent upon the investment which we as a people are willing to make in education. It is an accepted principle in America that the administration and con- trol of schools shall be left to the States. With this principle I am in hearty accord. It is also an accepted principle, practiced for a hundred years, that the National Government should encourage education and should assist in the equalization of the educational burdens of the various States. The public welfare demands the extension of the policy of federal encouragement and participation in the support of public schools of all kinds. The extent to which the Federal Government should encourage education will be a leading national issue until the question is answered. We shall have a de- partment of education in the not distant future. Likewise, the Federal Government will eventually recognize its responsibility further to en- courage education by leadership and investment. The extent and the character of the support of education will always depend upon the extent to which we are able to interpret the schools, their methods, their problems, and their needs to the people. We have among us those who criticize the schools. They claim that our curriculum is overcrowded and includes many fads and frills; that we do not teach well the tool subjects of education; that the schools are becoming too expensive. The average individual thinks of education as he knew it as a youth. He remembers the country school, the village school, the high school, or the college of fifteen or thirty years ago. He is not a student of the science of education, and he is not aware of the marvelous progress that has been made in methods of teaching in the last generation. Therefore he is likely to fall prey to specious criticisms. We cannot expect the layman to become a technician, but we must realize that the layman can understand our educational methods and theories well enough to pass accurate judgment on their validity. Few in this audience would be able to read a technical work on medicine. Were we attending a lecture in a medical college, most of the terms used would be meaningless to us, and yet we are able to understand the underlying principles of modern medicine. The people have accepted the validity of these theories and their practice, as is evidenced by their willingness to expend large sums of money on public health and the maintenance of medical colleges. Likewise, the layman cannot be expected to understand many of the technicalities of education. But he can understand the basic principles and can appraise results. The layman can understand the marvelous advances that have been made in the teaching of spelling, reading, and arithmetic, and other subjects of the curriculum as a result of the development of the science of education. He is perfectly capable of understanding why modern methods are superior to the old ones. The work of interpretation cannot be done by superintendents alone. It is a responsibility that must be borne jointly by the superintendent, principal, teacher, Parent-Teacher Association, and all who are connected with or GENERAL SESSIONS 45 deeply interested in public education. One test by which the effectiveness of the teacher of the future will be determined will be the test of whether or not he can interpret to patrons the methods which he is using and the results which he is obtaining. Perhaps the supreme test of the principal will be his ability to interpret the educational program to the citizens of his district. One test of the superintendent will be his ability to organize the educational forces for the interpretation of the schools to the public. Why is it so difficult to secure a state board of education with the power to appoint a state superintendent of public instruction and thus take that office out of politics ? Why is it so difficult to secure for rural districts in the county unit the type of organization that has made for good schools in our urban communities ? It is not because these proposals are unsound. It is because the people do not understand. Most of the criticisms of our present day schools are honest. Some of the criticisms are just. But most of our critics are uninformed. We have not taken the thought and the time to explain to the people what we are doing. Most of the criticisms will disappear when once our critics under- stand just what we are about. Moreover, we shall learn much and thus be able to improve the schools if we will take the trouble to explain what we are doing. The extent to which education will be supported in the next quarter century will depend in large measure on our ability to interpret the schools to the people. We have made a beginning of effective school pub- licity, but the technique of publicity and interpretation still remains very largely to be created. Teachers' associations have grown with amazing rapidity in the last twenty-five years. There has been growth both in membership and in the number of professional organizations. The National Education Associa- tion is typical. A generation ago we were an association of eight or ten thousand members. Today we number one hundred fifty thousand, with an effective headquarters staff and a budget that has passed the quarter million mark. State and National associations have won notable victories for education and thus for the public good in this period. In the years just ahead these associations will have three great responsibilities : Of standing always for the most rigid professional training as a requirement for the admittance of candidates to the teaching profession; of fostering edu- cational research and the maintenance of the discussion of educational prob- lems on a high professional plane; and of leading the friends of public edu- cation in the great task of interpreting the schools to the people. For the performance of these tasks the National Education Association, State, and local teachers' associations are indispensable. I have not spoken of world educational problems. American teachers are intensely patriotic and loyal to their own country and their own form of government. They believe that they can best contribute, through national- ism, to the solution of world problems. We recognize, however, that for the solution of world problems and particularly for the abolition of the evil 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of war there must be world coöperation and understanding. We believe that our Nation, while preserving its own nationality, should coöperate with other nations in some definite way for the purpose of abolishing war and promoting the interests of humanity in all countries. We recognize that the chief agency for the promotion of a better understanding among nations and ultimately for the abolition of war must be popular education conducted along broad humanitarian lines. We believe the development of the right kind of educational systems in all nations of the world including our own, will be greatly benefited by a commerce of educational ideas. To accelerate this exchange of ideas the World Federation of Education Associations was formed at the instance of the National Education Asso- ciation. This is another great achievement of the first quarter of the twen- tieth century, credit for which can be proudly claimed by our great National Association. What, then, may we say of the future? We are living in a period of social and economic reconstruction with its attendant baffling problems. Greater and greater burdens are being placed on the school. The school is being held more and more responsible for the conduct of pupils after they have left its precincts. The people are beginning to realize the importance of public education in determining the character of our Nation.. Powerful influences would use the schools to attain particular ends. We shall face educational problems of almost superhuman difficulty. Issues will be fought out that will test the courage of every one of us. Upon the outcome of these struggles will rest the fate of America. Notwithstanding the difficulties which we face, there is every reason for optimism. The first quarter of the twentieth century has been a period of most rapid advancement in the methods of education and of remarkable ex- tension of the program of public education. Upon the foundation which has been laid we can build a great system of schools that will serve our country well and guarantee the perpetuity of American ideals. If we do our duty as a profession the people will never lose their faith in education. GENERAL SESSIONS 47 PRESIDENT'S REPORT-OUR ASSOCIATION AND ITS WORK JESSE H. NEWLON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO This report will consist of a short summary of the more important actions taken during the year and a discussion of certain problems of organi- zation and procedure. I. WORK OF THE ASSOCIATION Since the war the Association has been formulating a National program of education. This program consists not only of the Education Bill but of all other educational proposals of National importance which have received the endorsement of the Association . Various committees and commissions and Secretary Crabtree will report to you regarding the problems encountered and the progress which has been made in the last year towards the attainment of these objectives. The sudden opposition to the Child Labor Amendment was a surprise. This measure had passed Congress by a large majority. Two previous National child labor laws had been passed. Only one conclusion is possible, and that is that the opposition represents not so much opposition to the conservation of child life as it does opposition to any further extension of the functions of the Federal Government. Many who favor State child labor laws are opposed to the Federal amendment. Of course, the States' rights argument has always been used, sometimes honestly, but more fre- quently as a mere pretext against measures for the National welfare. When I realized that the amendment would be ratified only after a fight, I ap- pointed a committee of one thousand on child labor with President John F. Sims as the chairman. I did this believing that the Association will expect to stay in the fight to the end. The Legislative Commission will report a very distinct progress during the year towards the achievement of a Department of Education. I shall not speak in particular of the work of any other committee or commission. I have appointed such committees as were authorized by the representative assembly or as exigencies demanded, holding to the belief that we should create as few committees as possible. The headquarters staff, under the leadership of Secretary Crabtree, has contributed notably towards the attainment of the goal set in the National program. II. THE WORLD CONFERENCE The executive committee and your president have endeavored to do all in their power within the limits of the financial resources at their disposal to assist President Thomas and his associate officers in planning for the Edinburgh meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations. 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION My chief duty as president has been that of appointing the American delegation. Three classes of representatives have been appointed. The delegation will consist of twenty-five delegates and twenty-five alternates, and a larger group of participating representatives. It has been my pur- pose to secure as delegates and alternates to this notable convention a group of men and women truly representative of the best leadership in American education. III . FINANCES The Association began the fiscal year 1924-25 with a deficit of $31,- 359.84. The executive committee reported to the assembly a year ago that in making the budget they found that their needs, including this deficit, were in round figures, $51,000 more than the estimated income. The budget provided that this amount, all of which was treated as a deficit, should be paid off in three years in approximately equal installments. If the income for the year had been exactly as estimated, and if the expendi- tures had been exactly as provided for in the budget, the deficit on June 1, 1925, would have been $32,000. As a matter of fact, there was a balance of $2955.35. Expenditures were increased, partly to cover unforeseen contingencies, partly to conduct a vigorous membership campaign. The revenues were also increased by $51,500, with the result that we can happily report that we have not only paid off one third of the $51,000, but have wiped out the entire debt and closed the fiscal year with a small balance. The hardest problem which we have faced has been that of finance. The demands for service far outrun resources. Every effort has been made to keep expenditures as low as possible consistent with the most urgent needs. Until the income more nearly equals the demands for service, not only must the most rigid economy be practiced but the Asso- ciation will be unable to do many things which it ought to do. In finances the Association should look constantly to the future. It is not sufficient nor statesmanlike to consider only our present needs. We should adopt a financial policy that will not only provide for the current expenses of the Association but will allow accumulations against future demands. With these purposes in mind I wish to make two recommenda- tions: 1. Every department should be made in part self-sustaining. Every department should maintain a departmental fee sufficient to cover a con- siderable portion of its actual operating expenses. Such a policy would not only be good for the general association but for those departments which do not now have fees, through stimulating their members to greater activity and interest. 2. Every budget should contain appropriations, however small, for these purposes : GENERAL SESSIONS 49 a. There should be yearly an addition to the permanent fund, the principal of which may never be used. This is our best form of financial insurance. b. If the Association decides to sponsor the movement for the establishment of homes for retired teachers, the Association should make an annual contribution to the capital fund of the organization in charge of the homes. c. The Association should establish an endowment for research and make contributions annually to the increase of the endowment. The custody and investment of the endowment should rest with the board of trustees. The direction of research should be reposed in the executive committee. If such an endowment were established I believe it would be rapidly increased by gifts and bequests from our own members and other friends of public education. IV. MEMBERSHIP This leads me to the crucial question of membership. There are those who think that the emphasis should be placed on giving service rather than on securing members. Apparently there are those who think it is even undignified to put on a strenuous membership campaign. And yet, any one who gives the matter a thought must realize that the resources with which to do the work of the Association will depend on membership. The actual income from memberships since the reorganization has in- creased from $107,738 in 1920-21 to $240,081.85 in 1924-25. There has been a steady growth, but the number who have actually paid has not been as large as the number who have received the services of the Association. Always and unavoidably some are in arrears. There are two reasons why the membership should be extended. First, every teacher needs the stimulation of Association membership, while on the other hand the larger the number of members the larger will be the influence of the Association. Second, the size of the membership will determine the size of the income, unless we increase the membership fee. Personally, I think the fee should be increased fifty cents, but I am well aware of the fact that such a proposal would meet with opposition from many quarters. In recognition of the importance of this problem of membership, and in view of the increasing duties of an overworked general secretary who had to date personally and effectively handled all matters pertaining to member- ship, the executive committee authorized, at its February meeting, the establishment of a division of membership. Mr. Theodore D. Martin, secretary of the Utah State Teachers' Association, was appointed director of this division, and will devote all of his energies to this important task. The membership should reach 500,000 in the next six or eight years. Mr. Crabtree, Mr. Martin, and the officers of the Association should 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION have your most earnest coöperation in a vigorous campaign for new mem- bers. V. PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATION I wish now to speak of two problems, the first of which must, in my judgment, receive the attention of this assembly in the near future, and the second of which must ultimately have consideration . The Association now has thirty committees exclusive of strictly con- vention committees. These committees are dealing with subjects that range from the legislative program on the one hand to the problems of teaching English and arithmetic on the other. They range in size from twelve or fifteen to a hundred, and in one instance a thousand members. In the sixty-eight years of its history, the Association has had numerous committees that have performed notable service to American education . There are committees today doing excellent work, but now, as always, they work under great difficulties. In former years, it was occasionally possible, even out of meager resources, for committees to hold sessions at places and times other than in connection with the two great annual conventions. This made possible a concentration that achieved results. Your president recalls service of this kind a decade ago and he also recalls feverish and more or less futile attempts to do committee work in connec- tion with national meetings. It is evident that the problems of committees differ. Some committees can best do their work in connection with the annual meetings. Some should be large in number. This is true of such committees as those on tenure or classroom teacher problems or the committee on the Child Labor Amendment. Other committees should be relatively small, and if they are to function there must be opportunity for deliberation and discussion. We would as well admit that a committee on character education cannot function as it ought to function unless the members of this committee, or at least an executive group of them, can come together for serious study and discussion at a time when they will not be distracted by the many activities of a great convention. The functions of the representative assembly itself are involved. This body must confine itself to a consideration of general policies. It must not attempt consideration of purely technical problems. It is proper for the Assembly to promote important new movements. Some problems, such as civic and moral education, are of such supreme importance that there should always be committees dealing with phases of them. But there is a danger of multiplying committees needlessly. The meetings of the assembly must not become cluttered up with reports to the exclusion of consideration of major issues . The Association has sixteen departments. New groups are seeking to form departments. There is a danger, of course, of creating too many de- partments, but there are important groups of teachers who will not receive the service which the National Education Association can render them GENERAL SESSIONS 51 until new departments are created. I cannot go into these problems in detail. I have asked Mr. Kelley's committee on departments to give consideration to all of them. They will not be easy of solution. The presidents of the Association in the next five years will have to meet these conditions. They will have many complaints from committee members that conditions under which they are expected to work are next to im- possible. Difficulties will arise in connection with the formation of new departments. It is needless to point out how closely these problems are related to the size of membership. The other matter that I wish merely to call to your attention is the com- position and the duties of the executive committee. The executive commit- tee consists of five members, four of whom are ex-officio members. The one member elected as a member serves one year. The committee may contain in any given year only one new member; it generally contains only two. On the other hand, it is possible to have four new members. A small group, through continuous service, may have a dominating influence, for good or for ill, over a number of years, or a sweeping change in member- ship might at any time result, for good or ill, in sudden changes in policies . Personally, I favor a small committee. The creation of a large executive committee would be a serious mistake, just as a large board of education is undesirable. On the other hand, the committee as now constituted is not sufficiently representative of its constituency. Under no conditions should the committee consist of more than nine members. We should begin the study of this problem in the near future. It may be possible to bring about a more effective articulation between the Association itself and some of its great departments, and thus contribute to the more effective integra- tion of our efforts. Under our charter, the general secretary, who is the chief administrative officer of the executive committee, is elected by the board of trustees. The board of trustees is not the governing board of the Association. The executive committee, which is the governing board, should be empowered to employ the general secretary. VI . WORK OF THE HEADQUARTERS STAFF I have had opportunity during the year to observe the workings of a most competent headquarters staff at close and long range. I would not under- take to recount the good deeds which they have performed, but I would consider myself derelict in my duty did I not acknowledge their fine morale and unstinted devotion to the interest of the Association. When the executive committee called on them to practice the most unusual economy, their response was instant and regardless of personal inconvenience. In closing, I wish to express my thanks to all who have coöperated so loyally during the present year, to my associates on the executive committee, to the chairmen, presidents, and other officers of departments, to the chairmen and members of the committees, to innumerable members of 52 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the Association without official responsibilities who have given without stint of their time and energy to the service of the Association, to Mr. Crabtree and all others of the headquarters staff, and to all of our mem- bers in Indianapolis and Indiana who have done so much to make this convention a success . INTERPRETING THE STATE PROGRAM JOHN W. ABERCROMBIE, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA President Newlon is to be congratulated upon his selection of general themes and special subjects for this meeting of the Association. In no other respect perhaps is our educational advancement reflected more surely or more strikingly than in the making of programs for our annual meetings . Until within a comparatively recent period each speaker was permitted independently to choose his own subject. Consequently there were no general themes, no special assignments, no orderly arrangements, no logical procedures, no purposeful results. On the contrary, there was much of haphazard, duplication, lost motion, confusion and ineffectiveness. Now our programs are thoughtfully, orderly, and logically made. Manifestly, the new method is superior to the old. Our Educational Progress-All students of education, especially those who were so fortunate as to be present and listen to the splendid addresses delivered at the general session on Monday morning, have been profoundly impressed with the progress made throughout the country during the last twenty-five years. Considering the numerous untoward conditions obtain- ing, this progress, even in the States generally regarded as the most back- ward educationally, has been rapid, substantial, and praiseworthy. Indeed, the statisticians tell us that the greatest ratio of progress is found in the so- called backward States . Whether considered from a State or from a National point of view, our progress in education during the first quarter of the twentieth century has been incomparably and marvelously great. History furnishes no parallel . Yet, there are those who, looking backward rather than forward, living in the past rather than in the present, claim that we have made no progress, that we have actually retrogressed, that the schools of a quarter or a half century ago were better than those of today. They are thinking of the schools of their childhood and youth, ignorant or forgetful of the changes that have taken place in ideals, conditions, and needs. To them our educa- tional renaissance is as a closed book. They belong to the group who sing, "Apples were redder, sugar was sweeter, boys and girls were better when we were children." There is another class of persons, more numerous, more intelligent, and more influential than those just mentioned who, while conceding that some GENERAL SESSIONS 53 progress has been made, criticize our educational systems and those who administer them, claiming that the schools are costing too much; that the task of providing elementary, secondary, and higher education for all is not a proper governmental function; that we are unable financially to provide such education; etc. They either openly oppose, or, through the compul- sion of public sentiment, yield unsympathetic and reluctant support to all forward movements in education. They, too, are groping in darkness, if not in outer darkness, then in semi-darkness. As the apostle would say, they "see through a glass, darkly." Persons belonging to one or both of these groups are to be found in every State, county, city, town, village, and community, sometimes in large num- bers. They are the persons to whom we have failed wholly or partially to interpret our educational programs. Interpreting the schools to the public is essential to educational growth. To the extent that this has been done successfully we have progressed in the past. Continued advancement de- pends upon continued successful interpretation. While all that has been said about our progress is true, and while that progress has been incomparably, even phenomenally, great, the conspicuous, deplorable, and humiliating fact remains that we have no equality of edu- cational opportunity in any of the States. In most if not all of them one child attends school a few months in the year, while another goes nine; one has a poorly trained teacher, while another has an instructor with the best of preparation; one attends school in a hut, while another studies in a palace; one is supplied with the minimum, while another is furnished with the maximum of school facilities. Manifestly the need for making and interpreting programs has not passed. The State Program-The interpretation of a program presupposes its formulation. Until within a recent period, except perhaps in some of the younger States, programs evolved through force of circumstances and along lines of least resistance rather than through the intelligent development of preconceived plans. Now they are deliberately formulated, projected, and executed. In fact, program making has come to be an outstanding feature of educational administration . The newest, best approved, and most effective method of formulating a State program is that of a State-wide survey which discloses conditions, reveals tendencies, exposes deficiencies, indicates needs, and suggests reme- dies. If made by recognized experts, such a survey will be accepted as authentic and conclusive by those to whom it is adequately interpreted. Fortunately, through the activities of the National Education Associa- tion, the United States Bureau of Education, the General Education Board, the institutions of higher learning, the State departments of educa- tion, and other agencies, many highly trained educational investigators have been developed, and it is possible now for States and their subdivisions, without incurring undue expense, to formulate programs based upon sur- veys conducted by recognized survey experts. Indeed, much if not most of our progress during the last decade and a half is attributable directly or 54 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION indirectly to the interpretation of programs developed through such surveys. The educational survey is a typical American service. It promises to de- velop into a distinct vocation, into a learned profession-a learned profession of the highest type. A wisely formulated State program will comprehend a complete system of education. If modern and ideal in all respects, it will provide for : 1. A State board with a small, overlapping, long-term membership elected by popular vote or appointed by the governor with the approval of the legislature, having large powers in the general control of all elementary and high schools and full powers in the direct control of all State-supported institutions of higher learning. 2. A State department under the direction of a professionally qualified State superintendent chosen by the State board for a term and at a com- pensation fixed by it. 3. A State departmental organization comprising divisions of executive and business management ; teacher training, certification and placement ; elementary education ; secondary education; vocational education; physical and health education; artistic, ethical, and patriotic education; exceptional education ; statistical information ; buildings and grounds; school and com- munity betterment. 4. A State departmental staff of administrative, supervisory, professional, and clerical experts appointed by the State superintendent with the approval of the State board and in accordance with qualification standards prescribed by it. 5. A county board with a small, overlapping, long-term membership elected by the people in county-wide elections, having direct control of all elementary and high schools under minimum standards prescribed by the State board. 6. A county department under the direction of a county superintendent possessing the minimum qualifications prescribed by the State board and appointed by the county board for a term and at a compensation fixed by it. 7. A county departmental staff of administrative, supervisory, profes- sional, and clerical experts appointed by the county superintendent with the approval of the county board under minimum qualification standards prescribed by the State board. 8. A form of organization that will include the kindergarten, the ele- mentary school, the junior high school, the senior high school, the junior college, the senior college, and the university, with adequate provision for the training of teachers with which to conduct them. 9. A plan of financial support that will guarantee equality of educational opportunity to all the children of the State without placing upon any county or other subdivision a tax burden materially larger than that borne by any other county or subdivision. Methods of Interpretation-After a program has been developed by survey or other method, the logical next step is its interpretation. This is a function of the State department. Under the American plan of educa GENERAL SESSIONS 55 tion it devolves upon that department not only to initiate and formulate plans for the development of systems and the improvement of schools, but also to project and explain them to the public, to project and explain them so as to lead the public to understand, approve, and accept them. Unless the public is made to regard submitted proposals as desirable and feasible, there willbe little chance of securing their adoption. In the final analysis public opinion is the controlling factor in school administration as well as in other governmental operations. Hence, interpreting programs is simply developing favorable public opinion in regard to them. The creation of a favorable public opinion toward a proposed plan for school improvement is itself an educational process and calls for the appli- cation of educational principles. Methods that produce favorable attitudes within systems and schools will, if properly applied with necessary modifi- cations, produce similar attitudes upon the part of the general public. The development of an understanding, favoring, and sustaining public opinion, which is the essence of interpretation as here used, will call for systematic procedure. An orderly interpretation would be as follows : 1. To the executive, administrative, and supervisory school officials. 2. To the teachers in the schools . 3. To the patrons of the schools. 4. To the general public. Interpretations may be made in various ways. The most effective will include the use of letter, circular, bulletin, school journal, newspaper, per- sonal appeal, public address, commencement occasion, educational exhibit, school rally, community organization, civic club, fraternal order, profes- sional association, religious body, social gathering, radio, and other available agencies. In other words, all interpreting processes will center in and revolve about publicity. Publicity, intelligent, systematic, persistent, de- termined, effective publicity is the sine qua non of success in the interpreta- tion of a State program. Conclusion-In conclusion permit me to say that when each of the States shall have formulated, projected, and executed a program which will guar- antee equality of educational opportunity to all its children, we shall still have gross inequality of educational opportunity among the States them- selves. Those inequalities will not be removed until we have developed, interpreted, adopted, and executed a National program of financial support which will guarantee equal educational advantages to all the children of all the States without imposing upon any State or subdivision thereof a tax burden materially heavier than that borne by any other State or subdivision . If every child is to have an equal chance in life with every other child we must provide National as well as State equality of educational oppor- tunity. To that end, along with the development and interpretation of State programs must go the development and interpretation of a National program. To that end, State and Nation must coöperate in the financial support of education. 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INTERPRETING THE SCHOOL TO THE HOME ANNA GRAEME FRASER, VICE- PRINCIPAL AND TEACHER, OAKLAND HIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA The question of how to interpret the school to the home has changed to "How can the school substitute for the home ?" Not how can the teacher coöperate with the home, but rather how can the teacher understudy the home. The child in the average class fifteen years ago got his training from his church, his school, and his home. Children today in your schools -millions of them know the church as a place to get married in or get buried from . The moral training the child gets from the church is almost minus, and unless the home and the school look out for his soul, it is not looked out for . And does his home do it? Yes, if he has a home, an honest-to-goodness, old-fashioned American home, with a real father and mother. But if your schools are like our schools, you have thousands of children who have a right to stand up and say to the community and to their parents, "Where is my home ? I have not had the training only a home can give. I have not had a home." And they have not had homes; they have had a series of apartments they move in and out of; they have even had a series of parents. In the city I live in we used to ask the name of the father and the mother-now we ask the name of the adult with whom the child lives. I know a girl-a nice, fine girl, too-who has had four stepfathers. Does she know what the word father means ? Does she know what a home in the finest sense of the word means ? With a weak church and a weakening ideal of home, the burden of train- ing falls with tremendous force on the school. In place of the teaching of the priest, in place of the training of the mother, many a child has only the ideals implanted by the teacher. It is the biggest call to responsibility the school has ever had. It is a challenge to every teacher in America, this maintenance of American ideals of personal integrity. This is the real call of education. GENERAL SESSIONS 57 THE STRATEGIC POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL IN IN- TERPRETATION OF THE SCHOOL TO THE PUBLIC BELLE M. MONROE, PRINCIPAL OF KING SCHOOL, AKRON, OHIO The principal today must occupy a middle vantage point. From one direction to the other, back and forth he looks; as he looks to the one, the school; as he looks to the other, the world outside. As he looks to the school, he must see the situation as it is; he must see it in its intention, in its operation, and in its result. As he looks to the world outside, he must analyze conditions as they have been, as they now are, and as they will be when changes come, which the present points to as inevitable. From this constant observation and study of conditions within and with- out comes the principal's part in the constant effort toward adjustment ; such adjustment as will give to the youth within the school the training he will need to take his place when without; and it is here, along with this adjustment, that the principal meets his greatest task, requiring all his tact, all his skill, his best judgment that task, the interpretation of this effort, the effort toward adjustment-to the people. The interpretation in such a way that they will believe in it, have such faith and confidence in it, that the school will not be a thing apart to be criticized, but an institution which is a most vital part of the community, a part in and with it, and not a part from it. Right here we ask, why shall the principal do this ? Why shall he take part in interpreting the school to the people ? Where shall he begin, and how shall he go about it ? No person connected with the school system is in a better position to know school policies and to be at the same time in such close personal touch with his part of the community than is the principal. He has even quicker access to the home than the newspaper; as practically all homes in a com- munity could be reached within fifteen minutes after a message was given . The school, moreover, is his business, his profession, his interest. Were he selling automobiles he would expect to exploit the advantages of his particular model over previous ones, and those which others may be selling- he would do this for his own advantage, at least. Surely, then, as principal, his interest in his school and community would not be less keen, would not call for less effort on his part, for truly an understanding and sympathetic community would spell success to the principal, as surely as sales to the salesman. The members of the community have a right to understand the why and wherefore of the education which is being given their children; they have a right to know when changes are made and why. When policies are changed, and expenditure of money called for, it is the community that is most affected, and for which explanations should be given; and in interpret- ing changes, in giving explanations, and in creating and holding the co 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION operation which would bring success to the undertakings, the principal in- deed occupies a strategic position. Granting, then, that the principal is the logical person to perform his share, and a large share it is, in interpreting the school to the people, we consider next : Where shall he begin, and how shall he go about it ? As the physician could not treat without his knowledge of medicine or the lawyer practice without his knowledge of the law, so must the principal be thoroughly grounded in the fundamentals of education. He must know well his history of education as it must serve as a background for present practices; he must have such a knowledge of psychology as will function in his community relationships ; he must know modern educational practices, be able to judge of values, and be firm in his acceptance or rejection based upon his evaluation. After being sure of his own background, the principal's next agency in his effort in interpretation would be his teaching staff. To him would fall the task of making clear to his teachers the policies of administrative officers; and of presenting to them the value of each undertaking so effec- tively that they would work in sympathy with it. To him also would fall the responsibility for maintaining a high standard of classroom instruction, for we do not question that the success of a school system depends upon the quality of its classroom teaching. Because he is in a position where he can drop into classrooms frequently, he can know the work of his teachers intimately; he can analyze their mistakes and correct them; he knows of their training, of their interests in school, and some- thing of their life outside. Then, apart from his relation to his teachers, the principal holds an en- tirely different relation to his pupils. To many pupils the principal is the only administrative officer known, and to many of them he is known for eight or more years. Because of this long contact with the same children, the principal is the embodiment of the spirit that pervades the school system; and if, as is the teacher so the class, it is equally true, as is the principal so the school-and we may be sure that whatever that school spirit be, it will be carried home, until finally then, as is the school, so is the community; for the principal must realize that as the child interprets him, so will he in- terpret the school at home; for children are the best advertising medium available for the school, and as long as there are schools and children, they will act as advertising agencies. How account for different attitudes in different districts of the same city? The parent who is a student of child development will be out of sympathy with an authority which does not accept his child as an individual, entitled to receive the consideration and attention which he would receive in his own home. The child would be first to resent, then the resentment would be carried home, and finally, after multiplied cases, the school system would feel the unfavorable reaction. The foreign parent will just as quickly feel any lack of attention which he might construe as class distinction. How, GENERAL SESSIONS 59 then, may the principal through the children obtain that faith in the school which will insure coöperation ? Let me cite a few instances, which over a period of years have made the school in a certain district take high place among other institutions. In this particular foreign district, the school is the first and final authority. It began with the children; every boy and girl received a square deal ; troubles big to children were not passed over as too small for attention by teacher and principal; each child knew if he were in the right he would be given credit; if in the wrong he must take his punishment. Best of all, it carried over to the home. Parents so little accustomed to our country and our language that they were constantly meeting one kind of trouble after another, could see their children developing, could feel there were wise and kind hearts guiding them, and they, too, turned to the same source for counsel. Their hearts were won through their children. There are many homes in that district where officers would not enter singly or unarmed, where there are nightly brawls, where the eighteenth amendment has added not only to the family income but to the morning news of murders, suicides, and robberies; yet there is not one of these homes where it would be unsafe for the principal of that school to enter. She has gone into home after home where children were absent, showing the parents why they should be in school. Parents would have her advise them in their lawsuits and in their divorces; she has sympathized with them in their troubles, in their sickness, and in their bereavements. Now, do those people understand the school ? Has she interpreted it to them ? We say the foreign vote is not an in- telligent vote, but there is no vote which that principal would ask which those people would not give, because they have faith in her. They know if she asks it, she believes it is good for their children, and some day their children are going to be different from what they have been; they are going to be real citizens of a community, and anything which will help them toward that end will receive their support. Let us pass to another district, American mostly, but poor, struggling, and with little education; parents realizing what they would like their children to have, but have been unable to give. Through some turn of fate they have met with one reverse after another until there is almost a settled in- difference, an almost pathetic acceptance. And into this district as into the others came the Great War. Of course their men went, great numbers of them. How did the school get into the home? Mary was not in her class one day or the next, and when the principal called the house was cold, much too cold for the babies there. What could she do ? A charity worker called, the house was heated, and the family knew the school was more than aplace where the three R's were taught. Child after child who came to school thinly clad went home with mittens and overcoats--and more families then knew the school thought of their comfort as well as their arithmetic. John and Andrew were losing weight; another call and the principal knew why. More milk was left at the house, a little more food 60 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION came in, and the children began to improve, and another family increased its respect for an institution which could bring such things to pass. Betty Louise was falling behind in her work, she no longer read well, she com- plained of headache, and an eye examination revealed the immediate need for glasses. Through city agencies they were secured, and another family paid homage to the school. William's work was suffering because of fre- quent absences; one cold after another developed, until it seemed the only help would be the removal of the diseased tonsils; there were no family funds; again the principal's attention brought city relief. Did that principal interpret the school to the people? Yes, and it does not take war to do it. We have with us always the same poverty, the faulty vision, and the diseased tonsils, requiring that human interest which was shown. Then we have our districts of well-to-do, intelligent, interested people. How does the principal through the children interpret the school to them ? No class will question more, will condemn more quickly if we are wrong, or coöperate more if they feel we are right. Let us look within in such a district: Betty Jane is nervous, high-strung, impetuous ; may it not be possible that with music, dancing, and French lessons, she is attempting too much ? Perhaps a frank talk with Betty Jane's parents in which the principal shows them how much of music Betty Jane is really getting in school, and how much of rhythm she is getting with her folk games in the gymnasium, will convince them that at least until the physical condition improves, the outside lessons can wait. Betty Jane will be benefited and the parents convinced of the personal interest in the child. Again, Louise exhibits unusual ability in her art classes; indeed there is no question that she has a talent which should receive every opportunity for development. When the principal discusses this with the parent, he is in- deed grateful, makes haste to secure the best possible instruction for her, and he, too, is convinced of the school's interest. The principal believes that he should put no less thought in planning the year's activities in his school than he would put into the preparation of a club program, and he considers it essential that very early he should get a program of the year's activities into every home, and with the help of each teacher a program is worked out which plans for one "At Home" or "Visiting Day" each month of the school year, days of different types, some after- noon, some evening, and of varied interests, and on different days of the week, believing that in this way he will cover all interests and that in the different choice of times, each parent can find some time when he will be able to come. One program takes care of children having special dramatic ability, and the parents witness the production of a play which these children have written. Another offers the children of musical ability opportunity to present a musicale. An art day gives every child opportunity to contribute. An exhibit from the vocational department, late in the term, affords a most GENERAL SESSIONS 61 interesting evening. Every child may have something on display, because sewing, cooking, woodshop, printing, electrical, and sheet-metal depart- ments all contribute. A gymnasium demonstration can take in every child in the building, and in one particular school, resulted in such enthusiasm among the mothers that before they left the building they had engaged the gymnasium teacher for a series of lessons, and a number of the fathers had rented the gym- nasium one night a week for the rest of the semester. The academic work is given prominence, and one night each semester parents are asked to inspect the results of class work as shown in papers of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and in geography, spelling, and composi- tion. Many parents have little conception of the modern school, and once each semester they are invited especially to come in and enjoy "A Child's Day." "A thought a day" sent into homes each day of education week, put across some truths with regard to the school. Clever posters made by the children and placed in store windows gained considerable attention. We have discussed the principal's effort to interpret the school through the teacher and the pupil. There is another medium of large import-his relation to the parent. It is in his individual contact with the parent that he becomes best known. It is here that the indefinable "personality" counts. Many of these contacts are brought about by discipline cases, and it is by the judgment and sympathy shown in the handling of them that the school re- ceives its "parental" rating. The principal who works on the theory of same offense, same punishment loses sight of the individual, but the principal ⚫who measures degrees of wrongness in the offense by the individual, his en- vironment, his training, his physical condition, and his provocation, comes nearer meting out the most effective punishment, and that principal need . have little fear but that the parent will be of one accord with him. The wise and tactful principal will always be as ready to listen to the parent's version of a complaint or grievance as to present his own side and be just as fair in admitting the wrong on the side of the school, for it is only by such absolutely fair judgments that he can keep faith with his people. The getting together of parent and principal, parent and teacher, brings about the feeling of a oneness of interest, and these personal contacts are bound to result in a feeling of "belonging"-the school to the people, and the people to the school. It is one thing more to make the school a part in and with the community. The parent meetings which everywhere form a part of the school program give to the principal a peculiar opportunity to explain school policies, to discuss types of organization and changes in methods, to present school needs, to solicit coöperation in meeting them, and, finally, an important part in the school system, to refute charges constantly being made against the present-day school, to know first whence they come, the inspiration of them, and how much of justification is behind them. A principal can give con- 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION vincing statistics of comparative costs in education, comparative as to dif- ference in value received then and now, and comparative with almost any luxury or brand of chewing gum. He knows from many research reports that the educational product today will not lose by comparison with that of any age. He can be so convincing with his people, because of their faith in him, that no bond issue will be too large, nor any matter too small, to be worthy of consideration. The principal, then, in addition to his efforts to do much through the teacher, the child, and the parent, to interpret worthily the school to the people, must give something of himself. He must be willing to do his part as a leader in the community; he must be ready socially and professionally to take his place; he must know that he is responsible not to parents alone for the output of his school, but to the taxpayer; he must admit that too often the scholastic element has been so emphasized that the social element was overlooked; and then again that the pendulum swung too far the other way. But the principal must show to his community that from these mis- takes education has grown. He must make them know that the big aim in education today is to prepare for citizenship, to turn out from our schools citizens who will know how to assume social relations, one with the other, who will know something of the science of social relationships in order that equity, harmony, and peace may prevail, and that into the curriculum has been incorporated that which will give to the youth, as well as a broad knowledge of facts, an adequate picture of life. In his advisory capacity to the teacher, in his sympathetic relation to the child, in his informatory service to the community, and receptive and friendly attitude toward the parent, the principal is daily conscious of the strategio position which he occupies, and his success in interpretation of the school to the people will be largely dependent upon what his conception of a school system should be, upon his sincerity of purpose, as evidenced by his loyalty to those responsible for educational policies, upon his keen and sympathetic interest in his pupils, and the community which they represent, and most of all upon his conviction that the founders were right, and that he will do his share in maintaining the ideals without which the Nation would not long endure. INTERPRETING THE RURAL SCHOOLS TO THE PEOPLE LILLIA E. JOHNSON, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , EAU CLAIRE WISCONSIN Rural and city schools alike need interpretation to the patrons largely because their dividends are deferred. If the financial advantages of an education were apparent, and if it could be turned into money monthly, the schools would be crowded, but because the dividends are spread over a life- time they are not so easily measurable. The same is true of the cultural dividends. Many people who have not had the advantages of education GENERAL SESSIONS 63 look upon it as an avenue to permit escape from work. We must abandon this idea and substitute for it the fact that the value in education lies in the opportunity for greater service. The farmer's life is one of constant warfare-against weeds, insects, animal diseases, inclement weather. He is an individualist-he works alone he plans alone. The history of farmers' coöperative ventures is that while they are new-while there are profits to be divided, the patrons flock to them; but when adversity comes, when losses must be assessed, they hasten to desert them. To too great adegree the people of the rural sections feel that the hands of their urban brethren are lifted against them. This is easily explained- the farmers are concerned with keeping the price of foodstuffs up and the price of labor down; the city dwellers are concerned on the other hand with keeping the price of foodstuffs down and the price of labor up. The farmer, lacking organization, is usually obliged to sell his produce for what the urban population offers and is obliged to pay what he is asked for labor. He thus comes to look upon his city brethren as his economic, political, and, too often, personal enemies. The city people dress usually in a little later fashion. They pay more attention to education. This often, in the mind of the farmer, makes education seem an unfriendly affair. The remedy is interpreting the schools as agencies of and for service instead of agencies for personal gain; we must avoid the argument that education will make it unnecessary to work; that the educated man is able to do more for himself, and substitute for that argument and interpretation the notion that it is the duty of every man to serve his fellows; that no group is ever made stable by building upon the ruins of another group, but that all must rise together by building on increased efficiency in dealing with natural laws and elements. In interpreting the schools to the rural group, the teacher, the superin- tendent-the interpreter-must avoid the suggestion that he is divinely appointed to lead the rural heathen out of their darkened condition into the light; he must rather come among them as a seeker of light-first gaining their confidence by learning of them and later tactfully building upon the foundation which he finds. THE COLLEGES AND THE PEOPLE ERNEST HIRAM LINDLEY, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE , KANSAS Paraphrasing Mr. Lincoln's statement that God must love plain people because he made so many of them, one may say that the people of America, both plain and embellished, must love the American college and university, because they have made so many of them. The growth of these institutions, in equipment and attendance, is 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION startling. Attendance in 1900 of 110,000 has increased since that time to 500,000. The proportion of graduates in 1900 was one in 5400; and in 1920, one in 3000. This growth, and the huge cost ofmaintenance of these institutions, much of which is borne by taxation, are an expression of the deepest faith of the people-faith in education as the chief hope of the salvation of man. This faith in education grows out of modern conception of the meaning of life and of civilization. Civilization is now conceived as a conquest-a conquest of nature and human nature in the spirit, and with resources of the arts and sciences. This conquest requires both the higher education of the individual and the discovery of truth through research. This faith of the people in education thus engenders "great expectations" of colleges and universities. Where the treasure is, there the heart is also. As the people give of money and devotion to the maintenance of higher education, more and more will they examine, scrutinize, and criticize, and rightly so. "Whom the Lord loveth He chasteneth." Witness the flood of criticism of the American college and university. During the last five years there has been more discussion of the aims and the failures of higher education than in the previous quarter century. No phase of the life of these institutions has escaped discussion. Without attempting to discuss these criticisms, they fall under five heads . To quote from the address of President McVey, of the University of Kentucky, as president of the National Association of State Universities : First- The administration of universities and colleges is autocratic and capitalistically controlled. Second-Ideals, if they exist, are not carried over to the student. Busi- ness concepts rather than scholarship rule the thought of the institutions while religion is forgotten or given a second place. Third-The supervision of student life, in health, housing, and amuse- ment, is largely neglected. Fourth-Instruction is given by poorly paid, spiritless teachers, who have lost their freedom as citizens and as thinkers. Fifth-Facilities for instruction are unequal to the task of education, and the whole system of higher education is overrun with a vast horde of ele- mentary students. In spite of this flood of severe criticism, the universities and colleges have won added prestige. The public have shown their confidence in higher education as never before, by greatly increased appropriations, by larger individual gifts, than in any period in history. Indeed, much of the criticism emanates from those who cherish deeply the great objectives of higher education. Thus, in whatever way it finds expression, the zest for higher educa- tion generates a terrific pressure upon colleges and universities. This pressure constitutes a dilemma of serious proportions. The demands of the present, of urgent social need, conflict with the necessities of the GENERAL SESSIONS 65 untrammelled search for truth and the processes of education of the in- dividual, which must be deliberate. How to serve the present without surrender to the present is the great task of the university. The university stands for the permanent values of life. The university must seek the testimony of years and centuries against the testimony of the hour. This requires isolation, and often cloistered withdrawal from the world. Too much remoteness, on the other hand, imperils right assessment of social need, and right response thereto. This inevitable conflict of the present and the future, this social pressure, produces, in the language of David Starr Jordan, three types of foes of higher education: the Pharisee, the Philistine, and the Charlatan. The Pharisee wishes to force his particular faith into the classroom . He insists that students be taught, not merely how to think, but what to think. These prescriptions include all sorts of economic, political, social , moral, and religious doctrines. Special methods of teaching history, citizenship, and patriotism are demanded. These doctrinaires would make the public schools and the colleges and universities the happy hunt- ing ground of propaganda. The Philistine, who views the university as a place to train man strictly and for his business . These look on colleges as trade schools, and not a preparation for life or for service to the public. The Charlatan, the pretender to knowledge and power, who practices protective mimicry of culture and attacks the fundamental purposes of higher education. There are many sorts of charlatans-those who for the sake of notoriety bring intemperate accusations against the colleges; and then, there are the charlatans who, under the cloak of interests in culture, seek merely the excitement of athletic contests and who exalt athletics or social activities above the serious educational purposes of the university. All these are enemies of the freedom of the scholar, and of the truth that makes men free. "Free should the scholar be." That freedom is in danger elsewhere than in Tennessee . What is the nature of the freedom which the scholar should enjoy ? An incident suggests the answer to the question. A few years ago there wandered into the classroom of a university teacher of ethics a radical socialist of national reputation. At the close of the lecture the socialist said to the teacher: "I wish I had a job like yours." When asked if he would use that opportunity to inculcate socialism, his reply was emphatic. "No! Socialism is my religion, but if I were a university professor I would not teach it to students in a classroom." "The teacher," he con- tinued, "should be a judge, never an advocate. I should teach my pupils to weigh evidence, and to form their own conclusions, but never would I seek to impose my own doctrines." A fine characterization of the appli- cation to the scientific method which should dominate all sound university teaching and research. The teacher who teaches ex parte descends from the 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION highest level of his calling. Active espousal of partisan political opinion can have no justifiable place in the classroom. What rights has the university professor to address the public on con- troversial questions ? In the field of his specialty his right cannot justly be denied. Here again the judicial rather than the partisan attitude, however, is the source of his influence and authority in shaping public opinion. Finally, the scholar should function as a citizen, and should be fully pro- tected in the exercise of every citizen-right enjoyed by others. The disposition of a community to deny this right to the scholar while accord- ing it to the lawyer, the physician, the business man, and the farmer, helps to create a breed of teachers timid as rabbits and unfit to train youth to freedom in a democracy. "Free should the scholar be and brave," said Emerson. Just as the university in the interest of freedom of thought and freedom of teaching should be free from pressure from government and public opinion, the university should seek no direct participation in the administra- tion of government. Any attempt to force upon such institutions govern- mental functions has proved disadvantageous to all concerned. In rela- tion to government the proper functions of the university are advisory. They should be the sources of expert information for those who govern. As the universities should not attempt to control the government, the gov- ernment should not seek too intimate a control of the universities. Remembering that the people are sovereign, that they support these institutions, and that they are entitled to that measure of control that will insure wise expenditures and the loyal devotion to social need which justified the establishment of these institutions, what methods will assure right relations of the colleges to the people ? Lay boards of trustees or regents, unpaid, elected for long and over- lapping terms, insure a continuity of policy and the security from polit- ical interference which the nature of the task of the university demands. Experience has shown that whereas a salary tends to attract men of polit- ical bent, the absence of compensation tends to elevate the board of regents to a highly honorable status, attractive to the most able men. That is to say, a university can generally secure on its board non-compen- sated men of much higher average ability than could be secured by a salary within the means of the institution concerned. As public education advances, the judicial status of the university is more fully recognized. All the freedom and the respect attaching to the highest courts of justice should exist toward the colleges and uni- versities if they are to enable men to find the truth which controls the future. Another protection is the so-called special or mill-tax. No university worthy of the name should plan for less than a decade in advance. Mill- tax makes possible systematic plans of building and expansion of curricu- lum, not insured by the system of biennial appropriation. GENERAL SESSIONS 67 Some fear that without adequate control, the growing wealth and prestige of universities may become dangerous. Great power is always a peril to its possessors and to others. The peril of the rich university they declare is an aristocratic, class-conscious conception of culture. But America is committed, by its history and its genius, to democracy. Fifteen years ago a distinguished university president, Woodrow Wilson, declared : "The great voice of America does not come from seats of learning. It comes in a murmur from the hills and woods and the farms and factor- ies and mills, rolling on and gaining volume until it comes to us from the homes of common men . Do these murmurs echo in the corridors of uni- versities ? I have not heard them." Much has happened in fifteen years in the advance from the undemo- cratic survivals in the universities we have inherited. "The State university, directly responsive to the utilitarian democ- racy on which it depends, open to men and women on equal terms, selecting . from all the people of the State those most fit for higher education *** devoted in equal measure to teaching, research, and public service, holds high the standard under which we move forward into the newer world. " But the task is unfinished. Should huge, rich institutions fail to maintain a close and responsive relation to society, through right social control, then in the words of William James, "It would be a pity if any future historian were to have to write words like these: 'By the middle of the twentieth century the higher institutions of learning had lost all influence over public opinion in the United States. But the mission of raising the tone of democracy, which they had proved themselves so lamentably un- fitted to exert, was assumed with rare enthusiasm by a new educational power; and for the clarification of their human sympathies and the eleva- tion of their human preferences, the people at large acquired the habit of resorting exclusively to the guidance of certain private literary ventures, commonly designated in the market by the affectionate name of ten cent magazines.' " What is the guarantee that the American college and university continue increasingly to be loyal to their obligations to a democratic society. There is no absolute guarantee. "Now as always," according to H. G. Wells, "history is a race between education and catastrophe." There is no guaran- tee save through an enlightened public sentiment arising from the diffusion of higher education. The increasing participation of faculty, student body, alumni, and patrons in the government of these institutions tends to insure a whole- some democratic organization and spirit. With all imperfection of our present college and universities, never in our country's history were institutions of higher education so representative of the aspirations of so many of our people. The thousands of students who pour forth from the colleges with a larger vision are the sacred leaven which is surely bringing nearer the day when these indispensable organs of the higher life of mankind will more efficiently serve the present with- 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION out surrender to the present and without capitulation to the Pharisee, or the Philistine, or the Charlatan, or the political sportsman of whatever breed. THE FUNCTIONS OF TEACHERS' ORGANIZATIONS IN INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS , UNIVER- SITY OF MISSOURI , COLUMBIA, MISSOURI The schools and the public constitute a partnership in the operation of the Nation's biggest business-the training of the Nation's future citizens. In this partnership the public plays the role of the stock company which provides capital and equipment, and school costs must be recognized as an investment on which it is reasonable to expect returns in ever advancing standards in character and citizenship. Successful conduct of this business demands mutual confidence and cordial coöperation between the public and the teaching body. The confidence of the public will be stimulated by a fine professional spirit in the teaching body, and the cultivation of this spirit is a first essential in teachers' organizations. The cultivation of a professional spirit can come only through happy intercourse among teachers. If asso- ciated activities are formal and perfunctory all young and many old teach- ers will seek their real pleasures apart from school influences. Profes- sional gatherings which are also happy social functions tend to develop an attitude of joyous service which affects both school and patrons. A teacher who performs classroom work well has done only a part of his duty. A teachers' association which looks only to the welfare and prog- ress of its members has left undone its major purpose. Advanced methods can succeed only in so far as public sentiment supports them, and the cultivation of an intelligent and progressive public sentiment is an obliga- tion upon all teachers and teachers' organizations. The pressure of this obligation is particularly great at this time when rapid changes in methods of living have required corresponding changes in both what and how we shall teach . The teaching groups-the business managers in the partnership who have the expert knowledge-are in duty bound to make clear to the public- the investors-the reasons for the changes of procedure and to present their case in clear and convincing terms which will insure confidence and support. GENERAL SESSIONS 69 RESPONSIBILITIES OF EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN INTERPReting THE SCHools to THE PUBLIC¹ JOY ELMER MORGAN , EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDU- CATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON , D. C. The challenge to interpret the schools comes with peculiar force to educational journals because their only excuse for being lies in their power to interpret. More than two hundred educational journals are now issued regularly in the United States. An examination of their pages reveals many currents and cross currents of thought and plan. But running through them all-National, State, local, technical, and special-one finds emphasis on three main classes of problems which concern the public im- mediately and directly. The effort to improve the content of education is producing a new curric- ulum. Large problems of organization and management are developing a new statesmanship. Teacher-training institutions and professional organi- zations are evolving a new teacher. For the first time in educational history a curriculum is being built broad enough to meet the needs of all the children of all the people and varied enough to serve the interests of the individual child. The contrasts be- tween the old curriculum and the new are striking. The old curriculum was handed down by the school superintendent; the new curriculum is being built by all the school forces working in democratic coöperation. The old curriculum was made for adults; the new curriculum is being made for children. The old curriculum was static; the new curriculum continues to grow. The old curriculum finished the child's education; the new curriculum begins the child's education. The old curriculum called for mastery of facts; the new curriculum calls for mastery of life. The new curriculum seeks to answer the question "What shall the child learn ?" The commission appointed by the National Education Association for the revision of secondary education has said that everyone should learn ( 1 ) how to keep well; (2) how to make a good home and rear his children; (3) how to use the fundamental processes; (4) how to work; (5) how to be a faithful citizen; (6) how to spend his leisure wisely; and (7) how to regulate his life according to the standards of right living. These definite categories involve masses of knowledge, habits, skills, ideals, attitudes, and appreciations that can be taught in the school and the home. They recognize frankly that the school is but one of many agencies through which the social inheritance passes on to the new genera- tion. Taken as a whole, they furnish a basis for deciding what shall go into the curriculum. These are the elements of the new curriculum. The development of the new curriculum is a fascinating story. It takes us into the science of This is an abstract. The complete address may be found in School and Society: July 6, 1925. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION education now struggling in its crude beginnings even as medicine strug- gled a century ago. It opens the doors of research bureaus at work on the problems of education as the chemist and biologist study the problems of medicine. It takes us into teachers colleges where psychologists are study- ing the learning processes. Most important of all, the story of the new curriculum helps us to vision education as a many-sided process, which con- cerns the entire life of the child on the one hand and the whole life of society on the other. The changes in our manner of living and in our habits of thinking that are producing the new curriculum are also developing the new states- manship in education. Educational workers are facing two problems which grow out of the sheer bigness of the units into which modern life is organ- ized. The first is the problem of financing education. Responsibility for the mental and moral growth of children-long held to be a care of the family only-has been shared in turn by community, State, and Nation. The division of financial responsibility between these various units is now a matter of much discussion and controversy. One State after another has had to wage a campaign on the question of taxes versus children. Finance inquiries show plainly that larger areas of support are inevitable as wealth and industry congregate in larger units. This problem involves our idea of local self-government and our notions about States rights to such an extent that it is difficult to get unprejudiced consideration of it. Our public needs to understand that a decentralized taxation is impotent in the face of centralized wealth and income. It needs to appreciate the extent to which giant industry and finance reach out to shape human life and even to dominate government itself. The new statesmanship also faces the task of coördinating the various units of our school system which have grown up independently. We do not have a system of education . Rather we have systems of elementary schools, secondary schools, colleges, professional schools, libraries, museums, and other agencies. Each of the systems has its own history and its own ideals and tends to revolve in its own orbit. As a result the total impres- sion which our educational institutions make upon those who pass through them is chaotic. There are abrupt breaks between one level of education and another. There is a tendency to overemphasize subject matter and to underemphasize life and growth. No one is particularly to blame for these evils. They are inherent in the way our scheme of things has grown up. The beginnings of unification are now evident in the development of the junior high school, the junior college, the municipal university, coöpera- tive schools of various types, and in the growth of adult education through public libraries. The new curriculum and the new statesmanship will avail us nothing without the new teacher. In spite of the progress that has been made during the first quarter of the twentieth century, the majority of the American people are satisfied to have their children taught by immature and untrained teachers. A Nation that trained millions of soldiers for duty GENERAL SESSIONS 71 on foreign soil has so far been unwilling to train a million teachers for a task equally important and heroic. It will continue to be so until we exalt and interpret the new teacher . First, let us insist that society shall draft into its teaching army its most talented men and women. A nation which allows its most gifted workers to spend their time upon its material resources and puts incapables in charge of its intellectual and moral resources is crucifying itself upon a cross of gold. We need our best minds and our biggest hearts for the schools. Next, let us magnify training. The National Education Association has said that every teacher should have four years of training beyond the four-year high school as an ultimate goal and two years as an immediate goal. Fewer than half the teachers of the United States meet the lower standard. Third, let us emphasize professional outlook. The new teacher is eager to improve his profession. He recognizes membership in professional organizations and continuous training in service as inescapable obligations and opportunities. He appreciates the work that local associations have done to improve teaching. He is grateful for what State associations are doing to raise the whole level of education in the States. He is inspired by the noble achievements of the National Education Association; by its ideals, by its program, by its opportunities for service to the teacher, the children, and the Nation. Afourth asset of the new teacher is his interest in affairs. The teacher working in the schoolroom must battle constantly with forces outside the schoolroom that break down his teaching, that neutralize his efforts to bring to children right ideals and attitudes. It is therefore necessary not only that the teacher inculcate honesty in the children, but also that he take a citizen's part in demanding honesty in business, in government, and in social life. The shortage of mature and trained teachers means not only that the technical work of teaching is being poorly done; it means also that the community lacks the leadership of an adequate number of influential men and women interested primarily in building up life. We need not be surprised if the home, the school, and the church seem to mold our lives less than formerly. We need not be amazed that the material forces about us seem more powerful than the spiritual. We have allowed it to be so . Nineteen billion newspapers, maintained primarily by advertising, are distributed in the United States each year, attendance at motion picture shows each week number fifty million ; perhaps a fourth of our population now has access to radio sets. These are all educational influences of the first magnitude. For the most part they have been conducted with some regard for public decency and welfare, but they are controlled primarily by persons who are interested in profits first and people afterward. Their appeal must be influenced largely by the desire for readers or movie fans, or purchasers of radio sets. We spend for them more than we spend upon the public schools. The best way to meet the problems which these and 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION other commercialized educational forces have created is to employ teachers whose grip on life is sure, whose outlook is broad, whose training is sound, whose leadership in the community wins recognition because of its sheer worth. A fifth asset of the new teacher is an old, old heritage-love of the in- dividual child. Joy in childhood has been valued in the teacher since the day when the lowly Nazarene gave us the supreme example of teacher in- fluence. However, in consequence of the rapid expansion of our school system and the growth of cities, we have lost something of the joy in childhood which is associated with the greatest teacher. We need now consciously to exalt and honor this quality. It is one of the immeasur- ables. We do not know why something in a devoted teacher touches something in the aspiring child with a spark that kindles the divine fire, but we do know that the miracle has happened. Thousands of men and women attribute their success in life to this interest on the part of some noble teacher. Educational journalism has no happier responsibility than the elevation of the teacher. Let us exalt the teacher. Let us reward him well and honor him often. Let us acclaim the glory of his task in immortal verse. Let us symbolize his noble service in fine paintings. Let us laud his heroism in bronze statues. Let us lead the child sincerely to honor his father, his mother, and his teacher. Now abideth these three : the new curriculum, the new statesmanship, and the new teacher. But the greatest of these is the new teacher. GENERAL SESSIONS 73 THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PRESS IN INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC— ( ABSTRACT¹ ) GLENN FRANK, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON FORMERLY EDITOR OF THE CENTURY, NEW YORK CITY If this subject, The Responsibility of the Press in Interpreting the Schools to the Public, is supposed to place upon me the duty of merely exhorting newspaper and magazine editors to devote more space to news about schools and to publish a larger number of articles about educational institutions, I must refuse to obey orders. Before we can think straight about the relation of the press to the school, we must recognize two very plain facts about the press : (1) It is the func- tion of a newspaper to handle news, not to convert itself into a preaching agency in behalf of even the best cause, and (2) a newspaper and the press in general is a business institution with a legitimate desire to show a handsome profit at the end of the year. I am not suggesting the many things that reformers would like to have the press be; I am trying honestly to recognize what the press is. And, personally, I think it will do little good to quarrel with these two facts that characterize the press. If the press is to do more towards interpreting the schools to the public the primary responsibility for bringing that happy event about will rest, in the practical working out of things, not with the press, but with the schools. If school men want more matter about schools in the press, school men must do more things that have legitimate news value in the minds of the editors. Personally I should like to see the American press develop more than it has up to date a technique for extracting the real news values that exist in creative ideas. If we journalists are really up to our jobs we would realize more than we do that there are as vivid news values in ideas as there are in incidents. But, again, it will do no good for school men to stand on the side lines and tell the journalist how he should run his job. We school men-I associate myself with both the press and the school tonight because I happen to be in the twilight zone between an editorship and a university presidency-we school men must realize more than we have yet realized that dullness and scholarship are not necessarily synony- mous and that accuracy does not have to be unreadable. I suggest, therefore, that we stop centering our energies on trying to wheedle the newspapers into giving more space to the schools ; that we do our best to do things in our schools that will be so vital that newspapers will take the initiative in giving more space to our activities, and that we try to make it increasingly clear that press and school have a joint re- sponsibility in seeing to it that there is thrust into the stream of public thought, in terms that men who haven't a Ph. D. can understand, those For address in full see THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 14:205- 208, October, 1925. Mr. Frank's line of thought is still further developed in The Century for July, August, and September, 1925. 74 NATIONAL Education AssocIATION new ideas, new idealisms, and new spiritual values that have been thrown up as by-products of the sciences, philosophies, and practical adventures of the modern mind. The use of these ideas spells rebirth for our civilization. The failure to use these ideas spells decline for our civilization. If the press and the school can be brought to realize their joint responsi- bility in giving wide currency to these new ideas, idealisms, and spiritual values upon which our future depends, we shall have both a better educa- tion and a better journalism, and that will be an achievement far bigger than the mere increase in space devoted to school news. CULTURE AND BRASS TACKS MEREDITH NICHOLSON, INDIANAPOLIS , INDIANA I will assume that those of you who live in other divisions of the Repub- lic crossed the boundaries into Indiana without fear or anxious concern for your safety. We mean well, and if our taxis take the corners a little too fleetly it is only an expression of the cheer and gaiety of this community. You have already been assured by the properly constituted authorities of your hearty welcome and my function is merely to explain and to brag a little so that you will be sure to appreciate how grand and beautiful we Hoosiers are . No doubt some patriotic citizen has already slipped into your hand certain beguiling pamphlets replete with astonishing statistics as to our production of bacon and hams , canned goods, automobiles, and flour, sweet- meats and silk stockings; so that I shall confine my remarks to certain cultural manifestations and influences of which you may have heard as an important item of our earnest effort to elevate the poor old human race. So many things have happened here in Indianapolis-I don't mean just murders and bank robberies and things like that, but so many events of real importance that a large volume would be necessary merely to catalogue them. It is embarrassing-really most embarrassing-to be obliged to admit that we have produced so much greatness here in every department of human endeavor. For example, recently you have been reading that Dr. George Reisner, the distinguished Egyptologist, has solved the riddle of the Sphinx. You might know that he's from Indiana. What stumped Herodotus and gave Napoleon a serious thought didn't worry Reisner! Dr. Reisner is a graduate of Shortridge High School and the Sunday School of Meridian Street Methodist Church. He played around town here just like any other boy and when the pastor of Meridian Street Church told him he'd better go to Harvard he went down to Cambridge and showed such aptitude for reading the little birdie signs on the rocks and papyri of the Egyptians that he deserted our Fall Creek for the Nile and is everywhere recognized as one of the greatest of archæologists. GENERAL SESSIONS 75 The impression was long prevalent that the first settlers in Indiana were uncouth and ignorant, but a scrutiny of the chronicles of the pioneers fails to sustain any such idea. Our pioneers were, in fact, mainly chil- dren of those forthright aspiring people who settled the first colonies and dedicated this continent to the great causes of liberty. They came through the passes of the Alleghanies to find a still newer country, and here on Indiana soil they literally founded a State in the ashes of the hunter's campfires. The pioneer adventure in Indiana was in nowise unique, for we shared it in common with all the other States of the valley of democracy; but the meeting of Middle State and New England folk with Virginians and Carolinians on this soil caused a mingling of elements that was responsible for many of the most striking social and political phenomena in Indiana history. Happily the record of those times has been competently made. It is possible to form a pretty clear idea of what manner of folk they were who dared the wilderness when Indiana was still a Territory, fortified with a confidence that the Constitution of the United States did not follow but preceded them and threw its protection about their little homes on the fringes of civilization. There was something finely spiritual in the people of that exodus into a promised land where the milk and honey were not always easy to find. There was an almost unbroken forest between here and the Ohio and the great dark woodland was subject to frequent inundation. Only men and women of hardihood and faith could ever have triumphed over the adverse conditions-the wolf, in no mere symbolic sense, frequently at the door-the danger from prowling savages, the vast, immeasurable loneli- ness. Among the simple belongings they brought with them would always be found the rifle, the axe, and the plow and the meagerest household furniture, but this poverty was minimized by the inevitable Bible, with its power to bless and sanctify even as holy ground those little farms amid the wilderness. I bid you remember that fourteen years of the life of Abraham Lincoln were spent in a typical Hoosier cabin in Spencer County, and by so much we of Indiana have a share in the processes by which he entered into the immortal brotherhood of the stars. The few books known to him there included of course the Bible and when we ponder the Gettysburg address and are moved by the solemn grandeur of the Second Inaugural, it requires no highly cultivated literary sense to detect the enormous influence upon the boy Lincoln's mind of the greatest of all textbooks in English style. The question is often asked why Indiana has produced so many writers. Just a coincidence perhaps. But if that isn't satisfactory I will submit an answer which I think plausible. The very isolation of the pioneers made them all the keener for social enjoyment when they met for a log rolling or to fashion a house or a barn for a neighbor, or there was a great gathering to hear one of the debates on religious questions that 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION were a common feature of the pioneer life. Predestination and the proper form of baptism were favorite subjects for joint debates. The school teacher back yonder was not embarrassed by any question as to the origin of man. Evolution hadn't been invented. And the fauna of the Indiana woods didn't include monkeys. Solomon was a wise man . He wasn't afraid to look his ancestors in the face. We read in the chronicles of the great kings how the ships of Tarshish brought him tribute of ivory, apes, and peacocks for his delight. When the settlers met for any purpose their long restrained social in- stincts were given free rein. They were hungry for a chance to talk and it came about naturally that they tried to have something interesting to say. An encounter with a band of wandering Indians, or a battle with a bear, or some homely domestic incident would offer a subject for a good story. Naturally competition developed as to just who could tell the best yarn. And not only the circuit riding evangelists but political orators inspired the youth with a desire to cultivate self-expression. The Hoosiers have always been a talkative people. With a little encouragement we'll tell you everything. Hardly a town in Indiana that hasn't a preeminent story teller who is produced by his proud fellow citizens to regale you with his narratives. The best stories I have ever heard have been told by Indiana women endowed with keen observation and delightful humor. I have never subscribed to the ancient superstition that women are poorly equipped with humor. Without their happy endowment in this particular they would long since have found men intolerable. In the days when the lawyers rode circuit they whiled away the hours between sessions of the court with story telling. Story telling was the common form of entertainment in the taverns and around the country stores. Naturally where there was so much of this practice in the art of story telling someone now and then with the gift highly developed would undertake to put a yarn into writing. The children of the pioneers learned American history from sires who were a part of it. It is probable that in this way the Homeric stories and the Scandinavian myths and the Celtic legends were kept alive by word of mouth until they were finally recorded and took permanent form. I might reinforce this theory by adding that the imaginative sense in our people in those early days was touched by the landscape itself; by the tranquility of our lakes and rivers and the mystery that enfolded the great forests. The children of the pioneers in their loneliness amid the great silences, before Mr. Ford put the world on wheels, must have dreamed wonderful dreams and caught glimpses of Pan blithely piping beside the rippling creeks. The first arresting figure in the Hoosier literary pantheon is that of Edward Eggleston. There had been earlier writers, but it was Eggleston, born at Vevay in our Switzerland County on the Ohio River, who first saw the life about him with the eyes of the realist. In "The Hoosier GENERAL SESSIONS 77 Schoolmaster" and in "Roxy" and others of his novels he undoubtedly depicted with truth the crudities of the period of which he wrote. In these days when it is difficult (so I hear) to keep the vanity box out of the high schools it is somewhat shocking to find in "The Hoosier Schoolmaster" that we were so uncouth a people back yonder. Where Eggleston left off as a recorder of Indiana life we may pick up the thread again in the poems of Riley. Hardly another figure in American literary history has quite the charm of our old friend and neighbor James Whitcomb Riley. He was born in the next county to the eastward but for many years his home was here, and he was the most familiar and the best loved figure in our streets to the end of his life. You will, of course, visit while here, his house in Lockerbie street ; a quaint house, with a Victorian atmosphere, a place appointed of all time to be the home of a poet. A rather small man; dignified, precise in matters of dress-no hint of Byronic affectations-twinkling eyeglasses to overcome his nearsighted- ness; cornsilk hair in which the white scarcely showed in his last years ; an actor's mobile face. He was extremely shy, always embarrassed in the presence of strangers, but when at ease one of the most interesting and amusing men that ever lived. He was secretive as to his habits of work . Though I spent some part of nearly every day with him through many years he never, except on two or three occasions, showed me any of his manuscript in the making. He had the pride of the good workman who is too proud to exhibit an unfinished job. His formal schooling had been slight, but it is futile to speculate as to what a college education would have done for him. The gods took care of all that and quickened his sensitiveness to the environment in which he wrought his songs. It was far more important for him to catch the shadings of an uncultivated coun- tryman's speech than to be able to read Theocritus in the original. There is no such thing as a local literature. If a thing is good, in song or story, if it is really deserving of the name of literature, it must possess a uni- versal appeal. Riley's scholarship was in the habits and customs and in emotions that touched a universal experience. The story telling habit of the pioneers had been carried on to his day and brought to a new perfection with fresh material by the soldiers com- ing home from the Civil War. Riley was a master in the art of relating an anecdote. Mark Twain said of Riley's story of the soldier who had lost his leg that as Riley told it it was the best story ever told. He would have taken rank with the great actors of all time if he had not preferred the role of man of letters. The State of Indiana has established here and points proudly to a hospital for children that bears his name . The story that has had some currency through the country that he didn't like children is ridiculous. He couldn't have written of children with the intelligence and sympathy that he did if he hadn't loved them. I have myself too often seen him with children to be disturbed by any such story as that. But he did hate being bored! He shrank from bores-from 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION foolish people who stared at him or covered him with effusive and stupid praise. He used to say that he didn't want to be stared at as if he were a pair of white mice with pink eyes. And when adoring parents dragged children into his presence that he might hear them recite his poems he would sometimes betray irritation. But it was always in his heart to be kind. The stars shine more brightly over our Indiana because he loved it and sang it into melodious song. A great many minor bards began to warble about the time Riley donned the singing robes. In my youth there were scads of them, both men and women. There were two at least who wore flowing cloaks in quite the Tennysonian manner. I used to observe them with timorous adoration as they strolled through Circle Park. In Market Street in the block im- mediately east of the monument were the newspaper offices, and after some faint flutings of my own had won the attention of these minstrels I would sometimes be called into one or another of the offices to hear a sonnet read. Sonneteering was a great industry; one might have thought that the whole town was trying to match the achievements of Petrarch, Every poet had his Laura, and I was deeply thrilled when several of these twangers of the lyre confided in me as to their jealousy of other bards. Two of them gave me a thrill by telling me, confidentially, that they carried pistols and that there would be a spilling of blood some bright morning. These matters I refer to merely that you may appreciate the thoroughly interest- ing character of the ground you tread here. Nobody was ever killed; those poets all died in their beds, so that we have no Christopher Marlowe homicidal episode in our literary history. Time forbids more than passing reference to the many others who have contributed to our literary legend. Salem, Washington County, was the birthplace of John Hay, poet, novelist, biographer of Abraham Lincoln, but more distinguished for his public services as diplomat and as one of the ablest Secretaries of State this country has known. And you will not take it amiss if I remind you that another product of Salem, Indiana, is the accomplished and highly efficient President of the National Educa- tional Association, Mr. Jesse H. Newlon. General Lew Wallace, whose "Ben Hur" circled the world, lived at Crawfordsville, forty miles to the westward, but he was often in Indianap- olis. Perhaps you can detect amid the roar of traffic the rumble of chariot wheels and the cheers in the great arena. Another of our great romancers is Charles Major, who was born in this city but lived most of his life at Shelbyville, a little to the southward. Like General Wallace, Mr. Major's imagination played upon the historical past; he lived in times "When Knighthood Was in Flower." I am sure that you have already been on the lookout for glimpses of " Beaucaire, " "The Magnificent Ambersons," and the youngsters so unfor- gettably described in "Penrod" and "Seventeen." The house in which Mr. Booth Tarkington created these renowned characters is plainly visible GENERAL SESSIONS 79 in our landscape and I regret that he is not here himself that you might see what a charming and delightful person he is and how modestly he wears his well-earned fame. We almost persuaded Mr. George Ade to come down from his farm to exhibit himself here tonight but a thousand acres of the best corn land in Indiana demanded his attention. He is our Hoosier Aesop, a keen, discerning satirist and a playwright of distinction. And if you post your- self at the right corner in Washington Street you will see another of our humorists, Abe Martin, otherwise Mr. Kin Hubbard, strolling by. Amillion people laugh with Abe Martin every day. Another bright star of the Hoosier constellation is Maurice Thompson, author of "Alice of Old Vincennes," a fine literary scholar, a poet of charm, and a delightful essayist. It was his brother Will H. Thompson who wrote "The High Tide at Gettysburg," which has been called the finest poem written of the Civil War . George Barr McCutcheon is fishing in the kingdom of Graustark or you would have a chance to see what a fine fellow he is. Great was the loss Indiana suffered within the past year in the death of that lovely and gifted woman, Mrs. Gene Stratton-Porter. She made the birds of her home at Limberlost sing in all the gardens of the world. I have only touched the surface; there are numerous other noteworthy Hoosier names in the field of fiction, the drama, poetry, and the whole realm of imaginative literature, and I refer you for particulars to almost any citizen you meet in our thoroughfares. The work of Indiana painters, sculptors, and etchers would demand an hour for its adequate treatment. I suggest that you take one of our yellow street cars for an inspection of the Herron Art Institute, where the attendants are most intelligent and obliging. I should serve mine own people poorly if I were to leave with you the impression that our literature is limited to fiction and poetry. We of Indiana have been far from idle in the broad field of science, history, and biography, and in many ways Indiana writers have reflected our intense interest in politics. From this extensive alcove I will choose but one work, Mr. Albert J. Beveridge's "Life of John Marshall," and say of it that it is the most important biography ever written by an American. We may think of that work as of a great edifice, solid and unshakable, in which is enshrined the Constitution of the United States, not for worship but for interpretation into terms of life. In reading that book we are aware of a contact and intimacy with the mind of the great Chief Justice, whose sinewy grasp of our fundamental law and his wisdom and foresight place America eternally in his debt. We may envisage in that edifice which Mr. Beveridge's genius has constructed and no one is likely to attempt to add to it or alter its cathedral-like proportions-other men of Marshall's era; soldiers and statesmen of the formative period of the Nation pass through these broad aisles, but apart from all others sits 80 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION John Marshall, in a seat majestic though unadorned, in the simple robes of his justiceship, giving form and direction to the great body of American law. You have doubtless become impatient for some reference to my text, or perhaps you have been hoping that I would forget it utterly. But in so far as Indiana may be regarded as a laboratory of continuing experiment in so many departments of human activity the getting down to brass tacks, or otherwise the purely material, has been happily balanced by our adven- tures in literature and the fine arts. If we have proved anything it is that in a State whose beginnings were marked by the utmost deprivation there was always a singing voice somewhere in the wilderness; somewhere a story was being told or a verse repeated to a child that quickened his aspirations and gave him a clue to the best that has been thought and done in the world. The great prayer for America is that in its concern with the material it shall not permit itself to fancy that the hammering of brass tacks even where most efficiently effected, under the direction of great captains of industry, is the whole thing. We need, for the highest realization of the aims of democracy, to maintain as even a balance as may be possible between cultural forces and the production of implements of brass and steel and wood. "The spirit of man is the candle of the Lord," and it is to be hoped that the spiritual flame in America will not falter and grow dim, but become more and more luminous as an expression of the aspirations. and endeavors of a people so blessed as we are in advantage and oppor- tunity. Those first little ships that sought American shores were impelled by winds of faith; those first comers knew little of the enormous resources of this continent. But they and their children have : "spread from sea to sea A thousand leagues the zone of liberty And given to man this refuge from his past- Unkinged, unchurched, unsoldiered. Shamed were we Failing the stature that such sires forecast. " The number of those who do truly value our liberty and who do rightly understand the genesis, the history, and the aim of our institutions must be vastly augmented to preserve the ark of God's covenant with man inviolate in the great tabernacle of liberty. And if there is a failure somewhere, in our educational processes to meet this first great responsibility of educa- tion in a republic-the inculcation of the truest ideals of civic duty-then the responsibility must be met. Where, as is now the case, only half the total electorate find it convenient to vote, something is wrong that must be remedied. It is a habit of the pessimist to dwell upon the fact that several very good civilizations are buried in the dust of the old world; but they forget that we of America have raised, as a barricade and unassailable fortress, GENERAL SESSIONS 81 against all destructive forces, the American common school ; and neither the Athenian state, with its high culture of the few, nor the kingdoms of the Egyptians and the Jews with all their enlightenment, were thus pro- tected from decay and ruin. The education that is most desirable for America is that which shall be first concerned with the culture represented in our polity and with a willingness among a preponderating number of our millions to participate with intelligence in all the processes by which we are governed. The flag over the American schoolhouse must represent to the children who enter its door not merely the song and story of our history but the ideal of a citizenship whose first law is the duty to serve, and not in war alone but continuously and with devotion and sacrifice through times of peace. This I should call the highest culture possible in a republic- transcending in importance the noblest achievements of science or art or literature; the culture of the civic sense, an appreciation of the meaning of liberty, of justice under law, of the importance of confiding power to the fit and only to the fit, to the end that this America may stand forever as an example and an inspiration to all the nations. “ STEADY AS SHE GOES”—ABSTRACT ALBERT J. BEVERIDGE, INDIANAPOLIS , INDIANA The most important single event in the development of orderly freedom was the founding of the American Nation; and the question of our times is whether American institutions will endure. The answer depends upon American teachers more than upon any other one force or influence. So the study and discussion of the funda- mentals of American government is of vital interest to those who sow the seed for future public opinion. The American system was devised by the ablest group of men who ever appeared at the same time in the same country, throughout the history of the world. Those men gave their whole thought and energy to the subject of a practical government for a free people. In different ages and in particular parts of the earth the human intellect has, in various spheres, reached excellences not afterward sur- passed. The strong minds and bold characters of each period and place were attracted to the especial phase of creative effort then dominant. Our own era is that of science and business ; and our most forceful characters and productive intellects seek those fields as if impelled by a law of nature. In the same way the same quality of men did the same kind of work in the realm of government here in America for several decades after our independence was achieved. Masterpieces-So just as former times produced masterpieces in litera- ture, philosophy, and art, just as our own period is producing masterpieces 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in science and commercial organization, so the architects of the American plan of self-disciplined liberty produced a masterpiece of free government. If we could imagine the most constructive minds of past ages and the foremost intellects of our day, all collaborating on the subject of govern- ment and with no thought of anything else, we would have a fair idea of the kind of men who originated the American Constitution and American institutions and the kind of work they did. So it is plain that no radical changes ought to be made in the creation of these masters by those whose aptitudes are along different lines, unless those alterations are obvious and undeniable improvements on the original. Of course if any part of our fundamental law or any one of our basic institutions is now obsolete we ought to get rid of it and replace it with something better. Nothing human is perfect; nothing human is sacrosanct. But any device which has worked well and still works well ought not be abandoned until something is contrived which is proved to be superior and plainly is superior. Ultimate Majorities, Not Temporary Majorities-The vital and vital- izing idea of the American system is that the final judgment of the people is sound and must prevail, while impulsive first opinion is untrustworthy and must be held in check. The ruling thought of American institutions is the wisdom and righteousness of the "sober second thought" of the country. Ultimate majorities, not temporary majorities, is the master note of the American theory. The designers of the American plan had such a deep and keen distrust of temporary majorities, that they provided against majorities at all in many cases-so many, indeed, that the so-called "majority principle" does not permeate American institutions. * * * * * * * And where the majority is allowed to prevail, care is taken that it shall be the ultimate majority, rather than a temporary majority. Care is taken that the Nation shall have time to form a mature opinion and not be injured by sudden passing storms of emotion. Proposed Changes-Throughout our short history many proposals have been advanced to change our Constitution and institutions, and every one of those changes was designed to give immediate power to the majority of the moment. Every one of those changes was aimed at those checks and balances which assure the supremacy of the settled conclusions of the people over their fleeting impulses. And all such proposed changes were rejected by the final judgment of the public. So, today, several alterations of our form and methods of government are proposed. Three of these schemes are radical changes in American fundamentals . Not one of these changes is new. Each of them is the recrudescence of a proposal often made in former generations. Each of them is inspired by impatience. Each of them is the offspring of the spirits of hurry and haste. GENERAL SESSIONS 83 Each of them would substitute the tyranny of temporary majorities for the equitable rule of ultimate majorities. Each of them is frankly destructive of an institution which is distinctively and peculiarly American, and each of them proposes to adopt an European institution in is place. Attacks in Same Class-All three of these proposed changes belong to the same class, the same family, the same species. All three are sponsored by able and honest men today, just as was the case when they were offered in days gone by. One proposal is that we should alter our Constitution so that a temporary majority of the Senate can ratify a treaty ; another proposal is that we should alter our Constitution so that a temporary majority of Congress can reverse constitutional decisions of the Supreme Court; a third proposal is that we should alter a basic rule of the Senate so that a tem- porary majority can stop discussion and pass any measure it pleases when- ever itpleases, Of these three proposals the most radical is that of majority cloture in the Senate. In practical results it would, if adopted, be worse than the other two combined-far more dangerous than the ancient project to dena- ture the Supreme Court. The dangers, if any there be, of the changes in our Constitution respecting treaties and the Supreme Court are remote because each requires an amendment to our fundamental law. That process takes years, even if it ever could be set in motion, which is unlikely as a practical matter. But the rules of the Senate can be changed in a single session-indeed the war cloture, which now governs the Senate, was adopted in little more than a day. So, if there be perils in majority cloture in the Senate, those perils are as tangible and near at hand as the dangers of the constitutional amendment about treaties and the Supreme Court are vague and far away. * * * * * * Senate Majority Cloture-The attack upon the basic rule of the Senate is an assault-though unintentional, of course-upon the theory and nature of American institutions. Of those checks and balances of our system which assure to the people safety from impulsive and immature legislation, the Senate is by far the most important. Why do we have a Senate at all ? Why was the Senate created? The American Senate was established to prevent hasty action. Its pur- pose was to check unworthy or questionable projects. It was designed to be the refuge of the minority. The Senate of the United States was meant to be the deliberative body in the legislative department of our govern- ment-not merely a voting machine to register the fancies of a temporary majority, not merely adebating chamber, but a deliberative council. * * * * * * * When the whole matter is thought out, as the architects of our system thought it out when they produced that masterpiece of government called the American Constitution, it will be found that their creation is the wisest plan of orderly freedom ever devised by the sagacity and prevision of man. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Until some genius in government appears with greater wisdom, more knowledge and broader vision than they, let us maintain American insti- tutions unimpaired-all American institutions, not merely some American institutions. Let us keep unshaken faith in the sober second thought of the people, rather than depend upon first and fleeting popular impulses. Let us not abandon that rock of our safety and salvation, the ultimate majority, the final judgment of the American Nation. When at sea the most reassuring command that ever comes from the bridge is " Steady as she goes." Whether in storm or calm, those words mean that all is well and that the course of the ship is true. Be that our comfort and our guide today. Amid the clamor of impatient passengers who would remove essential parts of the engine, tear this plate of steel and that beam of iron from the body of the vessel and alter its course into troubled waters, let us heed the voice inspired by those who designed and built our ship of state and charted for us the seas-the voice which gives to the crew again that ancient order of security and well-being, "Steady as she goes." THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AS A FORMATIVE FORCE FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS This National Education Association should be the National laboratory where every question relating to the organization, administration, and in- struction of the public school system should be subjected to the acid test, re- duced to its elements, recast and reshaped to meet the changing economic and social needs. It should be the open forum for the freest and frankest discussion of every phase of our wide-flung program of American education. Thirty years ago I heard a series of lectures by a Hindoo doctor on the theory of vibrations and concentration. According to this general theory the physical universe about us is the result of vibrations. God's creative thought took the form of vibrations. These were arrested at different rates. The lowest, crudest forms of matter represent vibrations made static at a very low rate of vibration. Man's thought represents the highest rate. All the range between the loose earth and the vibrant mind of man represents in this philosophy different rates of vibration. Under the name of concentration this Hindoo doctor brought forward the idea that as God through his thought created the objective world, He could by rethinking change any of its forms, and as man's mind was just a little lower than that of the creative mind, he could through the power of con- centration change the forms of matter. She cited a number of instances where Hindoo doctors, highly trained in the power of concentration, had been able to change a baser metal like silver into a finer metal like gold. GENERAL SESSIONS 85 As these lectures were given about the time that the "Great Commoner" was trying by legislative enactment in America to raise sixteen dollars in silver to the value of one dollar in gold, this particular point had a peculiar interest. Whatever may be our reaction to this Hindoo philosophy, we are pretty generally agreed that the earth was once in a nebulous, gaseous condition ; that through eons of time, by cooling and condensation, a crust was formed. Then began the great cosmic battle between the forces of stratification and eruption. That battle is on today. The great interior forces of the earth are overlaid by the weight of stratified rock and earth. On or above this stratifying crust rest the seas and the atmosphere. The eruptive forces from within and the forces of wind and water from above are constantly at work, wearing, changing, breaking down the stratification and reshaping into new forms, most of the time gently, but occasionally with great violence. This same sort of a conflict between the stratifying and reshaping forces is on in every human institution. Governments evolved through a great burst of patriotic emotion and idealisms soon stratify in forms of constitu- tions and laws and customs. Quietly and gently through education and due processes of law, slight modifications are made. But sometimes the eruptive force of a revolution is required to break up and recast these stratifying elements into new forms. Is not the same thing true of all religions ? Certainly no one can doubt that these contending forces are at work in all systems of education. Our educational forefathers, with wonderful foresight, with exceptional constructive imagination, conceived and launched our system of public edu- cation. In its very nature education is a process of rethinking all expe- rience of the past and reshaping it to meet present and future needs. It should always be a process of becoming. Of necessity in the several States the school systems were initiated through constitutional and statutory pro- visions. School boards were given the power to make rules and regula- tions. The conservatism of the human mind, the weight of tradition, the hand of the dead past, all joined to repress, overlay and confine the free, active thought and spirit of education. All progress is conditioned upon those forces which resist this stratifying tendency, which tend to break up and reform and reshape these constitutions and laws and rules insofar as they are found to encrust and obstruct the free development of our State systems of public instruction. One of the functions of this National Education Association is to give vent to these eruptive, reconstructive forces. Here we bring the com- bined, concentrated thought of the leaders of American education to bear upon these lower lifeless forms to raise them to higher and more effective media for educational expression, to break up the stratification into the original plastic elements; in brief, to reduce the educational earth and rocks back to the nebulous and gaseous condition. Some of the enemies of this Association who are disposed to think that it is too nebulous and 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION too gaseous, misunderstand its main purpose. Here the systems of public education are in the puddling pot. Here they are in the state of flux and flow. Out in the districts where something must be done every hour in the day, respect for tradition, for the past, for established rule and method must obtain. Here we can give ourselves over to the wreckless pastime of educational gods tearing down and rebuilding the educational worlds. This stratifying tendency is seen clearly in the subjects of instruction. How often through the ages has the human mind allowed itself to be en- crusted and overlaid by the strata of conventional forms of subject matter and programs of study ? How valiantly, though often unsuccessfully, the eruptive, transforming forces have struggled to shake from the living body of education this dead body of meaningless form ? Here in this Associa- tion, through committee work and department investigation, through debate and discussion, curriculums, courses of study, subjects of instruction, are under constant review and analysis, are constantly being reshaped and recast to meet the changing social and economic demands. In addition to the statifying influence of fixing by law the specific subjects which shall be taught, we are now faced with a more dangerous proposal to prohibit by law the teaching of certain subjects; a proposal which may close the door to free and open investigation of the truth and padlock that door with a statute. This Association must resist with all its power this at- tempt to put an iron band around the growing tree of education. In the life of every teacher there must be a constant struggle against these forces of stratification. I am one who believes that there is much of value in the past. I believe that every good idea, every good emotion, every worth while thought of the past is just as living and vital today as it was at the time it was felt or conceived, unless that idea has become en- crusted or overlaid by some sort of stratification which robs it of its life and vitality. This eruptive, reconstructive process within the individual, within the institution, is not a mere protest against the past.It certainly is not an avowal of a loss of faith in what has gone before. It is simply the struggle of the human soul to have life and that more abundantly. Every teacher within her classroom, in her community, with her daily round of duty, is constantly in danger of lowering the rate of her profes- sional vibration and suffering stratification and consequent limitation of power and progress. Every influence that helps the teacher to keep her windows open towards the stars, to keep her ideas and ideals in the process of becoming, helps to create and maintain a living, growing, educational op- portunity for the youth of the Republic. This Association, whose mem- bership represents teachers, research workers, thinkers, philosophers in every field and walk of public education, furnishes the greatest of all workshops for reshaping, remolding all of the matter and forces in the educational systems tems of America. As one who has been engaged as a teacher and an administrator in public education for over forty years, and who has been a member of this Associa GENERAL SESSIONS 87 tion for a third of a century, I want to pay my respect to the young men and women who are constantly infusing new life blood into the veins of public education, who by constantly aligning themselves with this great Association help to keep off the chill of old age and break up the encrusta- tion of conservatism which tends to come to every institution. My con- gratulations to the young men and women who are unafraid, to those who see no lions in the way that cannot be overcome. In your successful efforts to reshape and recast the systems of public education, the courses of study, the ideals and methods of instruction in this Republic, you are the real builders of the commonwealth. This is the Olympus on which you as modern Vulcans are to forge and shape the instruments of a newer and a better educational system. In conclusion, may I ask of all you younger members of this Association that you here highly resolve that this Association itself shall not become subject to these encrusting, stratifying influences. In its history it has not been entirely free from such tendencies. In so far as the establishment of a permanent home for this Association at Washington creates a better means for keeping the Association unfettered and untrammeled, it is to be commended. Insofar as the employment of permanent officers who have a continuing, abiding influence on the programs and the policies of this Association tend to keep the educational waters stirred, tend to keep it free from restraining influences, such a policy of employment should be continued. But we should be ever on our guard against that human tendency towards stratification into bureaus and commissions and groups which seek to perpetuate their ideas and their plans, whether such ideas and plans meet with the changing thought of the Association or not. Let us keep it an open forum where all matters are considered and settled in the open. Let us keep its door of opportunity open for all. Let us do all to preserve and strengthen this Association as a living, dynamic force for reshaping, remolding American education to meet the expanding needs of the expanding Republic. THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY -A GUARANTOR HENRY LESTER SMITH, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVER- SITY, BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA From all parts of the United States we have congregated here and by so doing have presumably concentrated the best of an accumulation of pro- fessional ideals and standards, variously developed in the several sections of the country that we are privileged to represent. It is our purpose to extract from this variety of development and presentation a unity of in- terpretation that will serve as a basis for a common forward step educa- tionally all over our country during the next school year. If we indi 88 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION vidually constitute adequate channels through which the best educational achievement and aspiration inherent in our local communities is delivered before this body, and if we collectively are so organized as a legislative assembly as to insure deliberate, intelligent, and sympathetic reception, in- terpretation, and appreciation of the same, we shall contribute materially to rapid, sane educational progress in our land. If we fail as individuals to carry here a true interpretation of our educational constituency, or if we fail as an organized group to receive, consider adequately, and make con- structive adaptations of the various local ideals and achievements, or if we should fail as individuals to carry back to our communities the embodiment of our common legislative contemplations, we fall short not only of our opportunity, but we fall short also in the performance of plain duty. This very assembly came into existence through an effort of the National Education Association to preserve more surely its high purpose and at the same time to avoid any material break in the machine that had been pre- viously created to serve this purpose. Modification and adjustment gave us this body as a promise that our original purpose might not be thwarted, might not even be permitted to endure a stinted growth. We, therefore, constitute a new creation intended to insure the opening up of paths to every educational conception, whatever its origin, whoever might be its sponsor. To us should be encouraged to flow every constructive educa- tional thought; within our body should be insured deliberate considera- tion of each of these contributions, and from our body should go out a resulting improved educational program accompanied by some suggestions as to organization and administration that will insure its adequate trial in operation. New educational life is continuously appearing. This new life must have adequate embodiment. It is the flow of new life that pushes on into the development of the future. May this organization that we constitute lay hold of the new educational life as it appears and hold it firmly and preserve it faithfully and develop it adequately. With the coming of this new life there come of course new strains upon the organi- zation within which the new life appears . The more perfectly our or- ganization adapts itself to this task the more nearly will it enter upon the great age of its existence. The ideal purpose of our organization is to guarantee not one peak of adequate adaptability nor even an intermittent series of these peaks, but a continuous golden age of achievement. To do this we must be sensitive to every humble cry of dissatisfaction or inspira- tion, yet firm enough to give stability to the building whose erection we are supervising. In our law-making body we desire to embrace all factions. We must use "brakes" from time to time, but let us be careful not to put them on with too sudden a tightness and may they never be put on in the wrong place. Factional and selfish striving can break binding ties and lead to distintegration either through inactive indifference or through open rebellion. An effective organization may therefore become an empty GENERAL SESSIONS 89 shell. In such case the vital element will have to leave it and take up its abode elsewhere. With foresight directing the stretching under stress and strain the resistance can be prevented from snapping off the trunk from the life-giving roots. Live things can give, the dead cannot. An organization that curbs too much the appearance of new life loses freshness and new point of view and vigor of execution. But the organiza- tion that lets its youth run wild runs the risk of destroying itself in a single generation. It is a task demanding the exercise of thoughtful judgment to preserve the caution of age and of tradition and of organization and at the same time to preserve in an operative form the spirit of initiative and of innovation that characterizes the new. We have come here with individual ideas, with group ideas which we represent. We are fitted into this organization when we come. This very fitting may constitute a restriction on the line of efficiency. Further- more, individual selfishness and even tenaciously blind group grip on this organization could stifle the growth of what we are here for to nurture group thinking, appreciation, and activity toward a goal at once individual and social . Man was not made for the Sabbath but the Sabbath was made for man. When man cannot meet the standards set by institutions then the institutions should set standards that can be met by man. Intel- ligent flexibility constitutes the keynote to organizational perpetuity. Self preservation and perpetuation depends upon a vital, clearly perceived pur- pose, and a vigorous, unerring fulfillment of that purpose. Our high purpose during the sessions of this representative assembly is to insure that it shall function in the most effective way. Even though the past winter of work may have clouded our vision of some of the signs of life, may the present return of this meeting time call forth the budding leaves of desire, promise, hope, realization. May the fruit of this week's deliberations be soundness of policy, logic of organization and administration, and whole- someness of morale. In conclusion, may I again say, "Fresh from the frontiers of our profes- sion, we have assembled here from all sections of the United States as a deliberative body for legislative purposes. We bring with us the ideals , the practices, and the hopes of these sections and with these ideals, practices and hopes, we are newly harnessed for the work of theorizing in the light of practice with a view to harmonizing the ideal with the practical and consequently of always recognizing these two as phases of the same thing- therefore, as one. "In the midst of this high function it is for us to realize that the wrong organization, leadership, fellowship will result in confusion, chaos, and loss , but that the right kind of organization, leadership, and fellowship will cement these growing conceptions, these improving practices, and these springing hopes. Poor leadership here may jeopardize the good that has been thought of, practiced, hoped for. The right action here will con 90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION serve the best of all of these and lay the foundation for still better ideals, still healthier practices, and still more wholesome hopes. "We come here individually as representatives and therefore we are bound to be spokesmen for those whom we represent, but we also come as freed men and women entrusted with that highest trust the exercise of our own individual judgment molded out of a keen desire to represent the best within our communities and within ourselves as a body we are here representing our great Nation. If in these capacities we hold tena- ciously to our privileges, to our responsibility and to our ideal, we shall do our part to make and to keep the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association the guarantor that in the older age of its existence there shall appear renewed youth through the fulfilled promises of the early purposes and foresight that brought the organization into being." OUR CONSTITUENTS OLIVIA POUND, ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL, HIGH SCHOOL, LINCOLN , NEBRASKA Each member of this assembly represents a group of about one hundred teachers. We seem a goodly number, but multiply this body by one hun- dred and we begin to realize how impressive an organization the National Education Association has become. Our constituents are to be found in every part of the country and in every type of school. It is the task of this assembly not only to represent them in transacting the business of our Asso- ciation, but also to carry back to them something of its spirit. Our con- stituents will care less for reports of the addresses given before this Asso- ciation (for these will be reported by the daily press and in the Journal of the National Education Association ) than to learn of the activities, the influence, and the possibilities of our organization. I propose to mention a few of the interests of the National Education Association which, it seems to me, should be better appreciated by our constituents. There are first the reports of the various Committees and also of the Division of Research of our Associaton. These are mines of valuable information and should be more widely used. It has been the custom of school teachers, if they wish information on any subject; to send out questionnaires. Formerly these questionnaires were an annual epi- demic. Latterly they have become a plague. Our constituents should know that they can save themselves much time and their fellows much wear and tear by consulting the Division of Research of the National Edu- cation Association. The chances are that the information desired is al- ready available. It would be a help if the Journal of the National Edu- cation Association would publish in each number a complete list of the bulletins and reports issued by this body which are now available. Next, our constituents do not altogether realize what power lies in our GENERAL SESSIONS 91 organization. There are many school conditions in the various States represented by us which we deprecate, but heretofore have felt powerless to change. Since the affiliation of State teachers' associations with the National Education Association, much important school legislation has been secured. It would be interesting if a study could be made showing a comparison of the school measures secured since the reorganization in 1919, as compared with the decades preceding. What we teachers desire most of all, if we only knew how to set about it, is to secure something like equal opportunities for all the children of the United States. An eminent Englishman has said that "education is the religion of America." It surely is the religion of the average public school teacher. A more devoted body would be hard to find. There are still, however, regions of our country in which the gospel of public education needs to be spread. The schooling of a child is sacred. He should no more be deprived of it than of life or freedom. Although the Child Labor Amendment failed of passing, much can be done to reduce the number of child workers by strengthening the compulsory school laws. The teachers of the country through this or- ganization are becoming powerful enough to secure much better school laws if they but put forth the effort. Lastly, our constituents should use this professional organization of ours to bring about wider intellectual tolerance. It is to our credit that since the war the most vigorous efforts to make popular education more dem- ocratic have come from the public schools. Our organization deserves much of this credit; first, because it has recognized new values in secondary education; and, secondly, because it has developed a feeling of unity among school people. The struggle for intellectual freedom now going on comes largely from the secondary schools. Public school teachers are neither so isolated nor so dependent as college professors. The latter were for- merly the champions of academic freedom. Of late they have become more and more subject to the domination of trustees or of politicians. Evidently it is the task of the public school teachers to see that popular education is not fettered by the views of this or that group of the laity. There should be such intellectual tolerance in America that all views which have achieved recognition may be presented in our schools and the pupils be allowed to make their own decisions concerning their value. It is possible for the teachers of this country to become a much greater force in creating intellectual tolerance than they are now, once they realize fully the power and the possibilities of this organization . In 1786 Thomas Jefferson caused to be included in an enactment of the State of Virginia a provision that reads in part: "All men shall be free to profess and by argument to maintain their opinions in matters of religion and the same shall in nowise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capaci- ties." If such an enactment was possible in 1786, it should be possible in 1925 for us who are teachers to see that our rights are not curtailed. 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION We have here the numbers and the machinery for making our profession felt in the decisions of the country. It should be for the best minds of our profession to determine what materials shall be included in our histories and in our books of science. It should not be a matter for legislation. The nineteenth century saw the end of the idea that one person might hold another in slavery. The twentieth century should see the end of all at- tempts on the part of one group of citizens to compel the intellectual sub- serviency of another. GENERAL SESSIONS 93 TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN THE DETERMINATION OF POLICIES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER ANNA LOCKWOOD PETERSON, TEACHER, CINCINNATI, OHIO The World War did more than one curious thing. Among other things it took educational leadership out of the hands of those who had come to believe that it was theirs by right of inheritance. We all know that the tragedy of Germany was the downfall of her educational system. But did other nations fare better in that awful conflict? Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, and other nations also have suf- fered an appalling lowering of their educational level. The generation on which these nations must depend for their educational advancement is weakened by the ravages of war. Nations which never led in a cultural way-which had been accustomed to look to Germany for educational patterns-have nowhere to turn. And so we ask this question, Shall America miss this glorious opportu- nity to lead the world in education and opportunity to shape the minds of youth? The chance may not come again. We must not let it slip by with no effort on our part to make it secure. It is Emerson who warns us that "We put too much faith in system, and too little in men." The best laws and rules governing school administra- tion will achieve little unless the teacher herself loves her work, and is happy in its performance. And she will not love it unless she is happy and contented; and unless she is thus content, the child, whose develop- ment is the aim and end of all our school work, cannot possibly be raised to the level of a citizen who will first improve our laws and then respect them. However fine your school buildings may be, do not forget that it is your teachers, not your buildings, that make your schools. With due respect to all modern reforms, we must win back to the profession of teaching that distinction which was its pride when the teacher was in loco parentis- closest to the child, next to his parent. When the personal contact between teacher and child is removed, edu- cation becomes machine-like. When the barriers between teacher and child are cut down the fine personal influence of the teacher becomes the mightiest force in education. It goes without saying that when you raise the status of the teacher you are not merely benefiting the teacher class, but you are directly benefiting the child. You are putting in motion forces that make for truth and justice and civic righteousness. The human element is always the strongest. Its influence is the most far reaching. And this can be brought about in only one way. Execu- tives and administrative boards must take teachers into their confidence. They must permit the teachers greater initiative in their work . 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A plumber knows most about plumbing and plumbers, a lawyer knows most about the law and lawyers, and a teacher certainly knows most about teaching and teachers. To hold otherwise is to enslave the greatest power for America's future advancement. But the educational world does move. Everywhere teachers are work- ing through their organizations to educate the public, to prove that the teacher should have her due and proper right to take part in school affairs. No longer than ten years ago it was an unheard-of thing to ask the classroom teacher to speak in a general session of the National Education Association, such as this. We came, we sat, and we were conquered. We sponged up all sorts of pedagogic wisdom handed down to us by able ad- ministrators who liked to talk; and, we must admit, they talked well. To- day we are not merely listeners, we are speaking for ourselves. We are doing our part to make American democracy safe for the world. But do not mistake nor distrust our motives. All this teacher activity is a hopeful sign of the times, since it is a sound psychological principle that all impulses to good must find expression, for such impulses if inhibited have destructive reaction. The day is long past when the only college graduate in a community was the superintendent of schools, who was therefore given the honorary title of "professor" by all the townspeople. The able administrator has nothing to fear from his able teachers. On the contrary, he welcomes their helpful suggestion and advice. He knows that the teacher's knowl- edge and the teacher's point of view are essential to progress . Webster thus defines the word policy: The art or method of government, the management of public affairs, a system of regulative measures. Teach- ers have no desire to "run things," but merely to share in the formation of the rules of the game. And why not? When even in industry corpora- tions like the Procter & Gamble Company or General Motors elect rep- resentative employees to their directorates and allow them also to share in the profits of their own labor. By all means let us have teacher councils not superimposed, handed readymade to the teachers as a "take-it-or-leave-it" proposition, but devel- oped by the teachers themselves, who are desirous of rendering a real service to the schools. Not all school superintendents are as progressive as our honored presi- dent, Mr. Newlon, who has found that the Denver teachers render most effective service in textbook revision and curriculum making. "The prin- cipal's job," says Mr. Newlon, "is peculiarly a social one; but no one is qualified for a principalship who has not demonstrated his ability as a superior teacher." These are wise words. The number of principals and superintendents who are taking professional training in teachers' colleges is constantly in- creasing. The principal cannot afford to let it be said that his training is inferior to that of his teachers. He also wishes to grow in service that GENERAL SESSIONS 95 hemaywork not as master of his teachers, but as their associate. If teach- ers die an early professional death it is because the principal and the superin- tendent fail to keep them alive. Growth of teachers and executives in service is a matter of coöperation and exchange. Too often we have heard excellent teachers say : "No one comes to see what I am doing, nor why and how I am doing it. We might all die or leave the service and no one would miss us. The board of education doubtless would rejoice in our departure, since it would give them the opportunity to keep down the budget by electing younger and inexperienced teachers at bargain rates." This of course is a distorted view, but nevertheless significant of the profound discouragement which pervades many of our city school systems. And discouragement is a blight upon good teaching. Principals should be more than mere office managers. Too many of them, especially in our large cities, have no direct contact with the classroom, no first-hand knowledge of the teachers' work. About a year ago a questionnaire was sent out by the National League of Teachers' Associations to seventy of the leading cities in the United States asking certain pertinent questions along this line. Fifty-three ad- ministrators replied. The frank answers showed that superintendents are thinking about this matter of teacher participation, if they are not actually doing the thing. In fifty-six systems, twenty-eight did not have a regularly organized com- mittee or council upon whom they might call for help or advice. This is a poor showing in view of the fact that for ten years teachers have offered their assistance in some form, usually through councils, to their superin- tendents. Where councils have failed it is because they have been made by superintendents and boards of education only. Out of thirty-two, nine were originated by the administration, seven by teachers, and sixteen by both. Councils, or central committees, when formed by coöperative effort of teachers and administrators, have usually succeeded. Again, the duties of these councils are often vaguely defined, and so they die from want of exercise. The duties of central committees are listed all the way from "not defined," "a social hour," "advisory only," "profes- sional improvement," to such duties as "aid in formulating educational policies," " enlargement of building programs, " and "installing of special equipment." Now, if these groups are to act with wisdom on matters of real educa- tional policy, they must be given opportunity to present their ideas and to hear presentation of other plans by those in authority. One question asked was this : "Are teachers members of standing com- mittees of the board of education when these committees deal with prob- lems directly affecting teachers?" (This of course implies members with- out voting power.) Out of fifty-two replies only ten answered "yes" to this question. To the question : "Have teachers ever been called in to 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION sit on special board committees ?" the answers are encouraging. Out of fifty-four, twenty reply "yes," twenty-four "no." Ten reply as follows : "Once in the last several years." "Only to advise, etc." This seems to us most encouraging, since fifty per cent of the schools listed used at least a part of the initiative of the teachers. It has been customary for a number of years in many cities of the first class to offer no schedule which was not written by both teacher and ad- ministrator. Work on courses of study has been carried on jointly in many cities, but the most progressive step was taken in Milwaukee where the Board of Education asked the teaching group to elect two classroom teachers to study the platoon school in other cities at the expense of the Board of Education. It is gradually becoming a recognized form that rules under which teachers must serve are written or revised by teachers and administrator coöperatively. Since rules incorporate such important factors as qualifica- tions for teaching, basis for dismissal, sick leave, length of the school day, it devolves upon administrator and teachers to work together. San Fran- cisco, Seattle, Spokane, New Orleans, Milwaukee, New York, Atlanta, and Evanston, Illinois, have recently revised the rules under which teachers work with the direct help of the teachers. "Work on the course of study" is most often given as the means for using the teachers. In only a few cases are " textbooks" mentioned, yet this is vastly important. Until teachers know and until they express themselves as to what should go into a textbook, there is not much use in spending time on a course of study. Here is a great field for teacher participation. A teacher present at all board meetings, responsible to the central com- mittee, which in turn should be responsible to the organizations represented, might do much to remove misunderstanding. And yet, out of fifty-five answers, forty report "no" to the question about a teacher representative. The suggestion about a teacher member on the board of education was not met with enthusiasm. In some States there is a law forbidding it Some of the objections offered were; "politics," "class consciousness" (how they do love that phrase) ; "bias" ; "working against the taxpayer" ; "seeing things from only one viewpoint" ; "danger of putting a gag on the board" ; "if she teaches well, she uses up all her strength" ; "her place is in the schoolroom. " This apparently is too radical a departure from long-estab- lished precedent, for the replies were emphatically opposed. One question provoked valuable replies : "What are the possibilities for teacher participation ?" A very few answered, "None, if it depended on my vote" ; "Not any, if I had my say" ; "Haven't seen any." The great majority, however, answered at length. All answers included suggestions as to salaries, governing rules, courses of study, and textbooks. Many GENERAL SESSIONS 97 went so far as to say "buildings," "equipment," "junior high extension," "all questions involving radical changes," "vocational work," "board action should be influenced by teachers' suggestions," "illimitable opportu- nity for such participation," "powers of the teacher haven't been touched," "possibilities great," "mainly in the field of instruction," etc. We repeat, the educational world does move, if you push it. It has moved a long, long way in the last five years. It is evident that teachers can be of real service through a central group of some sort. It has been proved many times that those activities with which teachers themselves deal are carried out most effectively and harmoniously. There is no better way for teachers to participate in the determination of policies than that they be asked to help make the rules and regulations under which they work. There is no better way than that they be asked to build up school organization and school policies and then coöperate just as actively to carry them out as they did to build them up. We have here a highly trained, increasingly efficient professional group. Let us make use of them. Conservation has been the order of the day, especially since the Great War. Yet we have made little or no effort to conserve the teacher power of the Nation. And it must be conserved or the American public schools will perish. The teacher is in imminent danger of becoming a mere cog in a system, grown more and more machine- like each year. No teacher of today who confines her interest in education to the narrow limits of her schoolroom is fulfilling her obligation to her chosen profession. The responsibility for the success of American democracy today rests upon the shoulders of every individual citizen; no less does the conduct of the public schools rest upon the shoulders of a wise administration and upon the shoulders of every individual teacher as well. The teacher's first duty is to lend active support to teacher organiza- tions, local, State, and National. If she withholds her support it must be from lack of understanding of all that these organizations have done and are doing for her. Whether she realizes it or not every teacher is today working under certain advantages which these organizations have secured for her through the splendid, untiring efforts of devoted leaders. Again, the teacher must come out of the schoolroom the moment that she realizes that professional standards are too low. They are too low not only for the purpose of uniform excellence in the performance of classroom duties and for the purpose of establishing a uniform economic status the country over ; but also for the purpose of bringing a truly fine contribution, based upon high professional training, into our field of larger participation in the upbuilding of our great American public schools. Our duty to our profession obligates us to come out of the schoolroom . We must make careful study of the problems which confront the American people, and when once we are convinced of the justice of our course, we 98 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION should not hesitate to make our convictions felt. Teachers should be molders of public opinion. Let us remember that we are citizens before we are teachers, and that citizenship can best be taught by good citizens. Again, this is the day of educational research, upon the findings of which the educational policies of the future will be based. If these find- ings are to be truly valuable they must not be the result of research made by any single group; they must be the combined results of research made by all groups working both individually and together. As teachers, close to the child life of the Nation, we must come out of the schoolroom for the purpose of helping in any investigation which will lead to justified retrenchments and to forestall any movement intended to blind the public to the best interests of the institution we serve. We must improve every opportunity offered us by generous-minded administrators for expressing constructive opinions. We must cease to spend our ideas where they cannot be heard ; we must attack our problems constructively, and demand a chance to share in the great educational tasks that lie ahead. As teachers we can, if we will, make our contribu- tion so well worth while that there will be no question of its acceptance. We believed that we had a right to a larger participation in the formation of educational policies; we have struggled to obtain this right; we have demonstrated our ability to participate, and now the opportunity is ours. We must not forget that rights imply obligations. The right to do once obtained should, in all fairness, be followed by the doing. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN THE DETERMINATION OF SCHOOL POLICIES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER CORNELIA S. ADAIR, TEACHER, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA Ever since schools have been in operation, classroom teachers have had a share in the formulation and execution of administrative policies. Up to the time of the introduction of modern wholesale educational methods the teacher was the school. Even our most vivid flights of imagination cannot picture us a schoolmaster or dame of the Revolutionary period who was not master of all he surveyed. In those days the profession of teach- ing was held in the highest esteem. The teacher was the best educated person in the community; he not only ruled his school but his advice was sought and taken by the entire neighborhood. How, then, did the teacher lose his high position in the community, and why is it that we now talk about the subject of teacher coöperation in administration as if that fact admitted of doubt? With the introduction of the democratic ideal that every child has a right to an education and with the rapid increase in school enrolment, it became necessary to lower the educational qualifications of teachers and GENERAL SESSIONS 99 to standardize the methods of administration. Much of the work fell into the hands of immature, untrained persons, which necessitated detailed plan- ning by the heads of the system. Many capable leaders became fascinated with the idea of "every teacher in the same grade doing the same thing at the same time all over the city." For a while standardization ran riot in our schools . Thus the teacher was removed from direct participation in the administration in school policy, a procedure that was detrimental both to the schools and the teacher, but, in spite of the handicap of standardiza- tion, there have always been school systems that availed themselves for- mally or informally of the mature judgment of their experienced teachers. With the necessary division of labor in our great urban systems the individual began to feel himself a mere cog in the wheel. This led to various types of group organizations and finally to a species of class con- sciousness that threatened to be injurious to the entire fabric. This disaster has been averted by the innate common sense of the American people-of which common sense the American teacher has his lawful share. He knew that he had a contribution to make to the schools in the way of methods, courses of study, personnel, organization, etc., so, with the help of super- intendents, supervisors, and principal, he set out to find a way. According to Dr. Lewis, of Flint, Michigan, the two main divisions of public school administration are ( 1 ) materials and (2) personnel. Mate- rials include buildings, supplies, money, etc. things of a physical char- acter that make it possible for a teacher to work effectively. Personnel includes all the employees from the superintendent through the janitors . Of the two, personnel, as the word implies, is the more important, for it is the human equation. The securing and holding of competent classroom teachers is the crux of the problem of public school education in America. It is, therefore, the outstanding personnel problem. How then can we combat the unrest, reduce the turnover, and in other ways promote the best interests of classroom teachers, and through the teacher uplift Ameri- can children ? The speaker believes that the solution has been found in the places where teachers, formally or informally, participate in building up the six essentials of a good school system: Good will, good financial sup- port, good leadership, good buildings, good supplies, and good teachers. It is not my purpose to try to convince this audience that teachers are capable of effecting these essentials. This statement is too obvious to be discussed. My effort shall be to point out some of the effects upon both teachers and schools of the work of teachers in this field. Like all public service institutions, our public schools are intensely sus- ceptible to public opinion. It took the World War to open the eyes of the American people to the fact that the public schools are the greatest agencies for propaganda in existence. What could be more helpful to the head of a system than to have his entire force willing and able to interpret his policies to each other and to his constituency? What could be a better way to secure that loyalty and interpretation than participation through 100 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION their representatives in its formulation? "What is mine own, I will de- fend though the skies fall." Many a rural superintendent has found to his regret that not only were some of his teachers unable to explain his school policy, but were, through ignorance, actively opposing it. Often are we reminded of the old story of the "Bundle of Sticks." Wewill not consider the effect of teacher participation in administration upon the teacher himself. We read that teachers' councils are formed for some or all of the following purposes: To raise the standard of the teach- ing profession; to encourage professional improvement ; to foster a spirit of good will and helpfulness among teachers, and a better understanding between teachers and officials ; and to democratize the school systems. The following story is told of a certain college president in the Middle West who was accused of being too autocratic in his methods. Upon being approached by a committee of the faculty on the subject he said, "Gentle- men, I am willing to turn over my supervisory duties to a committee of the faculty. Elect that committee, formulate your rules and I will present them to the board of governors." History does not state what happened, but I suspect coöperation. Certainly it is true that new responsibility brings new dignity and there is no surer way of securing sympathy for the difficulties of a situation than coöperation in the formulation of plans to meet that situation. A recent Detroit Bulletin describes one of the plans for teacher coöperation in that city. Detroit has a large and growing force of keen, well trained, and expe- rienced teachers. Many of these teachers were making valuable contribu- tions to classroom organization and management and to the technique of teaching, but because of the very size of the system, many ideas, useful to the city as a whole, were lost. The teachers, in conjunction with the supervisors, have worked out the following plan for systematically collect- ing and conserving for the entire group the best of these ideas. Suitable recognition is provided for teachers who make contributions and the plan is open to every teacher. I. The part here outlined includes experiments and suggestions for the improvement of instruction such as : (a) Variations in instructional records and forms. (b) Changes in the course of study. (c) Suggestions for better classroom organization and management. (d) Improved methods of teaching. (e) Experimental investigations. (f) Child welfare. II. Teachers who have such suggestions and modifications to make, must state in not more than three hundred words : (a) Exactly what the experimental piece of work or suggestion is. (b) When the work was started, and when it will end. (c) Why the results are especially worth while. (d) How the results might be used throughout the school system. GENERAL SESSIONS 101 This statement must be accompanied by such printed and mimeographed materials and data as are available, and the project must have the approval of the principal of the school. III . As soon as the department of supervision is notified that an experi- ment is being conducted, the teacher is visited by that particular supervisor, who discusses with him the work in progress and gives all possible assistance. IV. Each piece of work is rated "A," "B," or "C." An "A" contribu- tion is an exceptional piece of work which can be put into immediate effect throughout the schools, "B" needs further study and experimentation, while "C" receives honorable mention. V. Only original pieces of work will be accredited (new to the system) . VI. Each accepted piece of work is recorded upon the teacher's efficiency card as evidence of professional leadership and ability. VII. When materials have been accepted for city-wide use, the con- tributing teacher may, if he so desires, present in person the materials to the district principal or principals. VIII. For those teachers who care to avail themselves of the opportu- nity, credit will be given by the Detroit Teachers College. Certain confer- ences and reading under the supervision of the college are required. In a recent publication of the National League of Teachers' Associations we find a group of articles on "A Greater Teacher Participation in School Administration" by a teacher, a principal, a superintendent, a dean of education, and a school-board member. In the article by Miss Winifred Elyca, a teacher, we read as follows : Teacher participation in organization is one of the modern developments of the profession and will go far toward clarifying for the teacher the aims and pur- poses of the classroom. Let a teacher help to plan a program for many grades and the relative importance of her own type of work is clear. Such participation holds tremendous possibilities. For the teacher it means a broadened vision of the profession and her place in it. It gives a glimpse of the real problems that are occupying the attention of educators in general, and the great amount of effort that is being expended in their solution. It is the way by which she may actively build the profession. For the administrator it brings to the front a score of details that affect the success of a plan, but which are not apparent to those out of the classroom. At the same time it brings to his assistance a which she may actively build the profession. For the administrator it brings to the with a situation. By all means let both sides profit by such coöperation. Successful participation requires willingness on the part of the executive to seek and accept suggestions for their own value as well as for the sake of promoting a democracy; and on the part of the teachers concerned, the ability to see a situation through the eyes of the administration. But more than this is required of the teacher. We have long been clinging to the traditions of the past and they are good. We have always, with more or less vision, done our teaching with an eye on the ideals of the future-and that is better yet. But we sometimes overlook the demand of the generation that is present. It is this demand that forces us to be practical. Some of the traditions of the past and the ideals of the future must be tempered by, and even give place to, present needs. Then let the teacher who would, and should, participate in administration make himself cognizant with every phase of the educational prob- lem . Let him learn to profit by the experience of others . With a given situation 102 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to meet let him find out what the best thought of the day has been able to con- tribute to its solution ; what other cities have done; what success has attended their efforts ; and how various plans may be adapted to local needs. Herein lies the broadest kind of professional training-planning extensively and intensively at the same time. Let every teacher make himself worthy of the trust, for unless the value of his contribution is proved, his participation remains a negligible factor. The Detroit plan is but one of many ways in which a teacher may con- tribute to the good of the educational system. Each locality has its own problems that must be met in its own way. The teacher is essentially an idealist and a builder. Though he may not give to the world a masterpiece of art, literature, or science, every man or woman who so contributes owes to some teacher part of the training and encouragement that enabled him to reach his desired end. This movement of teacher coöperation in school administration is not, I believe, a selfish one. It is a part of the larger program of service to our country, to our employers, and to the coming generations. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN DETERMINATION OF POLICIES FROM The princCIPAL'S VIEWPOINT MARY MCSKIMMON, PRINCIPAL, PIERCE SCHOOL, BROOKLINE MASSACHUSETTS If you will travel with me toward the rising sun for a night and a day and another night, I will take you to a little town you probably never saw, but from the spool factory that gives the town's reason for existence, the product comes to every home in the land, for most of the cotton thread used in America is wound upon its spools. The big forests of birch that deter- mined the factory's location have long ago been used up, and even the Crown lands in Canada sell stumpage to the hunger of American industry fed with busy needles. It is a strange spot for a big factory. A river, lake born and mountain fed, turns the factory's wheels at times. Sometimes steam generated in boilers fed with sawdust from the spool machines does the work while the kingfisher rattles from bank to bank outside and the wild iris embroiders the surrounding meadows. Once, simple hand machines made the spools, one at a time. Now, complicated machines, each the product of a hundred inventions, turn spools out in streams, but the hour strikes often for the biggest and best of these machines; and all shining and important as they are, they are sent into exile without an end. Before tomorrow's sun sets some little invention may be made by one of the machine operators that will put an end to the service the present machines render; newer and faster, forever faster, machines will send to the scrap heap the fastest ones of today. It is the operator of the machine who must tend it with GENERAL SESSIONS 103 patience and understanding. It is through that understanding that the best work the machine is capable of giving is led forth. No matter who planned, who built, who installed the machine, it is the operator who is re- sponsible for the perfect product and a conserved machine. He is a participator in every policy that concerns the machine. Now, no matter who directs, who equips the school, the teacher is the operator. I have seen school systems where the teacher seemed to be thought of as the machine instead of the operator. To expect him to manipulate so costly and delicate a machine as a class of children without participating in the educational policies that determine its power and direction is like putting a workman before his machine with eyes blind- folded, and his ears, like those of Ulysses' crew, filled with wax. Since every complicated part of the machine goes to the making of a valuable product, it follows that success depends entirely upon the knowledge of all delicate adjustments, and no skills, or resources, or experimentations can be so important to any kind of directing individual as they are to the operator of the school the teacher. If you look at the Fourth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals, you will find listed thirty-two of the principal activities with which he should be concerned. Take each one in turn and see if the machine could be run with its operator ignorant of any of these. Most of the adjustments of machines in the spool factory are suggested by the operators themselves. The teaching world knows that the curriculum must be made entirely over to meet the needs of the life of today, to free the school from the useless clogs fastened there by the honest need or vain caprice of earlier days. There are chapters in many textbooks retained for fear of offending someone in authority, who is ready to die like the British soldiers at Con- cord bridge-"To keep the past upon its throne." There are outlived textbooks, beautiful in makeup, once useful enough, but whose sweet and tender juices, if such they ever had, have long since been hardened into wood. There are textbooks that are hated on sight by those who live near enough to childhood to know its needs. How can anyone but the teacher himself bestow the insight born of intimate understanding to the selection of textbooks ? Surely the curriculum, with all its needs of being razed to the ground and rebuilt in the light of the new knowledge of interest and primitive instincts, and the variations between chronological and mental age, and play and self direction, and sunshine and sleep, needs to be built out of the work of every teacher concerned, under the guidance of the wise superintendent, and with the keenest discerning wisdom of the principal who knows that his best service will be but to clear the path ofall obstructions. Then the teacher is aware of the next great problem looming in the offing. He knows that being born on the same date does not make chil- dren alike. There is the problem of the gifted child, he who needs the wisest care that his gifts may be turned into the great assets for our land 104 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that they may become. The adapting of school work to the individual differences of pupils is a new demand that is clamoring to be heard. The teacher is the center and circumference of this task. Segregation alone will not accomplish this end. First of all he wants his pupils to have some means of self-checking up on their own achievement on every subject. Perhaps the new kind of textbook will be made by the group participating in its making. It may need to be some kind of loose-leaf textbook with provision for inserting material provided by the child's own research, made to aid in his reacting growth. It will recognize his individual need on the one hand and the demands of the educational expert on the other. It will not be the publisher who shall stumble accidentally on this new kind of textbook, but who of us will not hail its coming? These books will con- serve the blessed gifts of interest and curiosity that children bear from their first contact with this world so wondrous fair, and which when they lose, they themselves are lost indeed. In the Twenty-third Yearbook for the Study of Education is a significant sentence for all principals and teachers participating in this study of gifted children: "In the main our subjects have educated themselves. They have made rapid progress in learning be-- cause of intellectual initiative and insatiable curiosity." (Bagley and DeVoss.) Perhaps we shall together work out a textbook containing minimum essentials to be mastered by all, and supplementary projects for those whose development demands a great enrichment of voluntary problems substituted for routine requirement. When we come to the improvement of the teacher in service, can that be done right except as the teacher is a partici- pant in the effort for improvement ? Does educational psychology, or principles of education, or methods of instruction, or the psychology of elementary school subjects mean less to the teacher than to the principal ? When we both need exactly the same help and incentive, why do we keep the caste lines drawn in our profession ? It is a false and mischievous dis- tinction, and one that should not be allowed to tie up the wheels of progress and defeat our best hope of achieving our high aims for America. At Mt. Auburn in Cambridge sleeps Harvard's greatest scientist of his generation-Professor Louis Agassiz. The great quartz boulder that marks his grave holds the title he bore proudly before all other honors heaped upon him by a grateful world, an accolade for any one of us, the noble word, "Teacher," the title the great Master loved when His people called Him Rabbi. I cannot find one topic in the Fourth Yearbook of professional value to the principal that is not of equal value to every teacher. We owe a great debt of gratitude to psychiatrist and psychologist for teaching us how to measure the child's native ability to learn, but they are at a loss to know what to do about their findings. Shall we accelerate, or enrich, or retard, or segregate, or eliminate ? It will be the teacher, not the scientific genius, who will let the fire fall, perhaps. We know the thrill that comes with the hope that the rare child of GENERAL SESSIONS 105 genius may be discovered and developed for the uplift of his generation. We know that if one ear of wheat could be developed capable of enduring one extra degree of frost that soon thousands of acres of wheat would be added to the world's harvest, and millions of loaves of bread be given for the hunger of the world. But what if the discovery of the gifted teacher is as important to the world as that of the gifted child or the frost-proof wheat? Does not education cry aloud for the discovery and conserving of the teaching genius-the teacher who can chart this unknown world of low mental endowment through which all our searchlights cannot find a path. What about the development of the school morale ? No order from higher up can accomplish that curious solidarity of purpose either for good or evil. It is to the teacher what the oxygen or lack of oxygen is to the air he breathes. His peace of mind by day and his sleep by night take their color from the school morale. To win this requires the closest co- operation from all the influences in the school that touch its life. A gifted leader may win loyalty to himself, but the great thing-to win that loyal response to the things that measure the uplift to the community spirit-is to win an immeasurable power. The earnest participation in helping to determine the educational policies that they must execute ultimately in their classrooms, if these measures are to be more than empty words, seems such a self-evident truth in view of the nearness that they all reach in effecting the teachers' service, that we wonder how any other condition of things could have been tolerated. Even prisons, those crucibles of crime, as Thomas Mott Osborne calls them, have responded so notably to the plan of government participation that we are dumb before our own slowness to realize its great significance. Mr. Osborne said last month in his Boston address that participation in self-government at Sing Sing has had this startling result: only five per cent return to prison instead of the sixty-five to eighty-five per cent that returned before this plan was started. We have considered very briefly the teacher's participation in determin- ing policies in the educational issues alone. These are the opportunities for the best and noblest service that can be rendered. They are embodied in the needs of the school that must be met by a concerted interest and response from the entire teaching force. When these educational policies are earnestly promoted by the various groups making up the entire teaching force, there is no longer any reluctance to welcome supervision, for the keenest minds feel the soonest their need of fortifying help from every possible source. It is the gifted teacher who seeks for supervising help as for hidden treasure, for the mastery of all the problems involved by any one of these new opportunities to give light on the task of teaching every childthe complex demands of today so as to meet the challenge of life with steadfast courage born of faith in his own resources. This is one that de- mands a whole lifetime's devotion. "Of humblest friends, bright creature, scorn not one !" 106 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION But the policies of administration belong to another sphere of service. Our school systems are committed to the assignment of responsibility for legislation to a school board elected by the people and responsible to the people, for administration to the boards represented. Inasmuch as the working world to which our children enter when school is done is not made up of teachers, it is well that our school boards are made up of many lines of work belonging to that world. In the best school boards frequent consultation with the teaching force illumines many a problem; but we, the teachers, cannot, however praiseworthy our motive, usurp the preroga- tives of those to whom the responsibility has been delegated. We have seen educational associations of communities try to coerce school boards in the name of coöperation, but in truth their ends would better have been called usurpation. Let us get out of our participation of the educational policies all the joy of achievement that is possible for us to attain, "Without haste, without rest, Lifting better up to best." Herein shall be found the great rewards of the teacher's life. And after all the figure of the operator of a machine is a limited one. It belongs only to the mechanical side of our work. The participation in determining policies gives greater freedom from friction and obstruction, but no machine ever invented could hold our heads and hands if our hearts were not freed for the bigger thing in education, and that is what feeds the soul within us. We know in the moments when we are worthy of our- selves that we are discoverers. No schoolroom is so narrow that we may not sail forth to the discovery of the unsuspected leader of men among our children. When the heat and worry of discussion are over, and the stars come out, and the healing coolness brings peace we begin to be uneasy for our quest again and we say with John Masefield : I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by ; And the wheel's kick, and the wind's song and the white sails shaking, And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking. * * All I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying And the flung spray, and blown spume, and sea-gulls crying. And all that I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow rover, And a quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over. GENERAL SESSIONS 107 TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN THE DETERMINATION OF POLICIES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE PRINCIPAL W. T. LONGSHORE, PRINCIPAL, GREENWOOD SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY MISSOURI The classroom teacher participation in the responsibilities of school ad- ministration is not only to recognize the spirit of democracy but it is to develop the higher constructive, creative powers of the teachers themselves and to use their united wisdom in improving the schools in every possible way. The lukewarm interest of the classroom teacher in the success of the principal's plans is not to be wondered at, since good psychology requires that a principal should associate the teachers with himself in the planning and the executing of policies of the school. His powers multiply in the same degree as he is able to awaken the latent powers of his teachers. To illustrate: A new kind of school is to be introduced. The classroom teacher knows nothing about it until he is asked to execute it from above. At once he becomes antagonistic, since he who does the work has not been taken into the confidence of him who hands it down. Such a condition canonly be altered when the principal recognizes the abilities and powers of the classroom teacher. Teacher participation from the standpoint of the principal should pro- mote the efficiency of his teaching corps; that it should make it more com- petent in instruction, more responsive to leadership, and more loyal to the school. Since the importance of the teacher becomes more apparent in a scheme of instruction which recognizes the principle of individual differ- ences, it will be seen that we must exert greater effort than heretofore to encourage each teacher to be the best possible teacher. Fundamental in this is the recognition of the desire, innate in practically every individual teacher, to make the most of himself; but recognition not for himself primarily but for the sake of the pupils who by virtue of his better teach- ing ability are to receive better guidance and help. We may say that teacher participation in determining the policies of a school is a great step in advance and has come to stay, and the principal that cannot handle the situation should look to himself and his own per- sonal equipment. The schools are demanding leadership-trained leader- ship, efficient leadership. This is not the easy way, the comfortable way, to conduct a school, but we believe it is the right way. We have need to be alarmed by the lack of democracy in the conduct of many of our schools. Our American school system for most part is administered autocratically, the teachers actually on the job in the class- room having a negligible voice in the determination or carrying out of policies. Letno one raise the objection that the teachers are not qualified to par ticipate in the determination of policies. Faculties tend to atrophy through 108 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION disuse, and the wonder is that they are so well qualified. The value of the contributions of the classroom teacher has been demonstrated. The sense of increased responsibility, the feeling of no longer being just a "cog in the machine," proves to be a stimulus of untold value to the schools and to the community. It is a fine omen and a splendid compliment to the increasing number of superintendents, principals, and other school officials who welcome the present insistent demands for administrative reforms. The advantages in teacher participation in determining the policies of a school are that it increases the educational knowledge of the teacher, the satisfaction of a teacher in his work, and the efficiency of his teaching. An understanding of the educational program is necessary in order for the teacher to coöperate most successfully in its realization. The classroom teacher, as well as the principal, needs a broader outlook on education than is contained in his own field. The best way to get and digest this knowledge is through helping to plan and execute the whole program. Participation is a satisfying means of education to the group. The added knowledge of the teaching corps, together with its contribu- tion to planning, helps to make the school more efficient. They know what the plans are and the considerations which were involved in their adoption. It is well known that teachers coöperate more willingly, more intelligently, and hence more energetically in carrying out programs which they have helped to devise. The coöperative idea serves to bring more experience and more intelligence into the planning. The practical point of view of the teachers will prevent the launching of policies whose success is prob- lematical. The fact basis of planning is broadened. The teachers have access to valuable material which must be brought together if the adminis- trative policies of the school are to be wisely planned and executed. There is the added advantage that lies in the satisfaction that a teacher finds in his work. He is no longer just "a mere cog in a machine." He is one of the directing forces of the school. The new spirit is expressed very well by the word "morale." The new spirit of coöperation displayed, and the loyalty of all to the common ideal strengthen the course of educa- tion. Teacher participation begets confidence, and confidence eventuates in better community support. Teacher participation in determining the policies is fairly well established and is growing. It should be accepted as an accomplished fact. The next step is to inquire into what special activities participation may be carried successfully, and what the organization should be. The teachers have sought this opportunity to broaden their service. They must not overlook the fact that they are assuming an obligation . This movement means a change in the social as well as the professional status of the classroom teacher if it succeeds, and a distinct modification of the elementary school principalship. This study has convinced the writer that the number of extremists is inverse in ratio to the noise they GENERAL SESSIONS 109 are making, that the idea is thoroughly sound, and that the vast majority of classroom teachers and elementary school principals are studiously con- cerned about it. While this discussion does not suggest any diminution of the executive authority of the principal, it does clearly suggest that in many cases the authority should act more coöperatively than it has in the past in terms of services rendered by the teachers and the principal. Democracy cannot be handed down from above. It must originate with and be worked out by the classroom teachers through the coöperation of principal and superintendent. The schools of many a city have profited from the atmosphere of coöperation made possible by the response of prin- cipal and superintendent to the democratic idea of the classroom teachers . Points that must be taken into consideration in the working out of a plan of coöperation : 1. Training, experience, and efficiency of the classroom teachers in in- struction and management. 2. Training, experience, and efficiency of the principal. 3. Training, experience, and efficiency of the superintendent and his associates. 4. Attitudes of principals and superintendents and their associates toward capacities for coöperation with the classroom teachers. The day of autocratic domination has ended, not only in governmental affairs but in education. Participation on the part of the rank and file in formulating policies and programs must precede their intelligent acceptance and execution. The principal or superintendent who is anxious quickly to make a mere showing of a complete and detailed course of study will not like to proceed by asking the coöperation of the classroom teacher, principal, supervisor, and expert. It takes longer at the outset. The superintendent or principal, however, who is more concerned about what is being taught and done in the schools than about being able to hand out extended printed documents will employ the coöperative procedure. He knows that in the long run he will get more worthwhile results. Although the start is slower, the total large result takes less time than if the initial attack employs the dictatorial procedure. Experience shows that the contribution of the teachers in the enlarge- ment of programs, and especially in the details essential in their execution, is very great. The details which have been injected into courses of study are of the kind which can only come from classroom teachers and from others in intimate and close contact with the work of the teachers. Fundamental, constructive leadership, working coöperatively, must develop rapidly in education. Only this type of procedure can succeed. It is essential in securing and maintaining community interest and support of public education as it is in leading and directing intelligent and active teachers into securing the largest results. The day of the know-it-all school administrator is past. In his place is appearing a new type of administrator. 110 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION He conceives his mission to be the creation of wholesome conditions for work on the part of classroom teachers and pupils and the bringing to all of his associates breadth of view, greater vision, and stimulating inspiration. We need to bear in mind that participation means growth. It is the greatest university in the world. Witness the change of attitude of women on public questions when they were given the ballot. They grew through participation and the assumption of responsibility. We educators should grasp the educational principle that is involved in this transformation. Can the teacher of the future citizen, participating, responsibility-assum- ing citizen, do his work in training for citizenship unless he himself is allowed to participate and bear responsibilities in his work? Can active citizens be trained by a passive teacher ? What does "participation" mean-save that the individual shall have a share in determining the aims and conditions of his work? Only by sharing some responsible task does there come a fitness to share it. Through the free and mutual harmonizing of different individuals the work of the world is done better than when directed by a few, no mat- ter how wise, or of the good intent of the few. The bettering of institutions comes by having all the workers in them assist in determining the policies of the institutions . Thus the philosophy upon which teacher participation in the determina- tion of policies is presumably built is relatively simple and hopeful. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN THE DETERMINATION OF POLICIES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT F. E. WILLARD, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE WASHINGTON Teacher participation in the determination of policies is a phrase that may receive more than one interpretation. It may suggest a division of re- sponsibility in administration-a sharing in the name of democracy of certain executive authority with selected leaders of the teaching body who are ambitious to secure recognition and prestige for themselves and their group through its organized influence. I have nothing to say for this type of participation. We have had no experience with it. The Seattle teach- ing corps has never shown particular interest in it, although our teachers have for some time been well organized and efficiently led. Teacher participation, on the other hand, may suggest something wholly professional-a community of interest in the larger issues of education which promotes, not division, but unity of purpose and implies no conflict with centralized administrative control. In this we are interested. Professional growth, to the teacher in service, is not merely an intellec- tual process. It carries with it a growing sense of responsibility, which is GENERAL SESSIONS 111 imbued with an active spirit of service. The field of educational knowl- edge and practice has widened immensely within recent years, because educational philosophy has been finding means of expressing itself in terms of classroom technique. Teachers in large numbers are taking advantage of the new opportunities thus open to them for professional improvement . Any school system must be counted inefficient to the extent that it fails to make use of new initiative that is developing within the corps and look- ing for means of expressing itself through better service. Seattle, like every other city that is professionally awake, is seeking to encourage initiative, to recognize merit, and to improve the whole system through the contributions of its best thinkers and workers. The super- intendent of schools has repeatedly stated that the classroom teacher must be recognized as the central quality-determining factor in the system, because he actually performs the work for which the system exists. Superintendents, supervisors, and principals are useful elements only as they make conditions more favorable for him to work freely and effectively. Successive administrations have held that the most valuable asset the sys- tem can have is confidence of the corps in its official leaders-confidence in their rectitude of purpose, and in their sincerity of desire to interpret honest effort sympathetically. Opportunity to make this clear has always been utilized . A school administration cannot expect to escape criticism and certainly should not wish to suppress it. The problem is to make criticism construc- tive by having it expressed where it may be fairly considered and utilized according to its merits. This is not primarily a question of machinery for expression, although machinery may facilitate action. Seattle, with little formal machinery, has been exceedingly fortunate for many years in the fine understanding spirit that has animated its teaching body. This has been due to two main causes: First, a teaching corps that for many years has been selected without hindrance upon the basis of merit alone; second, for an equal number of years, an open-door policy on the part of the superintendent and all who are permitted to speak for him, through which currents of divergent tendencies are generally unified in a pledge of common loyalty to the best interests of childhood. The maintenance of such relations can hardly be possible without affect- ing school policies. In fact, such effects are quite sure to be pronounced. Whether their source is organized or speaks through a hundred individual mouths, it is the business of school executives to listen and ponder. That at least has been our interpretation of it. Wehave held the spirit of coöperation to be more essential than the form of its expression, but a period like the present one which is actively engaged in experiment and readjustments may require a more positive agency for expression than spirit alone. There has recently been organized, in Seattle, a superintendents' advisory council, representing the elementary schools. This is composed of two representatives from each grade, including the 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION kindergarten. These are appointed by the Grade Teachers' Club, which in- cludes eighty-four per cent of the elementary teachers and consistently main- tains a highly professional attitude. This council, with the president of the Grade Teachers' Club, meets at least twice each semester with the superin- tendent and his assistants for the discussion of any question that anyone wants to propose. These discussions have so far related, for the most part, to kind, quality, and distribution of supplies, equipment and textbooks, and to questions affecting the daily regime. The conferences have been distinctly helpful in bringing some matters to the attention of the super- intendent's department that affect directly the conditions under which class- 'room teachers work, such, for example, as the number of avoidable interrup- tions during the day that dissipate attention. Another subject discussed was that of making the service of substitutes more productive. On the other hand, the teachers have been able to see the administrative difficulties of which they had not been conscious that gave a new aspect to some proposals that had at first seemed simple enough. All discussions have been entirely frank and impersonal, and unexpected differences of opinion among mem- bers of the group itself made clear some of the difficulties of administra- tion. It appeared that some things were after all better managed than they had seemed to be. These conferences will accomplish some definite improvements in practice, but by far the most important outcome is to further confirm the belief of each in the sincerity of all. It may be taken for granted that no curriculum changes of consequence will be undertaken at present without taking counsel with those who will use the changed curriculum . The classroom interpretation of any course of study depends upon the personal equation of the teaching corps and must vary with local teaching situations. Seattle has been working on curricu- lum revision for nearly two years. We have entertained no false hopes of finding a specific for all of our educational ills in new courses of study, but a developing curriculum does furnish a satisfying form of relief for the growing pains of an expanding system. We believe that a useful curric- ulum must grow, that in any city of a thousand or more teachers a new curriculum that goes too far beyond the present practices of the corps will spend itself against a barbed-wire entanglement. But a course of study, frequently revised to make it express the best practice of the forward- looking, successful, growing teachers of the corps, if properly introduced, will be received with enthusiasm. Our plans for curriculum revision provide for a large and very general participation on the part of teachers in determining the adaptability of proposed new material to our present teaching conditions, and in suggesting suitable activities, exercises, de- vices, and content especially local content. The main subject committees are composed of principals; these have assumed the responsibility of making a careful study of all important reports, investigations, studies, and exper- iments that are available ; of becoming familiar with the best local practice, and the practice of other systems; and of defining the educational objectives GENERAL SESSIONS 113 which the various courses will aim to achieve. These committees, work- ing with the best help from other members of the corps that they may be able to get, propose revisions. The schools of the city are assigned to the different subject committees to study the proposals made by the commit- tees, to try them out, to criticize, to correct, to enrich, and to adapt them according to need. Teachers are called in conference with the subject com- mittees. The classroom teacher has a full day's work to do and is not asked to assume the additional burden of a general research student, but he is relied upon to see that the best results of his experience and understanding go into the courses, and that all new outlines before they are accepted are made understandable, workable, and detailed enough so as to leave no doubt as to meaning, aim or method. This process of revision is a slow one, but it does discover those who have something to give; and it in- sures the thorough discussion of all new points of view and thus provides a degree of preparation for them that makes possible the acceptance of a more forward-looking and significant program than would be possible without it. The elementary school principal in Seattle is an influential factor in the determination of school policies. He has come from the classroom, he represents the administration, he is in close contact with a portion of the school district. He has all the advantage of position. In the present hegira to summer university courses, he was one of the first to go and is one of the most persistent repeaters. No modern school system could be what it is without the dynamic urge of his activity. Seattle principals meet the superintendent twice monthly for general discussion of school policies and procedures. The advice of principals is freely sought. At times principals are asked to discuss questions with their teachers before decisions are reached. This body selects a small advisory committee to which the superintendent may refer questions requiring special investiga- tion. At the principals' meeting the ideals and aims, the spirit and attitude, the methods and means that animate the system have their fullest expres- sion and interpretation. Here the pace is set, the outcome is checked, and the forward course defined. Few important policies are initiated that are not insome form first reviewed by this body. The regular principals' meeting is strongly supplemented by a number of voluntary professional organizations. The Principals' Association, with a 100 per cent enrolment meets monthly. It devotes its meetings to the consideration of committee reports that represent much study and care in preparation. The material of these reports may serve a double purpose, as it frequently finds acceptance in graduate theses at the university or in the pages of educational publications. In addition to this, there are four study clubs. These are composed of small groups meeting twice a month for more informal study. Reports on building experiments, studies of tests and measurements, and book reviews are among the principal topics considered. Reports of conclusions reached by these groups are frequently 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION made to the superintendent, and sometimes questions are referred to these clubs for consideration and report. It has been the purpose in Seattle that principals should remain teachers in spirit; that the sympathies, aims, and efforts, of the entire corps should be unified; that service to childhood should be made a motive sufficient to command a united front. This, I believe has been achieved with a reason- able degree of success. The various teachers' organizations through their officers have coöperated heartily with the superintendent and with one another; they stand for professional improvement. The participation of the Seattle corps in the making of school policies is not selfishly con- ceived. There is nothing striking about it. It is, we believe, the normal expression of wholesome conditions. FINANCING STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS MRS . T. V. GOODRICH Mrs. Goodrich presented report on the financing of State teachers' asso- ciations. The ratio of dues paid in the various State Associations, the per cent of teachers enroled in the organizations throughout the several States, and the rate of salaries paid to secretaries and other officers were covered in a series of charts transferred to slides, four of which are reproduced here : GENERAL SESSIONS 115 FIGURE 1. - PER CENT OF TEACHERS ENROLED IN STATE ASSOCIATIONS Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Wyoming , Oklahoma, 90+ Hawaii , Michigan, Missouri 80-89 Utah, Maine" , Ohio, New York , Washington, Louisiana, Kansas, California Colorado , Nebraska, Vermont , Mississippi , Wisconsin , Illinois , Arkansas , Virginia, 70-79 Indiana, Oregon , Alaska , Alabama Massachusetts . Iowa, South Carolina , New Mexico", 60-69 Kentucky , West Virginia, Tennessee Maryland , Montana, Georgia" , 50-59 Idaho , North Carolina Texas, 140-49 North Dakota 30-39 Fla.. Range 33.3% to 98.9% Median 76% Information not complete: Connecticut , Nevada, New Hampshire , Rhode Island . "Do not employ full time paid secretary . FIGURE 2. -DUES OF STATE ASSOCIATIONS $3.00 Cal 2.50 Horth Pakota Utal Illinois , Kansas , Louisiane , Michigan , Minnesotr , Mississippi , Missouri , Nebraska, Texae, 2.00 North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina , Washington, Wisconsin, Colorado " , Hawaii New Kexico" , West Virginia Alabama, Arkansas , Indiana , Iowa , Ohio , 1.50 South Dakota , Florida , Idaho Kentucky, Pennsylvania , Georgia" , Keine , 1.00 Maryland , New Hampshire , Oregon" , Tennessee , Wyoming Virginia, Alaska" , 50 Connecticut, Rhode Island* 40 Mese Range 40 to $3.00 Mode $2.00 *Do not employ full time paio secretaries . Dues include subscription to Association Journal in all cases . Dues in New York and Montana vary according to salaries of members . 116 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION FIGURE 3. - SALARIES OF SECRETARIES IN STATES EMPLOYING FULL TIME SECRETARIES $8000 Pa, 7000 to Cal. 7900 6000 to Wis . 6900 5000 Illinois , Kansas , to 5900 Michigan , Ohio 4000 Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi , Missouri , Nebraska, to 4900 New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, Washington 3000 Alabama, Arkansas , Kentucky , Montana, to 3900 South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah , Virginia 2000 to N. D. 2900 Average 4335.79 Mode 4000 Range 2500 to 8000 FIGURE 4. PER CENT OF INCOME FROM DUES USED FOR SALARIES OF SECRETARIES AND STAFFS 60 Va. Arkansas , Kansas , Kentucky, 50-59 North Carolina Alabama, Mississippi , South Dakota , California, Iowa, South Carolina, 40-49 Utah , Indiana, North Dakota, Texas 30-39 Louisiana, Nebraska, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania 20-29 Nichigan, Oklahoma , Missouri, Washington, Ohio 10-19 111. Range 15.25% to 127.09% Median 42% GENERAL SESSIONS 117 THE STATE ASSOCIATION JOURNAL A. L. MARSH , EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, WASHINGTON EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION , SEATTLE, WASHINGTON On the subject of the magazine of a State teachers' association we do not presume to speak "as one having authority" but merely as a "scribe." Our meager experience of four years in building and experimenting with an association journal scarcely warrants any ex cathedra dictum, however positive our personal conviction may be on various phases of the problems involved. The publication problems are new problems, and the wisest and most experienced among us have scant basis for conclusive judgment. It is significant that the dean of our State association editors, Arthur H. Cham- berlain, of California, has served but sixteen years, and he is at this very time reconsidering the policies of his journal with a view to thoroughgo- ing modification. It is further significant that most of our association magazines are as such less than five years old. There are today a multitude of new things under the sun, as every school child knows, and not the least of these is the fact that about half a million, or approximately two thirds of the rank and file of the Nation's teachers, are today members of a State teachers' association, and that in 28 States a full-time secretary is employed to direct a well-rounded program of professional activities. The large purposes of the State association journal, namely, to facilitate intelligent coöperation of the association membership and friends in its program, and to build the teaching body into a real teaching profession, are clear. On these purposes and on the means and difficulties in their achievement we may not now elaborate. We shall essay here only to state in the briefest form possible some of the salient issues that confront every editor of a State association journal , and with the mere statement we must be content. 1. Should the journal be departmentalized for specialized groups of readers, or should all content, so far as possible, be made of potential in- terest to every reader? For example, should there be a primary department, a rural department, a high school department, subject departments, etc. ? Many teachers desire of the association journal what every teacher greatly needs from some source, such helps and suggestions as may be utilized in the classroom or office task-such technical material as is now supplied by such National publications as The Normal Instructor and Primary Plans, The English Magazine, Administration and Supervision, or The School Board Journal. These teachers seem to desire their asso- ciation journal to be a complete professional compendium in one small magazine and for one small fee. Objections offered to such specialization are: First, that if specializa- tion were adopted it would mean a breaking up of the journal into many 118 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION parts, of which only one or two would be of interest or practical value to any reader (probably few teachers visualize the extent of depart- mentalization that editorial impartiality would require) ; second, that in such specialization few State journals, with limited field of authorship and no funds to purchase material, could compete with the great National com- mercial publications in this field; and third, that matters of general con- cern and of integrating value for the State's teachers are so great as to require all of the space available in most State journals. Consensus of present opinion today strongly opposes specialized departmentalization. 2. Are editorial, book review, and personal mention departments justifi- able? As to editorials, do any considerable number of teachers read articles that challenge deliberation and reflection, or must matter to receive atten- tion even from teachers possess a news or entertainment appeal ? Is perti- nent, well-written editorial expression, which speaks for the association and not merely for the editor, worth while if read only by the thoughtful minority that constitute the association's leaders ? Present practice re- garding editorial comment varies greatly, but substantial editorial depart- ments seem now to be the exception rather than the rule among association journals. As to book reviews, are they effective either as guide or stimulant in professional reading, if such reviews are sound evaluations and are well written? If reviews are employed, should they be short and more inclusive of the current National output or longer and more selective? Concerning items of personal mention, is such a department or feature defensible, when, of the thousands of members supporting the journal, only a few-and those in prominent positions can receive attention ? Many teachers report that they read such items first. Others appreciate more a brief mention of significant achievements and events in the State field of education. 3. Should the form and style of the journal be quietly dignified or colorful and sprightly? It is declared by some critics that teachers in general are pedantic, stilted, and somber, whether naturally so disposed or living up to their public reputation. By these critics it is advised that teachers take themselves less seriously, and that they publish a magazine for normal human beings, with more humor and a brighter style-in short that they "jazz" their journal up abit. On the other hand it is maintained that a quiet dignity is much more be- coming to the profession and acceptable to it, that "jazz" should not be permitted to invade the serious literature of the profession. On this issue two opposing philosophies in support of practice are ad- duced. One is that the first essential for a professional magazine is that it be read, that ifit is not read its "gems of purest ray serene the dark un GENERAL SESSIONS 119 fathomed caves of ocean" might just as well "bear" and bury. First get attention; then gradually raise the standards to the highest point where interest can be maintained-is the working rule of the humanistic critics. The other position is that high standards of journalism should be main- tained from the outset, with dependence on educating more and more teachers to a taste for better things in content and style. This is clearly a classical view. In conclusion, it is pertinent to remark that the State association journal is now edited in most States by the association secretary, a man with many other duties than editorship, who must produce the best he can in the time that is his. Many of his own editorial ideals he has not editorial time to realize; but he is earnest in his desire and effort to make the journal the most effective instrument for the service of the profession, and he is most appreciative of coöperation in the form of constructive criticism from his reading constituents. The editor never forgets that he is the servant of the membership and that the journal he edits is not his journal but theirs- of them, by them, and for them . THE JOURNALS OF TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS (ABSTRACT ) JOY ELMER MORGAN, EDITOR, JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. There is no responsibility in the whole range of human life where sound training, broad outlook, and mastery of the central values count for more than in educational journalism. The journal of an education associa- tion is the spokesman of public servants who hold the most sacred trust within the gift of society. Eight controlling ideas may well govern the work of its editor. They are: 1. The journal should be edited first, last, and all the time in the interests of the reader. 2. An article that is worth printing is worth rewriting to meet readers' needs. 3. Readers worth having prefer well-written, thoughtful material to the more showy and superficial appeals. 4. Contents should be checked constantly by underlying principles of education and life. 5. To develop many writers is better than featuring a few. 6. No achievement of the art of printing is too fine for an educational journal. 7. Every rightly managed journal has a well-defined field and works within that field re-defining its scope as the situation changes . 120 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 8. Editorship is one of the highest forms of trusteeship, increasing in importance with the intelligence, responsibility, and number of readers. THE RELATION OF THE LOCAL TO THE STATE ORGANI- ZATION AND OF BOTH TO THE NATIONAL JESSIE GRAY, PRESIDENT OF PENNSYLVANIA STATE EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA I have a general message to give with regard to the investigations of organizations that I have made, and I say as I come to this National Con- vention that I do not feel I am a Pennsylvanian, I feel that I am an Amer- ican. As I see this wonderful organization of the National Education Association I know that we have a right to be proud of our heritage and should feel a challenge to do better things in the cause of education and organization for effectiveness than we have ever done. I wish also to say this, if we count our material gains as our greatest gains, we are on the wrong side of the observation car. It seems to me if we calculate our material gains at the expense of idealism, we have suffered defeat. In Pennsylvania we have had more material gains this year than in any year since our organization, but the gain has been a spiritual one, too, a gain in ideals, in the belief that education is the child of the State. When our legislature cut off appropriations for education we felt the righteousness and support of organization. When we appealed to our city and local or- ganizations there was a blaze that made our legislators feel that nothing could be done in Pennsylvania that would jeopardize the cause of education in the State. So was strengthened the principle that education must be paid for by the State, and that nothing can interfere with that principle. I should rather give up our material gains in Pennsylvania, great as they may be, than lose the great ideal, that great principle we have begun to realize as never before that unity of purpose on the part of educators helps us to defend and extend education if we are to be worthy citizens of this great Nation. I know that organization was the channel through which success came to us, and so as president of a State organization of 51,600 teachers, I am going to discount our material gains and I am going to say that when we came to our State legislature it was with this united plea that education, and not the teacher, is the thing that we must fight for. I know that to us was entrusted the great privilege of "selling" the schools of the State to the legislature and citizens, and insisting that that is one of the chief aims of legislation in the State of Pennsylvania. I shall briefly discuss the relationship of the Philadelphia Teachers' Asso- ciation-which is the local branch of the State Association-in three vital respects the aims, the membership, the benefits. The Philadelphia Teachers' Association was organized in 1904 and has for its aims to aid the betterment of educational conditions, to elevate the GENERAL SESSIONS 121 teaching profession in Philadelphia by promoting and protecting the in- terest of members and also the cultivation of a spirit of fellowship and mutual helpfulness . In 1923, a local branch of the State association was established to foster a closer union of local and State interests, to keep the Philadelphia teach- ers informed as to State activities and policies, to participate more actively in legislative matters that interested all Pennsylvania. After a short period of existence, the Philadelphia Teachers' Association amended its constitu- tion so that the local branch of the State association became a subsidiary section of the city association, instead of a separate organization. This was done to facilitate elections of delegates to the State convention and the collection of money to be used to finance those delegates, and to provide a fund upon which to draw for other educational expenses, such as research work, salary campaigns, welfare, and so on. In short, it promotes a closer contact between the city and State educational affairs. The chairman of the subsidiary section is appointed by the president of the city association from his board of directors. This consists of six executive officers and fourteen other members elected to represent the varying groups of teach- ers throughout the city. They meet monthly to discuss matters of general welfare. A council of representatives consisting of one person from each school in the city brings to the association the individual, personal contact that constitutes true democracy. It is the duty of this council of rep- resentatives (some 250 in number) to meet twice a year (or at the call of the chair) to make known the opinions and desires of all the members for the guidance of the board of directors. To these representatives are given the reports of all committees, so that they may in return make known to the teachers in the various schools just what has been accomplished and what is to be attempted. These representatives budget dues and collect them and transfer them to the treasurer. This budgeting emphasizes professional organization and coöperation between local, State, and National educational associations and the resultant benefits. The money for the city dues is divided among professional groups to pay for speakers at annual meetings (according to the number of people in the group) . It pays toward extra-mural classes ; for general lectures and entertainments. It also pays for the publication of The News Letter, and 50 cents (out of the $1.50) is set aside as the local branch's funds with which to finance delegates to the State conven- tion. The number of delegates to the State convention is one for every hundred members, so Philadelphia has about fifty members in the State convention financed by the local subsidiary branch of the city organization. Thus the State and local branch unite themselves annually in a convention from whose delegates a president, a second vice-president, and members of the executive council are elected. The executive council of our State association consists of the presidents of the groups of teachers recognized as departments of education by the constitution of the State association . 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Another bond between the State and local associations is the State Jour- nal, which reports to local members matters of State significance and per- sonal information . At the annual convention of the State we elect delegates to the National Education Association, one for every 100 up to 500 and thereafter one for every 500. This gives the State twenty-six delegates to the National Education Association. The State organization has tentatively adopted a plan to finance State delegates to the National Education Association. It pays the fare and Pullman expense of delegates to and from the national convention and allows $6.00 per day allowance to delegates for each day's attendance. According to the city's apportionment, the national association is allowed one for every 100 members of the National Education Association. This one per cent allotment gives Philadelphia twenty delegates for a 2000 membership compared with a State allotment of twenty-six for an 11,000 membership in the National Education Association. Direct affiliation thus encourages a greater local representation in the National Education Association, but the local branch does not take advantage because it finances delegates to the State rather than to the national convention owing to lack of funds. However, it emphasizes direct affiliation and representation just as the House of Representatives does in our Government. Direct representation according to membership strengthens national unity. Indirect representation from local branches through the State to the National Education Association emphasizes the interdependence of the city, State, and Nation. This has proved most successful because it gives the State the same opportunity of financing delegates to the National convention as the local has to finance delegates to the State convention. The oftener we can emphasize the co-inclusive membership, the greater the unity and effectiveness of the city, State, and National affiliation. In Pennsylvania we are looking forward to the greatest project of uniting the local and State organizations through zoning the State into some fifteen or sixteen convention districts, to each of which the State associa- tion will send speakers. They will inspire tens of thousands (for we have 51,600 members) instead of the few hundreds that are sent to the annual convention. The convention districts will make an opportunity for in- spiration and information to be brought to our teachers. If these conven- tions can be arranged to meet simultaneously, we can circuit speakers of national fame, and petition our governor to proclaim educational week in the State, close the schools, and give teachers a far better vision of what professional benefit, happiness, and inspiration can come from and through organization. GENERAL SESSIONS 123 The work of TEACHERS' ORGANIZATIONS AND ITS RECOGNITION BY SCHOOL, CIVIC, AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND OFFICIALS OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 120, NEW YORK CITY FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION A favorite quotation of mine is Thomas Jefferson's words: "If a Nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be. Ignorance and bigotry, like other insanities, are incapable of self-government. No other foundation can be laid for the preservation of freedom and happiness but the equal education of all the people. " I quoted it last year when I stood before you for the opening address at the Washington meeting of the National Education Association. I quote it again today because there is an inseparable relationship between the principle Thomas Jefferson propounded and the work of teachers' organizations. The growth of teachers' associations all over the country and the phenomenal increase in the National Education Association membership in a few years indicate clearly that teachers are awakening to their im- portance and responsibility in the "preservation of freedom and happiness " in a self-governing people. Almost in proportion to their awakening have come attacks upon the common-school idea, insidious efforts to break down the people's faith in the relation of education to America's social problems, and sinister influences attempting to prevent any solidarity of professional consciousness and united action by teachers . Sooner or later in every public speech, both orators and demagogues will assert in public addresses their belief in education as the foundation on which American democracy rests. They are sincere enough, too, but the trouble with some of them is that they think of both education and democ- racy as abstractions, and they have no real intention of letting the teacher, who is the concrete, practical expression and exponent of education, or the voter who is the concrete, practical exponent of democracy influence either education or democracy to any great degree-not at all if their activity interferes with or interrupts personal ambition or business profits. You may think I am riding a hobby, because I have said something of this same sort so many times. Well, I'm going to keep on riding that hobby until teachers stand solidly united and resolved to obtain the rightful recognition of the educator, as well as education, and until they are or- ganized for the fulfillment of the teacher's mission-the duty of prepara- tion for citizenship in an ideal democracy. This is the reason for my in- terest in teachers' associations. Without this belief as an actuating motive, I never would have bothered my head or used up time and strength for any teachers' associations, local or National, and I will never retain con- nection with any teachers' associations whose membership loses sight of that goal or permits its leaders to use it for any other aim. 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION During the year just past, I received several letters challenging some statements I made about the sinister influences at work against American education and against professional organization by teachers. I answered none of these letters, partly because my statements were sufficiently ex- plicit, partly because I have neither time nor stenographic help to enter into controversy by mail. But today I am talking to you as a group in teach- ers' associations or you would not be here. Therefore, I shall tell you some of the detailed ways in which these influences work in teachers' or- ganizations, often using perfectly sincere and upright persons to be the agents. One of the chief of those is the practice of discrediting officers of teach- ers' associations in the wake of destroying their prestige and leadership among the members of the association. Another is using intrigue and combinations of individuals with personal aims in order to elect to office in teachers' associations persons who have no real leadership in the group or who will prove pliant tools. A third is the perpetual president who is permitted to remain in office more than a number of terms limited by the association constitution and who comes to think of the association as his personal vehicle of expression, not always necessarily for selfish gain, but always resulting in doubt as to the strength of opinion behind him. A fourth is spreading the idea that holding office in an association is a means towards promotion to higher rank in employment in the school system and that the officers are therefore merely boosters of themselves for promotion. Hundreds, yes, thousands, of teachers are successfully re- strained from uniting with their fellows because they are foolish enough to believe this twaddle. As a matter of fact, the continuously successful and influential organizations are those whose officers accept the duty in full knowledge that they will probably create antagonisms working against their own opportunities for promotion if they courageously carry out the will of their association membership when some official is determined upon an undesired policy, and no association has ever yet continued to live as an influential and trusted agent for teachers when its officers were boosters for themselves. Dr. Butler in a recent address at Columbia said : "Cowardice, selfish fear, bringing personal ambition, constantly sap the wellspring of intellectual and moral courage." This is especially true in regard to leaders of teachers' associations, but it is seldom true that leaders of influential teachers' associations are of such types, as could be proved if time permitted by citing many names and cases well known to you as leaders of the National Education Association . Still a fifth way in which the united action of teachers is hindered results from the failure to face frankly the financial needs of an association. We have gone along too many years in a pettifogging sort of way-dues only large enough to pay for the secretary's paper and stamps, writing painfully and slowly done by committee workers, or done by public stenographers occasionally employed at extravagant rates, instead of rapidly and promptly GENERAL SESSIONS 125 by a permanently employed stenographer, suspicious of the purposes for which money might be used, meeting in cheerless places because there was no money to pay rent in comfortable, clublike surroundings, representation denied at important gatherings except when some self-sacrificing officer pays his own way in these enumerate the many embarrassments which are inevitable when an association's income is insufficient. I loathe comparisons of teachers' salaries or associations with hand and trade workers, because our proper basis of comparison on any score is with the learned professions to which we rightfully belong and in which our membership will be acknowledged when we learn to respect ourselves as professional workers. But just for once in this matter of meeting associa- tional financial needs, I shall tell you a story of the early days of the gar- ment workers' union. I happened to be especially interested because many of the girls had been pupils of mine in an evening high school. I shall never forget the decision they made that their leaders must have plenty of money to meet any emergency and that a tax would be paid by each one, far larger in proportion than any teachers' association then paid and larger than most do even today. Teachers' associations' dues are almost universally too small, and also the association reckons its income as if one hundred per cent of a given group had paid dues, forgetting that this never happens. The basis of calculation is too often an immediate need and omits to consider future professional expansion. Several factors have produced this situation : 1. Suspicion of the purposes for which money may be used, this being often incited as a means of blocking the growth of an association by sinister in- fluences already referred to. 2. Inexperience in club life and general organization customs, due largely to the youth of the majority of the teachers and to the fact that women have only within recent years shared in club experience. 3. Social factors, some due again to old ideas regarding woman's opportunities, some due to lack of appreciation of teaching as a permanent professional career. The method of collecting dues has also been a difficulty in the financing of teachers' associations. There has been a remarkable looseness with regard to this. Many teachers do not remember what association they belong to. Many do not know when dues are supposed to be paid. Many teachers slip around among different associations from year to year, paying dues in one this year, in another next year, back to the first in the third year, leaving unpaid dues for the intervening year, seemingly ignorant of the inviolable club rule that they are debtors for that second year and have no right to membership privileges in the third year unless they do pay up for the intervening year. Some teachers will angrily assert that they have paid their dues in one organization and their investigation will dis- close that they have paid dues to the collector of some organization, care- lessly, blindly, only anxious to get the interruptive collector out of their classrooms. Sometimes they pay dues to insistent teacher collectors and 126 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION then find that they have no money left to join some organization of in- finitely greater value. To remedy this situation many places are adapting the budget plan for collecting dues for all associations at the same time, usually the early fall. Under this system, the teachers are provided with a list of National, State, and local associations, together with the dues for each. They check on this list the desired organizations and calculate the total cost. They there give the list with name signed and a check or money order to someone designated for the purpose, usually the clerical assistant or the school treasurer if the school has one. This person sorts out the names signed up for each association and sends to each the appropriate list and the amount of dues. Thus the question is ended for the school year. If any new request is made thereafter, it is not for any organization on the list given to the teachers. Asixth cause for loss of respect and influence for teachers' associations is lack of a definite aim and a well-understood program of action. Too often salary increase has been the only motive prompting the formation of an organization. While combination for salary increase is legitimate and is always an effective instrument with which to begin an association it does not provide for permanency of organization, and it may even defeat combination for professional aims or for the goal already described as that towards which all teachers in America should strive. This frequency of salary increase as the motive prompting organization is responsible for the short life and small influence of many teachers' asso- ciations, for the need to have a newly organized group for action as each emergency arises, for the ease which persons with selfish aims can sometimes manipulate a teachers' association for their own purposes. The seventh and last I shall name of the difficulties which give sinister influences against American education is a failure to regulate the distribu- tion of voting power in a teachers' association. This makes it possible for schism to arise or to be precipitated by those desiring to obstruct united action by teachers. It makes it possible to sit rank against rank, sex against sex, city against rural sections, by intimating to the one that the association is being run by the other. Sometimes factional control actually does occur. Sometimes an organized minority defeats the real wishes of the membership. Sometimes a group having a numerical majority rides roughshod over the rights of groups necessarily small in numbers, but possibly better informed than the numerically larger group. All of these seven conditions are capable of correction by teachers them- selves right within the organization itself. If any one of those condi- tions has brought about a complete loss of faith in the association and it lacks trusted leadership, discard it. Have a new deal and begin over. Whether the correction be attempted within the association or whether a new organization is made, these seven conditions must be met. If rumors are circulated discrediting the officers of your association, cry GENERAL SESSIONS 127 them down-the rumors, not the officers. In the majority of men's clubs, the members struggle strenuously at election times, but the election settled, they give the officers selected by majority vote complete confidence. In many teachers' organizations, the election is neglected and then the officers are treated like targets to shy a stick at. Select your officers. BUILDING THE CHILD'S PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE J. O. ENGLEMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA The topic assigned to me presupposes that children do gradually fashion some sort of philosophy of life; that this philosophy is one of the most sig- nificant facts in their lives; and that parents and teachers have a joint re- sponsibility in seeing that its fashioning shall result in a philosophy in harmony with the best which they have known and tested. The most I can hope to do is to suggest some of the elements in such a philosophy, and some of the means most likely to avail in stimulating and directing its growth. May I postulate as the first element to teach a child, that this is a moral universe; that there are evil forces at work warring against this moral order; that a normal individual's happiness not less than society's good is best promoted through an alliance of one's influence and energy with this moral order. Denton J. Snider, in his philosophic commentaries upon Dante's Divine Comedy, speaks throughout their pages of a World Order ; the Greeks, in the great tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides, portray the doctrine of an avenging Nemesis; the Hebrews of ancient days inspired the belief in Retribution, a retributive justice. But whether we call it World Order, Nemesis, Retribution, or God, there is obviously, through the ages "one increasing purpose" running, to see, know, and square life with which multiplies an individual's satisfactions and adds to the good of the world. "Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap" may safely be taught to children, with enough of illustrations and practical applica- tions in the physical, intellectual, social, and moral realms to grip the child's thought and feelings as well. A second element in a rational philosophy of life worthy of passing on to a younger generation is that the virtues enjoined by teachers and parents are not mere restraints and fetters interfering with freedom and happiness but are of their essence. Men have tasted every cup. The human race has tried almost every rule of life. The world has learned that racial well- being demands that one shall not kill, steal, commit adultery, lie, be drunken, be lazy, hate his fellows, "for with what measure ye mete, it shall be meted unto you." It has learned, even though individuals often forget, that the Golden Rule works. Children must be taught to test the morality of an act having a social bearing in the light of universality. If 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION everybody were to do it, would it make or mar happiness, save or destroy society, free or enslave the individual, promote or retard civilization ? Our institutions are built upon moral foundations. They could not endure upon others. The State guarantees protection of life and property to its people on the assumption that they will be loyal to it, obey its laws, pay a just share of taxes for the exercise of its functions, coöperate in various activities for the common good. Were most citizens to refuse to do these things, anarchy would result. The State would cease to be. Business, too often unethical, no less surely rests upon a moral founda- tion. Men borrow money, secure credit, enter into contracts, buy, sell, exchange, plan for the future, because they believe other men will be as good as their word, do what they promise, and do it when they promise to do it. If most men were dishonest, unreliable, immoral, business would collapse immediately. Every business transaction and institution is a stand- ing challenge to the trust that men have in each other, and many of them are monuments to integrity as well. Dishonesty, trickery, breach of faith- still too common-are after all exceptional and not the rule in business. The home is an institution built upon mutual love, trust, faith, industry, coöperation, concession. Without these it fails. With these it withstands the rudest shocks of poverty, sickness, or other adversities. Divorce, in- fidelity, abandonment, eternal triangles of these we read daily. So do we read of murder, robbery, bandits, bootleggers, and law-breakers and law-breaking of a varied type, but these constitute news merely because they are not the rule. We may thank God and the moral foundations of society that they are still uncommon enough to seem to deserve a shocking place and a bold-face heading on the front page of our dailies. Such truths as the foregoing need teaching to our children in the effort to develop in their thinking a wholesome philosophy of life. The home ought to do it. The intelligent home can do it more effectively than church or school is able to do it. But home, school, and church will probably need to reinforce each other with such teaching. Certainly we need to see that the child's philosophy isnot fashioned by the cynic and the pessimist, and no less that his own immaturity and inability to see the deeper cur- rents of real life beneath the flotsam and jetsam of sensationalism do not result in a mistaken and cynical attitude towards the verities of life. As teachers we are always confronted with the question, "Just what can we do that will have the most helpful bearing upon a child's moral life ?" Unfortunately, the question is not yet answered, though we do have a number of partial answers . Insofar as moral character or a moral philosophy is related to or dependent upon habit, we are upon fairly sure ground. The late William James taught the world the laws of habit. Certainly he popularized them. His teachings seem to be no less pertinent to habits in the moral than to those in the intellectual realm. But whatever may be the need of other means and agencies, the contagion of example seems to be one of the surest in touching the mainsprings of GENERAL SESSIONS 129 life in children. A child cannot well understand goodness or patriotism or vice in the abstract. But he does respond to a good mother, a patriotic man, or a vicious associate. There is a touching plea and a sobering re- sponsibility in the readiness of children to idealize and follow teachers and parents. Indeed, a child who is not estranged by some unfortunate cir- cumstance or act is likely to attribute to his hero a number of virtues he never possessed and be attracted to him by reason of these fancied virtues until the day of possible disillusionment comes. The same tendency carries over to the heroes of history and of fiction. What teacher of us does not recall the hurt he felt on learning that Washington, or Webster, or Lin- coln actually had certain very human frailties in spite of the perfection with which we earlier invested him ? The true teacher teaches much by indirection. There is an unconscious influence emanating from him. What he really is and profoundly believes, his faith in God, his faith in his fellow-man, his spirit of tolerance, his belief in the principles of democracy applied to government and not less to industry, his abhorrence of evil, his purity of thought as well as speech, his optimism, his wholesomeness, these will crop out, if he have them, and attract by their genuineness and lack of ostentation. They will greatly help in determining the philosophy of pupils long before the latter could formulate any statement of that philosophy. The desire and struggle for money all about us has a large part in shap- ing every child's attitude toward life, and his appreciation of life's relative values. What he sees and hears and reads daily does much to lead him to believe that wealth is the principal thing. Its allurements, the comforts and pleasures it may bring, he cannot fail to see. What he may not see without aid is the pain, the worry, the sorrow, the loss of self-respect, the emptiness of life, the harvest of barren regrets that may attend ill-gotten riches, or those for which the best things in life are sacrificed. Goldsmith would remind him that Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates and men decay. A greater teacher would tell him that "Life does not consist in the abundance of the things one has." We need to help him to see and feel some of the thrill and joy of those who lived and served for the good they could do, and not for the reward they got. Pasteur, great scientist, benefactor of his race, poor in purse, simple in his tastes, religious in spirit, happy in his study and his service; Grenfell, physician, missionary, friend, living a life of hardship and danger in Labrador because its people need him ; Kennedy's Servant in the House, displaying and dispensing more joy inhis humble calling than did the bishop, his brother; Socrates, calmly drinking the cup of hemlock while discussing immortalty; Jesus, showing how to live for others, then teaching the same lesson through his death- these examples and scores of others may properly be used to impress upon 130 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION youth the lesson that life is not necessarily sordid and selfish. Men do live for great riches, but youth may be shown that many would still rather choose a good name. Men do think little save of what they can get, but as truly do men live to give. There are selfish souls about us, unresponsive to the cries of a needy world; but there are generous souls, too, not only heeding the cry from Macedonia for help, but the cries from every other land under the sun. Among my personal friends I number some who serve in India, some in China, some in Persia on the Euphrates, and some in the Near East. But the place matters not. It is the will to serve that counts. What we owe to youth is the lesson that the spirit of service is still alive in the land. Many of our colleges even are buoyant with it. No philosophy of life would be true if this fact did not enter into its making. In closing, may I call to your attention the words of the eminent French psychologist and philosopher, Le Bon. We should hardly expect such a pronouncement from this source. Coming as it does from the pen of a French philosopher, it is the more significant. In his recent book, "The World in Revolt," he says in an early chapter that "The principal function of education should be to create those habits which are the guides of every- day life," and he closes with the declaration: "Our future place in the world will depend upon the quality of the children now growing up. The future will belong not to the peoples whose intellect is greatest, but to those whose character is strongest." HOW THE TEACHER MOLDS CHARACTER JESSIE GRAY, PRESIDENT OF PENNSYLVANIA STATE EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA Unless a teacher has the skill to answer to this question in his heart, through the love of children, he has become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. The essence of teaching is influence, and unless a teacher can cause a "flow into" another soul of a desire to be had and do, he cannot be called successful . Teaching facts does not create character, although teaching accurately helps in the approach to honesty. However, to be mother of a child's character one must be rather than know. Soul hunger, soul nourishment, soul assimilation are not ministered to by intellect-but from soul health and soul strength dedicated to the service of influence. A trait of character that enlists approval inevitably compels imitation. Much has been said and written recently about methods of instruction. There has been a renaissance of educational methods and yet Dr. Bagley tells us that the crime wave is higher in the United States than in any nation-that the criminal age is younger in the United States than in any other land. We are appealed to as educators to suggest a remedy. Remedial measures for GENERAL SESSIONS 131 such conditions are essential and should demand more thought than methods of imparting subject matter. Project methods, socialized recita- tion, motivation are all intellectualized instead of spiritualized. Poor Richard said, "Take care of the pennies and the dollars will take care of themselves." I might paraphrase and say, "Take care of the spiritual, and the morals and methods will take care of themselves." I am not pessimistic, but I can look verities in the face and say they are true. We have cared more for the externals of education recently than for the essentials. We have built greater barns and spent more money for education, butGod is going to require of us not the extent of education, but the harvest of education . "To yield an abundant harvest, education must be a kind of religion to a teacher. It is only a man who holds a conviction that can fight to a finish for a cause; and the individual character of a teacher shall do more for his harvest than the thing that he teaches. A strong character breeds strength in others, and a luminous head makes all round it luminous . Thomas Arnold, of Rugby, was a great scholar and a great teacher, but he was a greater man ; and because of his manhood-greatness and its great ac- complishments he is known and cherished wherever the cause of education is dear. We cannot recall too often that the schooling which educates the intellect is desirable, but the schooling which sweetens the heart and forms the character and educates the soul-powers is indispensable. Almost every- thing that the teacher gives from books is forgotten in the stress and strain of life; but the influence of a high-bred, generous-hearted, humanity- loving, sympathetic teacher is the next most important thing that is bred in America, for it is the next most powerful lever in raising the manhood and the womanhood of America-next always to an educated mother. " (Henry Klonower.) In suggesting a remedy, we must select teachers more wisely-not allow all who will to be trained, but those whose lives have shown preparation for the rare privilege of "exampling" the youth. Those finer souls in our high schools who are thorough, earnest, who scorn to cheat either themselves or others, who are industrious, unselfish, good to live with. Mark them as educators and select them for the finest service that offers to humanity. Then stress the spiritual side of education-instead of rating for excellence in geography, history, and other academic branches. Let those be the things that minister to growth in industry, honesty, careful- ness, obedience, promptness, perseverance, contentment, decision, helpful- ness, ideals, justice, patriotism, resourcefulness, self-control, self-reliance. Next year, I shall begin my work by asking each child to make a card in- dicating the traits he would like to have for his own, to check up on the things that help him win, and to check also the things that have helped defeat him. This will motivate his own growth and project his problem of character building into the realm of things that merely minister to growth in grace: Studies, plays, home life, and school life. I shall try to have 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION more time for the confidential heart-to-heart talks that I realize have been crowded out by the scramble for subject matter. Awell-informed mind is a good thing, but it is not to be compared with a well-formed character. The child must increasingly have his activities motivated, so that they promote not only his intellectual, but far more, his moral and spiritual well-being. Asking the child to enumerate the desired traits will put the sanction in each case within the spirit of the pupil and will not superimpose our wishes upon an unwilling pupil. Let me say, however, that I should not fail to dominate one whose sad heritage is to be at variance with honesty, promptness, diligence, self-control. He must be held to the trellis of some one else's strength of character till the time comes when he can stand alone, or in the face of the Eternal Judge. A teacher can say, " I did my best," for we are positively responsible as edu- cators for his failure or success. Guidance is only effective when objectives are set up and plainly visible. For this reason it is essential to construct in the soul of the child a stand- ard of spiritual and moral excellence toward which all subjective and ob- jective forces at work on the child may move, and he must see the goal at first and learn to have faith in it later when greater difficulties are to be overcome and it is befogged by doubt. The aim of education should be skill in living. Acquiring skill in living is continuing one's education . It is leading out of a life to a fuller usefulness. Have you as a teacher learned a skill in honor ? Show your skill, not as a circus spectacle, but as a gracious influence to see another try, to cheer his effort, to help in time of failure, till at last his success cheers him and you. Have you as a teacher learned a skill in self-sacrifice and abnegation ? Show your skill, not as a spectacle, but as a hidden, but not the less forceful spirit, that sees another try, cheers his effort and helps in time of failure to be glad to try again. That is lighting a torch for another to see the way and to arrive at length. "As one lamp lights another, nor grows less, so nobleness enkindles nobleness." Have you, as a teacher, learned a skill in smiling in disappointmenta skill in being brave in defeat ? Show your skill not as a comedian, but as an invincible optimist. Show your students how to go smiling through. Have you, as a teacher, learned a skill in being honest in word and deed and thought ? You can't help passing on such a contagion, for, thanks be, good life and morals are also contagious. So you see I am stressing not only the method of instruction, but more than that the kind of teacher we provide for our children-not only method and teacher, but the sub- ject matter for character building. The method should be : 1. Positive (do-active ) ; not negative (don't-passive-penalized) . 2. Continuous (do) ; not capricious (don'ts ) . 3. Concrete (doing-stories ) ; not precepts (maxims-mottoes ) . 4. Train judgment and will-power. 5. Develop faith through skill in doing. GENERAL SESSIONS 133 Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever, Do noble things, not dream them, all day long, And so make life, death, and that vast forever One grand sweet song. So in our effort to develop character we must develop : 1. The knowledge of what is right. 2. The will and desire to do and continue the doing. 3. The faith in the growing skill of acting rightly. 4. Desire to dedicate that skill to the service of others. This, it seems to me, interprets feeling, knowing, willing, and motiva- tion in our thoughts about the development of morals and character-build- ing. THE MORALS OF MODERN YOUTH HENRY NOBLE SHERWOOD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA One of the most appalling facts in our social order is the prevalence of crime among the young people. The records of Marion County show that the majority of lawbreakers in that county are from eighteen to twenty-two. From all parts of our Union reports indicate that youth is the criminal age. The remedy for this condition is to find the cause or causes underlying it and to direct our energies to remedial measures. The causes may be grouped under three heads : Too much commercialized entertainment, lack of parental interest and authority, and need of religious atmosphere and education . It is natural for youth to play. This instinct is seen in all animal life. The lambs on the hillside and the colts in the meadow both testify to the play life of youth. Boys and girls need to play. They must have recreation and entertainment. Business knows this characteristic of youth and has capitalized it. We see evidences of it in dance halls, poolrooms, and movie theaters. Business has too often built its program on the principle of obtaining financial returns. It has ignored the element of character- building and therefore lowered the standards of recreational life. This business has made a survey of 37,000 high school students in seventy-six cities of our country in order to find out the number of times per week boys and girls attend the movies. In their magazine regret is expressed over the fact that these young people attend the movie on an average only about once per week. The movie magnates are interested in obtaining more frequent appearances at their shows. Their audience is composed of people between the ages of ten and forty-nine; one third of them are under nineteen. Hence the appeal to high school boys and girls. 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION What we need is to take the money-making interest out of entertainment and place it upon the principle of character-building. To do this churches and schools must become in part responsible for it. The home, too, must take its place as a producer of wholesome entertainment. And above all young people themselves must be taught to entertain themselves. There is the appeal of art and nature, of music and reading, and that most charming work of culture, conversation. We need more walking and less driving ; more outdoors and less indoors; more entertainment leading to character and less entertainment leading to financial reward. When we have this appeal to young life, the boys and girls will be led away from crime instead of into it. The second cause of moral delinquency in youth is the lack of parental interest and authority. The pressure of business, the call of society, and the ease with which the usual home interests are transferred to outside agencies have tremendously broken down the home influences. When we recall the paramount place which the family holds in our social order we see at once that fathers and mothers must make home the most attrac- tive spot on earth, and that they must exemplify the virtues of pure man- hood and womanhood. No institution is as important as the family. All others must rest on it. We could dispense with the others; we could never dispense with home. On the home rests the reproduction of the race and the establishment of these elemental virtues on which a well-ordered society rests. Here the ideals and principles that play such an important part in after life are fixed. It is because parents have failed to preserve the home as the anvil on which to beat out the elements of high endeavor and righteous achieve- ment that our young people constitute the class from which our criminals come. The third explanation for the frequency of crime among our young people is the lack of religious education among our people. The recent survey of Indiana Sunday schools shows that ninety-two per cent of our boys and girls have dropped out of Sunday school by the time they reach the age of twenty-two. It is a strong fact that the criminal age is the non- going to Sunday school age and non-going to church age. Protestants in Indiana give, on the average, twelve hours of religious instruction an- nually to their children. Sixty-two per cent of Indiana's population are not connected with any church. So long as this situation exists our youth will not be saturated with that moral and religious teaching which sends men and women out to do their part as law-abiding citizens of America. GENERAL SESSIONS 135 THE PARENT'S RESPONSIBILITY FOR MORAL EDUCATION MRS. A, H. REEVE, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA The path of progress in moral education is marked with increasing frequency by signs which those who run may read. Here it is a code of morals to be taught in the schools; there, an order of nobility to be recruited-through the schools; elsewhere a junior republic or a self-gov- ernment association-operating in the schools. While these signals may display to the public on the cross streets the green light of safety, to thoughtful citizens traveling the main highway of general education they present the red gleam of danger. In addition to the regular curriculum, to which have been added in recent years- among other subjects-health, civics, and home economics, taken from the former roster of the home, we now are thrusting upon the school the training of the child's character; or rather, the school has been forced to assume this burden, since the average home seems to have avoided or ignored it. It is not that parents are worse than they used to be. Like the rising generation, they are much maligned. The explanation lies in the fact that the teaching profession has made tremendous forward strides in the past fifty years. The qualified instructor of youth today is not only a ped- agogue; he is a physiologist, a psychologist, and an administrator, while the parents have remained-just parents. But I am far from suggesting that the school should not teach morals. I believe that they should teach nothing without developing the lesson in morality which will surely be involved, whether in history, geography, literature, civics, home economics-even art and music. For all these have their moral side, as have the daily experiences in those human rela- tionships which, as the teachers is well aware, are becoming so increasngly complex in these almost too progressive days. It is, however, the right of the school that it should receive from the home a scholar who has already been grounded not only in the laws of health but in those of obedience, honesty, thoroughness, promptness, courtesy, and respect for the rights of others, and should therefore be required only to continue his education along these lines, maintaining in its contacts with the pupil that high moral standard of the home which in six years of pre-school education has become the habit of mind of the growing boy or girl. It is stated on good authority that the school has the opportunity to influence the child during but one-twentieth of his life up to the period of his graduation from high school, while the home controls the balance of his time. Thus is placed upon the parents the responsibility for nineteen- twentieths of his moral education by means of instruction, example, and 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the production and maintenance of an environment in home and com- munity which will provide for the development of the right kind of char- acter. Parents have too long and too generally looked upon the raising of a family as a biological process rather than a moral responsibility. Even with the successful production of a physically perfect "little animal" at school age, only the house has been built in which the man or woman is to dwell. It must be furnished with a mind made keen, alert, equally ready with the sound body to serve that higher, indwelling person- ality whose influence for good or ill shall, like our own, reach down through generations yet unborn, to bear witness to the success or failure of the father and mother who called it into the world. "Acts make habits; habits make character." Six years of the daily, hourly inculcation of habits, and a character is formed, with those stand- ards of truth, honor, justice, and service which have been set before it by precept and practice. Character-morality-cannot be taught by theory, any more than health or athletic proficiency can be acquired and sustained by correspondence or by verbal direction alone. "If your path be crooked, you cannot point out the straight and narrow way; the child holding your hand walks as you walk." Two methods have been suggested and tried in the teaching of morals in the schools: One, the devotion of certain periods to instruction, as in mathematics, spelling, or reading; the other, the drawing of its moral lesson from every subject, by inference rather than by direct approach. Both of these methods are dependent for results entirely upon the personal- ity of the teacher, and for this reason, if for no other, the school should never expect to meet with the success in character building which it attains in other and more standardized courses. Moreover, since morality or character can be developed only by means of constant exercise, the school, though it may make here a valuable contribution to this phase of education, cannot hope to achieve alone a satisfactory result. In moral education, as in health-and the two are more closely linked together than the general public recognizes observation and practice are alike essential. A child learns to be good by being good, and by seeing good- ness in others, not by being told about goodness. If opportunity for exer- cise in good habits is given during only one-twentieth of his educational period, it is vain to look for a finished product at the end of his school career. In this department of education as perhaps in no other to the same degree, is the coöperation of home and school so absolutely a sine qua non. If the home is giving the right kind of individual character training- and let us say it with thankfulness, there are many so doing-then the school has its definite task of supplementing that education by the teach- ing of group morality-the general application of personal integrity, justice, and helpfulness to the civic relationships of the classroom, the GENERAL SESSIONS 137 athletic field, and the other activities of school life. If, on the other hand, the teacher finds that the parents have failed to recognize and assume their responsibility-and the child tells so plainly the story of the home then by the school must group morality be driven back into the home, and as far as possible must the child be led to grasp its application to everyday conditions. Here by the development of coöperation between teacher and parent, the father and mother may be aroused to a sense of their shortcomings and may be led to offer regular and consistent oppor- tunity for practice in good habits as well as a better example of them. Perhaps one explanation of so much shifting of moral education to the school program may be found in the fact that it is easier to live on the heights for six hours than for eighteen, especially when, as in the case of educators, a certain amount of group psychology lends its support as a general rule to the rôle of Mentor as played by the teacher. Certain qualifications are looked for by the pupils, and any successful magician will tell you that an audience is most easily made to think it sees that which it expects to see. A teacher is ex-officio expected to be just, calm, almost omniscient, and in matter of discipline-supported by the dim shadow of the principal's office in the background-omnipotent. The teacher is subject to righteous exasperation, under provocations almost beyond endurance, it is true; but a degree of support is always supplied by the non-exasperating, non-provoking majority, when the instructor has won the loyalty of the scholars, and a part of the solution of many a difficult situation comes from the habit formation in the group, which tends to maintain balance and restore order. In the home, on the contrary, this powerful auxiliary is lacking. There is an almost continuous close-up of every situation, every act. It is difficult to maintain equal poise, a judicial attitude of mind, in a varied group ranging from a possibly tempermental paterfamilias, whose office day begins at the breakfast table to cast its shadow before, in the tensing of nerves and muscles to meet the strain of the office or the mill, to the baby who has become the insatiable explorer, and who, cheerfully, aggressively companionable, is underfoot well-nigh from sunrise to sunset, while in between will be found, perhaps, a run-about, one or two grade school youngsters, and a high school student. From early rising until the final bedtime this ungraded class must be taught, not a prescribed amount of geography or mathematics by a given method in a given time, but to eat properly the suitable food which must be provided; to wear, with some regard to weather conditions rather than fashion, the clothes which have been made or repaired or altered for them; to lend a reasonable amount of not too destructive assistance in keeping an orderly and sanitary home. There will be supplementary courses in thrift, in home economics, in art, and in music, while in the hours not thus occupied the average mother is by practice maintaining her own proficiency in cooking, sewing, and possibly washing and ironing. The parent-teacher is called upon to create as well 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION as to restore peace and that intangible something known as "atmosphere," as well as clothes and meals; to serve as an auxiliary to the school in the hours devoted to home study, and through all, to carry on the teaching ofthat morality which must be the undertone of office work and housework, of recreation and of leisure, if our boasted civilization is to survive and to prosper. For the morality which is preached and not practiced is as sounding brass in the sensitive ears of the child. The character which wins and holds his respect is that which shows itself in sincerity. In unselfishness, in patient service, "in all the little, nameless unremembered acts of kindness and of love" which go to make up the sum total of a real home, and which, carried over into the school, will be found to connect without a break with those qualities demanded for the production of good citizenship. To say that within the home should rest the entire task of moral train- ing would be no more just than to say that the whole burden of scholastic education should be laid there. But its place in character building is clearly defined, except under extraordinary conditions. It is fundamental, and that of the school should be auxiliary to it. This is the ideal, though we are unfortunately far from attaining it. But recognition is a step in the right direction, and through the increased coöperation of these two power- ful agents we may hope to reach a satisfactory adjustment. This one point should be especially emphasized and driven home: Moral education which is one-sided and not coöperative is not education; it is merely instruction. The only way to assure constant and consistent character training is to bring home and school together,to adopt a standard equally applicable to both, and then by the teaching and example of parents and teachers to bring about the proper apportionment of our common responsibility. GENERAL SESSIONS 139 MORAL CODE FOR CHILDREN W. O. SAUNDERS, ASSOCIATE EDITOR, COLLIER'S WEEKLY, NEW YORK CITY The favorite indoor pastime of adult Americans is making laws and rules for the regulation of the life and conduct of other Americans. Every- body knows exactly what's wrong with the other fellow and is ever ready and eager to set up a code of morals for him. This, perhaps, helps to ex- plain why in all its many years of usefulness Collier's, The National Weekly, never hit upon anything that met with so much favor from its own great family of readers and the public generally, as has its "Moral Code for Youth." A third of a million copies of Collier's Moral Code in a large illuminated form suitable for framing have gone to American school super- intendents and teachers for classroom display within the past six months . The Collier's Code promises to be the basis of character education in a half million classrooms within a year. The idea of setting up a code of morals to be taught to children has met with a country-wide and hearty response of approval from a people within whom the law-making instinct is peculiarly vigorous. It seems so easy and so proper to make rules for children; we can try anything on the kids because they can't talk back to their elders; and when we are making rules for the kids we are sparing ourselves or may think we are. But Collier's has no false notions about its moral code for youth. Col- lier's doesn't believe children of today are nearly so bad as their forbears were when they were children. Some of us grown-ups on Collier's shudder indeed to think how bad we might have been in our youth had we had the many incentives and invitations to immorality that afflict the youth of this generation. I can imagine what I would have been as a boy if I had had access to the sex movies and pornographic prints of today, plus an automobile and a hip-pocket flask of bootleg liquor to operate with in trying out the suggestions obtained from the screen and the news stand. But Collier's was convinced of the need of a simple, sincere, understand- able code of morals for young people, written out of the very record of universal human experience and stripped of all controversial suggestions— a code that would be acceptable to people of every religious faith or of none. We enlisted the aid of many of the best religious, pedagogic, ethical, judicial, and practical business minds of America and sought the sug- gestions of thousands of serious-minded fathers and mothers. The moral code for youth is the quintessence of the best thought of all these minds . And that is why the code stands up and is given place in so many thousands of classrooms in every State in this United States. Reports of Committees REPORT OF ILLITERACY COMMISSION CORA WILSON STEWART, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY, CHAIRMAN The Illiteracy Commission was created in 1918 when the War aroused the Nation to the extent of its illiteracy problem. The Commission was continued from year to year until July, 1925, when by vote of the Repre- sentative Assembly, its work was transferred to the Department of Adult Education. INTRODUCTION—The Illiteracy Commission of the National Edu- cation Association reported at the Des Moines meeting in 1921 on the effects of illiteracy, at San Francisco in 1923 on the extent of illiteracy and at Washington, D. C., in 1924 on the ignorance of the public on the problem at the outset and the apathy the Commission found and its efforts to overcome these. This report purposes to set forth the work that is being done in certain of the States such as are outstanding-to give expression to the thought of leaders in this field of education and to point out some new fields of opportunity that are opening or might be opened up. REPORTS OF STATES ALABAMA-While doing an excellent piece of work among illiterate whites Alabama excels in the education of negro illiterates and in the op- portunity which she is giving to negro leaders to minister through this movement to their own race. During the year 1924, 79 schools were con- ducted in this State for white illiterates and 153 for illiterate negroes. The number of adult negroes enrolled and taught was almost double the number of whites. It must be remembered, however, that the percentage of illiteracy in Alabama is considerably higher among negroes than whites. A report prepared by Miss Clutie Bloodworth, State Director of Excер- tional Education, appears below : The executive committee of the Alabama Education Association, at its annual meeting in November, 1914, adopted as a campaign slogan for the year "Illiteracy in Alabama-let's remove it." On February 9, 1915, a bill authorizing the creation of the Commission for the removal of adult illiteracy having been passed by both houses of the Legislature was signed by Governor Henderson. The reasons for much of the illiteracy in Alabama and the type of men who are illiterate was evidenced in the speech of G. W. Johnson, a man fifty-seven years old, who was taught to read, to write a letter, and to add his cotton crop. Mr. Johnson spoke to the Alabama Education Association and began as follows: "Ladies and Gentlemen : I am slow to think and very awkward spoken; am an uneducated man raised up in the woods right after the Civil War. Three families lived in five miles of us and I was raised up almost wild, growed up and married young; raised eleven children but had ambition enough to give them an educa [ 140] REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 141 tion, and the way I managed to give them an education if there wasn't public schools I hustled around and gave part of my earnings to a teacher to teach them." Mr. Johnson tells how his wife persuaded him to attend the moonlight school taught by the county superintendent and of his first attendance : "I started out and as I started I thought this : Well all this fifty-seven years is past and I have raised eleven children and the baby boy now in the fifth grade and here I am, I can't write my name and I went on to the schoolhouse. This was as dark to me as midnight and no moon and me blind." And all Alabama began to think on her illiteracy and Mr. Johnson's robust speech gave utterance to a State's amazement at her own course. The Alabama Illiteracy Commission functioned until 1919 when by legislative enactment the Division of Exceptional Education was created as one of the co- ordinate divisions of the State Department of Education. An annual appropria- tion of $12,500 was provided for conducting adult schools which under the law must be matched dollar for dollar by funds raised from other sources . All illiter- ate and near illiterate persons sixteen years of age and over are eligible for enrolment in these schools, which may be organized in any county where a fund is provided to match State aid. There are 67 counties in Alabama and from 1915 to October 1, 1924, schools for white illiterates were held in 53 counties and in Mobile and Birmingham, and enrolled 18,216. Thus a record of 34,785 illiterates and near illiter- and have enrolled 18,216. Thus a record of 34,785 illiterates and near illiter- ates in the schools has been made but many more have been taught in the homes, in small free schools not reported to the State, and in schools maintained by the corporations without State aid and unreported. More counties would have opened schools if the county boards of education could have had funds available to match the State appropriation. The Alabama Federated Clubs have contributed each year to what is known as a special fund and from which counties have requisitioned sufficient to match the State appropriation or to amounts to supple- ment the county appropriations. This contribution in 1924 was $5,109.84. The total expenditure for the removal of illiteracy in 1923-24 was $ 15,770.62. Fourteen counties have been selected for schools for adults this year ( 1925 ) . It is the purpose of the division to work in all the counties by 1930. The State makes an appropriation of $600 to each of the fourteen counties requiring the funds to be matched by appropriations either by the County Board of Education or by private subscription. This gives a minimum of $1,200 for six weeks of school in each of the fourteen counties. An education council is to assist the county superintendent in making a survey of the educational needs of the county, giving publicity to the same, and raising funds for the schools for adults . One county, Tallapoosa, has been chosen as a demonstration county for five years' work. It is the hope that in five years illiteracy will be absolutely stamped out in this county. An education committee of seventy citizens is behind this experiment with the department of education at the University of Alabama ready with advice to the council. The agricultural department of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute has planned to coöperate with the fourteen counties to this extent; a definite course of study has been planned, with the help of the extension service, which includes screening the house, bread making, butter making, the piping of water to the house, and films on the subjects that immediately affect the people of limited edu- cation. All the courses presented will be presented again in a bulletin illustrated, written in sentences, vocabulary, and printed attractively for people who are slow readers. The State Board of Health will put over a similar program with a primer of health written especially for these schools. These bulletins are experiments that have never been tried so far as I know." NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 142 ARKANSAS-This is one of the most alert and active States in the warfare on illiteracy. The slogan, "Let's Sweep Illiteracy out of Arkansas ," has been carried with enthusiasm into every county and practically every school district . All organizations have been enlisted and are coöperating. The State Department of Education and the Arkansas Illiteracy Commis- sion are going hand in hand. A course of training for teachers and field workers is being given annually in the State University and the teacher- training institutions . One of the distinctive features of the Arkansas pro- gram is its plan of coöperative financing. The Arkansas Federation of Women's Clubs shares the expense with the State, supplementing the State appropriation with funds to employ field workerndes. Miss Willie Lawson, deputy State superinte nt of public instruction, who is in direct charge of the education of illiterates , submits a brief report below and a comparative study of the results obtained with and without the services of field workers . "Fired with a zeal to emulate the example of Kentucky, Alabama, South Caro- lina, and probably other Southern States , Arkansas began her illiteracy crusade. Step by step the work has grown until this year finds us with the work fairly well estIn 7 abl191 ishedthe . ature created an Illiteracy Commission composed of nine mem- Legisl bers-eight appointed by the governor and the State superintendent of public ins truaus Bec e of ction ensive intcio ex-offi war. activities the commission did not begin to function member until January, 1920. A worker was borrowed from Alabama , Miss Sarah E. Luther, and an effective and substantial illiteracy publicity program was pro- In 1921 the commission appointed a field director for the illiteracy work and moted. in January, 1922, an organizer was placed in the field . Under this system the work grew , there were more people interested , more schools were organized and, best of all, more actual illiterates taught. In the summer of 1923 the commission placed another organizer in the field and the work increased in proportion. The club women saw the solution to the problem-a trained worker in the field for a certain district. There was no State fund to place the worker there, so each district decided to raise the money to finance a trained organizer to function in its own several counties. This has done more to establish the work in Arkansas Th tha n eany atest greoth onep thi er ste . permanency will be undertaken in the Ft. Smith school ard towng system next fall. There will be a trained teacher to look after illiteracy work during the entire school term. He will look after the problem of child illiteracy (compulsory attendance ) during a part of his twenty -four hours each day and supervise adult education during another part. WHAT IT MEANS TO HAVE FIELD ORGANIZERS One month without organizers- October, 1923 3 Number counties reached .... 4 Number schools organized . 74 Number adults enrolled ... 11 Number illiterates taught . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 143 One month with organizers October, 1924 Number counties reached . 9 42 Number schools organized . Number adults enrolled .. 506 Number illiterates taught ... 235 (Note the proportionate increase of actual illiterates taught.) WHAT IT WILL TAKE TO CONTINUE THE WORK FOR TWO YEARS The plan this next year is to ask the State to take care of its illiterates in a business-like way. We are asking the legislature for an appropriation that will support six field workers in Arkansas for the next two years-$35,940 for two years. This will pay: -Salaries of State Director and six district organizers . 1 2-Traveling expenses of organizers. 3-All necessary printing. -Statistical reports and publicity material. 5-Stenographic help. ARIZONA-Arizona has gone as far toward the removal of illiteracy as to have a State illiteracy commission appointed by the governor and to hold a State illiteracy conference. Dr. Frank R. Lockwood, Secretary of theArizona Illiteracy Commission, has carried on a very extensive campaign of agitation to arouse public sentiment. CALIFORNIA-In her Home Teacher Law, California has made one of the most valuable contributions to the illiteracy problem that has been made by any of the States. Elsewhere in these pages appears a paper on a California city and its plan of combating illiteracy. Similar work is in progress all over the State and a very complete plan was formulated by the State department of education in 1922, but in the absence of a detailed report your commission will not attempt to go into this plan . COLORADO-This State is carefully following the procedure out- lined by the National Illiteracy Conference held in Washington, D. C. , in January, 1924. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, State superintendent of pub- lic instruction, has called two State illiteracy conferences the first of these, held on April 5, 1924, appointed an illiteracy commission to study the problem and report. The second, which was held April 11, 1925, was at- tended by one hundred and fifty delegates, besides county and city school superintendents. Hon. Jesse H. Newlon, President of the National Edu- cation Association, participated actively. The conference decided on three definite objectives for the present the legalizing of its illiteracy commis- sion by executive order or appointment, the creation of a State supervisor of adult education attached to the staff of the department of public in- struction, and the passage of a literacy test law for new voters. The il- literacy commission and a new committee on illiteracy created by the State teachers' association were instructed to coöperate in bringing these measures to pass. 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The conference decided to ask all teacher-training institutions of the State to prepare courses of study and to give adequate training to teachers who expect to engage in the education of adults . A number of organizations and individuals reported to this conference that they were maintaining schools for illiterates. These conferences have been financed by voluntary contributions. Under date of March 14, 1925, Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford wrote : The illiteracy work in this State might be prosecuted so much more effectively with a State supervisor attached to this office. However, the interest in the illiteracy campaign continues to increase, and the work is progressing in a number of Colorado counties, which must soon lessen the number of illiterates, and in the not distant future abolish illiteracy in this State. CONNECTICUT-Connecticut in the 1920 census had 28 per cent of its population of foreign birth and 68 per cent both foreign born and the children of foreign born and a total illiteracy of 6.2 per cent. The illiteracy among the foreign-born adults was 17 per cent. In 1919 the Department of Americanization was established to aid in removing illiteracy and obtaining a commonwealth with a common lan- guage. During the last five years the department has employed approxi- mately twenty directors in the larger communities whose duty has been to in- terest prospective pupils and obtain adequate instruction for them, and for this purpose 330 teachers have been actively engaged during the past year, 1923-24, with a registration of 11,481 pupils. Under the definition of an illiterate by the United States Census Bureau as one unable to write in any language, probably not more than 10 per cent of the number enrolled, or in average attendance, can be so classed. Under the classification by the schools whereby a pupil is illiterate until the first year of elementary education is completed, approximately 33 per cent of such numbers are so classed . Connected with this work is a training course for teachers at the sum- mer school at Yale, New Haven, and local institutes given for the same purpose. We find that the primary step is reaching the pupil through every possible source, and the secondary step is to give him practical and wanted instruction in the proper method in order to hold his interest and attend- ance. Connecticut is spending for this work $25,000 per year and an additional $20,000 in an average attendance grant total $45,000. In general the educational ideal of obtaining an intelligent community with a common language is recognized throughout the State as the peculiar responsibility of the local educational officials. A. B. MEREDITH , Commissioner of Education . The following extracts are quoted from a letter of instruction sent out to his subordinates by State Director of Americanization in Connecticut, Robert C. Deming, and approved by Commissioner Meredith. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 145 1 -General Duties- a-To fill adult classes and keep them filled. b-To reduce adult illiteracy in every possible way. c-To emphasize the duties and responsibilities of citizenship to native and foreign born. 2 -Evening School Campaign- a-Newspapers-Insert notices in native and foreign papers. Reach editors personally. b-Motion picture houses. Have slides introduced. c-Clergy interested. Make announcements. Visit class. d-Posters and handbills. Stores, factories, banks, steamship agen- cies, clubs. e-Factories-plant directors appointed and organization formed -complete index of illiterates -conduct plant meetings -report coöperative and non-coöperative factories to State. Give names of responsible factory officials. f -Interest business men's associations to visit schools. g-Day school pupils. Reach parents through children. h-Personal contacts. Meet racial leaders . i -Make schools social centers, meeting places, places of recrea- tion. Entertain by- 1-Lectures in the vernacular, 2-Lessons in English ( Hygiene ) , 3-Motion picture slides, 4-Invite local prominent Americans. j-Use field agent of State department to stimulate teachers and classes. Objectives-Register 20 per cent more evening school pupils than last year. Complete registration of illiterates and non-citizens in all factories and organizations. DELAWARE-On January 16, 1922, H. V. Holloway, State super- independent of public instruction, wrote the illiteracy commission, saying : Your compilation of illiteracy figures for Delaware was handed to the Governor by me today and the elimination of native illiteracy will probably be a subject of legislative enactment at the next session of the Legislature. On April 15, 1925, Dr. Holloway reported further : I am pleased to note that our Legislature has just passed an appropriation of $25,000 a year to be used for Americanization and the education of native-born illiterates. This constitutes the first recognition of the problem of training the native-born illiterates in our State. The matter has been put in the hands of the State board of education and a program will be outlined in the near future. Delaware has 2427 native-born illiterates and ranks 31st among the States in its percentage of illiteracy among native born. 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The State parent teachers' association of Delaware has announced that its major activity for the year 1925 will be the effort to wipe out illiteracy. GEORGIA- The Georgia illiteracy commission was created by an act of the General As- sembly in 1919 with an appropriation of about $13,000. This fund was supple- mented by nearly as much obtained through private subscriptions which were spent through about two years of active work. We kept in the field from five to seven organizers and leaders who organized schools and arranged with local persons to take part, going from county to county. In this way the work was carried on in 142 counties of the State, out of a total number of counties at the time of 160. All the workers reported directly to Dr. M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Education, and the records show something like 22,000 illiterates were taught to read and write . CHARLES J. HADEN, Chairman, Georgia Illiteracy Commission. Below is a brief summary of the work among illiterates in Bibb County, Georgia, presented by Rufus W. Weaver, President of Mercer University, and W. O. Brown, County Organizer. ( 1925. ) The State Illiteracy Commission, established by the Legislature in 1919, under- took to promote work among illiterates by interesting various civic and church organizations. Special appeals were made to each county government to appro- priate funds to carry forward the work within the county. Volunteers were sought to teach the classes. The Board of County Commissioners of Bibb County, in 1919, made the ap- propriation of $80 per month, of which $75 is paid to the organizer. The follow- ing plan has proved successful : 1-Locating the illiterates- a-Through the teachers and children of the public schools. b-Missionary societies and civic clubs . c -Through interested individuals. d -By visiting churches of all races and denominations . 2 -Organization of Study Class- a-Time and place of meeting for those who have become interested. b-Short talks by the organizers showing the possibilities and results. c-In case some fail to come to class appoint a teacher to go to their homes and offer individual instruction. 3-Appointment of Teachers- a-Call for volunteers from among those who are capable. ( Teachers are chosen from the students of the high schools, colleges, and church organizations, occasionally a member of the family.) 4 -Furnishing supplies, examining the work done and giving rewards- a-Text Reading-Writing-Arithmeticby M. L. Brittain. Presented by the Coca Cola Company. The report of the Bibb County supervisor indicates that over 8,000 illiterates have been located and enrolled; that 5,800 have been taught to read and write ; that 4,000 of this number have been taught by Mercer ministerial students. Illiterate classes have been held in the classrooms of Mercer University since the beginning of this movement. The first class organized on the campus was made up largely of the servants employed by the institution. More recently the classes have been made up of illiterate whites who found it less embarrassing to announce that they were attending class in Mercer University than to say that REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 147 they were being taught to read and write at some other place. The implication that they were taking a regular university course seemed to relieve them of the embarrassment of their being listed as illiterates. A feature of Georgia's illiteracy campaign is her scholarship plan of raising funds, it being estimated that a three dollar scholarship will provide instruction for one illiterate. This plan is definite and is proving popular. The Georgia illiteracy commission is asking for an annual appropriation of $ 15,000 from the Legislature this year and is supported heartily by the Georgia Educational Association and the Georgia Parent Teachers' Asso- ciation in same. The city of Atlanta is one of the most active of urban communities in its efforts to wipe out illiteracy. The schools of Savannah have pre- pared illiteracy posters of such merit that they have been adopted for cam- paign use by Mrs. Bruce Carr Jones, chairman of illiteracy for the Na- tional Congress of Parents and Teachers. IDAHO-One brief report has been submitted by Idaho. It was pre- pared by Miss Ethel E. Redfield, State superintendent of public instruction in 1922, just before she retired from office : Some publicity has been done in disseminating the information contained in the reports of illiteracy in Idaho, which reports were furnished by you. This office has through the official organ of the State teachers' association, The Idaho Teacher, and by means of circular letters taken up the subject of illiteracy with county superintendents and the school people reached by The Idaho Teacher. At the county superintendents' conference recently held in Boise the subject was dis- cussed. I found that all county superintendents were desirous of ascertaining just where the illiterates were to be found in their counties, and take steps toward eliminating illiteracy altogether. IOWA-Governor Kendall appointed a State illiteracy commission in 1922, following which the names of all illiterates of Iowa were secured from the Federal Census Bureau as a basis for action. The Iowa Federa- tion of Women's Clubs and the Iowa State Teachers' Association jointly contributed $500 for this purpose. Mrs. W. H. Snider of the former organization volunteered to go to Washington and copy these names . This fund was used to defray expenses. Iowa has held a State illiteracy conference and has done some valuable publicity in preparation for her campaign. She has also conducted a State- wide speaking tour of information and agitation against illiteracy. A report of definite results thus far obtained has not been submitted to this com- mission. KANSAS-Governor Henry J. Allen appointed an illiteracy commis- sioner, Mrs. Margaret Hill McCarter of Topeka, to look into illiteracy con- ditions in that State and to inspire such effort as she could. Mrs. McCarter has been continued through the administration of succeeding governors. She has represented the State in her official capacity at various illiteracy conferences and has aroused Kansas club women to make illiteracy and its removal one of their main objectives. 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Jesse W. Miley, State superintendent of public instruction, writes : Practically all our illiteracy is confined to three industrial centers. We are taking advantage of an excellent night school law which provides for the educa- tion of adults at public expense and are also conducting classes in Americanism through the assistance of the American Legion, church organizations, and other agencies. KENTUCKY-This was the first State to wage a campaign to wipe out illiteracy, the first to create a State illiteracy commission, and the first to secure an appropriation for the removal of adult illiteracy ($10,000 in 1916) . This sum was supplemented by the Kentucky Federation of Women's Clubs. In 1918, an appropriation of $75,000 was granted and State and county illiteracy agents were employed during a two year period, 1918-20. County illiteracy agents acted in the dual capacity of organizers and moonlight schools and county attendance officers preparing the people for the passage of an attendance officer law to prevent illiteracy in the future. A special campaign was put on by the illiteracy commission for the enactment of this law during the summer and autumn of 1919. It was made part of the program of the State department of education and passed in 1920. The recommendation of the illiteracy commission that the school work in the State reformatories be lifted to a professional basis by the employment of a trained school man for superintendent was carried out. Lack of funds has hindered the work in Kentucky for some years past, but a number of teachers and individuals serving as volunteers are teaching illiterate adults. Three of Kentucky's State teacher-training insti- tutions have recently created illiteracy committees consisting of five mem- bers of the faculty and these will direct activities against illiteracy in their localities. MICHIGAN-A State illiteracy commission has been created and a State program is being worked out. Much work has already been done to reduce adult illiteracy in urban sections, especially in Detroit. The State Teachers' College at Ypsilanti and the Central State Normal School at Mt. Pleasant have featured illiteracy in their summer school programs. MINNESOTA- The school board of any school district or of unorganized territory may estab- lish and maintain evening schools and such evening schools when so maintained shall be available to all persons over 16 years of age who, from any cause, are unable to attend the full time school of such district; and the general conduct of such evening schools shall be under the direction and control of the State Board ofEducation. (Chapter 356, Laws of 1917, amended by Chapter 350, Laws of 1921.) The laws of Minnesota require that the average attendance of each class shall be at least six, excepting in rural districts, where it shall be at least four. The curriculum includes spoken and written English, reading, writing, spelling, American history, civics, geography, arithmetic, health, and sanitation. Teachers in evening schools shall have the same qualifica REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 149 tions as those who teach corresponding subjects in day classes and shall be specially certificated by the department of education. MISSISSIPPI-A State illiteracy commission was created in 1916 and considerable ground work has been laid through the volunteer efforts of this commission, the State department of education, and the public school teachers. W. F. Bond, State superintendent of education, reports plans for 1925 : For several months we have been completing our organization for a drive against adult illiteracy in Mississippi. We have a State committee composed of a business man, a minister, club woman, P. T. A. woman, president of our State teachers' association, and the State superintendent. We have a county com- mittee consisting of a county superintendent, president of the county teachers' asso- ciation, a minister, club woman, P. T. A. member, county health officer, editor of the county paper, and president of the board of supervisors. This county committee is to organize and make plans somewhat along the following lines : 1. Locate the illiterates and decide upon a place for them to be taught. 2. Find someone to teach each illiterate, or group all illiterates and get up money enough to buy the books and writing material, and help pay expenses . No one will receive any salary for doing any of this work. All the money we shall need will be to buy books for the illiterates and pay incidental expenses here and there. We plan to do our teaching during the months of September, October, and November of the present year. MAINE- In his message before the State teachers' association, Governor Baxter empha- sized the campaign against illiteracy. I am sure you will feel gratified in this. We do not know how succesful we are in combating this evil, but so far as I can tell we are reducing our number by some fifteen hundred each year. We cannot tell until the end of the ten-year period when a new census is taken just how we are getting along. Our teachers are interested and also many other persons . Our constitution requires that all persons who vote or hold office in the State of Maine shall be able to read the constitution of the State in the English language. This applies to native as well as foreign born. Considerable agitation has come about in the legislature this year on this particular feature. All of these things emphasize the necessity of bringing relief to that group of persons who are handicapped by a lack of ability to handle the alphabet. NEBRASKA-On March 28, 1924, Governor Bryan appointed the Nebraska illiteracy commission to provide for and direct a survey for the purpose of ascertaining the proportion of our people in the State who can neither read nor write ; to determine the best means to reduce illiteracy to the minimum and training for those who are deficient ; and to make report and recommendation to this office at least sixty days prior to the next session of the legislature. (From Governor Bryan's instructions to the Nebraska illiteracy commis- sion. ) Mrs. Paul C. Perryman was named as chairman of this commis- sion and Miss Ruth Pyrtle, secretary. The first work of the commission was a State-wide survey. 150 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In order to carry out at once in a thoroughgoing manner a State-wide survey to show the number of adult illiterates in each county, a committee has been named by the commission in each of the 93 counties. This committee will be known as the county illiteracy committee. These are charged with the responsibility of organiz- ing their respective counties. Nebraska illiteracy survey cards have been sent to each county to be distributed on the basis of the Federal census report, which shows the number of illiterates credited to each county in 1920. NEW MEXICO— The first intensive work done toward the elimination of adult illiteracy in New Mexico was in 1915 when John V. Conway was county school superintendent of Santa Fe County. Superintendent Conway, through the coöperation of the teach- ers, organized and conducted 63 moonlight schools with an enrolment of 1549. The public school teachers rendered their services free. A large number of testimonials and letters from persons who had been benefited by these schools were received. In 1917 the night school instruction was passed in the Legislature which made it possible for the county boards to establish night schools and to pay the teachers a nominal sum for their work. The majority of the counties estab- lished a number of night schools and the results were very satisfactory. In a number of counties the regular public school teachers are in charge of the night classes, but in the mining communities specially trained teachers are em- ployed to do this work. The New Mexico press has been unanimous in the support of this venture and they have published articles concerning this work not only from local but from National and international sources . New Mexico has made gigantic strides in education and particularly in the elim- ination of illiteracy during recent years . NEW YORK- In most of the large cities of the State certain civic organizations or chambers of commerce have made as one of their objectives the eradication of illiteracy in their respective communities . There is a State director of adult education whose title is chief of the bureau of immigrant education of the State education department. Our State law requires school boards to organize classes for adults when twenty or more apply for such instruction. The school board may establish such a school regardless of the number of applicants. There are some classes as small as eight or ten people with a teacher receiving both local and State financial aid. In general the State reimbursement is 50 per cent of the salary of each teacher up to $1,000. Many of the normal schools conduct summer courses of six weeks designed for teachers and prospective teachers in the field. Recently the course of study in the State normal schools has been increased to three years. By far the majority of teachers engaged in this work have had special training of some sort. The tend- ency is to increase the minimum standards . It has taken several years to accomplish what has been done thus far and the work is by no means complete, but, in a sense, it will tend to bring to a more successful issue the elimination of illiteracy in our country. W. C. SMITH , Chief, Immigrant Education Bureau. NORTH DAKOTA This State is carrying on a vigorous, State-wide campaign against illiteracy which is led by the State department of edu- cation with practically all State organizations participating. A number of North Dakota counties secured the names of their illiterates from the REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 151 Federal Census Bureau that they might attack the problem intelligently. Miss Hazel Nielson, State director of adult education, reports as follows : Different methods were employed in securing these lists. They were paid for, for a number of counties, by various local organizations such as the American Legion, county school officers' association and parent teacher associations. Other counties obtained their lists through service of some former resident of the county now residing in Washington who copied the names. As soon as the list of illiterates in the county was received from the Federal Census Bureau a systematic check was started. In some counties the lists were found to be inaccurate, names were checked off as there were listed foreign-born persons educated in their own language but who could not read or write the Eng- lish language. Many people assisted the county superintendents in this work, such as county officers, bankers, ministers, and social workers. One of the Supreme Court judges offered prizes amounting to $100 to be divided between essay contests on the subject of illiteracy and teachers who made the most progress in removing illiteracy from their districts. To further arouse the people songs were written and sung at all county institutions where teachers learned them and carried back to their students the spirit of the illiteracy crusade. The director has carried with her to meetings and rallies not only charts and exhibits of pictures and material, but a large map of North Dakota showing the number of illiterates in each county. This was colored in ranges from 50 to 150. Each county superintendent was asked to prepare a similar map of her county and locate on it the illiterates in each township. The percentage of illiteracy has been reduced during this campaign from 2.1 per cent to .7 per cent. There are twelve counties which report less than ten illiterates, seven counties that have only one or two left, and Golden Valley County has the distinction of being the first county in the State to stamp out illiteracy. The last person in that county who could not read and write, a man about 43 years of age, was taught by Mr. John Wentland, the county superin- tendent of schools . In Rolette County four night schools were conducted on the Indian Reservation. One Indian woman eighty-four years of age learned to read and write. One Indian mother came to night school and asked to be taught to write her name so that she could sign her daughter's report card. Our State problem is different from many States in that our illiterates are scattered over a wide area. This means more individual service, for it is more difficult to conduct evening schools for a very small group covering several miles , than in a city. Only the sum of $7,000 annually has been appropriated for the work. In many localities the persons instructing did not receive compensation. Clubwomen, mem- bers of the American Legion and Auxiliary and other fraternal organizations did their best by teaching. In Morton County there were conducted fifteen night schools in the open country by teachers who did not wish pay for their services. We should guard against future illiteracy. This may be prevented by requir- ing all boys and girls to attend schools. See that the compulsory attendance law is enforced. Urge the boys and girls to stay in school and not drift. The effi- ciency of any school depends to a great extent upon daily attendance. Let not any boy or girl in North Dakota reach the age of twenty-one without the ability to read, write, and think in English. One of North Dakota's campaign songs is : "On to victory, Education," is our battle cry ; Ignorance, the foe, we'll conquer-Knowledge set on high, And we'll fight it without ceasing till within our State Obsolete will be the word, illiterate. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 152 OKLAHOMA-Hon . M. A. Nash , State superintendent of public in- struction , has issued an open letter to the public which describes the pur- pose and plan of the illiteracy campaign in that State . The Federal Census reports 56,864 illiterates in Oklahoma . It has been demonstrated beyond question of doubt in this and in other States that illiterates can learn and should be taught. Kentucky has taught 118,000 of her illiterates to read and write, and more. Other States have taught 20,000 in a year's time . Okl Mex aho ico mama has has de no ageprolim great gre . educational opportunity. itsson Let us vitalize this statement by somehow, some way providing moonlight or continuation schools for our adults who need such schools and so proceeding that we may secure their We att wan endanc e tthe n . end to the adult illiterates and to other adults of Oklahoma toreiext not only the opportunity to learn to read and write, but also to make progress in other subjects that tend to promote a happier and more useful citizenship . For this purpose there has been appointed in Oklahoma an illiteracy commission. It is the direct purpose of the illiteracy commission to plan ways and means of curing Oklahoma of illiteracy and to this end the help and coöperation of all good All peo areson ple per des whdo. welcome opportunities of expressing the spirit of fellowship, s ire service , and patriotism are invited to enlist under the banner of "No illiteracy in Th Oka ma far e wel lho e 6."every person in this State is concerned directly or indirectly in in 192of the problem of illiteracy and everyone can and should do something to help . We must cure the illiteracy we now have by teaching ; we must prevent further illiteracy by seeing that all children of school age are kept in school . The club women, the American Legion, the school forces of the State, and other persons and organizations have already begun work on the illiteracy problem . Let us so work together that in 1926, which is the 150th anniversary of our Independence, we can proclaim a new Declaration of Independence denoting s freedom from the era ma'ma Okl ahoaho Okl denpio had done consid burble ofnee worcyk. in eliminating illiteracy before r tera illi In a campaign waged by the State the atit cremen depart onin her of191 tera illie 6 som fivcye com nd nper usasio thomis . sons were taught. Oklahoma has the distinction of being the first State to offer to teachers of adults credits on courses her in Th e State tea rser-tra couche ng pub inidy of stu ionsin ituthed instlis . 1924 includes a course for adults and allows 15 points on its model school score card for the organization of moon- light or continuation schools for adult illiterates or other adults . Miss Victoria Lyles of the State department of education, who is in direct charge of organization and supervision of schools for adults , went into a mining center in October, 1924, and taught a moonlight school in order to have the expe- rience. She writes : "I followed my own advice as outlined in the new course of study and found it pretty good." OHIO -Ohio has created a State illiteracy commission and has em- ployed a State supervisor of adult education. The State department of education has adopted a new slogan, "Let's sweep Ohio clear of illiteracy." M. W. Simpson, State supervisor of adult education, says in his official report e: Th work in Ohio has been satisfactory in many respects . New centers have been established and definite results have been obtained. In cities and villages the work REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 153 has been financed by boards of education, community chests, women's clubs, and churches. PENNSYLVANIA-The following report was submitted by the State department of education of Pennsylvania in 1922 : A State plan to provide educational facilities for this large number of adults must be founded upon a system similar to that constructed for the education of the children of the State. This cannot be effected until a census of the illiter- ates of every section of every district is in the hands of those whose duty it is to develop the State program in their respective communities. This information has already been obtained for Pennsylvania from the Census Bureau at Wash- ington. To perfect an organization which shall adequately meet the demands of the problem the State has been divided into ten zones and experienced directors are to be placed in charge of each zone. In some of the zones containing the largest number of illiterates, such as the Philadelphia and the Pittsburgh zones, there should also be added an assistant who is familiar with the difficulties in- volved in reaching the home through the education of the illiterate woman. Briefly stated, the program to be developed through this organization is as fol- lows: First. The public school system with its organization and equipment to be used to the limit as the center of the entire campaign. Establishment of com- munity centers in the schools. Second. The enactment of laws making it mandatory upon school authorities to establish either day classes or evening classes whenever ten or more adults unable to read or write English express a desire to receive instruc- tion. Third. The organization of classes for adult illiterates by all large industrial establishments, by the churches of all denominations, and by all men's and women's welfare, patriotic, and civic organizations. Fourth. The conducting of home classes for illiterate persons who are either too timid to attend classes or too tired physically after the day's labor to leave home in the evening. Special consideration to be given mothers with small children. SOUTH CAROLINA- In 1913 Miss Julia Selden of Spartanburg organized with the coöperation of mill authorities and teachers a number of night schools in mill villages. The teachers were paid $1 per night and the expense was defrayed by the mills. In 1914 the writer with the coöperation of the county superintendent of education in Laurens County, tried out an interesting experiment in adult education in that county. The township registering the greatest illiteracy was selected for the experiment and where teachers volunteered their services schools were established. In 1916 the Legislature first recognized the work by appropriating $5,000 for its support. In 1916 the federated clubs requested Governor Manning to ap- point an illiteracy commission. The commission, with Dr. Patterson Wardlaw, as chairman, began active work in June, 1918. The present supervisor of adult schools was called to the State in October, 1918, as field worker for the illiteracy commission. The following January the com- mission succeeded in getting the appropriation of $10,000 for night schools in- creased to $25,000 and the field worker for the illiteracy commission became super- visor of adult schools. In 1920 the Legislature increased the appropriation to $34,300, while in 1921 the figure was made $36,000. The appropriation for the adult schools is included in the budget of the State superintendent of education. 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There are no statutes governing the work but all regulations are made by the superintendent of public instruction and the supervisor of adult schools. Teach- ers are paid at the rate of $1.00 an hour for a limited time, provided at least twelve pupils are enrolled and an average attendance of six maintained. In 1925 the general assembly appropriated approximately $46,000, the counties $6000, the mills $4000, giving an approximate total of $56,000. Approximately 60,000 adults have enrolled in the schools during the past seven years and of this number about 14,000 were illiterates and 13,000 have been taught to read and write. Only pupils attending three nights have been counted as enrolled. In order to reach the illiterates the work has been carried on through the fol- lowing channels : 1. Continuation schools organized in mill villages. 2. Special teachers have been employed in a number of mill villages by the State in cooperation with mill executives to devote their entire time to the teach- ing of adults. 3. Lay-by schools have been organized in country communities during August, when the crops are laid by. The term is one month or six weeks. The summer campaign of 1924 reached the high water mark, when 240 of the best teachers in the State went to isolated districts for the purpose of giving the unlettered their belated chance. As a result 6380 pupils registered in 226 schools. 1297 pupils did not miss a single session in the entire month. This accomplishment was made possible because fourteen counties coöperated with the State by employing skilled teachers to organize their respective counties and because these organizers and teachers were privileged to attend a week's institute as guests of Winthrop College, where, under the direction of the State supervisor of adult schools, a thorough course in adult teaching was given. This enabled the teachers to go to their schools with some technical training and a group consciousness which made success inevitable. South Carolina has had a very definite program for her fight against illiteracy. In carrying out this program the citizenship of the State at large, from the Gov- ernor to the humblest laborer, has assisted. The press has been unstinted in lending aid to publicity. One generous editor contributes annually to the work a special. The State has now passed through the period of volunteer teachers without whose aid the work could never have been established. The actual teaching is today being done by those trained for the work. A complete report is filed at the end of each session and the teachers who do this work are paid at the rate of $1.00 per hour, provided at least 12 pupils are enrolled. The greatest benefit which is coming from the work is not found in the fact that numbers of pupils are learning to read and write, but that a large number who know very little are kept from falling back into illiteracy. Through the adult schools the pupils are gaining a new ideal of citizenship and of their personal responsibility to the State. South Carolina's motto, "Let South Carolina secede from illiteracy," is becoming a reality, for during the decade just past South Carolina led the Nation in rate of decrease of illiteracy.” WIL LOU GRAY, State Supervisor of Adult Schools. SOUTH DAKOTA— M. M. Guhin, director of rural and Ameri- canization division, reported to the commission in 1922 : We have a law which provides for the organization of evening schools to be in session four evenings a week for twenty-five weeks each year for the instruction of adults and near adults in the fundamentals of English, American history, and REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 155 civics. Free tuition is provided for all under fifty years of age ; and those over seventeen and under twenty-one years without an education equivalent to that of a fifth grade pupil are compelled to attend if an evening school is established in their community. The expenses incurred in running an evening school are paid by the local school district; but on receiving the final annual report the State reimburses the district for one-half the amount so paid. The State appropriation is $15,000 annually. Teachers are usually paid $2 per evening for a two-hour session. The department has suggested the slogan, "Every normal person over ten and under fifty years of age in South Dakota able to read and write English by 1925." VERMONT-"Vermont's illiteracy campaign, which was inaugurated last October at the State Teachers Association, is well under way," says Deputy State Superintendent Kenneth J. Sheldon. "This association took the initiative and, securing the coöperation of four other State organiza- tions-the American Legion, the Parent Teachers' Association, State Fed- eration of Women's Clubs, and the Grange-proceeded to organize the State. Fourteen county committees have been formed, each committee representing, so far as possible, a representative of these five coöperating agencies. "The hearty coöperation and interest shown by numerous influential persons is remarkable," says Mr. Sheldon. "Several towns have under- taken the work of illiteracy removal without waiting for the appointment of their local committees. In one town ten illiterates came to the chair- man on Sunday morning to ask when they might begin to study. In another town thirty men were found ready to join a class. An accident caused by the inability of a member of their group to read directions and which resulted in a considerable financial loss had shown the men their need. Vermont's illiteracy problem which in October loomed so ominously is dwindling away. With continued good work during the summer and autumn months it is confidently expected that Vermont will ere long have reached the goal expressed in her campaign slogan, 'Vermont, the first State to be free from illiteracy. " WASHINGTON- Superintendent Josephine Corliss Preston reports : There is much good work being done steadily by many of our teachers in an earnest and effective way toward reaching the goal of "No illiteracy in Wash- ington." Our illiteracy commission was appointed by the State superintendent and includes the presidents of all the social agencies in our State. We have selected the county superintendents as our chairmen and they in turn have ap- pointed county commissions. One county, Asotin, went immediately to work to eliminate illiteracy in the county and accomplished it. We have selected the county superintendents as our chairmen and they in turn have appointed county illiteracy commissions. Washington is a State with an excellent night school law. WEST VIRGINIA-The State Teachers' Association provides the fol- lowing information on the illiteracy work in West Virginia : The statistics on illiteracy in West Virginia, showing illiteracy by cities and counties, were furnished the delegates attending the Chicago illiteracy conference by Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart. This information was sent to high school prin 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cipals and to all newspapers of the State. Many of the papers printed the in- formation in full and as a result a number of towns set to work to remove il- literacy-some are having night schools, others having committees to visit homes to teach those who can neither read nor write, and others report proposed plans. With the State thoroughly informed on this matter the first need of the States as evidenced by the meager financial support and expressed in reports of a number of them is for adequate funds to extend the work. Certain of the States have indicated that funds from private sources would be wel- comed. Continual campaigning and agitation against illiteracy is essential to the creation of such public sentiment as will affect legislatures and bring about increased appropriations by the State. An accurate and up- to-date census of illiterate adults is also essential as a basis of intelligent organization and activity. That such a census be taken by the State at the time and in the manner that the census is taken for school children was one of the recommendations of the National Illiteracy Conference and could be brought about by a simple amendment to the present census law. Some attention must be given at the same time to the Federal Census which is taken at the beginning of every decade and which fixes the rank of each State. Errors have been discovered in the census list furnished by the Fed- eral Bureau to the States of Iowa and North Dakota and to the city of La Crosse, Wisconsin. These errors have been called to the attention of the Director of the Census and a conference has been held for the purpose of securing a more accurate and accessible illiteracy census. The proposal made by your commission to the Census Bureau prior to 1920 that the illiteracy census be taken in duplicate and a copy left with the State depart- ment of education of each State has been renewed and further effort and organization planned along that line in which each State superintendent of public instruction and each State teachers' association will be called on to assist. Along with the campaign to wipe out illiteracy in each State and com- munity should be carried on a campaign for the prevention of illiteracy in the future. The first reaction of a large body of the public to the illiter- acy crusade is expressed in the sentiment, "Why wipe out illiteracy unless we are going to stop it at its source-to prevent its recurrence ?" This is a sentiment that should be made the most of for the enactment of better school attendance laws and stricter enforcement. In the height of a cam- paign against illiteracy is the psyschological moment to crystallize this sentiment and translate it into more rigid attendance laws and into some- thing of equal importance, an intelligent and urgent demand for their en- forcement. * Your commission plans some investigation of such laws as have been enacted and some recommendations to the States in the near future on this subject . * Several of the States in their reports have expressed the conviction that the time was ripe for strengthening and enforcing the compulsory attendance laws. Note North Dakota's report for example. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 157 One of the great fields of service to illiterates is to be found in State and Federal prisons where inmates may be marshaled for instruction at the will of the authorities in case persuasion should not avail. In a recent report from the Ohio department of education this statement occurs : "Of the 1200 persons received in the State penitentiary last year 18 per cent could neither read nor write." Your chairman recently visited a State peni- tentiary in a southern State and found that one third of its 3300 prisoners were illiterate and no sort of instruction was being provided for them. The Federal penitentiary in Atlanta, which is making some effort along this line, reports as follows : One of the most potent influences in the prison the past year was the night school, which organized in September and closed the last week in April. The average enrolment was 450. There were twenty-four nationalities represented in the school. The school was opened to all who desired to attend. 149 illiterates enrolled at the opening and wrote letters home Christmas unaided by anyone. The school was a wonderful help to the institution in a disciplinary way. During the entire term of school not one prisoner attending school was reported for viola- tion of prison rules during the night session. A regular school building should be erected and at least ten civilian teachers employed. Every illiterate entering the prison should be required to attend school until he can read and write and do simple sums in arithmetic. Those attending the school were wonderfully ap- preciative of the benefits they received. Letters and questionnaires have been sent from time to time to State prison officials. A recent questionnaire sent to the heads of eighty-one such institutions brought fifty-one replies showing that twenty-eight of them were providing instruction for illiterates and twenty-three were not . A number of prison officials expressed a desire for aid and guidance and the Commission has replied promptly to this request and will prepare a bulletin in the near future for uniform instruction. It seems practicable to look forward to the time when each State prison will have a complete elementary school program with a professionally trained person as superintendent of same instead of an inmate selected from the ranks of the educated as is now the case in many such institutions. Acorps of trained teachers for these prison schools would be a step for- ward in adult education and would not only bring additional teachers to enter the ranks but would provide a type of social service for the teaching profession that some do not find or cannot realize may be found in the ordinary school channels. The experiment of Mercer University where, led by student volunteers, some four thousand illiterates were taught, and the service of individual college students elsewhere brings with it the suggestion that in the colleges and universities of the land there is an army of strong, enthusiastic, intel- ligent young people who might be enlisted and organized for volunteer service in this crusade. The Boy and Girl Scouts, a younger army, are performing considerable public service and the daily vacation Bible school movement is drawing thousands of college students in China and elsewhere 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for volunteer teaching. In some similar manner the teaching of illiterates, if presented in all the colleges, must make its appeal to the young manhood and womanhood of America. The crusade to stamp out illiteracy, which began less than fifteen years ago, is making distinct and remarkable gains and there is every reason for both the leaders and those in the ranks to feel encouraged. Since 1914, the first time the battle cry was sounded from the platform of this Associa- tion, to this 1925 meeting, when illiteracy is written throughout the pages of its program and appears prominently in five distinct meetings, long strides have been made, and this Association is committed in no uncertain or wavering terms to the plan and principle of making the United States a literate Nation. The utterances of leaders of America's thought against illiteracy and their demands for its abolition have become more and more insistent. Among these utterances no clearer call has been made than that ofPresident Coolidge, who, speaking before the National Education Asso- ciation on July 4 last, said : When it is remembered that ignorance is the most fruitful source of poverty, vice and crime, it is easy to realize the necessity for removing what is a menace, not only to our social well being, but to the very existence of the Republic. A failure to meet this obligation registers a serious and inexcusable defect in our Government. ILLITERACY GEORGE STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY The guaranteed freedom of movement from one State to another makes us as interdependent educationally as we are economically. Neither ignorance nor learning can be segregated within the borders of any State. Education, or the lack of it, is felt throughout the Nation. Ignorant men move from one section of the country to another. Illiteracy is a National liability and a National menace. The census returns show six per cent of our population above ten years of age who are confessedly illiterate. When one remembers that this census excludes from the illiterate group anyone who has had the slightest amount of schooling anywhere, it is easy to understand why it was that in the army 24.9 per cent of the drafted men were found to be unable to read simple English. The census itself however, shows that the number of illiterates recorded in 1920 was greater than in 1910 in twelve States. For example, the census shows that the total number of illiterates in New York, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, and New Jersey was 954,131 in 1910 and 1,400,283 in 1920. No American citizen, no matter what his color, what his occupation, or what the land of his birth, can, with safety to our social order, be merely "hands and feet to fetch and carry." Human destiny to an extent never known before is now in the hands of the people. The fundamental problem that now confronts us is to raise the common man not so much to a greater degree of skill and industrial efficiency as to those higher planes of thinking, feeling, and social action which the complexity and interdependence of life demand. This can be accomplished through education and only through education. It was Horace Mann who said REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 159 of any man who would claim the "elevated rank of an American statesman" that he must "speak, plan, labor, at all times and in all places for the culture and edification of the whole people." HENRY J. RYAN ON IGNORANCE This Nation called a Conference on the limitation of armaments, in an attempt to solve a problem which impedes the progress of the world. But what the world is more in need of is a conference on the limitation of ignorance. At the confer- ence our great president made an epoch-making address. Among other things he said ( I rely upon a faulty memory) : "I once believed in war. I now believe that public opinion rules the world." But, of what value is public opinion if it be ignorant opinion ? Ignorant public opinion can destroy the world; even as today we see destruction on every hand in this fair land. At Herrin, Illinois, there were more human lives lost than were lost when Fort Sumter was fired upon. And this is but an insignificant reference to the disturbances which are a menace to internal peace. Those poor people were murdered by the sharp and deadly weapons of ignorance. The time has come when we must do one of two things in this country. We must take the vote away from every man and woman who cannot cast it intelligently or we must educate all the voters. To do the first would be to destroy not only the spirit but also the very form of our government. To refuse to do the latter is to pay hostage to the hosts of chaos and destruction. "Emancipation is but half completed, slavery is but half abolished while millions of free men with votes in their hands are permitted to remain in ignorance." THE FIRST RADIO TALK ON ILLITERACY VAUGHAN MAC CAUGHEY, CALIFORNIA TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION ILLITERACY DAY-AMER- ICAN EDUCATION WEEK-SAN FRANCISCO EXAMINER BROADCASTING STATION THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 22, 1923 California is a mighty State, proud of her great achievements. She rightly does not hesitate to tell the world of her marvelous progress and unsurpassed re- sources. And yet, at the present moment, right here in San Francisco, in a single district, there are 3500 men and women who are absolutely illiterate. They are unable to read or write English or their mother tongue. This figure does not include Orientals. California has nearly 100,000 illiterate men, women and chil- dren ten years of age and over. The number of illiterates in this State increased by 20,000 during the years 1910-1920. Can we brag of our educational system when vicious illiteracy, parent of many evils, is increasing at this alarming rate ? California has 2000 new illiterates every year ! Of this vast army of people (who cannot read or write the simplest words of English or any other language ) over 10,000 are native-born Americans and of these 9000 are native-born whites ! Illiteracy is a black and shameful blot on our flag. It is a disgrace to a Nation as rich and powerful as ours. It is a disgrace to the State of California. A people that has millions of dollars to spend for tobacco, millions for candy and soda water, millions for talcum powder and lip sticks, and millions for chewing gum, certainly has enough money to wash this stain from our good name. Illiteracy has been outlawed in most of the advanced nations of the world. The United States ranks tenth in percentage of illiteracy. France, England, Norway, Switzerland, Scotland, and Japan all far excel us in literacy. California is below seventeen other States in the literacy of her native-born children between the ages of ten and twenty. She is down in the eighteenth place. She is excelled by many States, such as Iowa, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Utah, South Dakota, Nebraska, etc. This illiteracy of young people is bound up with 160 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION child labor. Illiteracy is part of the exploitation of youth by the powers of greed and ignorance. Illiteracy means absolutely that the State program of education is inadequate, that the facilities and money for the proper schooling of those who should have schooling, are insufficient. The school superintendents of California, at their recent Riverside Convention, declared: "We affirm that 1923 will stand conspicuous in the annals of California for an unwarranted assault made upon the educational and humanitarian functions of the State by the reactionary forces of society and for the single purpose of en- abling favored classes of property to evade just and equitable taxation for the support of these functions of the State." Can California, with 100,000 illiterates, permit unwarranted assaults upon the educational and humanitarian functions of this noble and beloved State ? Is illiteracy good business ? Is it a square deal to our own children? Is it fair to our flag? SHALL ILLITERATES VOTE? S. K. MARDIS, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION , OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS, OHIO Government of a necessity implies intelligence and power in the governing agency. Those who assume the responsibility of directing the actions of others should know the conditions under which the persons to be directed are living. They should not only see the objectives to be achieved but should have the ability to realize these objectives . The intelligence to see the objectives and all the surrounding conditions without the power to do paralyzes execution and destroys government. But the power to do without the intelligence to know what to do and how to do, invites chaos or reckless destruction. Intelligence and power are the two fundamental factors in all government, and without these two factors no government can possibly exist. Intelligence in government is so necessary that through the whole history of civilization monarchies have made the most ample provisions for educating and training in every detail the lineal heirs to the throne so they may be fully able to assume these great responsibilities of government according to their conceptions of government. This principle is so generally accepted that the proverb has come to us through the ages, "Where there is no vision the people perish." These principles hold good in all forms of government, regardless of the names by which they may be known, and independently of the few or the many who may constitute the governing group. Governmental participation is power. When all can vote regardless of their intelligence, a power is given to such persons that is extremely dangerous, not only to themselves but to all other persons connected with the government, because government is for the good of the governed. To place the ballot in the hands of the illiterate and ignorant is as reckless as to give children loaded revolvers as toys. It endangers their own lives and places all within reach in jeopardy. It has been wisely said that "In the United States, the ballots of the ignorant voters are more to be dreaded than the muskets of foreign soldiers." Uncontrolled power is one of the most dangerous things conceivable. When the participation in government is limited to comparatively few persons REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 161 the problem of training for this responsibility is not difficult, but when the whole process is reversed as it was by the Revolutionary War and the ballot given to all citizens over twenty-one years of age, we assumed a responsibility so great as almost to make us recoil when we seriously consider it. The importance of general education was fully realized by the founders of this government. Embedded in the Magna Charta of the Northwest, the Ordinance of 1787, we read that "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." This means that schools and the means of educa- tion lie at the very basis of good government, happiness, religion, and morality. John Adams said, "The preservation of the means of knowledge among the lowest is of more importance to the public than all the property of all the rich men in the country." It should not be overlooked that John Adams specifically called at- tention to the National importance of the preservation of the means of knowledge to the lowest, having in mind the refining, elevating, enlightening power of educa- tion. This places on the public the responsibility of educating all the children of all the people. It is a difficult duty but it must be done. Our only way out is through general education. Illiteracy must be eradicated from this Nation. The shifting of the responsibilities of government from the few to the masses after the Revolutionary War was a new problem in civilization. The colonists were a people with the enlightened knowledge of government of western and northwestern Europe. The colonists had, in general, a religious enthusiasm and spirit of political freedom. Many of their leaders were graduates of the leading European universities. This has all changed. The strangers at our gates now knocking for admission are not from western and northwestern Europe, where there is the lowest per cent of illiteracy, but from Southeastern Europe, where the per cent of illiteracy is very high. They are a people who have no knowledge of our free institutions and no interest in them. Many illiterates have been brought to our country simply as a business of the transportation companies for the money secured from them as freight. Many have been dumped upon us to get rid of them for various reasons. Thousands of other foreigners are brought to this country to compete in wages with our citizens, so higher per cent in dividends may be declared even if we have a very great decrease in the intelligence averages in our citizenship. The little protection we have is being attacked at this time for the purpose of having wage competitors. This is very largely why the actual number of illiterates have increased in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Illi- nois, Michigan, Texas, Colorado, Arizona, Washington, and California in the last decade. This should not be permitted. Those who import or employ illiterates should be compelled by law to teach them to write and to read in English within a limited time as a condition of their continued employment. Those who study these conditions will be enabled to realize the wisdom of Dr. Lyman Beecher in his masterly address on the necessity of education, when he said: "We must educate ! We must educate ! or we must perish by our own prosper- ity. Ifwedo not, short will be our race from the cradle to the grave. If, in our haste to be rich and mighty, we outrun our literary and religious institutions they will never overtake us ; or only come up after the battle of liberty is fought and lost, as spoils to grace the victory and as resources of inexorable despotism for the perpetuity of our bondage !" Mark this significant statement "if in our haste to become rich and mighty we outrun our literary and religious institutions." 162 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Our Americanization is a great improvement over none, but it is far short of what it should be. Americanization is not by any means removing illiteracy, nor giving the knowledge of our government that should be given. No persons either native or foreign born should be permitted to vote until they are able not only to write and to read the English language intelligently, but until they have a well grounded knowledge of our government and a patriotic conception of the true spirit of our free institutions. We should be an educated, liberty-loving, law- abiding, God-fearing Nation. Nothing short of this will fully prepare us to fill our mission as leaders of an enlightened world. Our government is becoming more direct. The right to vote is not only being extended to more people, but more difficult questions are being left to voters to settle. The election of the United States Senators is now by popular vote. The primary nominations have in many States taken the place of the representative con- ventions, and the initiative and referendum are making legislators of all. I am not discussing the wisdom or the unwisdom of the tendency, but I am calling attention to the fact. This is unquestionably giving to the masses what the founders of our government would entrust only to the most carefully selected statesmen. If we do not bring the statesmanship ability of the masses up to the ability to solve all such problems, we must limit the right of franchise to those who have such ability, or at least, to those who have become informed on all public questions. They must have the ability to write and read in our national language-English-what is published in books and current periodicals of all public questions. Nothing short of this should be permitted. Yet with these facts in mind we are informed by the 1920 Federal Census that we have in the United States classed illiterates : Native white males over 21 years of age . 563,546 Negro males over 21 years of age .. 748,229 Native white females over 21 years of age ..... 477,123 Negro females over 21 years of age . 764,758 Making a total of... 2,553,656 Native-born practically all of whom can vote although they are self-confessed illiterates. If the whole truth were known this number could be doubled, especially if the near illiterates were included. In our mad enthusiasm to extend the most sacred rights any people can have, to all upon whom they may bestow it, we are too rapidly adopting the foreigner into the full membership of the American family. We are informed that we had in 1920 foreign-born white males over 21 years of age and consequently of voting age 840,068 and of foreign-born white females over 21 years of age 867,082, making a total of 1,707,145 potential illiterate voters to add to the native-born illiterate voters. If we were actually conspiring to overthrow our government by shifting the management of our national affairs from that of knowledge to that of ignorance it would be difficult to invent a better plan. But if we are not premeditatedly wishing to accomplish this, it is time for us to call a halt and make some educational requirements that may prevent such a catastrophe. There is great danger of so cheapening the right of franchise that it may not be appreciated by any person. No person should be in possession of the right of franchise in the greatest government in the world without paying the price of bringing to it a high degree of intelligence and patriotism. This can be done in every State in the Nation by restricting the ballot. It should REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 163 be restricted at least to the ability to read any ordinary article and to reproduce it in written English. We are repeating a classic proverb by casting the pearl of franchise before swine. It is being trampled underfoot lacking due apprecia- tion, because too many upon whom it is bestowed are lacking the intelligence to realize its responsibility. A LITERACY TEST FOR VOTERS AND for CITIZENSHIP ALFRED E. REJALL, SUPERVISOR OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION , DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION , ALBANY, NEW YORK An effective means of safeguarding the ballot from the dangers and evils of an illiterate electorate, would be to require all new voters to pass a simple test in reading and writing English understandingly as a qualification for voting. Similarly our citizenry would be protected from the ignorant illiterate foreigner if he too were subjected to a test involving comprehension in reading and writ- ing English as a requisite for securing his final citizenship papers. All sorts of specifications exist for practically every kind of position subjected to Civil Service rules; private business carefully selects prospective employees ; the man- ager of the household makes certain demands upon prospective servants, etc. Yet to our discredit and chagrin, practically nothing is done by the Federal Government to insure a literate citizenry, and with only one notable exception, our State legis- latures either have enacted no laws whatever requiring a literacy qualification for voting, or laws enacted are of such a nature that there is no guarantee that even a successful candidate can read and write English in the ordinary sense of the term. A brief statement of the chief provisions of the election laws in the twenty-one States where there exists a literacy qualification for voters follows : EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS NECESSARY FOR VOTING IN CERTAIN STATES Alabama .... Read and write Constitution of United States in the English language. Arizona Read Constitution of the United States in English language. Write name. California . Read Constitution in the English language and write name. Colorado . Legislature may by law after 1890 prescribe an educational qualification. (No legislation ever enacted. ) Connecticut . Read Constitution in the English language. Delaware.... After 1900, if 21 years old, read Constitution in the English language and write name. Georgia. Read and write Constitution in the English language or understand same if physically unable to write. Louisiana.. Read and write in the English language, or mother tongue, or owner of property assessed at not less than $300. Maine.. Read Constitution in English language and write name unless prevented by physical disability. Massachusetts.... Read Constitution in the English language and write name unless prevented by physical disability. Mississippi... Read or understand the Constitution. New Hampshire .... Read and write Constitution in English language unless pre- vented by physical disability. New York.... Read and write English, proof of literacy, certified to by edu- cational authorities, must be presented at time of registra- tion. 164 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION North Carolina ..... Read and write any section of the Constitution in English language. Oklahoma ... Read and write the Constitution. Oregon..... Read and write English language. South Carolina...... Read and write Constitution or possess certain amount of property. Texas .... Voter must explain in English language how he wishes to vote. Virginia . Read or understand the Constitution. Washington....... Read and speak English language. Wyoming.. Read the Constitution unless prevented by physical disability. It must be understood in this connection that reading aloud from the Federal or State Constitution is practically valueless as a test for reading with comprehension ; there is a vast difference between reading intelligibly and reading intelligently. Likewise, in the case of writing, copying a few words or writing one's name is not a true test of ability to write English such as is demanded under the ordinary affairs and conditions of life. In respect to a real, practical literacy requirement for new voters, the law of New York State enacted in 1922, stands out as an example that requires at least careful consideration. Its outstanding feature is that it provides for a literacy test that is practicable, easily administered and at the same time, actually tests a candidate in the qualities it is supposed to test. A selection of approximately 100 words written in simple English such that a normal child of the fifth grade can readily pass is read silently by the candidate. He is then required to answer in his own handwriting a series of questions based upon the selection read. A sample test follows : Read this and then write the answers . Read it as many times as you need to. George Washington is called the Father of His Country. As a boy he was strong and powerful and liked sports. He always obeyed his parents and showed the best manners toward everybody. While he was still a school boy he wrote a fine list of rules on good manners . This list of rules was for girls and boys to follow. As a man Washington loved his country. He was America's greatest leader in the Revolutionary War. After the war, he was elected the first President of the United States . He was President two terms and refused a third term. He ranks as one of the greatest men of human history. 1. What is George Washington called ?. 2. Whom did he obey ? ...... 3. To whom did he show good manners ? ... 4. On what subject did he write a list of rules ? 5. Who were to use this list of rules ?. 6. What did this boy love when he grew to be a man ?. 7. Of what country was he the greatest leader ? 8. In what war was he the greatest leader? .. 9. To what great office was he elected after the war ? .... 10. How does he rank among the men of the world ? ... In this way, a simultaneous examination is given in both reading and writing and we are certain that the successful candidate understands the subject matter read and can write in the commonly expected sense of that term. From the stand- point of administration, it is interesting to note that only examiners who are licensed public school teachers in the State are permitted to conduct the test and grant certificates of literacy to successful applicants. Public expression and support of the proposition of a Federal literacy require- ment for citizenship and a State-wide literacy law for voting is growing. Agita REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 165 tion in behalf of these two aims should be the privilege and attitude of every believer in a united America and a better democracy. The American Legion, the National Education Association, the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, have all at their last regular convention passed resolutions advocating the above principles. Under the leadership and in- spiration of such agencies, friends of the movement need not despair in spite of the difficulty of the task. At any rate, our country will not be safe for democracy until the time when such proposed measures have become actualized and the granting of citizenship to the illiterate foreigner and the granting of the voting privilege to the illiterate native-born will be a cheap and unappreciated gift unless that gift-which should be sacred and properly cherished-can be made worth- while and worth striving for. THE ILLITERACY PROBLEM IN A LARGE CITY FLORA D. SMITH, SUPERVISOR, IMMIGRANT EDUCATION, AND ELEMENTARY EVENING SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA In Los Angeles there are three avenues of approach to the illiterate population. Industrial classes are organized in laundries and factories ; the home teachers instruct the illiterate women, and evening classes are held in elementary and high school buildings, libraries, hospitals, jails, and railroad camps. The industrial classes have received excellent support from the employers, who have willingly coöperated with the school authorities by giving publicity to the classes and providing classrooms. Three railroads in Los Angeles donate rooms and equipment for school purposes, because they have found that the men and women who are taught to read and write and, in some instances, to speak Eng- lish help solve their problem of labor "turn over." Where classes have been held, better feeling prevails among the camp people, and the sanitary and health conditions improve. One official after visiting a camp class of women, and hear- ing the excellent reports of the work, recommended that the plans under con- sideration for modern, up-to-date camp dwellings include a well equipped school- room. In many foreign homes the illiteracy of the parents becomes a real tragedy to the children. I recall visiting a morning class and being especially attracted by the eagerness of one woman. I found upon inquiry that she lived forty blocks from the school, but she was seldom absent or late. She told me that one day her small son came home in tears, and after questioning found that he had de- stroyed his report card because he was ashamed to return it without her signa- ture and explain to his teacher that his mother could not write. The mother realized the situation and determined to not only learn to write, but to read and speak English. The child later shed tears, but they were tears of rejoicing when he could return his monthly card with his mother's signature on it. Illiterate parents who, because of their ignorance, are forced to give over their responsibility to their children, can scarcely be expected to retain the leadership in the home which rightfully belongs to them. Children cannot always be relied upon to interpret "the whole truth and nothing but the truth" to the parents. In the days when report cards were marked "E" for excellent, "G" for good, "F" for fair, and "P" for poor, I know a boy who interpreted to his parents that the many "P's" on his card stood for perfect. Forty-five full-time home teachers are employed in Los Angeles. Their duty as definitely stated in the school law is "to work in the homes of the pupils, in- structing children and adults in matters relating to school attendance and prepara- tion, therefore; also in sanitation, in the English language, in household duties, 166 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION such as purchase, preparation and use of food, and of clothing, and in the funda- mental principles of the American system of government and the rights and duties of citizenship." The home teachers meet the women in their homes, in groups in the school buildings and in cottages. These cottages are often obtained by the board of education, when new grounds are purchased for new buildings or playground purposes and are fitted up for day and evening classes. Some of them have been moved into foreign neighborhoods and are being used as community centers as well as for classroom activities . The teachers who work with indigents in connection with the county charities, and with convalescing patients in the county hospital, have found that these people take much interest in learning to read and to write. Many persons who begin their school work at the charities enter night classes in order that they may improve themselves more rapidly and many discharged patients continue their work in the evening schools. In the program to combat illiteracy in Los Angeles, the school officials have received the hearty support of all civic and philanthropic organizations. The Los Angeles city school department in turn pledges to coöperate and aid in the National campaign for the elimination of illiteracy. AN ILLITERACY PROGRAM The purpose of this paper is to set forth the situation in the United States with regard to illiteracy, to set up a goal toward which to work and suggest the agencies by which the goal may be attained. Very few of the facts contained in this paper are new. They are to be found in the various bulletins of the National Education Association and of the United States Bureau of Education and in magazines and other publications, but so far as the author knows they have never been brought together as this paper proposes to do. Before we can intelligently discuss the problems of illiteracy we must agree upon a definition of illiteracy. Official reports which are quoted whenever this subject is discussed are based upon the Census Bureau's definition. To the Census Bureau an illiterate is a person who con- fesses that he cannot write in any language. The census enumerator gave no tests and required no proofs. And yet under these conditions the census returns for 1920 revealed 4,931,905 illiterates. Here, then, are approxi- mately five millions above the age of ten who confess that they cannot write in any language. It has been generally assumed in discussing the census figures that inability to write carries with it the inability to read. This is not the case. In some American schools writing is not, or at least was not, taught in the lower grades and some adults who attended such schools learned to read without learning to write. Some immigrants can read but not write. They say that in the schools they attended in their native country, writing was not required; 500,000 persons who could read but not write were listed by the Census Bureau. But who is an illiterate ? Clearly from a practical social point of view it is one who has not mastered the arts of reading and writing sufficiently to use them in REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 167 daily life. And this implies ability to read the newspaper and to write at least family letters. Unfortunately we have no census of a State or of a community based on such a definition. However, we have some very illuminating and disturbing data furnished by the tests given the men in the first army draft at the beginning of the World War. It will be re- membered that leading psychologists through carefully devised examina- tions tested the mental ability of more than 1,500,000 men in the first army draft to determine the line of service for which they were best fitted. These tests incidentally revealed the condition of literacy among these men. The results showed that 24.9 per cent of the men examined could not read ordinary English or write a letter home. Here was a practical test of literacy and the findings were humiliating and alarming. Taking the army tests as a basis, it is reasonable to accept the conclusion of the Illiteracy Commission of the National Education Association that there are approximately 20,000,000 of our population above the age of ten who are practically illiterate, i. e., who cannot effectively use reading and writing in any language in their daily lives. The standing of the United States among the leading nations of the world, with reference to illiteracy, is not flattering to our pride. Our rank is tenth, with an illiteracy percentage based on the census of 1920 of 6 per cent, while Germany and Denmark lead the list with a percentage of less than two tenths of one per cent. Our nearest contestants for undesirable honors are France with 4.9 per cent and England with 1.8 per cent of illiterates . Here, then, is our situation. Now, let us look for causes. Outstanding are three-inadequate schools, inadequate and unenforced compulsory attendance laws, and immigration. Immigration is a large factor as it supplies two fifths of our illiterates. Our ignorance and pride incline us to blame immigration for most of our illiterates, but the fact is that three fifths, that is, three millions of our five million illiterates, are native born, and of the native-born illiterates approximately one and a quarter milion are white and one and three quarter million are colored. We then must blame ourselves and no one else for our three million native illiterates above the age of ten. The cause of this native illiteracy is two-fold-poor school facilities and unenforced compulsory school attendance laws. In some of our States which rank well educationally, we are still breeding illiterates in sections which are sparsely settled and in certain States which are educationally retarded the situation is extremely disheartening. We have decreased illiteracy but one per cent in ten years and the last census returns show a half million native-born illiterates between the ages of ten and twenty and what is more alarming, the last available figures for a complete year show that 1,437,783 children between the ages of ten and thirteen did not attend school a single day. Unless we mend our ways the problem of illiteracy will vex us for a hundred years. But why bother about illiteracy? There is less of it in the United 168 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION States and in the world than ever before. What if a few millions of adults and children above ten years old cannot read or write? The human race existed on this planet several million years before written language was invented. There are enough who are literate to look after the con- cerns of humanity. Let the illiterates enjoy their ignorance. The reply to this let-alone argument is three-fold : The first is humanitarian, the second is economic, and the last is patriotic. In the first place, then, we campaign against illiteracy for the purpose of subtracting from human misery and adding to human happiness. In this day of print, when the sleepless printing presses are turning out tons of literature in the form of daily papers, of magazines, and of books, in this day when the world, so far as intercommunication is concerned, has shrunk to the size of a country of a century ago, it is pathetic to think that there are millions who are unable to get instruction or enjoyment from the printed page. When for any reason whatsover we are personally deprived for a time of the pleasure of reading we begin to appreciate in a small degree the pathetic condition of those to whom written language is an impenetrable mystery. The humiliation and the loss of self-respect which come to those who are il- literate is something we can only imagine. Illiteracy is a badge of in- feriority, a disgrace which is felt by every one to a more or less degree who is a victim of it. The testimony of those who in adulthood have learned to read and write is touching and compelling. A world-wide war against illiteracy would be justified on purely altruistic grounds, for hap- piness is a legitimate human goal. But there are other considerations as well. It was a maxim of Napoleon that an army travels upon its stomach. So does a nation, so does the entire human race. We are assured by the world's best authorities that the human race is nearing a critical situation so far as food supply is concerned. Most of the nations of the old world have already arrived at the stage of over-population. The new world is approaching the saturation point. It will require all of the enlightenment and intelligence that the world can muster to safely adjust population and food supply. The hope of the world in this direction lies in the development, popularization and spread of scientific knowledge. Here enters education. It takes educated brains to produce wealth. The illiterate is economically inefficient and unproduc- tive both for himself and for society. Compare the most illiterate and the least illiterate States with respect to the production of wealth and note how the balance tips in favor of literacy. In 1920, the per capita produc- tion of wealth in the five States which had maintained the most efficient school systems measured by the Ayer's scale was nearly double that in the five States which had maintained the most inefficient school sys- tems. Franklin K. Lane estimated that illiteracy is costing the Nation $825,000,000 annually. The commission on waste in industry estimates an annual loss of $ 1,000,000,000 in the United States on account of preventable sickness. These amounts each approach closely the total REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 169 JANITOR IN TRANSYLVANIA COLLEGE , LEXINGTON , KEN- I ransylvania bollege TUCKY. TAUGHT BY A STU- DENT OF THE COLLEGE . Lexingtank entucky may 1919,21 . I ear mrs & Leward: I write to you to Thankyou for my book. I have not learned much . butwhat clhave learnedhas bien agreat helptome amgoingto Ibetter. am gone throughreadandwrite I havekeeptryingto my book 4 or 5 times. mrs steward would your send Me asecondreader if you think Ineed its I hope you can readthis badwriting. Yours Truly Henry steven.s This letter tells how the illiterate feels about learning to read and write. 170 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cost of our public schools. The only remedy for these enormous losses is education. Illiteracy breeds ignorance, unproductiveness, poverty, ill health, and low moral standards. For economic reasons alone the struggle against illiteracy must continue. But there is another consideration which impels us forward in the effort to eradicate illiteracy, and that is patriotism-our interest in the stability and perpetuity of our political and social institutions. With a faith in the political capabilities of the common man, which to the rest of the world seemed fanatical, this Nation established manhood and has added woman- hood suffrage, and in several States the primary, the initiative, the referen- dum and the recall have been adopted. The Government of this mighty Nation is in the hands of the people. Public opinion elects our officials and controls them while in office. The ballot is at once the hope and the menace of all democratic nations. It is a savor of life unto life or death unto death. An ignorant ballot is a menace and a threat, an intelligent ballot is a well-placed stone in the foundaion of the republic. A voter who cannot read is necessarily a prey of the demagogue and the political and social profiteer. The number of such voters is appalling. In 1920, 4,333,111 illiterates were twenty-one years or over, and consequently voters. In many of our States this unintelligent mass would be sufficient to turn an election and decide tremendous issues of social significance. In the old New England days the town meeting was the forum of public discussion and through such discussion the intelligent though illiterate man could become informed on public questions. That day is gone forever and the printed page in book or magazine or daily press is the source of in- formation. A voter who cannot use the printed page cannot hope to be informed and consequently is a dangerous voter. The country cannot safely perpetuate him . We have now considered the present situation, the cause which produced it and the reasons for an unceasing campaign against illiteracy. It remains to consider our objectives, ultimate and immediate, and the methods by which they are to be attained. Of course, our ultimate objective is the banishment of illiteracy from the United States. Our first immediate objective should be the stoppage of the supply of illiteracy. We stand today in the situation of a man who is pulling victims out of a river while someone above is throwing them in. He has a perpetual job. The only sensible thing for him to do is to dispose of the men throwing the victims in. Analogously, it should be our first business to stop the creation of illiterates. A generation at most would settle the matter if no more illit- erates were bred. We have found that immigration has been responsible for 2,000,000 of our illiterates. Our new immigration laws will greatly reduce, though they have not yet wholly stopped, the influx of illiterates from alien lands . The Bureau of Immigration reports that 11,356 persons who could not read or write were admitted to this country during 1923. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 171 The second source of illiterates is insufficient schooling. Here the line of procedure is evident. Our States that are backward educationally must have more and better schools. If the amendment to eliminate child labor becomes effective, as no doubt it will, one source of illiteracy will be stopped, for when States quit working their children there is hope that they will send them to school. Throughout many of our States there must be a better enforcement of the compulsory education laws. No blow at illiteracy would be more effective than one delivered against laxity in the enforcement of the laws compelling school attendance. Need or greed or the indifference of parents should not be permitted to rob the children of the United States of their rightful inheritance through the public schools and to weaken our social and political structure through the breeding of illiterates. The prevention of illiteracy through better school facilities and a rigid enforcement of attendance laws is clearly up to the States. An educational campaign of a fervid type is needed in some States to create new ideals and set up new standards. Nothing is so hard to change as custom. What is stands in the way of what should be. It is equally true that the education of adult illiterates belongs to the State. Illiteracy is a social blight and the resources of the State should be pledged to its removal. A matter of such general concern should not be left to philanthropy. A State program administered through the office of the State superintendent of education is the sound and approved method of procedure. We have stressed the responsibility of the States in preventing and re- moving illiteracy, but this does not signify that we think the Federal Government has no responsibility in the matter. On the contrary we hold that education is a national concern and that the Federal Government should coöperate with the States in promoting it . The country is ready for a great forward movement against illiteracy. Since this is distinctly an educational movement we have a right to look to the educational forces of the States to initiate it where it has not already been launched. The years ought not to be many until every State is thoroughly and effectively organized for the purpose of removing the dark disgrace of illiteracy from our fair land. 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TENTATIVE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE THOUSAND ON CHILD LABOR JOHN F. SIMS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL STEVENS POINT, WISCONSIN, CHAIRMAN 1 The Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor was first appointed by President Jesse H. Newlon in December, 1924, to carry out the policy adopted by the Representative Assembly in its resolutions of 1923 and 1924. Its membership consists of from fifteen to twenty representatives from each of the States. The Committee was continued by the Represen- tative Assembly in 1925. The Constitution of the United States, adopted at Philadelphia in 1787, was ratified by the necessary number of States and became effective in April, 1789. It therefore has served as the instrument of the Government for one hundred thirty-six years and under its provisions the United States has become the happiest, the most prosperous, the most enlightened, and the most civilized country in the world. We pay the tribute of admiration to the makers of the Constitution- Washington, Madison, Franklin, Hamilton, and others. They knew they did not frame a perfect document for incorporated in it was provision for amending it, to wit : " The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution which shall be valid to all intents and purposes as a part of this Constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the states in conventions held in three fourths or over." On April 26, 1924, the House of Representatives passed the Child Labor Amendment by a vote of 297 to 69. On June 2, 1924, the Senate passed the bill by a vote of 61 to 23. Both Houses approved of the Amendment by a very substantial vote. The National Education Association has been a vital factor in bring- ing this Amendment before the public and in urging the ratification of the Amendment, as is revealed by the following resolutions : 1. At Oakland in 1923 among the resolutions appeared this: "The National Education Association in re-affirming its belief in the vital importance to the chil- dren of a law establishing a Federal minimum of protection from premature or excessive employment favors a Child Labor Amendment to the Constitution authorizing Congress to make such a law." 2. At the Washington Meeting in 1924 the following resolution was unanimously adopted : "Believing in Governmental responsibility, we endorsed in our last Con- vention an Amendment to the Constitution empowering Congress to make laws regarding Child Labor. We now advocate the ratification by the States of the Child Labor Amendment passed by the present Congress and urge the members of this Association to make every effort to obtain its ratification by the Legislatures of their respective States at the earliest possible moment." 1 The membership of this committee consists of from fifteen to twenty representatives from each of the States. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 173 WHY CONGRESS DEEMED IT NECESSARY TO PROPOSE THE AMENDMENT This Amendment was proposed after the United States Supreme Court by 5 to 4 vote declared unconstitutional the laws of 1916 and 1918 passed by Congress to regulate child labor. The first law was held unconstitutional on the ground that the power of Congress to regulate inter-state commerce was not broad enough to prohibit the transportation of commodities in the production of which child labor had been employed. This Court did not hold that such legisla- tion was not necessary or desirable. Justice Day said, "That there should be limitations on the right to employ children in the mines and factories in the interest of their own and the public welfare all will admit." The second Child Labor Law imposed the same limitations upon the employment of children as the first law and differed only in the way it sought to control such employment. Congress deemed it necessary to propose such Amendments for the fol- lowing reasons : 1. The State Laws were inadequate to give the children adequate protection. 2. The States protecting children are in competition with other States with low Child Labor standards, introducing a large element of unfair competition. As a matter of fact, mill owners and manufacturers were not only most bitter in their opposition to the Child Labor Amendment, but were primarily responsible for its passage, as year after year they declared unfair the competition of States with low child labor standards. Arguing further, the improvement in such respects through- out the United States was necessary in order to preserve industrial stability and prevent industries from moving into States which maintained lower child labor standards. 3. Inter-state exploitation is not permitted by State laws . 4. American children are now denied equal protection of the law. 5. Evils resulting from child labor spread across State lines. 6. There was notable increase in child labor when the Federal Laws were de- clared unconstitutional. THE EXACT WORDING OF THE AMENDMENT "Section 1. The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate and pro- hibit the labor of persons under eighteen years of age." "Section 2. The power of the several States is unimpaired by this article except that the operation of State laws shall be suspended to the extent necessary to give effect to legislation enacted by the Congress." It may be well to state in this connection these facts : 1. The Amendment merely gives to Congress the power to legislate within definite limits. There are three points to consider (a) to limit, (b) to regulate, (c) to prohibit the labor of persons. The opponents of the measure stress the third point, proclaiming that the Amendment proposes to prohibit the labor of all persons under eighteen years of age, forgetting the provisions concerned in limiting and regulating such labor. 2. This Amendment does not invade the rights of the States nor does 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION it make any law concerning child labor. Such laws will be passed within the power conferred to Congress and no further. 3. The cost of the administration of Child Labor legislation need not be necessarily great as there has always been coöperation between the State and National officials in this respect. In fact, while Federal child labor laws were in effect little trouble was experienced in correcting many evils of child labor in the several States . OPPONENTS OF THE AMENDMENT 1. The National Manufacturers' Association . 2. Committee on the Rejection of the Twentieth Amendment with offices at Washington, D. C. 3. Southern Textile Bulletin . 4. Moderation League ( Organized to oppose the Volstead Act) . 5. The Woman Patriot ( Formerly anti-suffrage now anti-feminist organization ) . 6. The Sentinels of the Republic. 7. The Women's Constitutional League of Maryland ( Organized by former anti- suffragists to oppose the Shepherd-Towner Maternity-Infancy Protective Law) . 8. The American Farm Bureau Federation . THE ARGUMENTS OF THE OPPONENTS 1. The doctrine of State Rights is invaded. This doctrine has given rise to many controversies in our history, dating from the time of the adoption of the Constitution itself. Too much centralization of power is the bane of our Government today, it is said. The purpose is to give larger and larger power to the several States and to minimize the power granted to Congress. Opponents insist that the powers not granted to the Congress under the Constitution or pro- hibited by it to the States are reserved to the States respectively. The corollary, however, follows that if the States do not use the powers granted them for their general welfare it becomes the duty of Congress to enact such laws. There have been other invasions of the powers of the States as revealed in the abolition of slavery, the enactment of the Amendment prohibiting the sale and manufacture of intoxicating beverages, the Woman's Suffrage Amendment, and the National Income Tax Amend- ment. 2. Insistence that the number of child laborers is greatly exaggerated. It is notably true that the number of children employed as set forth by the opponents is far less than those set forth by the United States Bureau of the Census, and surely the census figures ought to be correct. 3. The Child Labor Amendment, if it became a part of the Constitu- tion, would invade the sanctity of the home. The Federal Labor Laws of 1916 and 1918 made no such invasion, nor have the several States who now have full power to enact child labor laws ever dreamed of such invasion. As the home is so is the Nation. Whatever contributes to the building of happy, prosperous, and enlightened REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 175 homes is a contribution to the National welfare. No sane body of law- makers would ever attempt such invasion. 4. That no persons under 18 could work on the farm. States now have the right to regulate child labor up to 21 and no- where among the 48 States is such a law spread upon the statutes. 5. Objection is made to the arbitrary limit of 18 years. Our opponents would be opposed to an arbitrary limit of 16 or even 14. It is merely a subterfuge. They insist that the character of youth would be injured by idleness which is fatal to the virile American spirit . It is not clear how legislation which safeguards the children of America, so that they may develop in full measure, body, mind, and soul, would be fatal to the virility of the American spirit. SUPPORTERS OF THE AMENDMENT 1. American Association of University Women. 2. American Federation of Labor. 3. American Federation of Teachers . 4. American Home Economics Association. 5. American Nurses' Association. 6. Commission on the Church and Social Service, Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America. 7. General Federation of Women's Clubs. 8. Girls' Friendly Society in America. 9. Medical Women's National Association. 10. National Child Labor Committee. 11. National Consumers' League. 12. National Council of Catholic Women. 13. National Council of Jewish Women. 14. National Council of Women. 15. National Congress of Parents and Teachers . 16. National Education Association . 17. National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs . 18. National League of Women Voters. 19. National Woman's Christian Temperance Union. 20. National Women's Trade Union League. 21. Service Star Legion. 22. Young Women's Christian Association. ARGUMENTS OF THE SUPPORTERS 1. The Child Labor Laws in many of the States do not adequately pro- tect children in their growth and development . 2. The number of children between the ages of 10 and 15 engaged in gainful occupations, as revealed by the census of 1920, was greater than before the nullification of the child labor laws by the Supreme Court. 3. The cause of the alarming illiteracy in the United States has a close relationship to the fact that thirty-seven States permit children to engage in occupations without a common school education. Eleven States allow children under 16 to work from 9 to 11 hours per day. The secretary of the Cotton Manufacturers' Association in one 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State boasts that in his State the child labor laws are unexcelled by any other State in the Union, yet children of 14 in that State are per- mitted to work 11 hours per day. In another State, a child of 12 may work 10 hours per day in textile mills, laundries, and places of amuse- ment, and 12 hours per day in other occupations. The American Federation of Labor insists that 8 hours is long enough for an adult. Many States have inadequate laws looking for the prevention of acci- dents. 4. The children of America are to become the workers and rulers of the future. They may become leaders in some worthy line of human en- deavor. To them must we look for the perpetuation and improvement of the principles on which this Nation was founded. To them must we look for that patriotic spirit and devotion which shall ever cherish, as a sacred heritage from heaven, the freedom which dwells under the Stars and Stripes . To prepare them for such work and for such patriotic leader- ship is the business of America. Unless they get the necessary training during the formative years of their lives they are handicapped in the race. Child labor prevents such development. PROGRESS OF THE AMENDMENT Four States-Arkansas, Arizona, California, and Wisconsin-have ratified the Amendment. Many more than twelve States have registered adverse action against it. The opponents proclaim with jubilation that the 20th Amendment is dead beyond resurrection and that its final doom has been sounded throughout the Nation. The National Education Asso- ciation and the other great organizations supporting it must not and will not yield to discouragement by the seemingly overwhelming obstacles thrown in our pathway by our well-organized and strongly entrenched opponents. We will meet them with the spirit of our boys in the World War, whose slogan was, "Where is the obstacle ? Lead us to it. We will go over the top." The Amendment itself carries no time limitation for its ratification. The Secretary of State is given no other power in the law than to certify that it has been ratified by a sufficient number of States. He is given no au- thority to certify that it has been defeated. Our souls must march bravely on in this warfare. The combat proclaims the hero. The loyalty and fighting spirit of the son of Erin who said "I'm with you in this cause to the end, or I'll die in the attempt" must be ours. Surely no more worthy cause can challenge our efforts than the conservation of the health, strength, and right education of the children of the Nation. Following the action of Congress in proposing the Amendment by a large vote in each House it was an astounding surprise to the friends of child labor legislation to learn that such powerful, well-organized opposi- tion developed against ratification, and to become aware of the means and methods they employ in their attempts to defeat it. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 177 Misrepresentation, appeals to prejudice, and the high danger of central- ization were the weapons used. The country was flooded with their lit- erature, and their orators were heard in every State. The farmers' chil- dren up to 18 could no longer milk the cows, weed the garden, care for the poultry, or do the chores. The education of the children could not be supervised by the parents. A dictatorship would be established in Wash- ington. State rights would be placed in greater jeopardy. The list could easily be extended, but intelligent and ignorant alike reached these conclu- sions on hearing only one side of the question, and without weighing the evidence, or considering the accuracy of the data submitted. The forces of the opposition dwelt not on the possibilities of the Amendment, on what it might do for childhood, but on the theoretically possible improbabilities, employing them to terrify voters and legislators as to what Congress might do, if granted the power. An extensive and intensive campaign of enlightenment is imperative. The supporters of the Amendment must discharge this obligation with fidelity and completeness. The heart of the American people is right. ATTITUDE OF PRESIDENT COOLIDGE Read the following statements of President Coolidge in answer to those who hold that he is opposed to this Amendment. "Our different States have had different standards or no standards at all for Child Labor. The Congress ought to have authority to provide a uniform law applicable to the whole nation which will protect childhood." "Our country cannot afford to let anyone live off the earnings of its youth of tender years. Their places are not in the factory but in the school, so that the men and women of tomorrow may reach a higher state of existence and the Nation a higher standard of citizenship." "The Government can and should always be expressive of steadfast deter- mination, always vigilant to maintain conditions under which these virtues are most likely to develop and secure recognition and reward. This is the American policy." "It is in accordance with this principle that we have enacted laws for the protection of public health and we have adopted prohibition in narcotic drugs and intoxicating liquors. For the purpose of national uniformity, we ought to provide by constitutional amendment and appropriate legislation for limitation of child labor ." Presidents Roosevelt, Wilson, and Harding have concurred with Presi- dent Coolidge in approval of child-labor legislation by Congress. Ex- President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard has also endorsed it. These names stand out like beacon lights in the interest of childhood. OUR GREAT TASK 1. The census of 1920 shows that over 1,000,000 children between 10 and 15 inclusive were engaged in gainful occupations in this land of the free and the home of the brave. 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2. The political and social conditions favorable to work that elevates and enriches human life approach nearest America's standards of living. Child labor is subversive of these standards . 3. Proponents of child labor sacrifice childhood to money; education to cheap production and the amassing of wealth. They foster greed in the strong, hatred and discouragement in the weak. 4. The recognition by Congress of conserving the childhood of America marks an epoch in our constitutional history fraught with wholesome far- reaching results. Who can estimate the value of the child-the potential worker and ruler of the future. Let us be loyal to him. 5. It is the function of the present generation to conserve the interests of the children so that in the springtime of life they may have abundant opportunity for the training which will so develop them physically, mentally, and spiritually that later they may discharge in full measure the duties and responsibilities of American citizenship. 6. The challenge has been flung at us. Your committee enlists in the combat with the spirit of the Crusader and prays for your enthusiastic co- operation. The plan of campaign up to date is suggested by the following : Stevens Point, Wisconsin, January 19, 1925. To All Members of the Committee-It gives me great pleasure to know that you have been honored by appointment as a member of the Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor and it will give me greater pleasure to learn of your acceptance and coöperation. This recognition by Congress of the importance of conserving the childhood of America, our future rulers, through the proposed amendment which gives that body "the power to limit, regulate and prohibit the labor of persons under eighteen years of age" marks an epoch in our Constitutional and Educational history fraught with wholesome, far-reaching results. This amendment becomes an integral part of our Constitution and, therefore, of the supreme law of our land when ratified by three-fourths of the states. The N. E. A. committee of one thousand, not one of research but of high, pur- poseful organization, is definitely and enthusiastically committed to the task of bringing to bear on legislative bodies to secure the end sought, the organized influence of our 150,000 members, of the 550,000 other teachers and of other organizations who hold the welfare of the children in their heart of hearts. The votaries of opposition, powerful and strongly intrenched, will be found in misunderstanding, diffidence, selfishness, as well as in those who hold unswerving allegiance to the political principle of state rights. It will require all of our re- sources, all of our staying powers and all of our high resolve to fight bravely on, to enlighten members of legislatures to recognize the need of such an amendment in extending the powers of Congress to include that of establishing necessary minimum standards of protection for the children of America. It is the function of the present generation to conserve the interests of the chil- dren so that in the springtime of life they may have abundant opportunity for the training which will develop their physical, mental and spiritual powers so that they may later discharge the duties and responsibilities of American citizenship, both private and public, with fidelity and completeness. The challenge has been flung at us and we must enlist in the combat with the spirit of the Crusader. Beseeching your acceptance of this honor, your earnest coöperation, and your constructive suggestions to bring about this consummation so greatly to be desired, I am cordially yours, John F. Sims, Chairman . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 179 Stevens Point, Wisconsin, February 5, 1925. To the Wisconsin Members of the One Thousand N. E. A. Committee on Child Labor-The Senate Committee hearing on Child Labor held January 29 was most encouraging as the Committee gave unanimous decision in favor of it. On Febru- ary 4 it was ratified in that body by a vote of 19 to 10. Governor Blaine sup- ports it. It is now imperative that we use all of our resources in securing like favorable action from the Assembly. The opponents of the measure have started a well organized and vigorous campaign basing their appeals on prejudice and misun- derstanding. Please write to your Assemblyman urging his support. Interest civic organiza- tions of your community to pass resolutions endorsing it and forward such resolu- tions to your Assemblyman. You know that many ( 14) States have rejected it, but the issue is not dead nor is it settled. Opposition to such a worthy cause should arouse the fighting spirit in us. We are working in the interest of the child, the future citizen. Surely it is his birthright to have opportunity for the physical, mental, and moral de- velopment which will enable him to function as a worthy American citizen, when he must fight his own battles. The child must be equipped for life with an unfettered start and a fair chance in the race. The Child Labor Amendment will be a mighty factor in bringing this condition about. Thanking you for your coöperation, I am cordially yours, John F. Sims, Chairman . P. S. Wisconsin has ratified the amendment. Stevens Point, Wisconsin, February 6, 1925 . - - , Chairman, Child Labor Committee of One Thousand-Having called a meeting of the N. E. A. Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor in the Business Men's Building at Cincinnati on February 25 at 2:00 P. M., will you not kindly notify the members of your State committee who are planning to attend theDepartme Department of Superintendence to be present? It is my purpose to have a Round Table discussion of ways and means for securing ratification of the Federal Amendment so vital to the childhood of America and consequently to the Nation itself. It appears to me that the following are pertinent for each State: 1. Forces of misrepresentation : how to combat them. 2. Arguments for and against the Amendment. 3. Civic and other organizations of your State for and against the Amendment. How best to combat the opposition ? 4. In how far will any legislation of Congress be likely to prohibit child labor on the farm. 5. To what extent is the theory of State Rights invaded? To what extent are States suspicious of further extension of federal powers ? 6. What was the attitude of political parties in your State in 1924 as revealed in the party platforms? 7. To what extent is it true that the rejection of the Amendment by more than twelve States has killed it? 8. The effect of Federal Laws of 1916 and 1918 on child labor in your State? 9. The effectiveness of present Child Labor Laws in your State in the light of the child's development, physically, mentally and morally. It is imperative that we go into this discussion very thoroughly. The fight will be long and bitter. Opposition should serve only to stimulate us to battle more valiantly. We will eventually win. Thanking you for your enthusiastic coöperation, I am Cordially yours, John F. Sims, Chairman. 180 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MINUTES OF MEETING OF COMMITTEE OF ONE THOUSAND ON CHILD LABOR OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HELD AT CINCINNATI, OHIO, FEBRUARY 25, 1925-AT 2 P. M. After a survey and history by John F. Sims, of the Child Labor Legis- lation and Amendment to date, there was open discussion from the floor. Mr. Warriner, of Michigan, was doubtful as to wisdom of further effort at this time. Miss Grogan, representing the local Cincinnati Committee, cited report of the Children's Bureau as to industrial accidents . Mr. Cortright, of Connecticut, indicated local government conditions in his State relative to legislative control together with the determined attitude of industrial interests. Suggested need of funds for use of this committee. This idea reinforced by Iowa representative. Mr. Keating, of Colorado, insisted on need of continuing the fight. Miss Dobbs, of Missouri, spoke of need of more literature on the subject. Mr. McDowell, of Illinois, moved that the Executive Committee of the N. E. A. be requested to secure funds for campaign of education this year among teachers and that the cause be included in the N. E. A. Budget next year . Motion seconded and carried . Mr. Frazier, of Colorado, called attention to the problem of child labor in the sugar beet area in his State an immediate situation taken by op- ponents to disarm proponents of the amendment. Motion to raise funds on basis of one dollar ($ 1.00) from each member of this committee not favored. Mr. Smith, of Tennessee, moved that the Chair appoint a sub-committee to study the problem further and report to the larger committee at the Indianapolis meeting. Carried. Obvious from tenor of remarks that information among members of the committee was not so full or comprehensive as might be desired and the secretary suggests that all members should be put in closer touch, if possible, with the agencies which furnish such literature. Respectfully submitted, W. H. Shephard, State Director N. E. A. for Minnesota. Following this meeting the members of the committee present were supplied with litera- ture from headquarters. Stevens Point, Wisconsin, May 21, 1925. - , Chairman, Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor-The meet- ing, February 25, 1925, of the members of the Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor who were present at the Cincinnati convention revealed a most opti- mistic attitude. All obstacles failed to discourage, and a vigorous campaign in the interest of its final ratification was urged and planned. A program of en- lightenment to combat the organized opposition was adopted. Inpresenting the tentative report of the Child Labor Committee at Indianapolis, I will greatly appreciate your reaction on the following pertinent points : 1. Arguments for and against the Amendment. 2. Civic and other organizations of your State for and against the Amendment. 3. In how far will any legislation of Congress be likely to prohibit child labor on the farm? 4. The effect of Federal Laws of 1916 and 1918 on child labor in your State. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 181 5. What was the attitude of political parties in your State in 1924 as revealed in the party platforms? 6. What, if any, reactionary legislation was enacted by your State during the session of legislature in 1925? 7. How can we organize your forces to secure favorable consideration of the Child Labor Amendment in the next session of your legislature? 8. The effectiveness of present Child Labor Laws in your State in the light of the child's development-physically, mentally, and morally. It is imperative that we study this vital matter thoroughly. The fight will be long and bitter. Opposition should serve only to stimulate us to battle more valiantly. We will eventually win. Thanking you for your enthusiastic coöperation, I am Cordially yours, John F. Sims, Chairman. 182 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CHARACTER EDUCATION MILTON BENNION, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, CHAIRMAN The Committee presented a preliminary report at the Indianapolis meet- ing which was considered in preparation for the final report which is to be published by the United States Bureau of Education during the year. The following Character Education Theses, also presented at the Indianapolis Convention, outline the main points in the report : 1. The processes of character education take place through development and organization of the natural powers of the child; this development and organiza- tion is greatly accelerated by concentrating the energies of the individual upon realization of life-purposes . It is, therefore, of utmost importance to discover what are the natural powers and tendencies of each child, and to assist him in the wise selection of life purposes and the best means of realizing them. This is educational guidance, which should be recognized as one of the chief functions of both home and school. Among the most hopeful movements now in course of development in the schools are the child guidance clinics and the systems of personal counselling. 2. Conscious intervention in the processes of character education is concerned first with the positive development of personalities. This intervention is, how- ever, concerned also with saving the immature from all forms of delinquency- putting them on their guard. A study of the forms, causes, and prevention of delinquency is, therefore, one of the essential features of any plan of character education. 3. In the processes of character development in the schools curricular materials and classroom methods best contribute towards the ends of character education when they are purposeful to the pupils and are at the same time socially valuable. The range of these materials and methods should be broad enough to appeal to all of the child's powers and to his deeper and more permanent interests. Teacher and pupils should constitute a community in which each strives earnestly and sincerely for the best good of the group, including the good of each individual member. The habits, standards, and ideals of ethical living should be progressively realized as the pupil advances from grade to grade ; this should be especially true of his ability to meet successfully increasingly complex situations. To this and every suitable occasion to develop the child's capacity for moral insight should be utilized, and he should be stimulated to behavior in agreement with his insight. This calls for both intellectual comprehension and proper evaluation of the good ; also for an emotional tone toward it that insures the most lasting satisfaction in helping to realize it. Curricular materials should include study of concrete instances of conduct within the child's own experience as well as instances drawn from literature and biography. In high school these studies should be extended to include the duties and moral responsibilities of social institutions; the duties of persons toward these institutions, of these institutions toward persons, and of both persons and institu- tions towards humanity. This calls for more emphasis on the ethical aspects of the social studies. This demand is being met in most high schools and colleges by courses in social ethics . The installation of such courses should not be permitted to detract from the moral values to be developed in other courses and activities of the school. The method of character education in general should be to help the child to REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 183 improve his behavior in the immediate present; this is the best guarantee of good behavior in the future. 4. Under favorable conditions the best character education results in school community life are obtained where the pupils participate in the responsibilities of management of this community life. They must have practice not only in individ- ual self-control and self-direction but also in sharing with others group control and direction. They must ultimately develop a loyalty to the highest good of the community that will surpass all personal considerations that might otherwise interfere. This oftentimes calls for the exercise of great moral courage. Where sufficiently high standards have been attained these standards may be further advanced by adoption of the honor system as a phase of student govern- ment. This applies not merely to honesty in examinations but to honesty and integrity in every phase of community life. 5. If society is to attain satisfactory results in character education it must devise ways and means of enlisting in the teaching profession the most capable young people who have teaching personalities. Society must also provide high professional standards and means of realizing these standards. This will require larger ex- penditures on teacher-training institutions and on teachers' salaries. It will also require revision upward of the social status of teachers. There must be general recognition of the fact that development of humanity is the ultimate goal, and that money, and all other economic goods are but means to this end. The development of public sentiment favorable to this procedure is, therefore, an essential step in any program of character education. 184 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RELATIONSHIPS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL 120 NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN The Committee on Relationships of the National Association with Departments, committees, and Allied Organizations was first appointed by Jesse H. Newlon for the year 1924-25. The Committee on Relationships of the National Education Association met at the Business Men's Club, Cincinnati, Ohio, on February 24, 1925. The chairman presided. As set forth by Jesse H. Newlon, President of the National Education Association, 1924-1925, the purpose of this committee includes : ( 1 ) To determine what should be the relation of the National Education Associa- tion to allied organizations, and of allied organizations to the National Education Association ; (2) To determine the responsibility the National Education Association should share or assume for allied organizations; and (3) To establish a policy in regard to the using of the name of the Na- tional Education Association in endorsements, etc., including its use by sections, committees, departments, or other divisions of the National Edu- cation Association. After long and careful discussion, the following recommendations were agreed upon and were presented to the executive committee of the Na- tional Education Association, the next day. They are now presented in this report for consideration and adoption by the representative assembly. 1. This committee recommends that the National Education Association establish a policy of defining a time limit for the existence of mutual relationships with allied organizations, requiring reaffirmation or termination at the end of such time limit. 2. This committee recommends that the National Education Association shall require all allied organizations to submit to its executive com- mittee for approval all policy-making resolutions before using the name of the National Education Association in support of such measures . 3. This committee recommends that the secretary of the National Edu- cation Association shall notify the heads of departments, committees, sections, or other divisions of the National Education Association, that the name of the National Education Association may not be used in endorsement, or in opposition to any person, policy, resolu- tion, or publication without the consent of the executive committee of the National Education Association. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 185 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HOMES FOR RETIRED TEACHERS OLIVE M. JONES , VICE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN The Committee on Homes for Retired Teachers includes one or more members from each State. The completed list will be announced later. For action of the Executive Committee creating this work, see Proceedings 1924: 87, 89, 114. A bulletin entitled A Plan for a Teachers' Home, compiled by Miss Jones, has had wide distribution. For Miss Jones' talk on the subject before the Department of Superintendence, see the index of this volume. A motion was passed at the 1924 Washington meeting of the National Education Association, accepting the gift of Marilla Parker, of Chicago , which upon her death is to be used by the Board of Trustees of the Na- tional Education Association as part of a fund for a Retired Teachers' Home. A second motion was passed authorizing Olive M. Jones to pre- pare plans for the establishment of this home, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee of the National Education Association . The need of a home for retired teachers-Actors, sailors, Masons, and other groups provide for the old age and for the comfort of retired mem- bers of their organizations. Many benefit organizations maintain such homes. Homes for the aged poor have long replaced the old-time alms- house inmany localities. To few of those homes is the retired teacher eligible. If she has a pension, its amount is too small for the weekly or monthly payments re- quired, or the receipt of a fixed income renders her ineligible for admission to homes that require a sum to be paid in its entirety upon admission. The education, experience, and social life of a teacher make the home for the aged poor a harsh return for her years of service, yet the salary of the average teacher does not permit of saving in amounts sufficient to warrant any other home and care in old age. Neither is financial need the only, or even the saddest, part of the retired teacher's need. Companionship to prevent loneliness and grief-this is the need the old teacher feels most and says least about. I have seen them living in hotels alone among strangers, no one having any community of interest with them, and many shunning them as tiresome bores. Among people of similar age and with similar experience, as at a Teachers' Home, they would not lack companionship. The need of a home in old age is particularly the problem of the unmarried woman teacher. The large ma- jority of men have families and look to the grateful care of sons and daugh- ters. The unmarried woman teacher has no such future hope. In addi- tion, her salary has usually been smaller, her opportunities for making "extra" money have been few, and she usually has the support and care of her own parents and aged relatives, being the last one left in the family home. 186 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Ella Flagg Young Club, of Chicago, volunteered in February, 1924 to make a preliminary investigation to demonstrate whether need for any such home actually exists. Miss Isabella Dolton, president of the Club, appointed a committee which began work at once under the direction of Miss Jane Neil as chairman. In June Miss Neil made a report, the sub- stance of which is as follows : COMPILED FIGURES OF SURVEY 1. How many retired teachers do you know who need companionship and care at present? 1263 . 2. Is it possible that at some future time you may need the facilities which a colony or residence for retired teachers would offer ? Total number of teachers to whom questionnaire was submitted .. 8194 Voting yes ...... 3545 Voting no..... 3300 3. If such a project were successfully undertaken would you care to become a resident, granting, of course, that the conditions were conducive to comfort and happiness ? Voting yes ....... 2484 Voting no.... 2861 Raising the funds-In February, at the Cincinnati meeting of the De- partment of Superintendence, the committee considered four ways of raising funds. It is the wish of the committee to use all four methods simul- taneously since different elements in each community will be reached by each method. These four methods are : Plan A- Collection organization-Select a chairman for each State. These State chairmen are to constitute the N. E. A. Advisory Committee on a Home for Retired Teachers. In order to secure the names of persons willing to act in such a capacity, letters were sent to N. E. A. State Di- rectors, to State Commissioners of Education, to the president and the sec- retary of State associations . At date of writing this report, favorable replies have been received from thirty-one States. The State chairmen are to carry on campaigns for raising money in such manner as they find best suited to conditions in their several States and to serve as agencies through which the other plans are to be operated. Plan B-Thank offering-Ask teachers in all the States to contribute one dollar each as a thank offering the day before Thanksgiving Day. This collection is to be made for the fund by the State chairman, or the State Director, or the State Association Secretary, as may be agreed upon in each State. The total amounts when collected for Plans A and B are to be sent to the office of the National Education Association and are to be preserved as a separate fund for a Teacher's Home. The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association is to act as the custodian of all funds raised by means of any plan. Plan C-Endowment by life insurance-A local or State Association may pass a resolution authorizing the contribution of $100, or multiples REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 187 thereof, annually-for, say, the period of ten years. When in a position to assume the responsibility of the $100, $200, or more per year, then the Association may select one or more members on whose life, or lives, the endowment is to be issued, the number to be determined by the amount of the annual contribution. The premium deposits may be made annually, semi-annually, or quarterly, as may be most convenient to the Association, but it is preferable to make such deposits annually in advance, when possi- ble. At the maturity of the endowment, the face value-one, or two, or ten thousand, as the case may be, plus the accumulated dividends will be paid over to the fund of the National Education Association for the homes we desire to create. But in case of the death of the person on whose life the endowment is issued, prior to the end of the endowment period, then the full amount of the endowment will be immediately paid to the Na- tional Education Association, plus the dividend accumulation, and all fur- ther premium deposits thereon will cease. Advances may be procured on the endowments any time after the third year, thus giving us some of the funds with which to carry on the work prior to, and without waiting to the end of, the endowment period. One of the greatest life insurance companies in the world stands ready to undertake the details of this plan if approved by the National Education Association. Plan D-Professional collection agency-There are several highly repu- table and long-experienced companies which make a profession of raising funds for worthy causes. The best of them will not undertake a cam- paign to raise funds until they have thoroughly investigated the need and worth of a cause seeking their services and until the cost of conducting the campaign has been provided exclusive of the fund to be raised. No steps have yet been taken towards securing the aid of such agencies, other than interviewing some of them in order to gain an understanding of their procedure. Location-It may eventuate in years to come that more than one home will be required. It is planned now to select Washington, D. C., as the site for the first home. Size -admission-operation-These are considerations to be presented to theAdvisory Committee after it is organized. No plans regarding these points have yet been framed. 188 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THRIFT EDUCATION ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA STATE TEACHERS' AS- SOCIATION, SAN FRANCISCO , CALIFORNIA, CHAIRMAN The Committee on Thrift Education was organized in 1915 and was continued from year to year until the 1925 meeting, when by action of the Executive Com- mittee its work was referred to the Curriculum Commission of the Department of Superintendence. When one year ago the chairman on behalf of the Thrift Committee made a brief report before this body, he expected such report to close the work of the Committee. It was pointed out by our President, however, that unlike many subjects under investigation Thrift Education is a matter for more continuous study, and that the situation was such as to make further investigation and report desirable. The need today for an understanding of the principles of thrift, the ac- quiring of thrift habits by the younger generation, and the practice of thrift in our every-day life, is not less than formerly, but greater. New generations of children are finding their way through the schools; new teachers are coming into the class room. Our economic and social condi- tions are making necessary a greater need for the application of thrift in all phases of our industrial and commercial and community life. One year ago at Washington there was held a two day conference on thrift education. Emphasis was given to a consideration of school savings bank systems, to thrift in industry, to thrift as applied to natural resources, to health and physical fitness and to numerous other phases of thrift work. The results of that conference embodied in an eighty page booklet and published by the National Education Association, has had wide distribution and study throughout the schools of the country. This national conference gave added impetus to thrift work in many school systems. During the ten years since the organization of the Committee on Thrift Education, a number of reports have been issued by the committee. It was found necessary during the early years of the committee's work to secure first on the part of committee members themselves something of an under- standing of the significance of thrift, and the need for introducing the study of thrift throughout the schools. In the years following plans were laid for the introduction of thrift courses . We have now reached the point where it is no longer necessary to consider the need for thrift. Attention must be focused upon practical ways of teaching thrift and conservation to the boys and girls in order that it may be practiced by the citizens of to- morrow . The Thrift Committee is planning a further development of its activities. It is now seeking to secure through the efforts of a number of sub-com- mittees such tangible results and suggestions as to be of value in planning school courses and in modifying school curricula. In this connection it is to be understood that thrift is not to be introduced as an additional school REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 189 subject. Indeed the curriculum is now over-full and should be simplified rather than made more complex through the addition of new subjects. The plan is to amplify and make more practical the regular and fundamental school subjects, such as arithmetic, geography, biography, home economics and all the rest. In other words what is necessary is to give the problems that develop under these subjects a thrift setting, such as to make them relate to actual life conditions. Of the sub-committees now at work several are making investigations of the utmost importance. Their findings, it is hoped, may be brought to- gether in a subsequent report a year hence. These include investigations in the field of savings and investments including various plans for school savings banks; health and physical fitness; thrift in relation to government and citizenship; economy in the family and the home; economy of time, effort and energy; waste and by-products ; natural resources, and the thrift club movement. Other phases of thrift suggest themselves for study and committees may later be put to work investigating and reporting upon vari- ous ways of economizing in industry, in thrift in relation to agriculture and food products, thrift and social service, and like important problems. In July two years ago during the conference on education held at San Francisco-Oakland, in connection with the meeting of the National Educa- tional Association, the chairman of the Thrift Committee introduced a resolution that received unanimous endorsement. The resolution read : Realizing in this period of world reconstruction the vital importance of thrift inthe econome life of every nation, Be it Resolved, that we, the delegates assembled in the World Conference on Education, favor the appointment of an International Committee which committee shall study all phases of the problem and issue reports which shall be made available in all countries. It had been thought until recently that this question would be taken up for consideration at the meeting to be held in Edinburgh this summer. The chairman of the Thrift Committee regrets that it will be impossible for him to attend this conference, and make a report there as had been expected. It is to be hoped, however, that the delegates to this great international gathering will, through resolution or other action, endorse the principle embodied in the resolution just cited. Word comes from many centers of the splendid work now being carried on in the interest of thrift in education. Denver, New York City, Pitts- burgh, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Oakland, Boston, San Francisco, and scores of towns and cities throughout the Nation are finding their course of study greatly enriched through the introduction of problems and projects that have a thrift meaning and significance. In the Boston Teachers' News Letter for June, there is report of the Thrift Committee of the Massachusetts Teachers' Federation, made by Miss Florence Barnard, a member of our own National Educational Association Thrift Committee. Anumber of teachers' organizations is taking up the subject in earnest. 190 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Effort will be made to put forward an investigation looking towards the financing not alone of the Committee on Thrift Education, but of other committees in the National Educational Association. This may be con- sidered an appropriate field for study and report on the part of the Thrift Committee. It is to be hoped that at no distant date the Thrift Committee may present some concrete suggestions for the teachers of the country, and until such report is published the belief is expressed that all teachers who have not done so will give careful study to the report of the Washington conference of a year ago. Attention is also called at this time to the course of study in thrift as worked out by the public schools of Oakland and embodied in pamphlet form, and published by the National Education Association in 1923. Your committee will be glad to have suggestions at any time as to materials, methods of procedure and lines for investigation . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 191 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY J. O. ENGLEMAN , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA, CHAIRMAN For a number of years the Council of Education had a Committee on the Teaching of Democracy. Its chairman was Professor A. Duncan Yocum, of the University of Pennsylvania. That committee's reports to the Council are a matter of record, and have been published in the Ad- dresses and Proceedings of the last three annual meetings of the National Education Association. The final report of that Committee was made before the Council in Washington one year ago, and is to be found on pp. 400-415, inclusive, of the volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association for 1924. Reference to this final report of the Council's committee will show that the President of the Council was instructed "to move in the Representative Assembly that the President of the National Education Association be authorized to appoint a Democracy Conference Committee to confer with other National organizations con- cerning the best means for carrying on the work begun by the Committee on the Teaching of Democracy." With the adoption of the Committee's report, the Council's Committee onTeaching Democracy was discontinued. At the third business session of the Representative Assembly of the Na- tional Education Association, July 3, 1924, Mr. J. M. Gwinn, of Califor- nia, speaking for the National Council of Education moved that the Repre- sentative Assembly authorize the President of this Association to "appoint a committee on the Teaching of Democracy to continue the work done by the Council's Committee." The motion was seconded, put and carried, and authority was thereby given to the President of the Association to ap- point such a Committee. It was not until early January that President Newlon, in accordance with the action just referred to, invited me to accept the chairmanship of this new committee, the scope and duties of which he enlarged in appoint- ing it, even while making it clear to the new chairman that the intent of the Council's resolution was to be carried out. It is but fair to the Presi- dent, to Dr. Yocum, to this Assembly and to your committee's chairman to state that the committee has faced a task involving more of delicacy, if not of difficulty, than would have resulted had it begun its work de novo . The chairman of your committee on Teaching Democracy naturally con- ceived it tobe one of his first duties to read and study carefully the several reports of Dr. Yocum's Committee before the Council. Familiarity with what had been done was, of course, a prerequisite for carrying on the work begun by the antecedent committee. The net result of this study of Dr. Yocum's final report and his previous reports it is possible to state in the form of two or three judgments with amplification as follows : 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. His analysis of the concept Democracy into its " Ten Most Suggestive Essentials" is a praiseworthy one. It will not find universal acceptance even by the more thoughtful of Democracy's friends and proponents. A few of them even doubt the wisdom of attempting to formulate a state- ment of these elements. Notwithstanding such occasional doubts it is alto- gether, likely that teachers in general, and other agencies properly engaged at times in popularizing rational ideas, ideals, attitudes, and habits with reference to Democracy, will be helped materially by his analysis. One need not approve the precise list of ten essentials as Dr. Yocum states them to be helped by them. One may reject some, add others, or restate all of them after due deliberation and still be debtor to Dr. Yocum and his com- mittee's work . 2. The second judgment of your committee is that the time is not yet ripe for the National Education Association to take the initiative in creat- ing and convening a "Permanent Conference for the Definition and Ad- vancement of Democracy." Frankly, the recommendation that this Asso- ciation do so, though seriously made by the Council's committee and ap- proved by the Council itself, seems untimely if not Utopian. In justifica- tion of the recommendation it should be noted that the Committee making it had worked for a period of years during which the Conference came to be regarded as the next logical forward step. Your committee has had no such background and sees the proposed Conference in a very different light . A decent respect for the opinions of scholarly and patriotic men and women who differ from the Committee's judgment requires it to tell why it does not recommend to this body the creation of the proposed Permanent Con- ference. First of all, it seems in bad taste for this body to attempt to create a Democracy Conference, membership in which shall include the Vice Presi- dent of the United States; the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ; U. S. Senators ; members of the House of Representatives, and other high govern- ment officials. It is quite another matter for this body to invite represen- tatives of other non-political National organizations interested in the prob- lems of Democracy with which we are concerned, to meet with us for a consideration of these problems. But for us to invite the Vice President and the Supreme Court Chief Justice of the greatest democracy on earth to a Conference which seriously sets for itself the task of determining democracy essentials seems an anomaly. In the second place, the whole scheme, granting that it is ultimately feasible, is " so elaborate and far-reaching that it can be finally formulated only after much deliberation and investigation." The few months elapsing since the appointment of your Committee have by no means been sufficient for the needed deliberation and investigation. It is not recommended, therefore, that the whole proposal be abandoned, but that action be post- poned, pending further consideration of its desirability, and, in the event of its later desirability, pending the formulation of a tentative program REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 193 that shall be simpler, more direct, less ambitious, and possible of attain- ment. There is ground for the fear that the Conference proposed would break down of its own weight. But if it should prove able to resist in- herent tendencies to disintegrate, what baptism of strength and power could ever hope to make it equal to the proposed task of collecting and analyzing "the elements of democracy specified within the Constitution, interpreted by the Supreme Court, applied in the Governmental affairs of the United States or other nations, and shown in American life or in that of other peoples !" The labors of Hercules were child's play in comparison with this ! Your Committee notes that the proposals submitted to it calling for a great democracy conference, presuppose the belief that our political delin- quencies in individal and group conduct in America are largely due to the fact that hitherto there has been no agency of government and no expert body with the backing of scientific research to tell the people exactly what democracy is. It is of course unscientific to dogmatize, but surely it takes no labored research to convince the ordinary man that many if not most of our weaknesses are rooted elsewhere. Brown, for example, may not go to the primaries and he may not vote on election day because such duty takes time from his business; he may help elect a corrupt man as mayor in his city merely because of his party affiliations; he may break any number of statutes because they interfere with certain of his purely selfish interests . His weakness and democracy's failure with reference to his political con- duct, must be accounted for on other grounds than lack of an authoritative pronouncement of Democracy's elements. In his character, his moral train- ing, his motives, his ideals is to be found most of his trouble. Your Committee would suggest that Democracy's essential elements are perhaps both fewer and simpler than some students have assumed. The antecedent Committee of the Council has perhaps discovered and stated most of them. In so doing it made its largest contribution. For the rank and file of teachers and pupils, and no less so for laymen generally, these essentials need to be stated and taught in simpler terms. They must be freed from complexes, both grammatical and Freudian, to be compelling and fructifying. But may we not assume that they are known, and that research does not need to re-discover them, though research may be needed to discover the most effective means and methods of making them function in the control of conduct. The unsolved problems in connection with the teaching of democracy are largely the problems of character education. They are problems in the psychology of conduct rather than the psychology of a mere learning process. Shakespeare stated the problem, implicitly, when he wrote : " If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, then chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces." Ruskin understood it or he would never have said, "Education does not mean teach- ing men to know what they did not know. It means teaching them to be- have as they did not behave." 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Now Democracy is in large measure a type of behavior. It is this type of behavior with which thoughtful men and women and patriotic American citizens need to be greatly concerned. It is a type of behavior that must be equally guided by intelligence and a moral purpose, by intelligence plus amoral purpose. In actual life men often have one without the other, in spite of the ancient philosophic confusion of knowledge with virtue. To teach a child the Mosaic law, "Thou shalt not lie," is but the first step towards making him truthful. The more difficult steps are involved in inspiring in him a love of truth, a desire to be truthful, and the will to be truthful . When Democracy's essentials are stated and understood, there remains the great task of making them actually function in life. So far as the schools are concerned the problem in history and civics is one of arousing a civic conscience, motivating civic conduct, developing a moral purpose in each pupil to do his political duty, and live up to his obligation as a mem- ber of democratic society. But the continued help of the psychologist must be invoked before we learn how to translate a student's knowledge of democratic government into political and social behavior worthy of him and consonant with Democracy's ideals. Every substantial contribution that may be made by this Association's Committee on Character Education will certainly serve the cause of Democracy, for Democracy rests upon a dual basis of intelligence and character. It is to be judged by what men know and what they do politically, and judged no less by what they do socially, industrially, and even religiously. 3. Your Committee's third and last judgment at this time is that what- ever of influence this Association can exert, it ought to assert in behalf of Democracy. This it can do through a number of channels requiring no complex machinery, no additional organization, no specific conference, no large outlay of money. We suggest the following: a. That we teachers of America, recognize our own full responsibility for training the millions of boys and girls and youths committed to us, in personal responsibility. A democratic state more than any other requires that each individual component unit exercises its prerogatives. Every man and every woman counts. The common welfare suffers except as every citizen intelligently asserts himself for it. Good citizens are not timid, fearful, apologetic, impotent. The common good is not promoted by self- abnegation of individual citizens, though it may often involve their self- denial and their self-restraint. Responsibility for government cannot be wholly delegated. In a Democracy it inheres and abides in the individual. b. We cannot do less than set ourselves resolutely to the task of teach- ing respect for law and obedience to it-not some laws; not merely laws we like, but all laws while they are laws. Nearly every law represents the will of the majority. If it is opposed to the "general welfare," the "com- mon good," the minority which sees this fact will sooner or later gather strength to become the majority and change it for the common good. But the lawlessness which we see on every hand today breeds contempt for law, REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 195 and anarchy itself, the most powerful enemies of the common good we know. c. We can teach, and thus gradually lead a nation to see, as Dr. Yocum has previously pointed out, that "Majority rule is democratic only when it seeks to secure the common welfare," that the best interests of the people are perhaps defeated as often through the vote of an uniformed majority as through a selfish one; that Democracy's weakness is often only ignorance, and her great need is expert service and a willingness to trust and use it. But while we recognize and teach the duty of majority rule in the inter- est of the common welfare, and the obligation to utilize all available sources of actual information in determining what is for the general welfare, we have another duty-namely, to teach with Bryce in his Modern Democra- cies that "Knowledge is one only among the things which go to the mak- ing of a good citizen. Public spirit and honesty are even more needful ." Public spirit can be shown in many ways but if pupils in the upper grades and high school can be taught and trained to express that spirit through their later willingness to vote, pay taxes, do jury service, and even hold office, for the common welfare, they will have made a good beginning in the development of such a spirit. It may be that these simple but far- reaching virtues do not receive the attention at our hands which they deserve. A recent introduction to sociology states two primary essentials to a democratic society. One of them is designated "an open road to talent," which means, say the authors, that "every person, of whatever race, color, religion, or parentage, has an opportunity to develop his capacity for use- fulness to the maximum, and to gain the legitimate rewards of his useful- ness." This is only another phrasing of the equality of rights, privileges , opportunities essential to Democracy. Surely it needs to be made clear to our citizens, even those in the making. Free schools, free speech, a free press, religious freedom, universal suffrage, "an open road to talent" that makes possible a Steiner, Suzzallo, Steinmetz, Antin, Pupin, Lincoln, Booker T. Washington-these are both essentials to and fruits of our de- mocracy. Do we believe and if so do we teach that in spite of our weaknesses, no other form of government yet devised does so much to develop personality and respect individuality as our Democracy does? Are we actually doing all that we can do as an offset to dangerous political isms, to inspire the twenty million boys and girls in the public schools with the plain truth that nowhere else on earth can every common man stand so nearly erect and command the respect of the whole world by virtue of the innate worth of his own manhood ? Finally, your Committee would suggest that as curriculum revision is in progress everywhere today; as another of your Committee proceeds with its development of a comprehensive program of American education; and as your Committee on Character Education finds through investigation and research the more effective means of modifying character and reaching the 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mainsprings of conduct, we shall have our opportunity to teach Democracy better. This Association serving as a clearing-house should enable every teacher coming under its influence to utilize the findings and conclusions of every other one who has discovered any light upon any part of the way. But most of all would we commend Democracy itself to the teachers of America. A clear understanding of our own democratic heritage; a com- parative study of the social and economic status of men and women in democratic America and in less favored lands, would help to energize and make dynamic every lesson we teach in Democracy, even while we recognize in humility that we have not yet reached a political millenium. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COÖPERATION WITH THE WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION OF MAINE CHAIRMAN The Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations is a continuation of the Association's Committee on Foreign Relations. The Committee on Foreign Relations, first appointed for the year 1920-21 , grew out of a temporary committee appointed at the Salt Lake City meeting, July, 1920. See Proceedings 1923 : 402. This Committee was instructed by the Representative Assembly, at the Des Moines meeting, to work out plans for an international education con- ference in 1923. See Proceedings 1921 : 176-82. For reports of the Committee, see Proceedings 1922: 312-17 ; 1923 : 402-24; 1924 : 272-74. The by-laws, resolutions, and other material relating to the biennial meet- ing of the World Federation of National Education Associations, at Edinburgh, Scotland, July 20-28, 1925, appear elsewhere in this volume. Scotland's invitation, through the Educational Institute of Scotland, to hold the first biennial meeting of the World Federation of Education Asso- ciations in Edinburgh was accepted by the Executive Committee of the Federation and plans are well under way for the meeting, which will begin July 20 and close July 28. The Committee on Coöperation has worked with the Federation to make this meeting a memorable occasion. A joint committee composed of representatives of the four Universities, the four Provincial Committees for the Training of Teachers, the Education Authorities of Scotland, the Heriot Trust, the Edinburgh Merchant Com- pany, the Educational Institute of Scotland, the National Union of Teach- ers of England and Wales, and other bodies has been formed for the pur- pose of carrying on local arrangements and assisting with foreign corres- pondence and the encouragement of foreign countries to send delegations to the Federation. This Committee has rendered most valuable service. Mr. George C. Pringle, secretary of the Educational Institute of Scot REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 197 land; is the joint secretary. This Committee has raised the sum of approxi- mately $25,000 for defraying local expenses, helping with provincial dele- gates and offering free service and free tours on several occasions to the delegates. They are arranging for two free luncheons on two successive days for one thousand delegates and for free tours through Scotland. Program-The program is arranged to center around group meetings as at San Francisco. These groups will report to the plenary session and the final action will come through the Delegate Assembly. The groups represent: A. Early elementary education: G. Character education. B. Elementary education. H. Illiteracy. C. Secondary education. I. Adult education. D. College education. J. Adolescent education. E. Teacher training. K. International relations . F. Health education. A complete agenda is set up for each of these groups with special bearing on education applied to all countries, together with informational subjects so that the different countries may visualize the progressive educational movements and the true educational status of the different countries. In many instances, exhibits will be formed showing the textbooks used in the different countries, products of the school, and educational moving pictures. The program includes work in music, art, and industrial forms. Plans have been made for the making of lantern slides to contain folk songs of the different countries printed both in English and the native tongue. Music is a universal language and will have a tendency to bring together the several groups in sympathetic relationships. Many of the world's most distinguished educators will appear on the program. Delegates- President Jesse H. Newlon, of the National Education Asso- ciation, has appointed a most distinguished body of American delegates and alternate delegates to this Conference. Besides the delegates and alter- nates there will probably be about five hundred interested teachers and patrons of education from America who will attend the meeting. The following is a list of the delegates and alternates : Delegates-Chairman, William F. Russell, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Cornelia S. Adair William C. Bagley J. A. C. Chandler Frank Cody Randall J. Condon Albert S. Cook Stephen P. Duggan Olive M. Jones R. G. Jones Abby Porter Leland Henry N. MacCracken Paul Monroe William B. Owen Aurelia H. Reinhardt W. Carson Ryan N. D. Showalter Walter R. Siders H. L. Smith Joseph Swain Charl O. Williams Annie Carlton Woodward Robert H. Wright A. O. Thomas Mary C. C. Bradford 198 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Alternates: Katharine D. Blake Lotus D. Coffman Jessie Colburn Arthur W. Dunn Jessie M. Fink C. R. Foster Florence Holbrook C. R. Mann Mary McSkimmon Mary Mooney Joy E. Morgan Howard W. Nudd E. Ruth Pyrtle Thomas J. Walker -The World Federation has arranged to Participating representatives accept educators and interested persons as participating representatives, even though they may not be appointed as official delegates. These representa- tives will have the full right of all group and plenary sessions and full voice on all deliberations, with the exception of a vote in the Delegate Assembly and on constitutional matters. In arranging for these delega- tions, the Secretary of the National Education Association, Mr. J. W. Crabtree, has rendered invaluable service. Arrangements for travel-The Federation arranged with the American Express Company of New York to handle the trans-Atlantic service and European tours for those who will attend the Conference. The American delegates generally will sail on the "Columbia," a Cunard Line steamer, leaving New York on July 11. Miss Olive M. Jones has been appointed as captain of the delegates for this voyage. However, a large number of persons who will attend the Convention have made their own sailing arrangements. Attendance at the coming biennial meeting-The coming biennial meet- ing promises to be largely attended and the representation will be wide- spread. On the first day of June, forty-one different nations had reported their delegates or their intention to send delegates, amounting in all to 1,367. Other countries are making provision to be represented. It is prob- able that the representation from the nations of the world will reach ap- proximately two thousand. The place of the Federation in the educational history of the world is now definitely assured. The first great problem which confronts it is the securing of funds to carry on the work. The service thus far has been gratuitous and with little cost, but it requires too much time and too much expense to be carried on in a similar manner further. This involves the necessity at Edinburgh of making arrangements for definite finance. This, however, seems a small item considering the tremendous interest which the business world has shown in the cause of education as the best means toward establishing an equilibrium among nations and a procedure of justice in developing international traffic regula- tions pertaining not only to business but to social and educational matters. Affiliated organizations-In promoting membership in the World Feder- ation, it has been discovered that a large number of countries do not have a national education association of general character. In most of the countries, each particular phase of education is organized, in many in REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 199 stances, on national scope. One of the first duties of the World Federation will be to promote an amalgamation of many of these societies within the several countries in order that an organization eligible to membership may be provided. Already there are members from China, Japan, Canada, United States, Mexico, Scotland, Ireland, England, Norway, Sweden , Germany, France, and many others are in the process of organization and application . From present indications, it will be but a short time before the Federation will have an organization affiliated with it in all of the countries. Membership in organization-It is the plan of the World Federation to admit one general organization in every country into full membership, and to make provision for participating membership by admitting interested organizations to participating or associate membership in the organization, in order that there may be proper machinery for the dissemination of in- formation and the securing of a large body of interested persons who will help in promulgating the various programs which may be adopted from time to time, and for the collection of information which will be necessary in connection with the universal library service. The secondary organizations will form a sort of lower House and will be admitted to group and general session, while the delegates from the principal organizations will constitute the Delegate Assembly with full voting privilege. Herman-Jordan Plan-Following the World Conference on Education at San Francisco, Mr. Raphael Herman offered a $25,000 award for an educational plan which might be utilized in connection with the World Federation as a part of its program and which would be calculated to further the highest aim of the organization-the bringing of friendship, good-will, and justice to the nations of the world. The contest involved a large number of plans submitted. The jury on award accepted the plan proposed by Dr. David Starr Jordan, president emeritus of Stanford Uni- versity. This plan consists of the appointment of a series of committees to investigate scientifically and technically the several fields involved and to present reports to the Federation for final action. The plan safeguards the Federation from entering into any ill-advised or poorly thought out program and although it will require some time, education is a long process and it is more advisable to be sure in a great field of this kind than to be required to retrace our steps when errors are made. Mr. Herman has shown great interest in the World Federation and has been invaluable in his support of the same. Recommendations-Your committee respectfully recommends that the National Education Association, the originator of this movement and the sponsor for the Federation, continue its splendid interest and make pro- vision for the payment of dues without too much delay. Other nations are looking strongly to the United States for leadership and must not be disap- pointed in our intelligent interest. 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON CLASSROOM TEACHERS' PROBLEMS—TEACHER RATING ANNA RIDDLE, ST . JOSEPH , MISSOURI , CHAIRMAN CLASSROOM TEACHERS' PROBLEMS A compilation of careful statements of the experience of teachers is one of the best bases for bettering teaching conditions. To secure such a com- pilation, Mary C. C. Bradford, first chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems, formulated the following ques- tions and received answers from several hundred teachers : 1. Do you think you have too many subjects to teach? Three hundred and eighty-two out of 603 teachers, or 63 per cent of those who replied, answered : " No." 2. Does the classroom teacher receive too many detailed directions for teaching each subject? Three hundred and ninety-two teachers out of 430, or 91 per cent of those who replied, answered : "No." 3. How would you effect a better coöperation between supervisors and classroom teachers? More than one hundred teachers who replied to this question had no suggestions to offer. They stated that where they were teaching the co- operation was pleasant and mutually helpful. However, some suggestions were offered for the bringing about of a more sympathetic relationship. Among these were the following : a. Supervisors should have more actual classroom experence. b. Supervisors should offer more constructive criticisms and practical suggestions and less theory. c. There should be reports by teachers on supervisors. d. More frequent conferences between teachers and supervisor would offer greater opportunity for exchange of ideas . e. Supervisors' directions should be more definite. f. Supervisors should have a greater appreciation of the demands of other departments. g. Teachers should be encouraged to use their own initiative. h. Meetings with the supervisor where common problems are discussed and methods explained would be mutually helpful. i. More frequent and longer visits from the supervisor would result in a better understanding of the individual teacher's problems. j. The teacher should be given an estimate of her work by the supervisor. 4. Do you find that supervisors demand too much time for their special subjects? Two hundred and eighty-nine out of 480 teachers, or approximately 60 per cent of those who replied, answered: " No." REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 201 5. Do you think the present school day affords sufficient time for doing your work well? Are you in favor of a longer school day? If so, why ? Approximately ninety per cent of the teachers who replied reported that the present school day gave them sufficient time in which to do their work. Among the reasons offered by those few teachers who wanted a longer day were these: "To give more time for extra-mural work;" "So that no home work will be necessary;" " More time for supervised study; " and "Closer supervision of pupils." 6. How far do you think " the modern classification of pupils" by the threefold tests would go in solving your teaching problems? The majority of teachers who replied stated that such classification would be helpful. "Any classification would be better than much of the hit-or-miss assembling we have in some classes." 7. In your opinion, what is the ideal number of pupils to a teacher in grade work? The numbers suggested varied from 15 to 42. The median, for the ideal number, was between 25 and 30. Number of Pupils Number of Answers 15-20 24 20-25 100 25-30 251 30-35 146 35-40 32 42 2 8. What type of course of study do you find most helpful in your daily work : the outline, the detailed, the inspirational type ; or the one requiring individual initiative in its use? Over 90 per cent of the teachers responding to this inquiry expressed the opinion that no matter what type of course of study they are given to work with they prefer one that requires a large amount of individual initiative inits use. Of the special types mentioned in the question, a large per cent favored an outline course of study which permits plenty of freedom and initiative in its application. Only seven per cent preferred the detailed type. Suggestions for the improvement of American education. In response to the page, "Fresh from the Classroom," which was featured in the Jour- nal of the National Education Association last year, more than three hun- dred letters were received. These letters included the following sugges- tions for the improvement of education : Give rural children educational opportunities more nearly equal to those of city children. Classify pupils according to ability. Provide special teachers for special subjects. Relieve principals from much of their clerical work so that they will be free to give help and inspiration to the teachers. 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Arrange for smaller classes and more individual instruction. Organize every classroom in such a way that each unit will feel its responsibility toward the entire school. Bring about a closer cooperation between the elementary and secondary schools. Improve conditions so that teachers will remain longer in one place. Provide for an occasional exchange of teachers. Demand a stricter enforcement of school laws pertaining to attendance. Invite teachers to have a greater share in the building of the curriculum. Insure a more uniform system of teacher rating. TEACHER RATING At the 1924 N. E. A. Convention in Washington, D. C., the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems agreed that teacher rating should be one of the problems for study during the coming year. I. Why study teacher rating ? II. A tentative statement and an explanation of fundamental principles of a teachers' rating system. III. The present status of teacher rating in the United States . A. How widely is teacher rating practiced ? B. Do teachers want to be rated ? C. What reasons, generally given for rating teachers, do superintend- ents consider most important ? D. Are all teachers given a copy of their ratings ? E. What traits are most frequently considered in rating teachers ? F. What is the character of the marks and terms most frequently used in rating teachers ? G. Questioned deficiencies of present rating plans . H. What cities have special blanks for rating teachers ? IV. Suggested topics for discussion and investigation. V. Illustrations of teacher rating scales. VI. Selected bibliography. Since this report on teacher rating is intended as a basis for discussion and is not presented as a final statement, the first point considered is : I-WHY STUDY TEACHER RATING ? 1. Wide use is made of teacher rating as evidenced by data presented in this report and the amount of material written on the subject as shown in the bibliography. Some method of rating is demanded in certain cities by teachers and school boards. Some communities feel that a plan of teacher rating which includes care- fully kept written records of teachers' efficiency is a means whereby they can know whether or not individual teachers are fulfilling their duty and achieving the purpose for which they are employed. The effectiveness of a teacher's work always has been and always will be measured in some manner-as is that of any other worker. The question is, Is it to be a snap judgment, or one that comes very near being that, or is the estimate to be made according to a plan worked out and agreed upon by both the REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 203 supervisory and teaching staff ? And is this plan aimed primarily at the teacher's improvement rather than at a mere ranking of good, bad, or indifferent ? 2. Since rating is being done, it should be done as scientifically as pos- sible. The needs of children in the question of teacher rating as in other educational questions should outweigh all other considerations. 3. There is evidence that if rating is poorly done it leads to poor morale in the teaching body, a feeling of injustice on the part of teachers, and the result for the children is poor teaching. 4. The best results in rating can be obtained by coöperative methods be tween teachers and supervisory and administrative officers. Such a plan is in line with democratic procedure in coöperative industry. II-A TENTATIVE STATEMENT AND AN EXPLANATION OF FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF A TEACHERS' RATING SYSTEM 1. A rating plan must have as its main purpose the guiding of teachers into better service. The chief purpose of any system of teacher rating is the improvement of teaching; for this reason a rating plan should be inspirational and in- structive. 2. Teacher rating systems should afford each person rated a definite and concrete basis for the improvement of his efficiency as a teacher. How much of the right relationship between the rating official and the teacher is dependent upon the procedure which precedes the giving of the rating? Should the recording of the rating be preceded by: (a) Personal conference between the rating official and the teacher? (b) Written sug- gestions to the teacher showing where his work needs improvement and how he may accomplish this improvement? 3. The methods used in arriving at a rating of teaching efficiency should be as objective and scientific as educational progress permits and should be understood by all those rated. A teacher should be fully informed, in advance, upon beginning service in any school system, what requirements will enter into the estimation of his work, and also how that estimation of his work will be recorded. 4. The results of ratings when completed should be automatically trans- mitted to the teacher rated in written form for his information and guidance. If the chief purpose of rating is the improvement of instruction, is it not necessary that a teacher be informed of her weak points as well as of her strong points? 204 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 5. There should be one official who is the final rating authority. Supervisors of special subjects and special divisions may be advisory to this rating official. 6. A rating system should be arrived at as a result of mutual agreement by administrative, supervisory, and classroom staff. III-THE PRESENT STATUS OF TEACHER RATING IN THE UNITED STATES A. How widely is teacher rating practiced? In 1922 B. R. Bucking- ham, of Ohio State University, reported that 77 per cent, or 120 out of 156 cities, over 25,000 in population, replying to his inquiry on the rating of teachers had a definite scheme of teacher rating in operation in their school systems.¹ In a survey of teacher rating in the United States made by a group of Minneapolis grade teachers in 1922-1923, two hundred and fifteen rating plans from forty-six States were reviewed.2 The 1925 Report of the Salary Committee of the National Education Association included a survey of : ( a) The extent to which teacher rating was practiced ; (b) number of groups in which teachers are divided by rat- ing scales; ( c) number of individuals rating each teacher; and (d) the relation of rating to salary. Table 1 summarizes the findings.³ Although the number of cities in Table 1, which reported that ratings affected salary increases was large, an examination of actual practices in many of these cities would probably have shown that the teacher's rating affected salary only when that rating was so poor that he was dismissed from the schools, thereby having his salary cut off. This is often the extent to which a teacher's rating affects his salary. Some cities grant salary in- creases to the large majority of the teachers but retain a few teachers on probation and withhold their salary increase. Relatively few cities rate teachers into groups of four or five degrees of teaching merit and pay salary increases proportional to rating. In 1924, LeRoy A. King, University of Pennsylvania, reported the find- ings of a questionnaire on teacher rating sent to all cities over 25,000 popu- lation and to a few cities under 25,000 in sparsely populated States. Re- turns from 92 cities, representing 39 States, showed that 70 cities, or 76 per cent of the total number replying, used definite system of teacher rating.* Harlan C. Hines, in an effort to ascertain what and how many cities are employing merit systems of any description, sent a personal letter of inquiry to the superintendents of schools in sixty-five cities having a population of 100,000 or more. The following statement summarizes his replies received 1Buckingham, B. R. Opinion and practice as to the rating of teachers. Educational Re- search Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 18, November 8, 1922. p. 171. 2Kimball, Florence. A survey of teacher rating in the United States. Minneapolis, Minne- sota, 1923. 1-19 р. 3 Teachers' salaries and salary trends in 1923. National Education Association, 1201 Six- teenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C. , July, 1923. pp. 51-52. King, LeRoy A. The present status of teacher rating. American School Board Journal, February, 1925, p. 44. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 205 TABLE 1-RATING OF QUALITY OF TEACHING SERVICE Cities over Cities 30,000 Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 Cities 2,500 100,000 in to 100,000 to 30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 Total population in population inpopulation inpopulation in population Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Are Yes 47 82 71 72 123 57 144 54 153 51 538 57 teachers rated? No 10 18 28 28 94 43 124 46 147 49 403 43 Total........ 57 100 99 100 217 100 268 100 300 100 941 100 Number of 2 5 15 5 7 17 18 16 16 43 12 groups in 3 9 27 17 33 37 49 48 51 46 47 157 45 which 4 6 18 12 24 18 24 18 19 24 24 78 21 teachers 5 11 34 19 37 14 19 10 10 13 13 67 19 aredivided 6 2 6 3 6 1 1 2 2 8 2 Total... 33 100 51 100 75 100 95 100 99 100 353 99 Median. 4 123 5 13 6 11 15 15 23 20 39 35 88 21 Number of 10 26 15 27 49 48 55 49 50 44 179 42 565 67632 individuals 7 18 18 31 20 20 24 21 75 18 522 rating 4 2 5 4 7 8 8 6 6 27 6 each 5 7 18 5 9 6 6 2 5 26 6 teacher 6 4 11 7 13 2 2 3 3 3 19 4 7 3 9 1 2 1 1 2 7 1 Total. 38 100 56 100 101 100 113 100 113 100 421 98 Median.... 3 3 2 2 2 2 Rating directly Yes 18 44 46 68 69 62 88 65 92 64 313 63 affects No 23 56 22 32 42 38 48 35 52 36 187 37 salary? Total.. 41 100 68 100 111 100 136 100 144 100 500 100 from forty-eight superintendents: "About fifty per cent of the cities of 100,000 population or more have adopted merit plans for the promotion of teachers in service. These range all the way from the general rating of each teacher by the superintendent to the twofold scheme employed in St. Louis where principals not only turn in annual lists of teacher ratings but are required to make special reports on individual teachers. There is evi- dence, however, of a tendency to place the emphasis upon the rating of teachers by principals through the use of score cards.¹ B. Do teachers want to be rated?-According to the eighty-three super- intendents replying to Dr. King's question, "Is it your opinion that your teachers generally approve of rating?", fifty-five per cent stated that the teachers in their cities generally approve of rating. Twenty per cent, how- ever, were uncertain on this point. According to the superintendents replying to Dr. King's inquiry the fol- lowing are the reasons most frequently given by the teachers for their ap- proval of teacher rating : 1Hines, Harlan C. Merit systems in the large cities. American School Board Journal, Vol. 68 , No. 6, June, 1924. p. 52, 111-112. 206 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Helps teachers to improve their weak points. Good teachers wish their work evaluated. It is definite and fair. The teachers believe in recognition of success and a condemnation of failure. Establishes basis for promotion. The salary schedule is based on the rating and a committee of teachers makes the rating scale. Teachers regard it as an essential part of administration. Professional study has enlightened them. Reasons given by superintendents for teachers' most frequently disap- proving of rating: The teachers dread the human element in rating. Ratings are usually generalities and superficial . Impossible to measure accurately whole value of a teacher's work. They object to being set off as good, fair, etc. The town is small ; we are well acquainted with our teachers. No one can visit often, long enough, or under all conditions to form a proper judgment. Rating is a judgment of a suspicion based on limited observation. "It is evident," writes Mr. King, "from the reasons given for approval that teachers realize there is a definite value to be gained from a rating system. On the other hand, it should be noticed that reasons stated for dis- approval are really not criticisms of the intrinsic values of rating plans them- selves, but rather of their use and administration. In other words, it is altogether probable that persons rating teachers do not have in view the real purposes of rating or have had inadequate preparation and training for the proper use and administration of a rating plan." C. What reasons, generally given for rating teachers, do superintendents consider most important?-The superintendents answering Dr. King's questionnaire were asked to rank the reasons generally given for rating teachers in what they considered to be their order of importance. These ranks and the weighted values are indicated in Table 2. The ranking of these factors, according to Dr. King, is probably indicative of what school administrators and supervisors the country over are thinking and doing. It forecasts a new concept of the real value of teacher rating-that is, the shifting of emphasis to those things more directly connected with the work of the teacher and with her improvement in service. Replies of 70 cities using a definite system showed that the range of the number of ratings made is from 1 to 10, with 1 and 2 ratings being most prevalent. The principal participates in the rating of every city; the super- intendent rates in 70 per cent of them; the subject supervisor in 57 per cent and the special supervisor in 54 per cent. Only 46 out of these 70 cities makes a combined or cumulative rating which summarizes all the ratings. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 207 TABLE 2- REASONS GENERALLY GIVEN FOR RATING TEACHERS RANKED IN THE ORDER OF IMPORTANCE BY 92 CITY SUPERINTENDENTS FROM 39 STATES¹ Ranks in order of importance Rank on basis of weighted 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 values To promote teaching efficiency... 37 19 11 4 2 1 0 1 To stimulate teachers to improve themselves in 61 03224 296 234 service.. 13 33 11 5 2 To eliminate the unfit teacher . 14 10 13 11 11 9 947 675 To determine promotions. 9 18 17 4 To serve as a basis for salary increases. 11 13 17 11 5.5 To aid in supervision of teaching. 20 10 8 13 5.5 To give private information to principal or super- tendent... 1 1 3 11 6 12 17 7 ReadTable 2 as follows: Thirty-seven superintendents voted that " To promote teaching efficiency" is the reason for teacher rating which ranks first in importance; nineteen thought that it ranked second in importance; eleven, third, ete. D. Are all teachers given a copy of their ratings?-In only twenty-one out of seventy cities, studied by Dr. King, are teachers given a copy of their ratings. In forty-one of these cities teachers have access to their ratings upon request. These are cities which reported that all teachers are given copies of their records: Altoona, Pa.; Baltimore, Md. (upon request ) ; Beaumont, Tex.; Binghamton, N. Y. (told personally by superintendent) ; Dayton, Ohio ; Denver, Colo. (rating made by principal) ; Detroit, Mich. (if desired) ; Dover, Del. (upon request) ; East Chicago, Ill.; Mansfield, Ohio; Milwaukee, Wis.; Moline, Ill.; Muskogee, Okla.; New York, N. Y.; Paterson, N. J.; Racine, Wis.; Richmond, Ind.; St. Joseph , Mo.; Trenton, N. J. ( available) ; Wilmington, Del. (verbal ) ; Winston-Salem, N. C. E. What traits are most frequently considered in rating teachers? The replies of ninety-two superintendents as to the traits frequently considered in the rating of teachers, ranked in order of importance by Dr. King, are given in Table 3. It is interesting to note that technique of instruction ranks first ; pupil achievement, second; initiative, third, etc. F. What is the character of the marks and terms most frequently used in rating teachers?-A study of one hundred and three rating plans showed that thirty-eight different systems of marks were is use. Eleven rating cards had weighted point scales, either for the general factors exclusively, or for the sub-headings comprising the general factors; and thirteen of them were provided with space for the graphical representation of ratings. Table 4 shows the seventeen most commonly used rating scales. 1Tables 2, 3, and 4 are taken from Dr. King's article, The Present Status of Teacher Rating, in the American School Board Journal, February, 1925. p. 44. 208 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 3-TRAITS FREQUENTLY CONSIDERED IN RATING TEACHERS, RANKED IN THE ORDER OF IMPORTANCE ON THE BASIS OF THE EXPERIENCE OR JUDGMENT OF 92 CITY SUPERINTENDENTS Rank on basisof Rank in the order of importance weighted values 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Instructional skill or technique ...... 16 21 99741210000 1 Pupil achievement or teaching results. 2411 10 1 5 51530120 2 Initiative.. 265 81259441500 3 Personal characteristics 13 6 5 10 432377501 4 Professional interest and growth . 37581177255320 5 Discipline 67109552636342 6 Lesson preparation 0599768784210 7 444120 Scholarship and training. 46548511 524551 8 Leadership . 69826610 36262 9 Executive ability 272464377951 10 Spirit of cooperation . 67347464493 11 School management . 17556669852 12 School activity . 020123247926 13 G. Questioned deficiencies of present rating plans-If the purpose of teacher rating is to promote teaching efficiency and to aid teachers toward improving themselves, does it appear that all teachers should be given copies of their ratings? Is the fact that ratings are available on request sufficient? TABLE 4 SEVENTEEN SCALES MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN RATING TEACHERS BY 103 RATING PLANS Scale Frequency 1, 2, 3, 4.. 11 Weighted point scale.. 11 10 Excellent, good, medium, poor, very poor Excellent, good, medium, poor 10 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 ... 8 A, B , C, D, E. 7 3 Excellent, very good, good , fair, poor, very poor A, B, C .. 3 Excellent, good, fair, indifferent, poor 2 2 Superior, excellent, good, fair, poor. High, average, low. 2 Satisfactory, unsatisfactory 2 -22222 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 . 10, 9, 8, 7, 6 . Superior, excellent, very good, good, fair, failure Strong, fair, weak .. Excellent, good, fair, unsatisfactory In only twenty-four of the seventy cities studied do teachers rate them- selves, and in only eighteen of these cities are there provided special rating cards for self-rating.¹ Would not the furnishing of special rating cards to teachers for rating themselves bring about a more coöperative attitude on the part of teachers toward rating and point out to the teachers certain objectives which would help them to analyze, criticize, and elevate their own work ? 1Among the cities where teachers rate themselves are: Altoona, Pa.; Brockton, Mass.; Dover, Del.; East Chicago , Ill .; Fresno , Calif.; Harrisburg, Pa.; Lakewood, Ohio; Milford, Del.; Milwaukee, Wis.; Muskogee , Okla.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Roswell, New Mex.; Savannah , Ga.; St. Joseph, Mo.; and Waterloo, Iowa. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 209 Should not all rating schemes be accompanied by definite directions rela- tive to their use ? Of the one hundred and three rating cards examined by Dr. King, only thirty-five contained definite directions as to how to use them. Is not accurate and uniform grading dependent upon detailed instructions ? Is lack of standardization of present rating systems a sufficient argument for not using them? It is not yet known what factors should be used exclu- sively in rating and what respective weights should be given them. Should all schools refuse to use rating plans for this reason and thus make the attainment of standardization of practice impossible ? Should rating plans require that the results of teaching be evaluated in terms of the capacities of the pupils taught ? Should the capacity and ability of pupils to do certain types and amounts of work be considered in measur- ing results ? And should space be provided and definite directions given on rating cards for taking care of this fact? H. What cities have special blanks for rating teachers ?-The following is a partial list of cities using special blanks for the rating of teachers. The names of the cities were copied from teacher rating blanks on file in the United States Bureau of Education and from the blanks sent in re- sponse to Dr. King's inquiry. Albuquerque, N. Mex. Franklin , Ohio Norfolk , Va. Allentown, Pa. Grand Rapids, Mich. Oak Park , Ill . Alton, Ill. Greenville, Ohio Olean, N. Y. Altoona, Pa . Hackensack, N. J. Olympia, Wash. Anniston, Ala. Harrisburg, Pa. Parkersburg, W. Va. Antigo, Wis. Hazelton, Pa. Pasadena, Calif. Batesville, Ark. Highland Park, Mich . Paterson, N. J. Beaumont, Texas Hoquiam, Wash. Pensacola, Fla. Bethlehem, Pa. Hot Springs, Ark. Petersburg, Va. Binghamton, N. Y. Huntington, W. Va. Philadelphia, Pa. Boston, Mass. Idaho Falls , Idaho Plymouth , Ν. Η . Brockton, Mass. Independence, Iowa Passaic, N. J. Carthage, Mo. Indiana, Pa. Port Townsend, Wash . Cedar Rapids, Iowa Indianapolis, Ind. Pottstown, Pa. Cicero, Ill. Ironton, Ohio Port Chester, N. Y. Clarksburg, W. Va. Irvington, N. J. Providence, R. I. Cleveland, Ohio Jacksonville, III. Quincy, Ill . Columbus, Ga. Janesville, Wis. Racine , Wis. Columbus , Miss. Jersey City, N. J. Reading, Pa. Columbus , Ohio La Crosse, Wis. Richmond, Va. Crookston, Minn. Lansdale, Pa. Rock Island, Ill . Dayton , Ohio Latrobe, Pa. Rocky Ford, Colo. Denver, Colo. Kansas City, Mo. Roslyn, Wash . Des Moines, Iowa Kenosha, Wis . Roswell, N. Mex. Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. Knoxville, Tenn. Salem, Oreg. Donora, Pa. Lakewood , Ohio Salem City, N. J. Dotham, Ala. Lansingburgh , N. Y. Salt Lake City, Utah Dover, Del . Lawton, Okla. Savannah , Ga. Dowingtown, Pa. Lebanon , Pa. Schuylkill Haven, Pa. East St. Louis , Ill. Livingston , Mont. Schenectady, N. Y. Elmira, N. Y. Logan City, Utah Scotia, N. Y. El Paso, Texas Longmont, Colo. Seattle, Wash. Elwood, Ind. Los Angeles, Calif. South Bend, Ind. Erie, Pa. Mansfield, Ohio Southington, Conn . Eugene, Wash . Miles City, Mont. Spanish Fork, Utah Everett, Mass. Minneapolis, Minn. St. Joseph, Mo. Everett, Wash . Mishawaka, Ind. Streator, Il1. Fargo, N. Dak. Moline, Ill. Superior, Wis. Faribault, Minn. Mt. Union, Pa. Syracuse, N. Y. Fayetteville, Ark. Munising, Mich. Terre Haute, Ind. Fergus Falls , Minn. Muskegon , Mich . Topeka, Kans. Fitchburg, Mass . Muskogee, Okla. Trinidad, Colo. Fond du Lac , Wis . Newark, N. J. Tulsa, Okla. Fresno, Calif. New York, N. Y. Tyler, Texas 210 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Walla Walla, Wash. Washington, Ind. Winston-Salem, N. C. Warren, Ohio Waterloo, Iowa Woodward, Okla. Washington, D. C. Wilmington, Del. Wooster, Ohio IV- SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 1. What, in addition to the use of a good form of close and capable supervision and helpful frankness in dealing with teacher, do you consider as pre-requisites, in securing good results from any form of teacher rating plan? 2. In actual practice, do rating plans tend to stimulate industry, encour- age individual improvement, and reward exceptional merit? 3. Is it possible to devise and apply to the teaching process impersonal, objective standards of value ? 4. Discuss the statement : A salary schedule, based only in part on years of service, and with additional rewards for growth and efficiency after the common maximum has been reached, offers one of the best means for pro- viding the proper stimulus for further professional growth. 5. How do you account for greater sensitiveness of elementary school teachers than of high school teachers to discrimination between teachers on the basis of efficiency ? 6. What should rating schemes seek to measure? What is good teach- ing ? What are the fundamental qualities of teachers that should receive scientific and administrative attention? What is their relative importance and how may they be determined ? What casual relationship, if any, exists between the possession of various attributes and the production of desirable changes in pupils ? 7. Is Courtis correct in stating that the program of establishing scientific standards of teaching ability requires : (a) The definition of teaching abil- ity in terms of the changes to be produced in children ; (b ) formulation of standard tests for measuring these changes; (c) control studies of the re- lation of all personal and method factors; (d) similar studies measuring the optimum type of training, and (e) devising tests and scales to select the fit from the unfit ? 8. Because teachers are responsible to the community should they not only study teacher rating systems but also the personnel rating plans of "Big Business." V-ILLUSTRATIONS OF TEACHER RATING SCALES Standard for Rating Teachers for the Principal's Use ( Issued by the Board of Education, Hackensack, N. J., 1924) "In order that there may be a uniform method of judging a teacher's work, it is desired that the following items be considered with the under- standing that it will not be necessary to take every item into account, but that these items may be a guide in observing the work of the teachers: REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 211 1. Classroom management (a) Care of school property (b) Heat, light and ventilation (c) Neatness of room (d) Physical welfare of pupils (e) Proper seating and posture for pupils. 2. Personality of teacher (a) Attitude toward class (b) Control of voice (c) Preparation of work (d) Proper use of English (e) Use of time 3. Character of instruction (a) Adapted to capacity of pupil (b) Adapted to individual progress (c) Are pupils interested (d) Individual thinking on part of pupil (e) Related to experience of pupil 4. The Recitation (a) Commends success and effort (b) Lesson assignment to continue the interest (c) Lesson plan evident (d) Provision for all pupils to take part (e) Pupils criticise their own and other pupil's work (f) Test of pupil's preparation (g) Uses questions with good effect 5. Discipline (a) Control without apparent effort. (b) Correction by commendation and suggestion (c) Evidence of character building (d) Respectful attitude toward teacher and others (e) Self-control and self-direction of pupils developed, 6. Professional attitude and coöperation (a) Advancement of educational interests in the community. (b) Coöperation in activities outside the classroom. (c) Initiative and ability to lead (d) Professional growth evidenced in classroom teaching and manage- ment. ( e) Professional study evidenced by right methods of teaching (f) Visitation in home of pupils 7. Health Frequent absence due to illness will be considered as a basis of rating when in the judgment of the principal it impairs efficiency. 1. All teachers receiving a rating of Excellent shall receive the same rate of increase annually, such increase to be so apportioned that it will be pos- sible for a teacher to advance in eight years from the minimum to the maxi- mum fixed for their particular classification. 2. All teachers rated as Good shall receive the same rate of increase an- nually, such increase to be so apportioned that it will be possible for a teacher of this rating to advance in twelve years from the minimum to the maximum fixed for their particular classification . 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 3. All teachers rated as Fair shall receive the same rate of increase to be apportioned that it will be possible for a teacher of this rating to advance in fifteen years from the minimum to the maximum fixed for their par- ticular classification . 4. All teachers rated as Poor shall receive no increase for that year. SELF - RATING CARD FOR TEACHERS (Furnishedby Superintendent Adams, Plymouth, N. Н. ) 1. Do I know the meaning of education ? 2. Do I know the specific aim of each subject taught ? 3. Do I have an immediate aim in each subject taught ? 4. Are my aims achieved ? 5. Am I making appropriate use of pupils' previous experience and in- structions ? 6. Do I make good use of illustrative materials ? 7. Do I make good use of blackboard? 8. Do I help my pupils too much ? 9. Do I talk too much ? 10. Do I refrain from scolding and nagging my pupils ? 11. Am I enthusiastic in my work ? 12. Are my pupils responsive ? 13. Do my pupils ask thoughtful questions ? 14. Do I know the value of drills, reviews, and examinations so that I can use them to advantage in my work ? 15. Do I motivate my school work? 16. Is my work each day satisfactory to myself ? 17. Do I try to help the community in which I teach ? 18. Am I courteous to (a) pupils ; (b) superintendent; (c) fellow- teachers; ( d) school board; ( e) parents ? 19. Am I careful of my personal appearance-dress, hair, nails, teeth ? 20. Am I doing anything to improve myself in my teaching profession ? Suggested rating : A-superior; B-good; C-fair ; D-poor ; E-very poor. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 213 Eugene, Oregon Detailed Rating of Teachers Teacher Poor Fair Good Excellent 1. General appearance 2. Health 3. Voice 4. Resourcefulness and Initiative 5. Enthusiasm and cheerfulness 6. Tact 7. Industry 8. Promptness 9. Daily preparation 10. Scholarship 11. Professional interest and growth 12. Interest in individual pupils 13. Interest in school as a whole 14. Co- operation and loyalty 15. Nectness of room 16. Discipline 17. Influence with pupils 18. Attentiveness and interest of class 19. Ability to make pupils do their best 20. Attention to individual needs 21. General development of pupils 22. Method of teaching in general VI- SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Edwin W. Teacher rating as a means of improving instruction. Eleventh Annual Schoolmen's Week Proceedings , School of Education, University of Pennsylvania. pp. 70-78 . The Philadelphia Plan of Rating. Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert H. Problems of the teaching profession. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1925. 335 pp. Chapter X, pp. 175-194– Measurement of Teaching Efficiency. "Functions of special importance of a teacher rating system: 1. To select candidates for training. 2. To guide and stimulate students in training. 3. To select applicants for teaching positions. 4. To aid in the improvement of teachers . 5. To serve as an index to the right of promotion. 6. To serve as a basis for dismissal." 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Bobbitt, J. F. Results of plans to measure efficiency in teaching; in Proceedings of the National Education Association. 1915. A general discussion of the problem. Боусе, А. С. A method for guiding and controlling the judging of teaching efficiency in School Review Monographs, No. VI. 1915. pp. 71-82. Discusses the general problem and illustrates, by a series of graphs, how teachers' qualities may be rated and scored. Buckingham, B. R. Opinion and practice as to the rating of teachers. Educational Research Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 18. November 8, 1922. pp. 171-174. Returns from an inquiry sent to superintendents of schools in cities over 25,000 population show that almost without exception superintendents think teachers should be rated; but that only about seventy-seven per cent actually use some plan of teacher rating. Bulletin of the Grade Teacher's Association of Spokane, Washington, Vol. IX, No. 1. November, 1923. 16 pp. A symposium on the subject of teacher rating. Cubberley, E. P. State and county educational reorganization. Macmillan, New York. 1914. See Appendix F for the Elliott and Indiana success-grade forms for estimating the efficiency of teachers. Public school administration. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 1916. Chapter XVI discusses salary grants based on efficiency. Davidson, W. M., and Blewett, Ben. How to measure the efficiency of teachers ; in Proceedings of National Education Association, 1913. pp. 286-92, Two papers discussing the rating of teachers and the merit system for salary advances. Elliott, E. C. City school supervision. World Book Co., New York. 1914. Chapter IX describes in some detail the methods and standards employed in rating efficiency in New York City, and Chapter X describes the methods employed, giving blanks used, in a number of other cities. Green, C. C. The promotion of teachers on the basis of merit and efficiency. School and Society, Vol. I. pp. 705-9 ( May 15, 1915) . Also in Proceedings of National Education Association. 1915. A discussion and a plan. Hebb, Bertha Y. Samples of teacher self-rating cards . U. S. Bureau of Education, City School Leaflet No. 18. February, 1925. 15 pp. Presents a number of self-rating plans in current use. Hines, Harlan C. Merit systems in the large cities. American School Board Jour- nal. Vol. 68, No. 6. pp. 52, 111-112. June, 1924. Survey made by personal letter of inquiry to superintendents of schools in cities over 100,000 in population. The replies showed that about fifty per cent of these cities have adopted merit plans for the promotion of teachers in service. Salary increases depend upon efficiency. Journal of Educational Research, Vol. VI, No. 3. October, 1922. pp. 276-277. Discussion of efficiency rating scale and salary schedule for 1922 in Cicero, Illinois. The scale calls for a rating of each teacher on five factors in determination of four ability groups : (1) training; (2) health; (3 ) personality; ( 4) professional attitude; (5 ) success-the meas- urement of efficiency. Kimball, Florence. A survey of teacher rating in the United States. Minneapolis Minnesota, 1923. 19 pp. Shows as far as the questionnaire method can reveal what was the status of teacher rating in 1923 . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 215 King, LeRoy A. The present status of teacher rating. American School Board Journal. February, 1925. pp. 44-46. Also in the Eleventh Annual School- men's Week Proceedings, School of Education, University of Pennsylvania . pp. 50-64. Summarizes replies from 92 superintendents and analyzes the rating plans of 103 cities. From these data one gets an idea of the generally accepted present practice as regards teacher rating. Lain, Nell E. Teacher rating. The Journal of the National Education Associa- tion, Vol. XIV, No. 4. pp. 118-119. "Since the question of teacher rating is now and may be for some time a debatable question, we cannot afford to be dogmatic with regard to any particular system and say it is all right or all wrong." Lewis, Ervin Eugene. Personnel problems of the teaching staff. Century Co., New York. 1925. p. 190. Discusses rating as only one of the many issues which make for or mar a teacher's hap- piness. Link, Henry C. Personal opinion records and rating scales. Industrial Manage- ment, Vol. 67, No. 2. February, 1924. pp. 78-80. "The conclusion is reached that even a very capable foreman, employer, teacher, or depart- ment head is unable to treat an individual as a compound of separate qualities and to assign a magnitude to each of these in independence of the others." National Education Association, Relation of quality of teaching to salaries in cities. Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 3, Teachers' Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. pp. 51-52. Presents table showing number of cities in different population groups where teachers are rated, the number of cities where rating directly affects salary, the number of groups into which teachers are divided, and the prevailing number of individual ratings given each teacher. Rowland, Albert L. State plan of teacher rating as a means of improving instruc- tion. Eleventh Annual Schoolmen's Week Proceedings, School of Education, University of Pennsylvania. pp. 65-70. Requirements for a good rating scheme : 1. Enough detail to assure an objective judgment. 2. Simplicity that will commend it to the busy supervisor and to the easy compre- hension of the teacher. 3. Adequate scope to report a fair analysis of the teaching process. 4. The giving of due regard to the relative value of the several elements of this analysis. 5. The inclusion of some simple scheme of quantitative translation in order that large numbers of ratings may be grouped for statistical purposes. Sears, J. B. The measurement of teaching efficiency. Journal of Educational Research. Vol. IV, No. 2. September, 1921. pp. 81-94. 1. There ought to be a sorting process at the entering door of all teacher-training institutions. 2. We need a means for measuring the progress which is made in training. 3. We need a test by means of which we may be able to predict the degree of suc- cess that is likely to be attained by an applicant for a teaching position. 4. We need to measure the efficiency of our teachers in service, in order that: (a) We may supervise more intelligently, (b) promote and renumerate in terms of merit; and (c) replace favoritism and misunderstanding with a rational basis of coöperation. 5. We need to have teachers measure themselves for the knowledge and profes- sional stimulus they will derive from a thorough analysis of their own work. 6. We need to measure teaching efficiency for the light such measurement will throw upon the teaching and supervisory process. Teachers' Rating Card in Use at Omaha ; in Elementary School Journal, Vol. XX. June, 1920. pp. 723-24. A rating card worked out by the teachers themselves. Wagner, Charles A. What should be the teacher's part in a scheme of teacher- rating ? School Board Journal, March, 1924. "The capacity for self-valuation is like any other judging skill, it grows and refines itself by practice The reaction on methods of teaching would become much more effective than criticism from any other source." 216 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AMERICAN EDUCATION WEEK THOMAS E. JOHNSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION LANSING, MICHIGAN, CHAIRMAN Certain features of the problems connected with the work of the Com- mittee on American Education Week are worthy of consideration at the beginning of the Committee's work. American Education Week was begun by the National Bureau of Edu- cation. At the Des Moines meeting of the National Education Associa- tion, the officers of the American Legion suggested American Education Week and requested the Federal Bureau of Education and the National Education Association to coöperate with them in its observance. Both accepted, and since that meeting this week has been observed throughout the country, and it has been sponsored by the three organizations. Certain embarrassments have inevitably resulted because of some differ- ences in viewpoint. The Federal Bureau of Education is essentially a part of the Federal Government, and the commissioner is inevitably re- stricted in program activities because of that fact. The American Legion is naturally interested primarily in that phase of education which will tend toward a greater governmental stability. The National Education Association has naturally been interested pre- eminently in the immediate problems of educational administration. All of these viewpoints have been to a great extent harmonized, and unques- tionably much good has been accomplished. When your committee was appointed, the chairman wrote to a number of people who had at times expressed some dissatisfaction with the program and even with the movement, to many school people, and a number of leading newspapers. As a result of all inquiries, there was some objec- tion to certain so-called negative qualities in the 1924 program, and an earnest opinion on the part of school people and newspapers that a very definite movement should be undertaken to interpret the schools of the United States to our people in order that the movement for retrenchment should not gain too great a headway. This interpretation should be in the form of a program that would cease talking about physical inefficiency, but would show them the value of physi- cal education. It would cease talking about the necessity for teacher training, but would show our people the results of the new teacher training. This suggestion came from many sources, and in the opinion of your Committee is perhaps the most important contribution to be made by it to a program for American Education Week. In the meantime, Dr. Tigert gave much time to bring the desire for a constructive program before those who had in the past been responsible for the program with the result that most of the items which had been, properly or otherwise, a subject of criticism in the past, were entirely eliminated by the sponsors of the week's program. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 217 To my mind, those who have criticised on the ground that the American Legion is not an educational organization have no real basis in fact for such criticism. The American Federation of Labor, the National League of Women Voters, the Daughters of the American Revolution, and scores of others we could mention are not educational organizations, but they have been a tremendous assistance in securing educational legislation, build- ing programs and adequate budgets. The legislatures in the several states and the Federal Congress are not educational organizations, yet they have contributed to, and in fact have made possible modern education. The American Legion is composed of men who will shortly control the public policies of the United States, and to have them not only committed to such a program but active in carrying it out, is, to my mind, a most important contribution to educational statesmanship, and the officers of the Legion who have this splendid viewpoint and who have assisted so unselfishly in the promulgation of correct educational principles deserve our most grateful and hearty thanks. Dr. Tigert, who has occupied a difficult position, acting as it were as a liaison officer, deserves not only our thanks, but our congratulations, as unquestionably to him is due the fact that we have been able to offer this coming year a program in which we believe all can unite. Your Committee believes that this program should be general with ample opportunity for each community to develop its own needs, and to serve through it the solution of its own problems. This program should be sug- gestive, and should offer ways of bringing to the people at home an under- standing of their school and its problems. It can reach its maximum of value only when every educator in the country is willing to give his best services in preparing his local program. It can be of maximum value only when every possible agency is united to this end. One of the greatest tragedies inAmerica is the wealth of available energy which is unused. In every community there are groups and organizations of people searching for something to do in order to maintain their identity and existence. The utilization of this waste energy is one of the most distinct problems of the educator. In the utilization of this energy, Education Week can be of the maximum importance from the very fact that so many people can be interested in their schools, provided the school program is presented in an effective manner. Your Committee had hoped that some changes could be made which it develops are impossible at the present time, but which can be made if a committee for this purpose is continued by your organization . The final program as adopted by your Committee is as follows. The program for Friday is to close with a pageant or program designed to interpret the modern school and its needs to the American public. 218 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Constitution Day Monday, November 16, 1925. The Constitution is the bulwark of democracy and opportunity. 1. Unity, justice, tranquility, defense, welfare and liberty. 2. Our Constitution guarantees these rights. 3. Our Constitution is the expression of the will of the people. 4. One Constitution, one Union, one Flag, one History. Slogans-Ballots, not bullets. Know the Constitution . Visit your schools today. Patriotism Day Tuesday, November 17, 1925. The Flag of the United States of America is the symbol of the ideals and institutions of our Republic. 1. Our Flag insures the sancity of life and the security of property. 2. Quicken the sense of public duty. 3. Voting is the primary duty of the patriot. 4. Our national honor must be preserved from unjust attack. Slogans-America first. Vote at all elections . Visit your schools today. School and Teacher Day Wednesday, November 18, 1925. It is not too much to say that the need of civilization is the need of teachers.-Calvin Coolidge. 1. The teacher is a nation builder. 2. The school is the foundation of democracy. 3. Provide for the needs of your schools. 4. Trained teachers require adequate compensation. 5. The teaching of patriotism is the duty of all public servants . Slogans-The better the teacher the better the school. Visit your schools today. Conservation and Thrift Day Thursday, November 19, 1925 . The forests of America, however slighted by man, must have been a great delight to God.- John Muir. 1. Conserve our national resources. 2. Prevent forest fires . 3. Industry and thrift spell prosperity. 4. Saving insures happiness . Slogans-Plant a tree. Work and save . Visit your schools today . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 219 Know Your School Day Friday, November 20, 1925. Progressive civilization depends upon progressive education. 1. Schools must progress with the times . 2. Preparation for modern day life demands a broader course of study. 3. The school must be kept abreast of science and invention. 4. A little invested in education saves much expended on crime, poverty and disease . Slogans-Good schools for all communities. Make your schools livable. Visit your schools today. Community and Health Day Saturday, November 21, 1925. Physical education means health and strength. 1. The school is a community center. 2. Equality of opportunity for every American boy and girl. 3. Public library service for every community. 4. Proper food and rest for children. 5. A health officer for every community. 6. Adequate parks for city, state and nation. Slogans-A square deal for the country boy and girl. A sound mind in a sound body. Visit your neighbor today. For God and Country Day Sunday, November 22, 1925 . Religion, morality, and education are necessary for good government. 1. Education in the home. 2. Education in the school . 3. Education in the church . Slogans-A Godly nation cannot fail. Visit your Church today. 220 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TEACHER TENURE IN COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS FREDERICK M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OAKLAND , CALIFORNIA, CHAIRMAN The Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure devoted its report in 1924 to a study of teacher tenure in the elementary and secondary schools of the United States, including the amount of teacher turnover, cases of political dismissal, State and local regulations relative to teacher tenure, together with a comparison of tenure legislation in foreign countries. So great was the need for tenure legislation as revealed by the study of conditions in the elementary and secondary schools that those members of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure, who are members of normal schools and teachers' colleges, requested that the Committee make a study of teacher tenure in these institutions of higher learning. Inquiries were sent to the presidents of all State public normal schools and teachers' colleges in the United States. The following report summarizes the replies from 61 normal school presidents and 46 presidents of teachers' colleges. NATURE OF CONTRACT BETWEEN TEACHERS AND EMPLOYING AUTHORITY Tables 1-5, inclusive, show present conditions as to nomination and appointment of teachers, officials responsible, period of time of appoint- ment, etc. TABLE 1.-OFFICIAL OR BOARD WHICH NOMINATES TEACHERS IN TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Number Nominating official or board Teachers State public colleges normal schools President of normal school or college . 38 32 Principal of school.. 4 22 Board of regents .... 1 Heads of departments approved by President. 1 Local board of managers 1 President on dean's approval . 1 Principal and local board. 1 Principal through the commissioner . 1 Principal representing local board of managers 1 School board .. 1 1 Superintendent of schools . 1 :: President to a teachers' committee and the committee to the State teachers' college board .. 1 Total number replying . 46 60 Read Table 1 as follows: In 38 teachers' colleges and in 32 State public normal schools , the president is the nominating official . 1The term " teacher" here includes all permanent members of a staff, i. e. , members of a critic staff nad practice school, instructors, assistants, and administrative, supervisory, and technical experts. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 221 TABLE 2 -OFFICIAL OR BOARD WHICH APPOINTS TEACHERS IN TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Number Appointment official or board Teachers State public colleges normal schools 77663229 State board of education . 12 Board of trustees .. 11 Board of regents .. 9 President of college .. 1 21 Teachers college board . Normal school board. Board of control . State commissioner of education . 2 i Department of education . 1 2 Legally, board of regents, but actually the president 1 Board of regents elects on nomination. 1 Heads of departments*. 1 President subject to approval of regents . 1 School committee .. :: 1 State director of education with confirmation of state board of 22 education 1 State trustees . 2 : Department of education with approval of commission on adminis- tration.. 1 7112 State Board of education . Local board with approval of commissioner of education . :: Principal State teachers college board . Theboard legally, elects, but practically the president by delegated power. 1 Principaland teachers committee with approval of the commissioners 121 of education The president, the secretary of the board giving official notice. State superintendent of public instruction . : Board of directors 1 Board of regents and commission of education. 1 Educational committee of board. 1 Local board, subject to approval of local trustees and state depart- ment of public instruction . 1 State board of administration . 1 Total.. 46 61 *Heads of Departments nominate to President, he presents name with his endorsement to faculty committee. Read Table 2 as follows: In 7 teachers' colleges and 12 normal schools, the State Board of Education appoints teachers. TABLE 3.-TIME OF APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS IN TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Number Time of appointment Teachers State public colleges normal schools May. 11 11 April 5 12 624321 Whenever vacancy occurs. 11 June annually .. 7 Spring 2 Annually. 1 July. Commencement season . 1 No definite date. 1 Blank... 3 1 Miscellaneous . 9 14 46 61 Total number replying . Read Table 3 as follows: In 11 out of 46 teachers' colleges and in 11 out of 61 State public normal schools, the time of appointment is May. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There is little unanimity of practice as to the time of election or appoint- ment of teachers in teachers' colleges. In addition to the times specified in Table 3, these miscellaneous replies were given in answer to the question, When are teachers appointed: When first elected only; February or March; at the April quarterly meeting; annually in May or June; when the president submits the nominations ; March of each year; any time ; and usually in the Spring quarter. The following exceptions to Table 3 show that for the most part there is also no specified time for the appointment of teachers in State public normal schools. These miscellaneous replies were received in answer to the question : When are teachers appointed in State public normal schools ? At any board meeting in five normal schools; after the president has selected and named them; at monthly meetings of board of regents; the fiscal year is from December 1 to November 30, and appointments are usually included in the budget to begin September 1; once each year, April or June; when confirmed by Board of Regents at the annual July meeting; usually the last of March of each year; whenever requested; May or August; at random; and at the Spring meeting, either May or June. TABLE 4.-LENGTH OF TIME FOR WHICH TEACHERS ARE APPOINTED IN TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Number Length of appointment Teachers State public colleges normal schools Oneyear. 26 39 Indefinite. 9 8 At will of department . 2 Technically one year, really until services become unsatisfactory. 1 116 No stated time, practically permanent.. First one year, later during good behavior and efficiency.. Miscellaneous . 6 14 Total number replying. 46 61 Read Table 4 as follows: In 26 out of 46 teachers' colleges and in 39 out of 61 State public normal schools, the length of appointment of teachers is one year. While Table 4 shows a slight trend as to the length of time for which teachers are appointed in teachers' colleges, these exceptions were listed : Tenure one year, but teachers are recommended for permanent tenure after three years of satisfactory service; on probation from two to four years ; after the first year, if employment is mutually satisfactory, reëlection is automatic in two teachers' colleges; one year on probation, after two years of service tenure is considered permanent; and during life, good behavior, and efficiency. These miscellaneous replies were also received in answer to the question : For how long are teachers appointed in State public normal schools ? As long as service is meritorious; indefinitely after probation period of two years, during which the rules of tenure do not apply; one, two to three years; for one year when first engaged; after that during satisfactory service; one year, September first to September first; as long as satisfactory; school year, or 60 days' notice for either party; some for one year, some REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 223 for two years, others without term; one full year, twelve months in two normal schools; teachers are appointed each year, but as a matter of fact the appointment continues ; and no specified time. TABLE 5. - POLICY AS TO THE HOLDING OF FORMAL ANNUAL ELECTIONS Number Are formal elections held Teachers colleges State public normal schools annually? For teachers For new Forteachers For new already employed teachers already employed teachers Yes.... 26 30 32 35 No. 15 10 26 15 Not always . 1 Blank . 5 6 2 ii Total number replying . 46 46 61 61 Read Table 5 as follows: Formal annual elections are held in 26 out of 46 teachers' col'eges , for teachers already employed, in 30 out of 46 teachers' colleges for new teachers. In State public normal schoos, formal annual elections are held in 32 out of 61 institutions for teachers already already employed and in 35 out of 61 for new teachers. TABLE 6.-TEACHER TURNOVER IN TEACHERS COLLEGES 1922 1923 1924 Identification Number not Number not Number not number Number Number Number returning returning returning employed following employed following employed following year year year 1. 212 236 :975 : 2750913262705 : 57 : 41 :12 : 498696821 21 :661 : 5247 8670 2. 96 114 130 8 3. 79 102 118 4. 93 100 11 110 5. 92 8 6... 73 77 79 2 7. 58 64 71 2 8. 66 75 69 3 9 60 60 65 7 10. 43 51 10 64 8 72353473 11 59 59 61 6 12. 58 59 60 5 13. 57 57 59 1 14. 46 53 52 9 26 15. 44 47 52 47 51 054 16. 42 17. 54 50 50 18. 41 43 49 19 . 46 : 45 4523122 :: 15866 662 20 . 35 38 45 21. 42 45 44 22 . 37 38 44 :17 23 39 41 43 24 . 43 36 42 25 40 26. 42 40 39 27 36 36 39 321 28. 24 32 38 29. 87 38 38 30. 36 37 36 31 31 30 4 35 18479 32 . 30 31 31 33. 30 31 30 34. 24 29 30 6 72283M 35.. 28 28 29 36. 24 26 26 37 18 23 26 38. 22 22 39 20 20 20 1 40. 12 12 All 14 1 Read Table 6 as follows: In teachers' college Number 1, 212 teachers were employed in 1923; and 236 in 1924. In teachers' college Number 2, 96 teachers were employed in 1922; of these 9 did not return the following year, etc. 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 7.-TEACHER TURNOVER IN STATE PUBLIC NORMAL SCHOOLS 1922 1923 1924 Identification number Number not Number not Number not Number returning Number returning Number returning employed following employed following employed following year year year 974 30 1. 108 26 88 85 2. 54 6 72 84 9 4584 3 .. 60 4 63 65 5 4.. 45 10 52 54 7 42 5.. 47 7 48 53 6.. 50 52 7. 42 1 47 51 8. 48 12 50 11 50 11 9.. 48 10 49 14 50 5 8531422.62704 10 . 47 4 46 49 8 11 39 4 41 46 6 037462 12. 42 4 44 46 8522 : 13. 36 40 45 14 45 45 45 15. 37 38 43 16 37 40 43 17 42 42 43 :: 876 :: 4.523- 18. 43 43 587945937574 : 41 : 2522 312 19 34 32 41 20. 41 41 41 21 39 40 40 22 41 39 40 23 . 30 37 10 40 24 35 41 11 39 25 37 37 14 39 26. 27 33 5 38 27 33 38 8 38 28. 32 34 6 37 29 24 36 11 36 1 30. 33 33 4 33 1 31 27 29 3 31 2 21.54 32. 29 31 31 1 33 31 31 31 1 34. 22 29 642221.722 35. 24 27 5 28 36. 28 28 28 37 26 28 28 38 27 22 * 27 23 * 27 21 * 221 39 26 26 2 26 40. 25 26 25 41. 21 22 24 42. 18 1 24 69 62315416 43. 18 20 7 21 44 19 19 1 20 45 16 17 2 20 46. 19 20 4 20 1 47. 11 16 8 20 48. 19 19 20 17:25 49. 10 14 15 3 50. 14 14 15 51 12 : 27 08634 52 10 11 11 3 53. 8 8 54. 7 8 55. i 2 2 2 4 4 56. 1 3 1 3 1 *Many of these teachers were on leave. Read Table 7 as follows : In State public normal school Number 1, 108 teachers were employed in 1922; of these 26 did not return the following year; in 1923, 88 were employed, and 9 of these did not return the following year, etc. TEACHER TURNOVER IN TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Tables 6 and 7 show the total number of teachers employed in each of 40 teachers' colleges and 56 State normal schools in 1922, 1923, and 1924, and the number not returning the following year. Tables 8 to 11, inclusive, show the number of teachers' colleges and normal schools where members of the faculty are dismissed without notice, REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 225 hearing, or statement of cause and without trial. They also show what legal redress is possible and that there is practically no record of instances of legal redress. TABLE 8. - NUMBER OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS WHERE TEACHERS ARE DISMISSED WITHOUT NOTICE, HEARING, OR STATEMENT OF CAUSE Number Conditions of dismissal Teachers Normal colleges schools Teachers are dismissed without notice, hearing, or statement of cause. 3 1 * Teachers are not dismissed without notice, hearing, or statement of cause. 40 54 Blank . 3 6 Total. 46 61 Read Table 8 as follows: In three out of 46 teachers' colleges, teachers are dismissed without notice, hearing, or statement of cause. In only one of the 61 normal schools replying does this happen. *This is the only case of dismissal in eight years. The cause was immorality. TABLE 9.-NUMBER OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS WHERE TEACHERS ARE DISMISSED WITHOUT TRIAL Number Conditions of dismissal Teachers Normal colleges schools Teachers are dismissed without trial .. 16 16 Teachers are not dismissed without trial . 19 36 Right of appeal to advisory board of education . 1 Have trial if they desire . 1 Blank.. 9 9 Total.. 46 61 Read Table 9 as follows: In 16 out of 46 teachers' colleges, teachers are dismissed without trial; this is also true in 16 out of 61 normal schools, etc. TABLE 10. -LEGAL REDRESS IN CASES OF DISMISSAL OF MEMBERS OF FACULTY WITHOUT NOTICE, HEARING, OR STATEMENT OF CAUSE AND WITHOUT TRIAL Number Legal redress Teachers State public colleges normal schools 55 No redress. 9 Have never had any such cases . 3 5 No legal redress except a right to hearing by the state board of 51 education... 1 4 Appeal to courts of state . Hearinggrantedby the commissioner of education and if desired by the advisory board of education . 1 125 Hearing granted by the commissioner of education (final authority) . 1 Appeals may be made to the governing board. 3 Appeals maybe made to the director or commissioner of education. 1 State board of regents . 1 Blanks . 22 37 Total. 46 61 Read Table 10 as follows: In 9 teachers' colleges and 5 State public normal schools, teachers have no legal redress in case of dismissal. 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 11.-NUMBER OF INSTANCES OF LEGAL PROCEDURE RELATIVE TO DISMISSAL OF TEACHERS FROM TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Number Instances of legal procedure Teachers State public colleges normal schools None.... 23 20 Test case in 1923 court (district) held board could legallydismiss. 1 Will furnish it upon request . 1 Blank. 21 41 Total. 46 61 Read Table 11 as follows: In 23 teachers' colleges and in 20 State public normal schools, there is no record of instances of legal procedure relative to dismissal of teachers without trial. EXISTING TEACHER TENURE LEGISLATION Tables 12 to 13 show the number of teachers' colleges and normal schools protected either by a State law relative to the tenure of teachers or by a regulation of the State Board of Education. TABLE 12.-NUMBER OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS WHERE TENURE OF OFFICE IS PROTECTED BY STATE LAW RELATIVE TO TENURE IN THESE INSTITUTIONS Number State law relative to tenure in teachers colleges and normal schools Teachers State public colleges normal schools No. 34 58 Yes ... 5 Blank. 7 3 Total. 46 61 Read Table 12 as follows : Thirty- four teachers' colleges and fifty-eight State public normal schools report that in their States there is no State law relative to tenure of teachers in teachers' colleges and normal schools . TABLE 13.-NUMBER OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS WHERE TENURE OF OFFICE IS PROTECTED BY REGULATION OF STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION Number Protected by regulation of state board of education Teachers State public colleges normal schools No. 24 44 Yes. 4 6 Blank . 18 11 Total. 46 61 Read Table 13 as follows : Twenty-four teachers' colleges and forty-four State public normal schools report that their State Boards of Education have made no regulation relative to tenure of office in teachers' colleges and normal schools. NEED FOR TENURE LEGISLATION Tables 14 and 15 show that it is the opinion of the presidents of teachers' colleges and normal schools that there is little need either of State legisla REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 227 tion or of regulations prescribed by State boards of education relative to teacher tenure in teachers' colleges and normal schools. TABLE 14.-OPINION OF TEACHERS COLLEGE AND NORMAL SCHOOL PRESIDENTS AS TO THE NEED OF STATE LEGISLATION RELATIVE TO TENURE IN THEIR INSTITUTIONS Number State legislation needed Teachers State public colleges normal schools No. 32 46 Yes. 4 10 Doubtful 1 There is tenure in most of the state and may be in every part. i It should exist as in the public schools. 1 Legislation pending. 1 Not as long as legality of the board's regulation is not questioned . 1 Blank.. 6 4 Total. 46 61 Read Table 14 as follows: Thirty-two presidents of teachers' colleges and 46 presidents of State public normal schools report that in their opinion there is no need of State legis'ation relative to tenure in teachers' colleges and normal schools. TABLE 15.-OPINION OF TEACHERS COLLEGE AND NORMAL SCHOOLS PRESIDENTS AS TO NEED FOR STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION TO PRESCRIBE REGULATIONS 1 RELATIVE TO TENURE IN THEIR INSTITUTIONS Number State boards of education should prescribe regulations Teachers State public colleges normal schools No. 26 56 Yes ... 7 Possibly the only thing would be to specify that a new teacher should serve a probationary period . 1 Depends on kind of board 1 Doubtful. 1 Blank.... 11 4 Total... 46 61 Read Table 15 as follows : Twenty- six presidents of teachers' colleges and 56 presidents of State public normal schools report that in their opinion there is no need of State Boards of Education prescribing regulations relative to tenure in teachers' colleges and normal schools. SUMMARY OF PREVAILING PRACTICE AS TO TEACHER TENURE IN COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS 1. In the majority of teachers' colleges and State public normal schools, the president is the nominating official. 2. The State Board of Education or the Board of Trustees or Regents in most teachers' colleges and State public normal schools makes the official appointments. 3. There is little unanimity of practice as to the time of election or appointment of teachers in teachers' colleges and normal schools. A few more appointments are made in April, May, and June than during other months. 4. In the majority of teachers' colleges and State public normal schools. teachers are appointed for one year. 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION Association 5. The prevailing practice is to hold formal annual elections for teachers already employed, as well as for new teachers, in both teachers' colleges and State public normal schools. 6. The teacher-turnover in the teachers' colleges reporting for 1922 was 14 per cent of the number employed; for 1923, 11 per cent; and for 1924, 8.5 per cent. The teacher-turnover in the State public normal schools reporting for 1922 was 19 per cent; of the number employed for 1923, 17 per cent ; and for 1924, 12 per cent. 7. In practically no instance is a teacher dismissed without notice, hearing, or statement of cause from a teachers' college or State public normal school. 8. In the few cases where teachers are dismissed, the dismissal is often without trial. Legal redress is seldom sought. 9. Forty-six teachers' colleges and sixty-one State public normal schools report only two instances of legal procedure relative to the dismissal of teachers. 10. Of the teachers' colleges and State public normal schools reporting, in practically none are teachers protected by State law relative to tenure, and in only a few instances are they protected by a ruling of the State Board of Education . 11. The great majority of presidents of teachers' colleges and normal schools are of the opinion that there is no need either for State legisla- tion or regulations by State Boards of Education relative to teacher tenure in their institutions. However, this important fact should be kept in mind, the inquiry relative to teacher tenure sent to the presi- dents of teachers' colleges and normal schools did not ask for an estimate of how much the morale of the faculty would be improved or teaching efficiency increased if legislation did exist that assured teachers' college and normal school teachers tenure during satisfactory service. LIST OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND STATE PUBLIC NORMAL SCHOOLS REPLYING TO TENURE INQUIRY Ada, Okla. Fresno, Calif. Albany, N. Y. Greeley, Colo. Boston, Mass. Greenville, N. C. Bridgewater, Mass . Gunnison, Colo. Canyon, Tex. Harrisonburg, Va. Cape Girardeau, Mo. Hattiesburg, Miss . Cedar Falls, Iowa Hays, Kans. De Kalb, Ill. Huntington, W. Va. Denton, Tex. Kalamazoo, Mich. Durant, Okla. Kent, Ohio. East Las Vegas, N. Mex. Kirksville, Mo. East Radford, Va. Macomb, Ill. Farmville, Va. Madison , S. D. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 229 Natchitoches, La. Silver City, N. Mex. Normal, Ill . Spearfish, S. D. Orangeburg, S. C. Springfield, S. D. Peru, Nebr. Tahlequah, Okla. Pittsburg, Kans. Terre Haute, Ind. Providence, R. I. Ypsilanti, Mich. Salem, Mass. Valdosta, Ga. San Diego, Calif. Wayne, Nebr. San Marcos, Tex. Worcester, Mass. Santa Barbara, Calif. STATE PUBLIC NORMAL SCHOOLS Arcata, Calif. Mansfield, Pa. Bloomsburg, Pa. Millersville, Pa. Bluefield, W. Va. Milwaukee, Wis. Bowden, Ga. Minot, N. D. Bowie, Md. Monmouth, Ore. Brockport, N. Y. Moorhead, Minn . Buffalo, N. Y. Morehead, Ky. California, Pa. Nacogdoches , Tex. Cheney, Wash . Newark, N. J. Cullowkee, N. C. New Britain, Conn. Danbury, Conn. New Platz, N. Y. Dickinson, N. D. Oshkosh, Wis . Dillon, Mont. Oswego, N. Y. Eau Claire, Wis. Platteville, Wis. Ellendale, N. D. Plattsburg, N. Y. Ellensburg, Wash. River Falls, Wis. Fairmont, W. Va. San Francisco, Calif. Fitchburg, Mass. Shepherdstown, W. Va. Flagstaff, Ariz . Shippensburg, Pa. Florence, Ala. Slippery Rock, Pa. Frostburg, Md. Statesboro, Ga. Geneseo, N. Y. St. Cloud, Minn. Gorham, Me. Superior, Wis. Honolulu, H. I. Tempe, Ariz. Indiana, Pa. Trenton, N. J. Kingsville, Tex. West Chester, Pa. Kutztown, Pa. Westfield, Mass . Langston, Okla. West Liberty, W. Va. Lock Haven, Pa. Willimantic, Conn. Mankato, Minn. Winona, Minn. RECENT LEGISLATIVE CAMPAIGNS WAGED FOR TEACHER TENURE Several States reported through their State Teachers' Associations or through one of the members of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Teacher Tenure, that in January, 1925, campaigns were being 230 NATIONAL Education AssociatION waged in their State legislatures for teacher tenure. Among the States reporting legislative campaigns for teacher tenure were : Illinois, Massa- chusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington. COURT DECISIONS AFFECTING TEACHER TENURE Secretaries of State teachers' associations and members of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure have reported that the courts of California, Illinois, Minnesota, Yerington ( Lyon County, Nevada), New Jersey, and Massachusetts have rendered decisions affecting teacher tenure. THE CASE FOR TEACHER TENURE The national campaign for teacher tenure requires a full understanding of the reasons for tenure on the part of the teachers of the Nation. A great many people, including teachers, make up their minds concerning the merit and validity of a measure by rather local personal experiences and hap- penings with a comparatively small scope of importance. The only fair basis for the consideration of the policy of indefinite or permanent teacher tenure is a review of all the evidence that can be gathered showing the effect of teacher tenure upon the teaching profession and hence upon the schools and upon the children. From the data assembled by the Committee of One Hundred of the National Education Association, including evi- dence from teachers' associations, both State and local, throughout the United States, from a large body of interested laymen, from State and local school officials, and from many careful local studies made of this subject, it may be safely stated that indefinite teacher tenure is primarily in the interest of the schools and the children. This is sustained by evi- dence showing that indefinite tenure works in the interest of a more perma- nent and abler teaching body and that more competent young people are thereby attracted to the profession. The principal reasons for a conclusion of this kind may be summarized as follows : 1. Indefinite or permanent tenure tends to decrease teacher turn-over and stabilize the profession. 2. It protects the great body of good teachers from political attack and from dismissal for petty personal and political reasons. Itis in accordance with the American principle of civil service and against a political spoils system in the schools. 3. A sound tenure law provides for the easy dismissal of incompetent or insubordinate teachers where just cause can be shown. 4. It encourages professional growth and a higher professional standard for all teachers . 5. It tends to attract to the profession able and competent young per- sons because of increased stability of the profession and better opportunities for a career in teaching. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 231 The evidence supporting these conclusions was presented by the Com- mittee of One Hundred of the National Education Association in its report to the Washington meeting of that organization July, 1924, and printed in Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. II, No. 5, November, 1924. A summary of the evidence assembled by this committee upon the conclusions drawn above is as follows : Teacher turn-over-The facts brought out by the survey of teacher tenure require thoughtful consideration by every teacher and all loyal sup- porters of America's public school system. The instability of teaching as a profession is only too glaringly shown. Based upon replies direct from all State superintendents of public instruction save one, several State-wide surveys by teachers' associations and school officials, and surveys made by the United States Bureau of Education, the facts are brought out that teacher turn-over in the several stages ranges from 4 per cent to 47 per cent with an average of 16 per cent for the Nation as a whole, that rural turn-over within the States themselves runs as high as 68 per cent, that the average tenure of superinendents of schools is three years throughout the Nation, that the policy of hiring and firing at will prevails in most States and is the Nation-wide policy, and that unless special legislation is enacted courts everywhere hold to the one-year contract theory of teacher tenure. In general, the returns from the sources just mentioned show that turn- over is less and the profession more stable in States where tenure laws have been enacted. Political dismissals-Many flagrant cases of political dismissal showing attempts to use the school system for purposes of political spoils were brought to light. The following are the essential facts in some of the most important and significant of these : The Portland series of dismissals-"The public schools suffered from politics and gross favoritism. Injustice was inflicted on many teachers who were dismissed without warning and without even knowng the cause of their dismissal. No teacher felt secure of her position solely because of her efficiency. If her principal or some influential patron who had a grievance complained against her, she had no opportunity to defend herself or to disprove the assertion of one whose complaint might be founded on a trivial matter. "The whole teaching corps suffered from the demoralization that such state of uncerainty would inevitably cause. The annual election occurred so late in the school year that teachers who were not re-elected had scant opportunity to secure positions for the next year in other schools. This state of affairs resulted in a subservience in many instances, and efficiency suffered accordingly." Chicago-Sixty-eight teachers dismissed without notice, hearing or charges-June, 1916-all teachers with ratings of "Satisfactory" and rec- ommended for re-election by the superintendent of schools. (Report by Illinois sub-committee of Tenure Committee of 100.) Reported by Oregon sub-committee or Tenure.-Addie Clark, Chairman. 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Denver- ( 76 teachers discharged; 49 of them with ratings of "A" and "B" on four-point scale.) "On June 26, 1915, the Committee on Teachers brought in a report. The schools had been dismissed June 11. At a special meeting of the Board June 29, 1915, the President made the following statement : ""As a result of the recent report of your Committee on Teachers and Textbooks, which was adopted by this Board June 26, 1915, eighteen high school teachers and thirty-five elementary teachers, making a total of fifty- one teachers out of a corps of more than a thousand, were not given a contract to teach for the next school year.' "In addition there were retired five principals, nineteen elementary teachers, six high school teachers, and there were dropped six principals ; there were given contracts on probation to thirty-eight elementary teachers. The quality of forty-nine of these people is indicated above in quotation from Dr. Bobbitt's survey-that is, 49 of 76 had ratings of "A" and "B." This occurred on June 26, school having been dismissed June 11, after they had scattered from the Atlantic to the Pacific. "The first notice of the action of the Board reached them only through alphabetic lists in the newspapers, in which their names would be missing unless re-elected. "The agony and distress of those humiliated by being placed without warning upon a probation list and the terror of those whose names failed to appear on the published list caused mental and physical suffering that is beyond comprehension. You can imagine the civic uprising that followed." San Diego²- (21 teachers discharged-all with record of "Satis- factory".) "A'whispering campaign' was carried on against the superintendent with statements that he was a 'Czar,' that the schools were too expensive, etc. , all of which were without foundation in fact. The economy cry and the statement that the existing Board was executing much important business in 'star chamber' sessions aroused the ignorant, and the intelligent people of the city were absolutely unaware that this feeling of dissatisfaction had achieved such a momentum. In consequence, the better people 'let George do it' when it came to voting, and a majority of the Board was elected who were specifically pledged to oust the superintendent at the end of the fol- lowing year when his term expired. "The first step was to disregard the superintendent's recommendations in the employment of teachers and vacancies were filled with teachers who were without necessary qualifications, merely because they would support the new Board. Janitors, carpenters-henchmen of any and every sort- were placed in jobs as fast as they could be created or as vacancies oc- curred. The purchasing of school supplies, insurance, etc., was immedi- ately parcelled out to friends of the majority members of the Board. Dis 1Reported by Dr. W. R. Smiley, care Board of Education, Denver, Colo. Reported by H. O. Welty, Principal, Technical High School, Oakland, California. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 233 gruntled janitors recommended the retaining or discharge of teachers in some of the buildings, and the superintendent, within a few months, be- came only a figurehead. The committees in the Board took over, in a very large degree, the executive work of the superintendent, and at the end of the first year, when the superintendent's twelfth year of service terminated, every principal and teacher who had stood squarely and pub- licly by him were slated for dismissal on the charge that they had been 'friends of the superintendent' and therefore should be discharged in order to rid the school system of his influence. The principal of the high school and twenty high school teachers, the very cream of the high school fac- ulty, were discharged in one motion." In addition to these outstanding cases, it may be safely said that in every State there are numerous cases of dismissal of teachers for petty personal reasons either on the part of administrative authorities or boards of trustees in small town and country school districts. Where the right to "hire and fire" in an unlimited way exists, there can be no guarantee that merit will be the basis for either hiring or the retention of teachers. Every admin- istrator knows the personal and political pressure that is continually brought to bear for the placing of friends of persons who have large prestige, per- sonal influence, and political power. Every administrator also knows the ease with which a personal grudge can result in the dismissal of a teacher, not because of professional failure, but because of the dislike of some one with political power or in high authority. The cases cited above are in- dicative of a general trend of policy which is not only possible, but which actually does exist where there is no tenure regulation. A tenure law may occasionally protect a teacher or even a group of teachers who are incompetent and who ought to be dismissed and keep them in office longer than they ought to be kept, but where one such case exists in the protection of an incompetent teacher, there are dozens of cases where teachers are discharged for other reasons than failure to teach well and where political appointees are placed in a school system, not because they are good teachers, but because they have friends with influence. The most dangerous threat to the American public schools today is the threat of powerful political groups to attack and control them, not in the interest of the children, but inthe interest of political machines that operate for spoils purposes. Every American parent would prefer to have his child in a school system in which occasionally an incompetent teacher or superannuated teacher might be kept in the schools through tenure, rather than to submit the child to a school system where political appointment and dismissal for spoils pur- poses andtenure State in thelaws interest work Statesare a political machine of well-Eleven the either have rule. State-wide or partial tenure at the present time, and campaigns are in progress in eleven additional States for either the amendment or the enactment of tenure laws. The tabulation of the States having tenure laws follows. In addi- tion numerous cities in the several States have local tenure regulations which protect the teaching bodies of some of the larger cities. 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatION STATES HAVING TENURE LAWS California-applicable to districts with eight or more teachers. Enacted 1921 . Colorado-applicable to districts with 20,000 or more inhabitants-Den- ver, Pueblo, and Colorado Springs. Enacted 1921 . Illinois-applicable to any district with 100,000 or more inhabitants- Chicago only. Enacted 1919. Louisiana-applicable to New Orleans only. Maryland-applicable to all districts except Baltimore. Enacted 1921 . Massachusetts--applicable to entire State except Boston. Enacted 1914. Montana-application unqualified. Enacted 1919. New Jersey-application unqualified. Enacted 1910. New York-application unqualified. Enacted 1917. Oregon-applicable to districts with 20,000 or more inhabitants-Port- land only. Enacted 1913. Wisconsin-cities of first class-Milwaukee. Enacted 1921 . The State of New Jersey has had a tenure law since 1910. The op- eration of this excellent tenure law over a period of fifteen years is the best testimony that tenure is a stimulation to professional growth. Next to California, New Jersey has the ranking school system of all the States of the Nation as adjudged by the most competent critics and the highest recognized standards. The teaching profession has gone forward under able leadership to develop for itself a system of professional advancement. The teacher turn-over of New Jersey is comparatively low. High stand- ards of qualifications are maintained. A progressive teacher organization has continually fought for high professional standards and for the main- tenance of the tenure law. In Massachusetts and Maryland similar re- sults are to be observed. In all these States it is to be noted that pro- fessional progress is marked, that the good teachers are protected and that incompetents can be and are decreased. In New Jersey, out of thirty-three cases of dismissal of teachers appealed to the Commissioner of Education and the Supreme Court of the State during the operation of the tenure law, sixteen were in favor of the board of education which sought to dis- miss the teacher, fifteen were in favor of the teacher, and two were un- decided at the time the data were gathered. This is pointed evidence as to the proper operation of a sound tenure law in eliminating the unfit. As we are all well aware, the California school system ranks among the first school systems of the several States of the Union. For four years Cali- fornia has had what may be regarded as a fairly satisfactory tenure law. Previous to that considerable protection was afforded by the same type of law that is now called a tenure law in the State of Montana. The school system of California has been benefited without question by the op- eration of this law. Virtually one half of the teaching profession of the State, namely, the teaching profession in the larger cities, has been pro- tected by the law and has been stabilized thereby. The rating of the REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 235 California school system has not been lessened but increased during the operation of the more recent and stricter measure. In the meanwhile, professional standards have grown with great rapidity. In the opinion of this committee the evidence is unmistakable that State teaching bodies where protected by a sound yet vigorous law tend to develop higher stand- ards of professional advancement than the unstable teaching bodies which are subject to political attack and where dismissals for personal and po- litical reasons are the prevalent practice. Tenure provisions in foreign countries-Teachers in the educational systems in European countries where a high degree of school development has taken place are much more completely protected by tenure than are the teachers of the United States. A few months ago the Research Di- vision of the National Education Association published a table showing the rank of the various European countries and the United States in per- centage of illiteracy of the total population. The table¹ is as follows : Per cent Country of Illiteracy Germany .2 Denmark .2 Switzerland .5 Netherlands .6 Norway 1.0 Sweden 1.0 Scotland 1.6 England and Wales . 1.8 France 4.9 United States 6.0 At the suggestion of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure, the following questions were presented by the Research Division of the National Education Association to the embassies of each of these countries at Washington : 1. Who appoints teachers in the schools of your country that are supported wholly or principally through public taxation ? 2. Are such teachers reappointed at regular intervals, such as once every year, or are they appointed to a position for an indefinite period so long as they give satisfactory service ? 3. For what causes may a teacher be removed from his position? 4. What difference is there in the regulation affecting the appointment and tenure of teachers and those affecting the appointment and tenure of supervisory or executive officials in the schools of your country ? The replies received from the various countries are tabulated on the next page. From these data it is evident that indefinite teacher tenure with service during efficiency and good behavior is practically universal in the best school systems of Europe. No such policy as the "hire-and-fire" practice. common in many of our States, exists. Neither is there such a thing as From Research Bulletin of the National Education Association , Vol. 1, No. 4, September , 1922. 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SUMMARY OF PRACTICES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES Are Executives and Tenure Dismissal Supervisory Officers included? Germany Life For cause Yes Age retirement Denmark . Indefinite during For cause No data satisfactory serv- Age retirement ice, except in winter country schools Switzerland Differs in the sev- For cause No data eral cantons (Seldom occurs) Netherlands Indefinite For cause Apparently included Finland Unlimited after two For cause Yes years' probation Inefficiency after warning - crime or immorality without warning Norway Indefinite during For cause Yes satisfactory serv- Age retirement ice Sweden Indefinite after pro- For cause after No data bation warning with right of appeal Great Britain Indefinite For cause Yes Age retirement France Indefinite during For cause cases Yes satisfactory serv- rare ice a "yearly contract" plan of election for teachers. The profession in these respective countries in which illiteracy is very nearly abolished seems to be upon a very stable basis. It is to be noted that age retirement with pension seems almost universal; also that no distinction is made between executives, and supervisors, and teachers in tenure and dismissal provisions . Summary of argument-The argument for teacher tenure, then, is not merely the plea of teachers who feel they have been wronged, nor of groups of incompetents who are seeking to protect themselves in positions for which they are not fitted, nor yet of the militant body of a class conscious trade or professional group of workers. It is rather a necessity based upon the need of the American school system for a teaching profession which will call to its ranks the outstanding genius and leadership of American youth . It is the insistent demand of the most expert students of teaching condi- tions in the United States for the protection of the schools from the gravest REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 237 attack which threatens a public institution spending large amounts of money and affording the most fertile field for political exploitation. It is the plea of the American ideal of a public school system which will adequately meet the requirements of young America for a full and com- plete preparation for useful and happy living in a democratic society, preparation for which should come through the leadership of the best type of manhood and womanhood which America can produce as the teachers and guides of its youth. It is the children and the schools of America that ask for a stable and professional teaching body for our American school system. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS, REQUIRE- MENTS, AND CREDITS OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE JOSEPH ROSIER, PRESIDENT, FAIRMONT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, FAIR- MONT, WEST VIRGINIA, CHAIRMAN This committee having been appointed after the middle of the present school year has not deemed it advisable to undertake any widespread study and investigation of the problems which it has been asked to solve for the purpose of making a report at this meeting. A preliminary con- ference of a group of the members of the committee was held at Cincinnati. The chairman has also had a brief conference with the president and the Secretary of the Association concerning the work which they had in mind for the committee. It is felt that the situations to be dealt with by this committee involve the interest and welfare of the mass of elementary and high school teachers in the country and the normal schools and teachers' colleges where most of them receive their special training and preparation for their work. For this reason, the personnel of the committee has been made up largely of representatives from the classroom teachers of the country and those who have a part in formulating the policies of the teacher-training insti- tutions. There has been in recent years a national movement for raising the pro- fessional standards of teaching. Many State legislatures have enacted laws fixing both academic attainments and the professional requirements for those who are to be certificated for teaching in the public schools. Until recent years the great majority of the elementary teachers of the country has been certificated on a basis of formal examinations given under the auspices of State departments of schools and municipal and local educa- tional bodies. Under that system salaries were fixed on a basis of the grade of certificate which had been secured by the teacher in the examination taken. It came about that the primary emphasis during that period was 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION placed upon the passing of examinations in subjects prescribed by State legislatures and not upon any record of school training either in general academic courses or in those courses designed especially for the training of teachers. Within the last twenty years a widespread change has taken place. The formal examinations for teachers, as formerly conducted by various educational authorities, have gradually disappeared, and in their place has grown up the plan of certificating teachers for both elementary and high school work on a basis of work done in normal schools, teachers' colleges, and universities. With this development has come legislative enactments in many States which require all elementary teachers to reach certain academic and professional standards as measured by the completion of courses in educational institutions within certain fixed periods. This creates no difficult administrative problems as far as new teachers are concerned. The standard generally fixed for elementary teachers is a four-year high school course and two years of work in a normal school or teachers' college, and for high school teachers, graduation from a standard four-year college course with a certain number of credits in so-called pro- fessional subjects selected for the purpose of giving the teacher some special knowledge of educational work. Young men and women who graduate from our high schools, which exist in increasingly large numbers in all parts of the country, and who have practically free admission to the State-sup- ported teacher-training institutions, can easily meet these requirements. The first difficulty in this general movement for the raising of profes- sional standards is found in the deficiencies in academic and professional schooling of a great mass of elementary teachers in all parts of the country who started their teaching work years ago and who were certificated under the examination system. Many of these had no high school advantages in their youth but made the best use of the opportunities which they did have. In their teaching work many of them have proved incompetent and ineffi- cient and discontinued teaching or have been unable to continue because of their inability to secure positions. Many others, however, have shown com- mendable energy and have been careful students and have made growth and progress in all of those qualities that are desired in more efficient teachers. Because of their efficiency and honest devotion they have been employed and their services are appreciated by the public. This modern movement, however, has brought a certain measure of em- barrassment upon them because they are not able to show by the records that they can meet the academic and professional standards fixed for the young men and women that are going into the profession today. There is a widespread feeling throughout the country that it would be a distinct loss to the cause of elementary education for statutes to be enacted and stand- ards to be set up that would result in eliminating from the teaching serv- ice these men and women of long years and successful experience. Many of them have brought their attainments up to the new standard by attend ing summer schools and carrying on extension and correspondence work. Many others find it impracticable or impossible to carry on this sort of REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 239 work, with the result that they are not considered as applicants for positions in the more modern school systems and even in those localities where they may be employed they are paid salaries below those teachers who have met the recent academic and professional requirements. This creates a good deal of dissatisfaction among large groups of taxpayers who feel that the services of these older and more experienced teachers are more valuable to the community than are those of the younger element who have met all the academic and professional standards but lack the maturity and wisdom that are needed for the highest efficiency in educational work. Among those of us who stand for a higher standard of professional prepa- ration for teaching there can be nothing but condemnation for any move- ment which would retard the growth and development of the teaching profession. While we stand firmly in this position, we must not overlook the fact that the public with which we deal takes a practical view of the matter of teaching service and this public cannot always understand why the professional standing and prestige of a teacher of long service should be discounted while a new high school and normal school graduate with no philosophic outlook on life and no very definite professional aims should be given higher recognition in positions and in salary. The chairman de- sires to say that in one State with which he is best acquainted a serious educational reaction in a recent legislature was narrowly averted and one of the causes was found in dissatisfaction among public school patrons who happened to be members of the legislature, with the movement of recent years to place teachers who have complied with the modern academic and professional requirements in a place of advantage in regard to positions and salaries. The chairman is also informed from other sources that there is dissatisfaction in many parts of the country with the practical operation of the laws designed to raise the standards of teaching on account of burden- some requirements of teachers in service. The problem of teacher-training institutions and administrative author- ities seems to be one of getting an adjustment which will fix the highest possible standards for all new teachers coming into the profession and which will provide some flexible means by which men and women of long service but lacking records of normal school credits may be saved to the teaching service in such a way that they will not feel discredited or humil- iated while working in association with the younger members of the pro- fession. This commttee proposes to gather information concerning the prac- tice in dealing with this problem in all of the States of the Union. It is our plan to find out on what basis teachers are certificated with a practical study of all certification for elementary and high school teaching that is based upon school credits. This will involve a consideration of the whole move- ment for the improvement of teachers in service through the reading circle course, correspondence work, extension classes, and summer school attend- ance. It must also deal with the problem of measuring growth and im- provement of teachers through experience. It has already been discovered that there is a decided aversion in all academic and teacher-training circles 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatION to attempts to solve this problem. In most places, it has been solved by avoiding it. In some few institutions and States there are legislative enact- ments and State board regulations which give some recognition in the way of salary increases and professional advancement to teachers on a basis of experience. In some other places, there are State requirements making it obligatory for normal schools to accept for credit work done in teachers' reading circles under the auspices of State departments of schools. We realize that there are many difficult problems connected with all of this modern movement for the advancement of the teaching profession, and the President of the Association has indicated to the chairman that he feels that the questions which are here raised must be very generally met by the normal schools and teachers' colleges of the country and that they must be dealt with in a fair and liberal manner. The chairman is of the opinion that any movement for advancing the profession of teaching which creates a spirit of reaction among those to be served will, in the long run, retard rather than develop the profession. Another problem which has appeared in connection with this proposed study is the almost universal movement among administrative authorities in the country to impose various requirements upon teachers in the service for continuing professional growth. It is quite generally expected that practically all those engaged in the work of teaching ought to continue their growth without compulsion, and it is also felt that, when teachers in any school system or educational institution do not, of their own accord, choose to continue their professional advancement, those in authority may properly fix certain requirements in the way of professional study or school attendance. This committee proposes to make a nation-wide study of what is being required of teachers in the service in the States and in the larger city school systems where teachers who have entered the service have already met the standards generally fixed, but who are still required to continue their studies. The chairman has been informed by those who have given some study to this situation that there is a general feeling among teachers in the country that such requirements are becoming onerous and, on the other hand, that when they enter our teachers' colleges and uni- versities for degrees, this work which has been done under the direc- tion of administrative authorities receives no recognition in the way of credit. There is a feeling that in some way there ought to be a closer cor- relation between the courses of training in our teachers' colleges and the educational studies and investigations which are carried on by teachers in different parts of the country under the direction of administrative author- ities. This committee proposes to gather data from different parts of the country concerning the requirements in the way of educational investiga- tion and study that are being made of teachers in the service. It proposes also to find out whether the teachers' colleges and universities of the coun- try are giving any recognition to this sort of work in the way of school credit when teachers doing such work in these institutions are candidates for advanced degrees. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 241 Since it appears that teachers in nearly all of the States in the Union are certificated on a basis of school credits, this committee proposes to make a broad study of the systems of credits that prevail in the different States. Your chairman, as the head of a teacher-training institution, has had con- siderable contact in recent years with different State departments of educa- tion concerning the certification of the credits of his institution. He finds that this is a problem with which the head of practically every large teacher- training institution must deal. The little investigation which has been made shows that there is slight uniformity in the system of credits in use in differ- ent parts of the country and that much injustice grows out of the applica- tion of the laws of certification as they operate with teachers who leave their native States. The chairman of this committee believes that a wide study of the plans used in the States of the Union for certificating teachers who are not residents of the State, but who have met the standard requirements of the States where they were residents, and have been certificated by their own State departments, should be made. The chairman of the committee has just briefly indicated a few of the main problems which should be studied and about which information should be gathered. No doubt in- formation on many related problems will also accumulate as the main studies are pursued. It is the opinion of the chairman that the work of the committee should be confined mainly to a wide study of the problems which have been indicated. For this purpose it is recommended that the committee be continued for the coming year. THE COMMITTEE ON ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION SARAH T. MUIR, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, LINCOLN , NEBRASKA CHAIRMAN To fortify those teachers who already have a professional code of ethics and who live by it; to furnish a touchstone for those not yet sure of their standard; to inform society what teachers themselves consider to be suitable rules of conduct for those who teach; these seem principles of sufficient weight to justify the president, Jesse H. Newlon, in his appointment of a committee of fifty-six to formulate a code of ethics for the National Education Association. There are some persons who believe that no codes are of any avail, some who feel that teachers especially must be guided by some inner light. The latter argue that to put into cold type standards of conduct is beneath the dignity of a real teacher. One member of the committee after consulting with a number of "hard-headed, experienced members of the faculty" had a response sufficient to deter her from any attempt at the formation of a code. She wrote this as her conclusion, "A personal code is the only one that functions as a corrective, and such a code is developed from within- all others are dead." 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This feeling may be held to a considerable extent among teachers. If such a situation exists, it would seem that one of the duties of this com- mittee is to show that: 1. Having a lofty personal code oneself does not insure that every teacher can be counted on to be actuated by similarly high sources of action, and the profession is judged by all and not by the majority of its members. 2. Those lay members of the educational army-school and college board members-may not, by reason of their choice from various callings not remotely concerned with teaching, be capable of understanding an un- written code. 3. The community may not be in position to appreciate standards of conduct which it does not understand, but will help to enforce moral laws when it does understand them. 4. That so much talk has been expended of late in directing teachers to "sell their wares" that niceties of professional decorum are likely to fall into decay in the coming crop of new teachers. The best advertiser may pass for the best teacher. There is good tradition behind the formation of codes in both professions and trades. Every one knows the stern rules which for centuries have bound the physician. The legal code is recognized and respected. Of late, one reads increasingly of the journalist's code. Half a dozen recent at- tempts by newspapers to segregate or to minimize crime news is one of the practical outcomes of a desire to lift the level of the dailies and of their readers . That the mass of teachers are beginning to feel a desire and need for a formulated code is evidenced by the considerable number of State codes now in print. These are being examined by members of this committee. Granting that a code of some sort is needed, what shall be its nature ? Should it be definite or inspirational ? Members of the committee rather lean to the drawing up of concrete, tangible guides to conduct. An admir- able book which I have at hand by Edgar L. Heermance, prints in full a wide variety of codes from all manner of professions and trades. These usually include a list of acts deemed unprofessional by the members of the association concerned. A somewhat unexpected degree of exactness is to be found in the code of the national association of hat manufacturers. Under the sub-title, "Rules of Conduct to Cover Certain Well-Known Violations of Ethical Practice," occurs this statement: "We deplore practices of certain concerns and their salesmen who offer bootleg liquor to their customers and urge the discontinuance of this practice." It is presumed that nothing so modern or so specific as bootleg whiskey need figure in the contemplated teachers' code, but should it be merely what is commonly called "inspirational" ? Is it not entirely probable that one of the great puzzles of our day-namely, financing education- may be due to these lofty, intangible visions which comfort the taxpayer, be- cause they let him believe that teachers expect no reward except that of duty well done? REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 243 I must confess to a little skepticism about the honesty of the prayer of the Virginia State teachers who make this their first pledge of faith : ... "if our lives are to be immortal here and count in the great contests of the future, it must be so, it can be so, only through our pupils." Can it be a pedagogical sin to be a definite personality in and of oneself ? Is not some such statement as that which appears in the Michigan code salutary because of its definiteness? "It is unprofessional for a teacher to sign a yearly contract to teach for a wage that is not sufficient to cover living expenses for twelve months." The Pennsylvania code is more specific in its wage demand even than this, but it is not so caustic. Numerous teachers' codes speak of commissions of professional ethics operative under State associations. Before this tribunal are brought offend- ers. How practicable this is the committee has as yet taken no steps to de- termine. A considerable number of illustrations of violations of good ethics came from the members. A number deplored the lack of such a commission. Is a judgment seat a necessary concomitant of the formation of a code ? If so, will it have arms to reach out for all offenders-laymen as well as members of the profession ? Having sketched in thus roughly the field which this committee has not as yet begun to till, some details of procedure seem to be in order. The plan for the future, as suggested by the members scattered over the conti- nent, includes the study of all available codes of groups within and with- out the teaching profession. The national code, to be drawn up in rough shape, will be submitted to selected persons and groups-teachers' organiza- tions, members of Rotary Clubs and of school boards, professional men with well-established codes, and, perhaps, tradesmen. It is hoped that at last a form will be evolved which adequately expresses the beliefs of the real teacher. The chairman of this committee who was delayed in starting work takes now the opportunity of thanking the members who responded with generous offerings and suggestions to a letter sent out only last month . The answers were so filled with suggestions, material, and expert testimony that it seems reasonable to promise a more nearly complete report in the future. 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN The Legislative Commission was authorized at the Salt Lake City meet- ing in 1920 to promote the bill outlined by the Committee on the Emer- gency in Education, which had been appointed in March, 1918. The Commission has been reappointed regularly since and is in charge of the Association's legislative program. For its reports, see Proceedings 1921 : 159-163 ; 1922 : 305-12 ; 1923 : 397-99; 1924: 254-65; text of Education Bill, 1924 : 1033-40; text of New Education Bill, see index of this volume. Your Legislative Commission worked most earnestly during the last session of Congress to have the Education Bill, then pending, reported out by the committees of the House and of the Senate. The Legislative Sec- retary of the National Education Association, Miss Charl Ormond Wil- liams, obtained the active coöperation of the representatives of twenty-one other national organizations supporting the measure. Even with their combined interest and support, it was not possible to secure action by Con- gress. That we were not able to get a report from either committee throws considerable light upon the present legislative situation. In view of this situation, the Commission voted at a meeting held in Cincinnati in Feb- ruary to propose a Bill creating a Department of Education, but omitting appropriations other than those necessary for carrying on the work of the Department. Abill for the reorganization of executive departments was before Con- gress at its last session, but it was not acted upon. This bill provided for the creation of a Department of Education and Relief. According to the terms of the bill, this department was to include the activities of the Fed- eral Government in the field of education, health, and veteran relief. Had it been passed, it might reasonably have been proposed that progress had been made in the direction of establishing a Department of Education. How- ever, members of the Legislative Commission and our legislative representa- tivemade clear to the leaders in the Senate and in the House of Representa- tives that we would work for the separation of education from the Depart- ment of Education and Relief should the bill creating this department be- come a law. It would be unfortunate to have education included in a department which had the responsibility for veteran relief. This governmental activity would, of necessity, absorb the time and attention as well as an overwhelm- ingly large proportion of whatever money might be devoted to the pro- posed department. It would seem almost inevitable that such a department should be primarily a department of pensions and relief and only secondar- ily of education and health. The fact that Congress did not pass the bill to reorganize executive departments leaves us in a situation in which it seems entirely reasonable to propose the creation of a Department of Edu- cation without reference to the reorganization plan. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 245 At the meeting of the Legislative Commission held in Cincinnati in February, the chairman was authorized to invite members of the Commis- sion and other educators interested in the creation of a Department of Education to meet in Washington at an early date in order to prepare the draft of a bill to create a Department of Education and to provide adequate support for its work. This conference met at the headquarters of the National Education Association in Washington on March 7. There were in attendance members of the Legislative Commission and others, some of whom had been opposed to the appropriation feature of the bill which we have been supporting. As a result of their deliberations, a bill was drafted which has been submitted to members of the profession and to laymen interested in the creation of a Department of Education throughout the country. A special conference of State and city superintendents of schools, normal school and college presidents, teachers and principals of schools and others interested in the Education Bill was held on Monday, May 25. As a re- sult of the deliberations of this group, a tentative draft of a bill has been prepared and is before you for consideration. Your Legislative Commission is convinced that in the bill to be presented before the next session of Congress, emphasis should be placed upon the function of the Department of Education as an agency for the conducting of investigations and for the dissemination of information. A department developed along these lines is in accord with the position of the President of the United States as expressed in his address before the National Educa- tion Association at its meeting last July. It will be recalled that at that time he proposed that, "The cause of education has been regarded as so important and so preeminently an American cause that the National Gov- ernment has sought to encourage it, scientifically to investigate its needs, and to furnish information and advice for its constant advancement. Pend-. ing before Congress is the report of a committee which proposes to establish a Department of Education and Relief to be presided over by a cabinet officer. Bearing in mind that this does not mean any interference with local control, but is rather an attempt to recognize and dignify the im- portance of educational effort, such proposal has my hearty endorsement and support." We hope that the President and the Congress of the United States may be willing to recognize education and to give it a place in the councils of the Nation, such as is already enjoyed by agriculture, labor, and commerce. These welfare departments of our National Government are primarily con- cerned with scientific investigation and with the dissemination of the re- sults of such inquiries. Surely, education is not less significant to the life of the Nation, nor less worthy of recognition in the cabinet of the President . Your Commission proposes, as well, that in the creation of the Depart- ment of Education adequate funds be provided for the conduct of the work which should be undertaken. A careful study of the cost of investigations undertaken on a nation-wide basis, together with the supposition that the 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION whole field of education should be covered during a period not to exceed ten years, leads us to recommend that an appropriation of $ 1,500,000 annually be made for the work of the department. This sum is in addition to moneys now available to the U. S. Bureau of Education and to other divisions of the Government which may be transferred to the Department of Education. The amount of money that it is proposed to appropriate is extremely small in relation to the results which may be legitimately hoped for as a result of the investigations undertaken by the Department. In the field of school building alone, it is apparent to one acquainted with the present situation in the United States that tens of millions of dollars could be saved were the result of adequate investigations concerning the planning and construction of school buildings made available to boards of education throughout the nation. In the organization of schools and in the classifica- cation of pupils, inquiries undertaken on a national scale would make pos- sible to local communities, and even more significantly to the pupils en- rolled in our schools, savings that would amount in any one year to many times the total charge for the work of the department. In like manner, investigations having to do with the financing of education, the develop- ment of courses of study and curricula which would more adequately pre- pare children for participation in our modern social life, present possibili- ties of saving and of adding to the assets of the community of amounts that are so large as to be almost impossible of estimate. The Legislative Commission is convinced that the program which we are proposing is worthy of the support of every member of our profession. The bill which will be presented to Congress will ask that in creating a Department of Education, the Nation recognize the unsurpassed impor- tance of education in our national life. In proposing support for investiga- tion, we are asking that the National Government make it possible for all of us, wherever we work, to render more efficient service. Our appeal is an unselfish one. We know that we will have the cordial coöperation and support of large bodies of laymen. We hope that it may be possible to bring the matter so clearly to the attention of Congress that action will be taken by that body with the conviction that to carry into effect our pro- posals is to promote the general welfare. A tentative draft of the Education Bill as presented at Indianapolis, Indiana, July 2, 1925, follows : A PROPOSAL FOR A BILL To create a Department of Education and for other purposes . Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there is established at the seat of Govern- ment an executive department to be known as the Department of Education, which shall be under the control and direction of a Secretary of Education to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Section 158 of the Revised Statutes is amended to include the Department of Education and the provisions of Title IV of the Revised Statutes, including all amendments thereto. shall be applicable to the department. The Secretary of Education shall cause a seal of office to be made for the Department of Education of such device as the President shall approve, and judicial notice shall be taken thereof. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 247 SEC. 2. There shall be in the Department of Education an Assistant Secretary of Education, to be appointed by the President, and to receive a salary of $10,000. per annum. The Assistant Secretary shall perform such duties as may be pre- scribed by the Secretary of Education or required by law. There shall also be a solicitor, a chief clerk, and a disbursing clerk, and such chiefs of bureaus and such scientific, technical, and clerical assistants as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act and as may be provided for by Congress from time to time. SEC. 3. ( a) The Bureau of Education and all pertaining thereto is transferred from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Education. (b) The office of Commissioner of Education is abolished, and the authority, powers, and duties heretofore conferred and imposed by law upon the Commis- sioner of Education shall be exercised and performed by the Secretary of Education. (c) The Federal Board for Vocational Education is transferred to the Depart- ment of Education, and all the authority, powers, and duties heretofore conferred or imposed by law upon the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall be exercised and performed by the Board as a division of the Department of Educa- tion. The Assistant Secretary of Education shall be ex-officio a director of the Vocational Education and ex officio chairman of said Board. (d) The authority, powers, and duties conferred and imposed by law upon the Secretary of the Interior with relation to the Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Howard University, shall be exercised and performed by the Secretary of Educa- tion. The Assistant Secretary of Education shall be ex officio a director of the Columbia Institution for the Deaf, in addition to the directors whose appointment has heretofore been provided by law. SEC. 4 ( a) Except as otherwise provided by this Act, all authority, powers, and duties held, exercised, and performed by the head of any executive department in and over any bureau, office, or branch of the Government which is by this Act transferred to the Department of Education, or which is abolished by this Act and its authority, powers, and duties transferred to the Department of Education, or in and over any business arising therefrom or pertaining thereto, or in relation to the duties performed by and authority conferred by law upon such bureau, office, or branch of the Government, whether of an appellate or revisory character or otherwise, shall be vested in and exercised and performed by the Secretary of Education. (b) All orders, rules, regulations, and permits or other privileges, which have been issued or granted by any bureau, office, or branch of the Government which is transferred under the provisions of this Act to the Department of Education, or which is abolished and its authority, powers, and duties transferred to the De- partment of Education, and which are in effect at the time of the transfer, shall, after the transfer, so far as they are not in conflict with the provisions of this Act, continue in effect to the same extent as if the transfer had not occurred, until modified, superseded, or repealed by the Secretary of Education. SEC. 5. All officers, clerks, and employees employed in or by any office, bureau, or branch of the Government, transferred in accordance with the provisions of this Act to the Department of Education, are each and all transferred to the Department of Education without change in classification or compensation ; and the office records and papers on file pertaining exclusively to the business of any such office, bureau, or branch of the Government so transferred, together with the furniture and equipment thereof, are transferred to the Department of Education. SEC. 6. The Secretary of Education shall have charge in the buildings and premises occupied by or assigned to the Department of Education, of the library, furniture, fixtures, records, and other property pertaining to the Department or hereafter acquired for use in its business. Until other quarters are provided, the Department of Education may occupy the buildings and premises occupied by the bureaus, offices, and branches of the Government which are by this Act trans- ferred to or included in the Department of Education. 248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SEC. 7. In order to coördinate the educational activities carried on by the several executive departments, and to devise ways and means of improving the educational work of the Federal Government, there is hereby created The Federal Conference on Education which shall consist of one representative and one alternate appointed by the head of each department. The Federal Conference on Education shall not report as a body to any one department, but each representative shall report the findings of The Federal Conference on Education to his own department for con- sideration and independent action. SEC. 8. ( a) The Department of Education shall collect such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and in foreign countries. In order to aid the people of the several States in establishing and maintaining more efficient schools and school systems, in devising better methods of organization, administration and financing of education, in developing better types of school buildings and in providing for their use, in improving methods of teaching, and in developing more adequate curricula and courses of study, research shall be undertaken in ( 1) rural education; (2) elementary educa- tion; ( 3 ) secondary education; (4) higher education ; ( 5 ) professional education; ( 6) physical education, including health education and recreation ; ( 7) the training of teachers ; ( 8 ) immigrant education ; (9) adult education ; and ( 10) such other fields as in the judgment of the Secretary of Education may require attention and study. (b) The Department shall make available to educational officers in the several States and to other persons interested in education, the results of the research and investigations conducted by it, and the funds appropriated for printing and binding for the Department of Education shall be available for the printing and binding of the results of such research and investigations. SEC. 9. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1926, and annually thereafter, the sum of $1,500,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby authorized to be appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to the Department of Education, for the purpose of paying salaries and conducting of studies and investigations, the paying of incidental and traveling expenses incurred in connection with the investigations or inquiries undertaken by the Department and law books, books of reference and periodicals, and the paying of rent where necessary, and for such other purposes as may be necessary to enable the Department of Education to carry out the provisions of this Act. All unex- pended appropriations which shall be available at the time when this Act takes effect in relation to the various bureaus, offices, and branches of the Government which are by this Act transferred to or included in the Department of Education, or which are abolished by this Act, and their authority, powers, and duties trans- ferred to the Department of Education, shall become available for expenditure by the Department of Education and shall be treated the same as if such bureaus, offices, and branches of the Government had been directly named in the laws making the appropriations as part of the Department of Education. SEC. 10. The Secretary of Education shall annually, at the close of each fiscal year, make a report in writing to Congress giving an account of all moneys received and disbursed by the Department of Education and describing the work done by the Department, and shall at the same time make such recommendations to Congress as will, in his judgment, improve public education in the United States . He shall also from time to time make such special investigations and reports as may be required of him by the President or by either House of Congress or as he himself may deem necessary and urgent. SEC. 11. This Act shall take effect thirty days after its passage, except that the provisions of this Act in relation to the transfer of any agency from the jurisdiction and control of one officer to the jurisdiction and control of another, or in relation to the transfer of authority, powers, and duties from one officer or agency to another, shall take effect July 1, 1926. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 249 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COMMUNITY RELATIONS GEORGE E. CARROTHERS, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, OHIO UNIVERSITY ATHENS, OHIO, CHAIRMAN The Committee was appointed in January, 1925, and held its first meet- ing at Cincinnati, February 24, 1925. The initial work undertaken was that of delimiting its field. There is such a variety of ways in which public school systems are now touching their environing neighborhoods other than through the formal instruction of day pupils that this task was of paramount importance. Since the members of the Committee represent different spheres of educational endeavor, it was necessary to obtain a com- mon understanding of the scope of our deliberations and a common view- point from which to attack our objectives. Once the scope of community relations is outlined it becomes possible to define the problems in this field and to determine the methods for facilitating their solution. These con- siderations furnish the three heads under which this report is presented : I. The scope of community relations II. The problems before the Committee III. Its methods for attacking them I. SCOPE The activities other than formal instruction now going on in public schools may be classified as follows : 1. Use of school buildings by outside groups 2. Organized activities administered by school officials for individuals and groups outside of the pupil body 3. Curricular undertakings having relations with local community activi- ties. Under the first head are comprised the letting of facilities to such bodies as home and school associations, civic clubs, athletic and dramatic organiza- tions, and miscellaneous societies for cultural, recreational, or social pur- poses. Under this head belong also political meetings, use of school build- ings as polling places and distributing stations in time of local or national emergency . Under the second head come social, community, civic, or recreational centers (all names are used) , courses of public lectures, and systematic programs with either a recreational, cultural, or civic content. The curricular undertakings referred to under the third head are "social studies," which involve projects and inquiries based upon neighborhood life. Many of these new courses in civics, geography, and English deal with local affairs and for their successful prosecution require coöperation with community organizations. To that extent, that they do touch local bodies, they come within the field of community relations. It is difficult to obtain accurate data upon the bulk of the first two forms of community use of public schools. In most systems where the 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION two classes prevail, they are more or less mixed in the same buildings The Yearbook Number of The Playground, published in April, 1925, by thePlayground and RecreationAssociation ofAmerica, gives the following dataas to the number ofschools usedin 1924 as evening recreation centers: TABLE 1-School buildings used as evening recreation centers 1923 1924 Cities reporting ---- 196 219 Buildings used.. 1127 1389 Thesefiguresindicate that nearly 1,400 school buildings are locally used for organized play, games, and sports after school and during the evening. The number of school buildings that are also used for entertainments, publiclectures, and as meeting places of local associations undoubtedly ex- ceeds this number. Additional light is thrown upon the quantitative aspects of this subject by astudynow being carried on by Mrs. Eleanor Glueck, in cooperation with the National Community Center Association and the United States Bureau of Education. A questionnaire was sent to some 8,000 school superintendents in counties, cities, and towns. Returns from about half ofthese school officials reveal these significant figures: Cities of over 5,000 population to the number of 141 reported 608 school centers, while 268 places of under 5,000 population reported 312 centers a total of 920. Howthe various lines of activity bulk inthese schools is shown in Table 2 : TABLE 2. -Lines of activity in 920 school centers reported by 409 cities Number of centers re- Activity porting specified activity Night School 195 Lectures 286 Entertainments (concerts, etc.) 465 Societymeetings (adult) such as taxpayers' or parent-teacher association 456 Civic occasions, mass meetings, public discussions--------- 221 Athletics, gymnastics, bathing, active games, or folk dancing 687 Clubs (social, athletic, etc.) or groups (musical, handicraft, etc.) 467 Rooms open for quiet games, reading, or study 148 Dancing (social) 250 Social occasions (parties, banquets, etc.) 308 Coöperative enterprises 102 The above figures do not give information as to the number of schools in which there are, for example, public lectures. They simply show for these 920 school centers the relative frequency of the various lines of activ- ity. Thus it appears that those of leading importance are athletics, clubs, and the use of schools for meetings of societies . Some information regard- ing the frequency with which these school centers are open during their season (usually the winter months) is shown in Tables 3 and 4. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 251 TABLE 3. -Evenings per week school centers are open in 312 centers in towns under 5,000 Evenings open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of centers 129 72 48 17 36 6 4 TABLE 4. -Evenings per week school centers are open in 608 centers in towns over 5,000 Evenings open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of centers 73 121 113 120 138 37 6 As would be expected in the smaller cities, most centers are open once a week while in the larger cities the activities are more fully organized , centers are often open five times a week, those open two, three, and four times a week being respectively a little less numerous. These figures do not, of course, reveal the total amount of the activity that comes within the scope of the Committee's interest, but they are suffi- cient to substantiate the claim that we are not dealing with theory and speculation but matters of serious de facto importance. Naturally, a development of such a varied and uneven, but neverthless vigorous, char- acter could not proceed without the outcropping of problems. II . PROBLEMS The activities just enumerated reflect the originality and enterprise of progressive school systems. The individuals promoting them believe in them as beneficial social activities. If they are educational processes, or contribute to purposes for which educational systems are maintained, they are worthy of Nation-wide adoption. If it is wise to utilize the marginal capacity of school edifices to afford recreational opportunities for youths and educational extension courses for adults in one city, it is wise-in princi- ple-to do the same in all American cities. If there is an educational re- sult achieved by allowing a young people's dramatic club to hold pay- admission performances in the school assembly halls of one city, then the same practice would produce beneficial results in other cities and those authorities which prohibit it are not realizing the full measure of their opportunities. Progress in education, if it is to be even throughout the country, requires the gradual smoothing out of local differences and the achievement of new national levels by bringing the backward systems up to the standards of those more advanced. Sometimes it is accomplished by cropping off the freakish sproutings of those which have had a hothouse growth. In any case, progress can only be made by the wise solution of problems such as those described, and it is the desirability of efforts toward that end which constitutes the raison d'être of this Committee. The following is an illustrative list of questions which constitute problems in the field of "community relations" : Educational policy as respects community-use-From the standpoint of school authorities, are school centers and other wider-use activities forms 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of educational activity? Is it justifiable to use funds appropriated for edu- cational purposes in the maintenance of these activities ? Should the utili- zation of school edifices after class hours be justified as an expedient measure for obtaining public support or as a more efficient discharge of educational obligations on the part of school trustees ? What legislative changes are required to complete the legal basis for community use activ- ities? Use of school buildings by outside groups-What societies should have free use of school accommodations and which should be required to pay cost fees ? Should any facilities be let for a profitable fee ? To what ex- tent can school auditoriums become free-speech forums ? Shall school buildings be let for occasions at which admission fees are charged and under what conditions ? Is the raising of money by entertainments an educational process for certain groups ? Administration of school centers-What should be the chief elements of the school center program ? Should there be a special staff under civil service regulations, or should teachers be allowed to give part-time service ? What relation should the school recreation center have to the physical training work of the day school ? What is the best administrative pro- cedure for supervising local groups which use school facilities ? Relation of the principal to after-class activities-What function should the principal perform in respect to lettings, the school center staff, and co- operation with local groups, such as home and school associations ? What attitude should he take towards community work on the part of his teachers ? The teacher's relationship to community use-Has she a professional duty in this field ? Should she give time to parent-teacher organizations ? Should teachers with an aptitude for community work be officially encour- aged in such activity ? Has the rural teacher a different rôle to play in community endeavors ? The planning of school edifices for community- use-What is the best type of building and what facilities should be provided ? Should the com- munity quarters have separate entrances ? What sort of yard equipment should a school center possess ? III . METHODS This Committee does not pretend to have the answers to the above ques- tions. It knows of nobody who does have them. What it can do is to facilitate the gathering of the information that is required for fact-basis dis- cussions and help to formulate policies which embody the best thought of the educational profession . The Committee will hold a second meeting at Indianapolis, at which time it will receive the reports of sub-committees assigned to the formula- tion of policies in four of the problem subjects listed above. If the Com- mittee finds itself able to agree upon any of the drafts of policies reported, these will be submitted to the Representative Assembly at that time with the recommendation that they be adopted as embodying the consensus of REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 253 opinion of the Association. If it is found that the subjects assigned to these sub-committees require longer study they will be covered in a future re- port-provided the Committee is continued long enough to achieve that end. With a view to securing assistance upon the projects of the Committee, a circular letter was recently addressed to 185 city and county superintend- ents who were reported to have school centers under their jurisdiction. The replies showed great interest in this subject and 67 officials indicated their willingness to work with the Committee. Plans are under way for utilizing these most valuable assets of knowledge and interest during the coming year. It is recommeded that (1) the Committee be reappointed for next year with power to add to its membership from the rolls of the Association and (2) an appropriation be made for stationery and postage. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON CO-INCLUSIVE MEMBERSHIP OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ARTHUR L. MARSH, WASHINGTON EDUCATION ASSOCIATION , SEATTLE WASHINGTON, ACTING CHAIRMAN In the absence of the chairman of the committee, Thomas J. Walker, who is now on his way to Edinburgh to attend the World Conference on Education, the acting chairman of the committee submits the following brief report of the activities of the committee : The sub-committee, which the whole committee authorized at its meeting on February 24 at Cincinnati, met at the Sinton Hotel on February 25. There were present Miss Mary Mooney of San Francisco, Arthur L. Marsh of Seattle, Ernest T. Cameron of Lansing, Michigan, and the chairman Macy Camp- bell of Cedar Falls, Iowa and Miss Cornelia S. Adair of Richmond, Virginia being absent. Nearly two hours were spent in discussion. The importance of the problem, its intricacies and its difficulties were recognized by each member of the committee. All agreed that the task is one which cannot be done hastily and one which will require careful study, calm deliberation and the widest possible coöperation from all individuals and each group. The following preliminary program was agreed upon : (1) That a body of information regarding the present plan of organization, its possibilities and its limitations be gathered by a small committee and distributed to the entire membership of the committee. (2) That on the basis of this information the committee get expressions and suggestions from State groups, i. e., groups representing various State associations through their officers and executive committees. (3) That similarly, expressions and suggestions be obtained from the Executive Committee and officers of the National Education Association. The sentiment of the whole committee seemed to be about as follows : (1) Any co-inclusive membership plan must look to the welfare of both the state and national associations . 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (2) That it must be broadly professional and representative. (3) That while there is no immediate crisis as is evidenced by the present prosperity of the National Education Association and the various State associa- tions, there is a real and genuine professional need for organic and fundamental coöperation between the various State associations, as such, and the National Education Association so that a professional membership in one includes a mem- bership in the other also. The committee met in Indianapolis on June 30th, 1925, with about twenty mem- bers present. In view of the absence of the chairman and the failure of the mails to deliver instructions sent by the chairman for consideration of the committee, the time was spent in general discussion of the outstanding problems encountered. It was the consensus of opinion of the members present that the problems of pro- posed co-inclusive membership were much more involved and more difficult than originally anticipated and that it would be impossible to submit a final report to the 1925 Representative Assembly. By action of the committee the acting chairman was authorized to report progress to the Representative Assembly and to express the hope that the committee might be continued for completion of the investigations that have been begun. Hope is still entertained by the committee that positive and constructive sugges- tions can be submitted by the committee in its final report. REPORT OF THE COMMITTЕЕ ТО СОÖPERATE WITH THE AMERICAN SCHOOL CITIZENSHIP LEAGUE MRS . FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS , CHAIRMAN The Report of the Committee to Coöperate with the American School Citizenship League contains certain definite suggestions regarding The General Machinery for International Coöperation contained in A Plan of Education to Develop International Justice and Friendship, which won the Raphael Herman $25,000 Award, the author of the plan being David Starr Jordan . The Report consists of three parts : First-Suggestions relating to the section of the Plan designated : III. Special Arrangements for Training Youth in World Amity; second-Other suggestions for training youth in world amity, not included in the Plan; third-Recommendations to the Biennial Conference of the World Federation of Education Associations . PART I. SUGGESTIONS RELATING TO THE SECTION OF THE PLAN DESIGNATED III- SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR TRAINING YOUTH IN WORLD AMITY Of the special arrangements mentioned in the Jordan Plan, the Com- mittee endorses : 1. "Correspondence between the youth of nation and nation." The American School Citizenship League has for many years been conducting such correspondence as one of its chief activities, and the Committee ex- presses the hope that this and other supervised correspondence, such as that arranged by the Junior Red Cross, may be increased and extended to every part of the earth." 2. "International scholarships, exchange professorships, university de- Patriotism and Citizenship Outline in Course the .of Cycles Home School and Neighborhood and Town Nation The American United The The World Playground City Ideals States Grades I II III IV V VI VII VIII to Kindness Who my is The influence Sympathy and beginnings Our National Sept. playmates Sympathy neighbor ? home the of Pioneers courtesy Europe in characteristics Kindness to The influence The contribution The influence nation's Each Oct. animals Obedience Ways of service school the of of to each race Honesty on Europe of to contribu tion American life our history early world the Responsibility Care of public Government by to Courage The United States nations all " A bove Nov. for and care Helpfulness Perseverance property the people overcome Napoleonic in the is humanity cleanliness difficulties period health Public Dec. Making others Gratitude Hospitality public and P Unum E luribus Regard for European interest Interdependence happy charity the truth in America Spanish of nations Other homes Thoughtfulness Fire Police and Responsibility The United States and honor Justice Jan. Faithfulness ours than respect and Department of citizen each Reverence m -p for a ot elting nations between for authority races Kindness of Childhood of Fair and play Obedience to The influence of of war Effects Feb. men great men great unselfishness laws community Great Americans - control Self United States the nations between Africa on and Asia to Loyalty Regard civic for States United The as law of Growth Mar. Generosity Keeping one's Good work officials public Social service beauty American the and for agency an word continent - ill wgood promoting Kindness Helpfulness to Cheerfulness among will Good Thrift and States United The between Agreements April good by shown and feeble old the under and defeat of classes all Patriotism industry the world's and nations suffering citizens culture manners quarrels Avoiding among Peace Peace among Good -wamong ill Friendship States United The conferences World May peace making and children the neighbors all communities with other Heroes of peace world and world to leading nations brotherhood federation and Protection How we can can we How The working ideals American of be we can How June plants of care together The Working Rule Golden our help our serve of members to be yet the in service flowers and communities country society achieved family world 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION partments of international relations" as "active agencies for better under- standing. " All of these are now in operation, and the Committee expresses the hope that in all these directions there will be substantial increases from year to year. The Committee notes with great satisfaction the recently organized foundations providing for international scholarships and univer- sity departments of international relations. 3. Orations. The Committee would like to see the complete program of the Intercollegiate Peace Association Oratorical Contests, carried on before the war, re-established and extended to all colleges and universities. The Committee regards the orations of the Intercollegiate Peace Associa- tion delivered each year in the final contest at the Lake Mohonk Conference on International Arbitration as of exceptionally high order. Interscholastic oratorical contests among secondary schools, similar in character to those carried on by the American School Citizenship League before the war, when the final orations were given at the annual meeting of the American School Citizenship League, would meet with the heartiest approval of the Committee. The Committee would be glad to see the extension of the present state oratorical contests to inter-state contests, and suggests that through the side of the United States, each country could select its own literature and selection of subjects relating to international problems, an opportunity would be given to develop a knowledge of international affairs and a sym- pathy for other nations. These inter-state contests might well be extended, as the Plan suggests, to an international contest. 4. Essays. The Committee heartily approves of the World Essay Con- test, open to schools of all countries, carried on for the past seventeen years by the American School Citizenship League. The Committee recog- nizes the value of such a contest in stimulating a serious study of world relationships. Many nations have been represented in the contest and a number of prizes have been given to foreign students, while practically all the States of the Union are represented each year. The Committee especi- ally recommends that the writing of these essays form a regular part of the school work and that the best essay of each school be sent to the judges awarding the prizes the method now in operation in many schools at the present time. The Committee endorses the plan of having national judges in all competing countries and a special group for the final decision. As the World Essay Contest is conducted by the American School Citizenship League, the American judges have taken the final responsibility of judging the best essays sent in from the various competing countries. The Committee heartily agrees with the idea, expressed in the Plan, that the importance of these oratorical and essay contests "lies in the education of the coming generation, and incidentally that of their parents and friends," and that "similar studies, taken seriously, would give the young people of the Nation or of the world a background of knowledge and mutual understanding which might be of inestimable value in any future crisis of civilization." REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 257 The following subjects stipulated for the present year in the World Essay Contest indicate the truth of the above statement: For students in normal schools and teachers' colleges " Methods of Promoting World Friendship through Education." For seniors in secondary schools-" The Organization of the World for the Prevention of War ." PART II . OTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAINING YOUTH IN WORLD AMITY, NOT INCLUDED IN THE PLAN 1. The Committee recommends the universal observance in the schools ofWorld Good-Will Day (see Report of this Committee for last year) . 2. A Course of Study in Good-Will for the schools of every country. As an example of what such a course might be, the Committee recommends for consideration the course arranged by the American School Citizenship League, which is used in many schools of the United States. The Com- mittee expresses the belief that the main features of this course, which is published under the title, "A Course in Citizenship and Patriotism," could be adapted to the schools of all countries. When, however, the stories or other material used in teaching the principles contained in the Course of the American School Citizenship League is not appropriate for schools out- side of the United States, each country could select its own literature and its own devices for carrying out the general purpose of the course. In making the beginning of such adaptation, however, it has been found that much of the material appearing in the Course in Citizenship and Patriotism is equally appropriate for all countries. This illustrates the fact that the most human needs and hopes and problems are common to the whole world and that we are more alike than we are different, and that humanity is above all nations. On page 40 is an outline of the Course in Citizen- ship and Patriotism. The following statement by the editors of the Course in Citizenship and Patriotism gives in brief: (1) the plan of the course, (2) relation to the school curriculum. PLAN OF THE COURSE "Our theme is that of citizenship governed by good-will and expressed in service. We begin in Grade I with the home as a center. Through the year by story and poem and above all by definite suggestions for help- fulness, the teacher will strengthen the children's devotion to their family. In Grade II the school and playground are taken up. Both are of absorb- ing interest to little children and in both they need to see meanings and opportunities greater than they have appreciated. Already in concrete ways they can be shown how significant in our towns are the public schools, how much thought and money are spent for them, how year by year the schools point onward to new opportunities. In Grade III the children will be ready to take pleasure in recognizing and beginning to help the neighborhood that bounds their little world. The parable of the Good Samaritan told at the beginning of the year gives the keynote for neighbor- liness. 258 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION " In these first grades, the spirit of helpfulness and good-will is suggested through stories, poems, and deeds of kindness rather than by direct teach- ing about home, school, or neighborhood. In the fourth grade, boys and girls can begin to know what a town or city stands for and to see as parts of a whole its different departments: fire, police, health, charity, street, school, and government. The age of hunger for fact has arrived. We can take advantage of it and develop responsibility in respect to law and officials. "In Grade V we reach out to the nation as a whole. In every instance, we try to relate the historical struggles and achievements with the strug- gles and achievements of every-day life. When our subject is the heroic virtue of pioneers, we not only give examples from the brave deeds of early settlers, but show how every one of us is called on to be a pioneer in new courage, in advanced and difficult standards of honor, in self-forgetting loyalty. "Grade VI is also given to patriotism, because this is the central duty of citizenship. Without our homes and our country, we are but strangers on the earth. Until we love our country warmly and intelligently we are not fit to leave the public schools. The need of our time is, in Professor James's stirring words, "to inflame the civic temper." We can do it only by giving to the youth of our land clear, concrete, intimate knowledge of his country's history and by calling on him for his uttermost service. Grade VI accents American ideals: honesty, sympathy, courtesy, industry, courage, self-control, reverence, a sacred regard for the truth. "In Grade VII we show how the life of our Nation, from its beginning to the present day, has been closely interrelated with the great world move- ments. This study will point out to the pupil that even the most distant countries are closely linked to ours. We show also that a citizen of the United States, the melting-pot of the nations, has peculiar obligations in strengthening the ties of human brotherhood; that our national ideals can be realized only if we do our share in promoting the spirit of good-will . " In Grade VIII we point out each nation's contribution to the world's work: the acts of friendship, justice, and honor among nations which have drawn them together ; and the remarkable growth of agencies such as inter- national conferences, treaties, and the Hague Court of Arbitration, which are making the world one great family. We show the necessity for co- operation on the part of each and all. The course ends with suggestions as to how each one of us can link his individual life to the life of the whole through good-will and active service." RELATION TO THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM "This material can be used in many ways. We will suggest a few. 1. Morning exercises and talks-Probably the most frequent use of this course in citizenship will be in the morning exercises. In the stories, sug- gestions for talks, and the bibliography, every teacher will find treasures . Morning exercises may drop into drowsy routine; they may be significant REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 259 events in a school. This course gives an opportunity to use them for con- secutive and definite ends. Can we not, day by day and year by year, deepen a child's conception of his family, his city, and his nation-his human ties ? Citizenship is a cold word on lips ignorant of the fire at its heart, a dim word to eyes half closed. But follow the path of devoted citizens and patriots. Watch Clara Barton leaving home and friends to plunge gladly into hardship and horror in the flooded Ohio Valley; look at Lazeer gently and resolutely laying down his life in Cuba that yellow fever may be conquered forever. Patriotism is a word of perilous beauty. Trace back even a little way the efforts of valiant leaders to bless all people with free education, the march of the pioneer across a bewildering continent, the devotion of the scientist pressing through dark problems to the light of knowledge, the blood-stained toil of laborers in mines and tun- nels to make our progress swift, our lives secure, the fathers' struggle to give their children bread. Every advance has meant courage, sacrifice, coöperation. Thinking of these things, our gratitude rises with out- stretched hands claiming the right of service. 2. Reading and story-telling-Many teachers will like to associate the course in citizenship with reading, literature, and story-telling. In our extracts and references throughout this course, we mean to use literature that is beautiful, moving, and of lasting value. Tolstoy's story, 'Where Love is God is,' to take one instance, illustrates with rare vividness the blessings of kindness to our neighbors. Such stories may be used with great advantage as reading-lessons. All children love stories. We can use, for example, when teaching 'obedience,' the delightful story of 'Raggylug,' in Ernest Seton Thomp- son's Wild Animals I have Known, and every child in the class will drink it in, moral and all. A moral alone is sharp and bitter as salt without soup, but a moral shaken and stirred into a genuinely good story adds flavor that the child himself appreciates. 3. Dramatization-This plan can be of assistance in pageants, in plays, and in the celebration of anniversaries, birthdays of great men, and special occasions. Pictures, too, and, where available, the educational pictures of the biograph illustrating historical events and various forms of social serv- ice, can be used to make the lessons more vivid. 4. History and geography-The connection of this outline with history and geography will be clear when we glance at the plan from Grade V to Grade VIII. When the class is studying colonial history the heroic virtues of the early settlers will add appropriate stories. The subject of courage can be illustrated by the story of Daniel Boone and that of self-control by Washington's conduct after the disastrous defeat of St. Clair. Geography will be well remembered if it is lighted up by a study of racial character- istics and of national flags and songs. 5. Civics and citizenship-Throughout our course the accent on good citizenship is marked. In Grades IV and VI especially the outline will lend itself to lessons in citizenship, but the subject is never lost sight of 260 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and we believe that the material in definition and support of good citizen- ship will be of help to every teacher. Our Nation cannot afford to have indifferent, ignorant, prejudiced, or corrupt citizens. The inspiration of teaching leaps out of the hope of fanning a great flame of patriotism that shall burn all corruption from politics. Every child in our Nation be- longs in the teacher's care. If she can instill and inflame in him love and loyalty to his ties, she will have rescued and redeemed the Nation. 6. Ethical training-Some schools already have definite periods for moral lessons. To them this outline offers a progressive course and many concrete illustrations. Our plan has a single center, the increase of sym- pathy and good-will from year to year. There are no 'don'ts' in the foreground; it is positive and not negative, and above all, it dwells not on the self-conscious idea of virtue for its own sake, but on such loyalty to our actual ties as shall demand every inch of virtue we can acquire. All good ethical teaching will inevitably reach across from school to home and from home to school. The teacher aims to make the children more helpful, more sympathetic, more obedient at home as well as at school. Her lessons on hygiene and cleanliness should make the daily care of chil- dren easier for the parents; her constant exemplification of the spirit of helpfulness suggests to children what they can do to help at home. Our course aims directly to make vivid to children the value of their own homes and to help them see their homes as part of the working community. In carrying out the plan of this course, parents and teachers can join, the parents following at home and encouraging by home reading the develop- ment of good-will, which the teacher is strengthening at school. Unless ethical instruction passes into ethical action, it is worse than use- less. Therefore, this course has been planned to give opportunities both for action and training in grasping the principles of right-doing. The spirit of good-will grows by service. In every grade we suggest special forms of helpfulness suited to the age and opportunities of the children- for example, in Grade II ways of service to the old and feeble; in Grade III ways of service in helping the neighborhood. The older boys may well express their service through civic clubs and the younger boys and girls in Bands of Mercy. In every grade, the teaching must crystallize into habits of right action. 7. Incidental teaching-The use of this outline as an aid in teaching reading, history, geography, civics does not in the least preclude incidental teaching. Often the best occasions for instilling moral lessons come through some incident in school or in the neighborhood. The opportunities due to special events should always be used. We believe, however, that our book will suggest stories or acts that will help the teacher to make even more graphic and permanent the lessons of any special occasion. A teacher may find it preferable to use the topics for each year in a different order from that we have assigned. The marking by months is meant to be suggestive only. The teacher may change the order of sub- jects, repeat any topic if it seems to her wise and take, if it is best, more REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 261 or less than a single month on any topic. We do not think of our course as a narrow-gauge road along which every teacher must go, stopping at each station on schedule time. It is rather a series of beacon lights in a wide sea, but with a definite goal to be attained at the end of the year. Great ideals are invading our time. Welcomed or rejected in their weak and humble birth, the ideals of democracy and good-will are yet destined to flower anew, blossoms in the twentieth century from a perennial vine. By imparting and by living in the spirit of citizenship every teacher becomes a branch of the great tree of democracy whose roots penetrate from land to land. In her teaching of the ideal of democracy and good-will she expresses our perpetual gratitude to the world." The Committee recognizes the need for a course in good-will which can be used in the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, constructed on the same lines and with the same purpose as the Course in Citizenship and Patriotism for the first eight years. PART III . RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE BIENNIAL CONFERENCE OF THE WORLD FEDERA- TION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 1. That the Biennial Conference of the World Federation of Education Associations appoint a committee, consisting of one person from each of the countries represented, to work out in detail a plan for a course or courses in good-will which may be used in the schools of all countries in the first eight years of school. 2. That the Conference appoint a committee to work out a plan for similar courses in good-will for the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years of school. REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN The Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association continues its work with the steadily maintained and effective coöperation of the corresponding committee of the American Medical Association. This Committee on Health Problems was created as a committee of the National Council of Education at the meeting in San Francisco in 1911 , at the suggestion and recommendation of the American Medical Associa- tion, which was in session at the same time in Los Angeles. The committee was appointed at that time by the late Dr. Charles H. Keyes, who was President of the National Council of Education . Dr. Keyes, from the beginning, took great interest in the work of the committee; he became a member at the expiration of his term as president of the National Council, and continuously during the remainder of his life 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION was an active, loyal, constructive, and highly helpful member of this com- mittee. At the meeting of the National Education Association, in Des Moines, in July, 1921, this committee was formally adopted as a committee of the National Education Association. The reports of the committee include the following: 1. Country schoolhouses, prepared by Fletcher B.Dresslar, a member of our committee. This report is out of print. 2. Minimum health requirements for rural schools. Three editions of 800,000 copies of this report have been distributed. The cost of printing the very large introductory edition of 750,000 copies of this report was coveredby agift of over $3000 from the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund of Chicago. (This public-spirited organization has given generous, repeated assistance inmoney and expert service to the Committee on Health Problems, which should be known to all the members of the National Education Association.) 3. Health essentials for rural school children was printed in 50,000 copies. This first edition was exhausted and a second revised edition is now being distributed. Most of the copies of this report have been used in supplementary texts onhealth inthe training of rural school teachers in the normal schools and as practical hand books by rural school teachers and supervisors. 4. The health chart report. The first edition of 10,000 copies of the illustrated Health Chart pamphlet was soon exhausted and a second edition of 10,000 is now being distributed. This pamphlet not only serves to illustrate and explain the health charts, but is being extensively used for health instruction in both city and country schools and also as a guide in making health posters and scrap books . 5. The health chart set comprises 58 charts, each 22 x 28 inches. Over 1100 complete sets of the health charts (over 60,000 individual charts ) have been distributed in our own and in foreign countries. Many orders for individual charts have been received. One State Department of Health ordered 2400 copies of individual charts. 6. The teacher's part in social hygiene was published in 1921 with the cooperation of the American Social Hygiene Association, and this co- operating Association presented the Joint Health Committee with 5000 copies of this valuable bulletin. This report, containing a very carefully selected bibliography, has supplied a valuable bulletin for many teachers. Amoderate number of copies of this valuable report are still available for free distribution. 7. Health improvement in rural schools published in 1922 was in careful process of preparation for several years. Important work in the introduc- tory assembling and organization of material for this report was done by several well-trained and experienced teachers and supervisors of rural schools whose names are mentioned in the report. The bulletin was finally revised and completed through the substantial coöperation of the staff of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 263 8. Health service in city schools of the United States is the report of a survey, conducted by our committee in 1922, of the health work which is being done in the city school systems of this country. Six hundred and twenty-two six-page questionnaires were sent out to city superintendents of schools. Filled-out questionnaires containing much valuable information of current accomplishment were received from 340 (54.6 per cent) of the superintendents. 9. Daylight in the school room is the title of a valuable report on school lighting which was prepared in 1921 by a sub-committee under the chair- manship of Dr. Edward Jackson, eminent opthalmologist of Denver and a member of our Joint Committee. 10. Health education-a program for public schools and teacher-training institutions. This report of 160 pages was prepared with the constructive coöperation of a technical committee of twenty-seven experts, and is con- sidered by many recognized specialists to be the most authoritative and helpful publication ever issued in this field. The third printing of five thousand copies of the Health Education Report is being rapidly exhausted . Two new reports of the Health Committee are being distributed at the Indianapolis meeting. 11. Conserving the sight of school children is the first report in a series planned to furnish standards of health norms and health defects in school children. This report of 50 pages is based upon returns from questionnaires sent to 200 eminent opthalmologists and has been prepared through the coöperation of the National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness with our Joint Health Committee. This national coöperating committee will have expended approximately $2500 in the preparation of this report, and will generously supply 2500 copies of the report gratis for our Joint Committee. It is expected that this report will supply a uniform standard for the examination and con- servation of eyes and vision of school children. 12. Ventilation of school buildings is the second new report of our Health Committee, to be distributed at the Indianapolis meeting this year. This report, dealing with another topic of great importance in the health program of the schools, has been prepared by a subcommittee, of which the Chairman is Miss Mary E. Murphy, director of the Elizabeth Mc- Cormick Memorial Fund, in Chicago. This Fund will add to its extended program of generous contributions to our Committee by furnishing, with- out expense to our Committee, 2500 copies of this report on school venti- lation. The program of our Health Committee for the coming year includes the following studies and reports proposed and adopted at the annual meeting of the Joint Health Committee at Cincinnati, in February, 1925 : a. The next study in the series involved in the standardization of health norms and defects of school children deals with the problem of the teeth. This study is now under way, and our Committee is to have the coöperation of the American Dental Association in a substantial and practical manner, corresponding to the 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION coöperation, during the past year, of the National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness. It is expected that a report on the Conservation of Teeth in School Children will be ready for distribution at the meeting of the National Education Association in July, 1926. b. An enlarged and continuing Subcommittee on Ventilation of Schools is being organized to proceed with the campaign of education needed to promote the best ideas and standards regarding school ventilation. c. A study of, and preparation of a report upon, factors affecting posture in school children. d. A study of, and preparation of a report upon, the health of the pre-school child. e. A study of, and preparation of a report upon, the health aspects of games, athletics, and recreational activities of school children. f. A study of, and preparation of a report upon, mental hygiene, particularly as related to all school children. g. A study of, and preparation of a report upon, the health of teachers. It will be of interest and importance for the members of the representa- tive assembly, and teachers in general, to learn that the reports of the Joint Health Committee are now being distributed from the headquarters of the National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. It is a cause of much gratification to our Committee that our reports will be in the future distributed from the National Education Association offices. Many important health problems in education still need careful investi- gation and call for reports which may be helpful to general and special workers in the educational field. These specific problems, proposed each year by the members of the Joint Health Committee, seem actually to in- crease in number as the work of the Committee proceeds. To continue with reasonable efficiency the program now under way, the Health Com- mittee respectfully asks for an appropriation of $1000 for the coming year from the National Education Association. Your Committee, according to the custom of many years, confidently expects from the American Medical Association an appropriation equal to the sum granted by the National Education Association . REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PARTIAL PAYMENTS OF THE EXPENSES OF DELEGATES TO THE ANNUAL CONVENTION The Committee on financing delegates wishes to recommend that the same policy for the payment of delegates' expenses be continued for the coming year. The plan is as follows. That the sum of $ 10,000 be apportioned for the payment of delegates' expenses and that this amount be used pro rata in the paying of the del- egates ' expenses whose railway and Pullman fares exceed $50. The tabulation of the States which will benefit by this provision, the REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 265 method of applying for the funds, and the amount apportioned each del- egate will be found in the Official Manual for delegates. The Committee further recommends that the Committee on financing delegates be continued. It will be of interest to members of the Association to know that 512 delegates shared in the apportionment of $10,000 last year. Respectfully submitted, CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Chairman E. C. BROOKS JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON J. W. CRABTREE ELSIE MAХАМ AGNES E. DOHERTY HARRIET GAYMAN OLIVE M. JONES CHARLES F. PYE . National Council of Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES —CINCINNATI MEETING OFFICERS President JOSEPH M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools ... San Francisco, California Vice-President- HUNKY LESTER SMITH, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Secretary-ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education .... .....Washington, D. C. The National Council of Education was organized in 1880, growing out of a paper read by Dr. Thomas W. Bicknell before the Department of Superintendence. See Proceedings of 1880, pages 90-94. The active membership of the Council is limited to 120 elected members, one half of whom are chosen by the Council, the other half by the Board of Directors of the Association. The list is published in the Proceedings in alternate years and is found in the volume for 1923, pages 508-511. For constitution and by-laws see Proceedings of 1906, pages 608-611. FIRST SESSION- MONDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 23 , 1925 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 P.M. in the auditorium of the American Legion Club. As several requests had come to the secretary for endorsement by the National Council of Education of certain national legislation and movements, the president appointed a committee consisting of M. G. Clark, Sioux City, Iowa, Chairman ; Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Ind.; and R. O. Stoops, York, Pa., to consider these requests and make recommendations to the National Council of Education on Wednesday. The president then presented his annual address which dealt with The Need the Council Has For the Coöperation of the Departments of the National Educa- tion Association. In the symposium that followed on the Service the National Council of Education Can Best Render to the National Education Association and its Several Departments, the following speakers participated: Jesse H. Newlon, president, National Education Association, Denver, Colo., William McAndrew, president, Department of Superintendence, Chicago, Ill., Julia A. Spooner, presi- dent, Department of Classroom Teachers, Portland, Ore., and John N. Greer, president, Department of Vocational Education, Minneapolis, Minn. Following this symposium there was considerable general discussion as to what the next step in the work of the Council should be in the light of the reorganization pro- posed by the National Education Association whereby the membership of the National Council of Education would be increased by the addition of representa- tives from each of the Departments. The president summed up the suggestions of the speakers in the symposium and the general discussion from the floor as offering one of two functions for the National Council of Education in its future work: 1. The organization of the National Council of Education as an investigating or research body for the National Education Association and all its Departments . 2. The organization of the National Council of Education as a body to receive the results of research by way of findings and recommendations made by the National Education Association and its Departments and to have open forums for discussions and common understandings. In the absence of Thomas W. Butcher, president, State Teachers College, [ 266] NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 267- Emporia, Kans., chairman of the Committee on Training Teachers in Service, the report of that committee was not given as scheduled in the program. J. W. Carr, president, State Normal School, Murray, Ky., called attention of the Council to the recent death of Dr. Charles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore College, Saratoga, N. Y., long an active member and one-time president of the National Council of Education. At the suggestion of the president, the adjourn- ment of the National Council at the close of the session was made in memory of Dr. Keyes and his valuable work as a member of the Council. SECOND SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 24, 1925 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 P.M. in the auditorium of the American Legion Club. Thomas D. Wood, Teachers College, Columbia University, chairman of the Joint Health Committee, gave a brief résumé of the work of the committee, referring to the fact that this committee had been ap- pointed when Charles H. Keyes was president of the Council and had always re- ceived his warm support. He advised the Council that a resolution would be presented later by a member of his committee, paying tribute to the work of Dr. Keyes. Dr. Wood then introduced speakers with topics as follows : The Im- provement of Teacher Training for Health Education in Schools, Emma Dolfinger, director, division of health education, American Child Health Association, New York City; Responsibility of Schools for Conservation of Vision, Lewis H. Carris, managing director, National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness, New York City; Fresh Air for the Schools, Mary E. Murphy, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, Ill. An animated discussion followed Miss Murphy's paper concerning new ideas as to methods of ventilation, in which not only school men and women took part, but also a prominent architect from Hartford, Conn. Dr. William B. Owen then introduced a resolution prepared by a subcommittee of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education in recognition of Dr. Keyes and his splendid contribution to education. This resolution which follows, was unanimously endorsed by the National Council of Education : The National Council of Education records in its minutes an expression of sorrow and sense of loss in the death of President Charles H. Keyes , of Skidmore College. President Keyes was a leader in the teaching profession in America for the years of his active life. He was teacher, superintendent, college president, and in these responsible positions he won success and distinction. He was a master of English diction, a clear and illuminating thinker, a courteous and charming gentleman, a bold and fearless spokesman of his convictions, an outstanding figure in the deliberations of the National Council and the National Education Association. President Keyes was president of the National Council of Education for the years 1910- 1913. At the meeting held in San Francisco in 1911 , he had the vision and courage to ad- vocate the acceptance of the offer of the American Medical Association to form a Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. He appointed the committee and later became a member of it, to remain as such until his death. This committee has had an influence on health education in America that cannot be appraised save from the standpoint. of years to come. In the work of this committee, President Keyes was diligent, constructive, wise, and aggressive. His vision, courage, and determination were essential through a period of experi- ment often attended by obstacles and indifference. He lived to see the work of the com- mittee result in the report on Health Education made at Washington in July, 1924. His colleagues on the committee rejoice that he was spared to participate in the satisfaction justified by the reception accorded to this work of years. The Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, the National Council of Education, the National Education Association, and American education have profited by the unselfish, sustained, and intelligent service rendered by Charles H. Keyes. Adopted and ordered to be spread on the minutes of the National Council of Education and tobe communicated to his family, at the session of the Council held at Cincinnati, Ohio, February 24, 1925. Proposed by a subcommittee of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. Committee- HOMER H. SEERLEY WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON WILLIAM B. OWEN, Chairman. Henry Lester Smith, dean of the school of education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., and chairman of the Committee on Vocational Education, pre- sented a report for his committee, which summed up the progress of the work of the Subcommittee on Part-Time Education. In a brief talk Charles McKenny, president, State Teachers College, Ypsilanti, 268 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Mich., and chairman of the Committee on American Teachers Colleges, emphasized the need of properly financing American teachers' colleges and the critical position in which these colleges are now placed because of limited financial support. He introduced Lyman B. McMullen, president, State Teachers College, Flagstaff, Ariz. , who discussed the Teaching Load of Teachers Colleges. The preliminary report of the Committee on Extension Education was presented by the Chairman, Charles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Toledo, Ohio. Dr. Gwinn, president of the National Council of Education, reported that the National Education Association had agreed to take over the work of the Com- mittee on Education for Democracy, of which A. Duncan Yocum, professor of educational research and practice, University of Pennsylvania, had been chair- man, and that, therefore, this committee would cease to function in the National Council of Education, and a new committee would be organized in the National Education Association, of which Dr. J. O. Engleman, superintendent of schools, Terre Haute, Ind., had been designated as chairman. THIRD SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 25, 1925 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 P.M. in the auditorium of the American Legion Club. The final report of the Committee on Visual Edu- cation was presented as follows: The Place of the Still Picture in Education, Carl W. Salser, State Teachers College, Emporia, Kans .; Organization for Visual Education, A. G. Balcom, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N. J., in- troduced by David B. Corson, superintendent of schools, Newark, N. J., member of the committee ; A Last Word, Linnaeus N. Hines, president, State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. The last report of this session was made by the Com- mittee on Character Education. Milton Bennion, dean of the school of education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, in the absence of E. O. Sisson, Reed College, Portland, Oreg., scheduled to report on Processes of Character Education, read Dr. Sisson's paper. The remainder of the report of this committee was presented as follows : Classroom Procedure for Character Education, H. B. Wilson, super- intendent of schools, Berkeley, Calif .; A Selected Bibliography for Character Education, J. W. Searson, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. The committee appointed to consider the requests for endorsement from certain organizations of their activities, by the National Council of Education, made rec- ommendations through the chairman, M. G. Clark, as follows : 1. That the work of the Simplified Practice Division of the United States De- partment of Commerce, on steel lockers be endorsed. 2. That the Child Labor Amendment be endorsed as per the request of the National Education Association through its Field Secretary, Miss Charl 0. Williams . This committee also presented the following: "Your committee, upon expressing their interest and endorsement of the World Court, wish to submit with that their recommendation for a like endorsement of the League of Nations." This action of the committee was approved by the Council. The requests of Robert J. Aley, Irvington, Ind., T. E. Johnson, Lansing, Mich ., and Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colo., to have their enforced absences from the meeting excused were granted. The Committee on Membership recommended that membership vacancies held over from the summer meeting, be filled as follows : C. R. Richards, superintendent of schools, Ardmore, Okla., to succeed Anna Wilson, deceased; term expiring in 1925. William McAndrew, superintendent of schools, Chicago, Ill., to succeed Neil C. McDonald, deceased; term expiring in 1927. Adjourned. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 269 THE NEED THE COUNCIL HAS FOR THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA The Council of Education by its long term membership and self-perpetu- ating membership is especially exposed to the dangers of closed-circuit think- ing. To make the Council most virile contacts must be established with each of the several Departments of the National Education Association as well as with the Association itself. The Council is the investigating and reporting agency of the National Education Association. It has in times past and is continuing to render this service to the Association. Since the establishment of the Council the Association has been divided into Departments, and in recent years several of these have grown to great size and importance and are finding in their respective fields many problems which need investigating. Special com- mittees have been appointed by each Department to conduct investigations, so that no longer does the Council control the research work of the Na- tional Association. I am not insisting that it should do this. It is an open question whether or not it would be wise so to constitute the Council and relate it to the several Departments that it could serve all the Depart- ments as it formerly did the National Association. If this were done the Council would absorb the Research Department of the Association and the director of research might become the director for the Council and all appropriations for investigations would be made to the Council. With the development of the Departments and the growth of class consciousness, there comes the danger that each Department will shut itself up within itself and consequently separate itself from the other Departments. The truth that we are members one of the other must ever be kept in mind else the National Education Association will become an aggregate of disjointed parts and not be the splendid organism which the best educational results demand. If the Council is not to be made into the special agency for serving all Departments by taking charge of their investigations, it should at least be the clearing-house for the research and reports of the several Departments. Education cannot free itself from the charge of attempting to lift itself by its own boot-straps. Introspection has been the method used so habitu- ally by education in its endeavors to improve itself that the eyes have turned inward and become fixed with resultant blindness to the world about . In these later days there have come to school administrators and teachers a knowledge of and an appreciation of the connection of education with all the other elements and activities of society. With this knowledge and ap- preciation have come attempts to improve education by looking not alone into the schools but outward to the facts of home, State, and vocations . We now know that the outward look is needed as an aid to the inward look. Modern researches on the course of study are not content to ex 270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION amine and re-examine the courses found in many States and cities but will investigate spelling and arithmetic, geography and conduct as used and found in the workers on farms and in the factories and as members of homes and civic societies. Specialization brings ever the danger of insulation in one's thinking. Vocations tend to shut in and short-circuit the currents of one's thought till all connections with other fields of thought are broken, or if not broken, so imperfectly made as to distort the facts in other fields. The vocation of teaching seems to shut down about the workers in this voca- tion till all the sky is school. It is not unusual that teachers summer after summer take practically the same courses in method ofteaching the branches they must teach their pupils. Teachers are ever demanding courses that bear directly on their daily tasks. I wonder if many of these teachers would not be more benefited by breaking the circuit and taking courses or acquiring experiences in fields somewhat apart from that of their daily work. It might be especially desirable that teachers be compelled to pursue courses leading to an understanding of the facts of 1925, the radio, road building, social and economic and political problems. By doing this the gap between the field of thought of teachers and the fields of experience of their pupils might be closed, and teachers be more en rapport with youth. The unknown is terrifying. It is always somewhat of a shock and a surprise when the unknown becomes the known to find it so like the old and familiar. The most startling revelation to the older and more highly developed Department of Superintendence has been the discovery of the fact that classroom teachers and principals in their organizations are moved by the same high purposes and use the same scientific methods as do superintendents. It is now an open secret that in the past the Depart- ment of Superintendence ascribed to itself all of the high professional attributes and deplored not a little the lack of professional ideals of teachers and principals. It has been quite a blow to the egotism of superintendents to find that they no longer have valid grounds for assuming the "more holy than thou" attitude toward principals and teachers. The yearbooks and programs of the Department of Elementary School Principals and Classroom Teachers of recent years give abundant evidence that these Departments with others are just as unselfish and just as highly professional as the Department of Superintendence thought itself to be. It is splendid that these younger members of the National Education Association are developing so rapidly and efficiently. There must, how- ever, be no middle wall or partition separating the several Departments of the National Association. There must be provided ways and means for common understanding and mutual work. There must be nothing "super” about superintendents that separates them from other groups of workers, nor anything " class" about classroom teachers that closes the doors on the principal. In our several Departments we must of necessity direct our efforts mainly toward our own most pressing problems. In doing this we NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 271 find ourselves confronted with the fact that these problems, both in their nature and solution, spring from and enter into the field of every other Department. Superintendents need to see with the eyes of principals, hear with the ears of supervisors, and feel with the hearts of teachers. The teacher also must survey a wider realm than the kingdom of the classroom. She must be principal, supervisor, and superintendent, and , may I say, pupil and parent before she can see with clear vision and in proper dimensions the apparently petty problems of her daily program as well as to appreciate fully the importance and magnitude of the art she plays in the program of changing things into what they ought to be. The Council of Education seems to be the most logical means for pro- moting the unity and continuity of the research work of the several De- partments. It is to the Council that each Department may bring its prob- lems for study and discussion or may bring the results of its separate study for criticism and integration into the whole educational organism of which the Department is a part. The proposed new organization of the Council will bring into the Council as active members ten from each of the Departments. These ten should be such persons as are qualified and disposed to direct with the aid of the Council and with assistance called in for special service the studies needed to be made by the Departments. The proper functioning of the Council will require the service of a permanent research department, which service could doubtless be performed by the present Research Department of the National Association. It may also be wise to provide that the meetings of the Council shall be held in the two days preceding or fol- lowing the meetings of the Department of Superintendence and of the summer meeting of the National Association. "Life," said Herbert Spencer, "is the continuous adjustment of in- ternal relations to external relations." There must be contact with the outside. An organization, the members of which commune with fellow- members only naturally develops a hard shell and later dies. The life of the Council depends upon outside contacts with the Departments, and it is equally true that the life of the Departments depends upon the con- tacts with one another and with the Council, which may well be found through the service which the Council of Education can afford. THE SERVICE THE COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CAN RENDER THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JESSE H. NEWLON , PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO The National Council of Education can render its best service not only to but through the National Education Association, but its service always has been and always should be not merely to an organization but to the 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cause of public education, and for that reason I wish to give a broader scope to the discussion than that indicated by the subject. The past twenty years have seen a remarkable development of teachers' professional organizations in this country. Associations have not only grown in numbers but they have increased in membership at an amazing rate. They have not only grown in membership and multiplied in num- bers, but they have become exceedingly complex and detailed. Witness the meeting of the Department of Superintendence. I remember well the first meeting of this Department that I attended. It was at Louisville, Kentucky, in 1906. That meeting was a simple affair compared to the present one. The attendance was small compared to that of today, and the number of departmental and sectional meetings was much smaller . Today we have a great convention with eight or ten thousand in attend- ance; with numerous departmental meetings touching almost every phase of the problems of administration, supervision, and research. Organizations such as the Society for the Study of Education, the Department of Ele- mentary School Principals, the Association of High School Principals are holding numerous meetings dealing in great detail with the problems of their special fields. This is typical. A generation ago the National Council of Education was a body of great importance. Membership was highly coveted and carried with it great distinction. Relatively, the deliberations of the Council received wide publicity. I am sure that membership in the Council is still regarded as an honor. I am sure that every member appreciates highly the privilege and the honor of this membership, but it is evident that the Council has been overshadowed by the multiplicity of organizations, both general and departmental, that have risen and flourish today. In looking over the program of the Council, I do not discover that there is much difference between its program and that of numerous de- partmental organizations or even of the Association itself. This is shown by its list of committees. In 1923, President Gwinn enumerated eighteen council committees : Participation of Teachers in Management of the Schools; Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grades; Exten- sion Education; Health Problems in Education ; Teaching Democracy ; American Teachers College; Vocational Education ; Rural Education ; Social Well-being; Thrift Education; Character Education; State Levies and Other State Funds for the Support of Elementary and Secondary Schools; Continuity of Education; Adult Illiteracy; Visual Education ; Training of Teachers in Service; Teachers Welfare, and Graduate Edu- cation. Let us examine this list. We find committees on the junior high school, on vocational education, on thrift, on character, on illiteracy, on visual education, and on other subjects which are covered by committees of the National Education Association itself, or by the Department of Superin- tendence, or by other Departments of the Association. Frequently we have two or three committees working on the same problem. Frequently NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 273 there is a lack of correlation. There is not the coöperation between com- mittees that there ought to be, with resultant extensive duplication of effort. There may be some argument for this duplication of committee work and investigation. For example, the Department of Classroom Teachers may approach a problem from a slightly different angle than would the Department of Superintendence. Then too, this is a big country with an army of teachers, and it is well to have many thousands of teachers study- ing the problem of education. Admitting this argument, I maintain that it does not apply to the Coun- cil of Education. The membership of the Council is composed of men and women who are active in the work of numerous other teachers' organiza- tions. Many of them are active in the departments, many in the work of the Association itself. Most of them are active in teachers' organiza- tions in their own State. Most of them are serving on committees of various organizations. Many of them serve on numerous committees. Accepting membership in the National Council, they find themselves in an organization which is carrying identically the same program that is being carried by the other organizations to which they belong. They are put on more committees to study the same problems. We are overlooking a difference in functions. The National Educa- tion Association itself is responsible for formulating a national policy. The Department of Superintendence speaks for the interest of public school executives. The Department of Classroom Teachers speaks for the in- terest of the classroom teacher. The State association addresses itself to the problems of its own State, while the mission of the National Council is a more general one. It is not, and should not be the spokesman of any particular group. In the past two decades, research agencies have multiplied by leaps and bounds. There are associations that exist primarily for fostering educa- tional research. Practically every important organization has its com- mittee or department of research . To my mind it is a useless and a needless duplication for the National Council to undertake research or the direction of research. Most of the committees of the National Council should not attempt the type of committee work as that indicated by the list of com- mittees that I have just read. If the National Council can do no more than duplicate the work of other organizations and other committees at a time when professional organizations have already become too numerous and too complex, then it ought to go out of business. The question remains then, " Is there a function for the National Coun- cil? Is there important work for it to do ?" My answer is "Yes. " There is a most important service for the National Council to perform and it ought to be doing this work. I quote in part from the preamble of the Council : The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the presentation, through printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the differ- ent views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to dis- cover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. In my opinion, the Council has rendered its greatest service to the profession when it has most nearly lived up to the program outlined in this portion of the preamble. It is true that the preamble also provides for the appointment of committees, but whatever may have been the pur- poses of the founders in respect to committees, I am convinced that the present committee program of the Council should be abandoned. The Council should be reconstituted, and the conduct of a program of discus- sion, such as its founders have described in the preamble, should be con- sidered its primary function. We are in danger of losing in our professional meetings the art of dis- cussion. We are in serious danger of underestimating the value of dis- cussion. I fear that we do not appreciate the value that comes from a "most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the com- pletest statement of grounds for the same." What is the program of the Council today? It consists of set addresses such as my own, of committee reports, and of a small amount of desultory discussion. Even I can remember when discussion obtained to some de- gree in meetings of the Department of Superintendence itself, but with the growth in numbers discussion has long since departed from its general sessions. Four years ago a vigorous effort was made to restore the Depart- ment of Superintendence to something of its pristine character. A little was accomplished, but the drift to large numbers and complexity was too strong to be withstood. In this country a few organizations, consisting of small groups of leaders in our profession, come together in an intimate way for a free discussion of the educational problems of the day. The members of such groups bear testimony to the great value which comes from these discussions in clarifying educational thinking. Undoubtedly it was originally intended that the Council should serve some such function; that there should be gathered within the membership of the Council the leaders in American public education and that in these meetings they would be afforded the opportunity for a free discussion of the great educational problems of the time. I submit the thesis that there is more need for an organization of this kind today than there was when the Council was founded. We should abandon standing committees. We should give up detailed investigation into visual education, into sources of school revenue, into textbooks, into NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 275 teachers' certification, into a hundred other subjects. There are numerous other organizations and agencies for the conduct of such investigations. The Council should provide opportunities for discussion and for debat- ing the great issues of public education. I would make of the Council a senate. There should be drawn into its membership the leaders in Ameri- can education. If you scan the membership of the Council as it stands today, you will see that there are men and women who ought to be in the Council whose names are not to be found therein. May I venture to mention such men as Randall J. Condon, Ellwood P. Cubberley, John Dewey, James E. Russell, Frank E. Spaulding, Lotus D. Coffman, W. W. Charters, E. L. Thorndike. The present membership of the Council is one hundred and twenty. The Council must be kept relatively small. If the number were two hundred we might expect an attendance of from one hundred to one hundred and twenty. If four sessions were held in connection with the meetings of the Department of Superintendence and four in connection with the summer meeting, opportunity would be given to the members to express themselves on the subjects in which they are most interested or most capable of discussion. A slight increase in the membership would enable the Council to enroll within its ranks many of those who are considered as the leaders in education at the present time. I am not concerned primarily with the method of election. The process of scrutiny ought to be a severe one. What then would be the program of council meetings under such con- ditions ? These are some of the subjects which might well be debated today, were we operating with such a program: 1.What shall we do about the demand for formal moral instruction in the schools? 2. What should be the attitude of the teachers of America towards the move- ment for world peace and towards disarmament ? 3. Do we want a national Kultur? 4. Can America afford free education of secondary and collegiate grade ? The mere mention of such topics in a group of schoolmasters will gen- erally get this response : "We ought to appoint a committee to investigate that subject. " We do not have enough investigation and research, but we do have too many committees. We do not have enough research and we do not have enough discussion. Discussion is needed for the analysis and interpretation of the findings of research. Out of these discussions would come movements and policies of inestimable value to American public education. If the Council were conducting such discussions out of them would come many suggestions of work to be done by the National Educa- tion Association itself. I would make of the National Council a National Academy of Educa- tion. In this academy should be enrolled all those whose achievements have entitled them to be regarded as the outstanding leaders . 276 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SERVICE THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CAN BEST RENDER THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION AND ITS SEVERAL DEPARTMENTS JULIA A. SPOONER, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS PORTLAND, OREGON What service can the National Council of Education render the Depart- ment of Classroom Teachers ? The first service the Council can give is to know the classroom teacher of today. She is not the teacher you knew twenty-five years ago, not even ten years ago. The growth and develop- ment of educational systems has been paralleled by a growth and develop- ment on the part of the teacher. That was to be expected by thinking people, since it would seem obvious that no great educational plant can have a greater output than the sum of the output of the individual workers within it. Teachers in the mass are fast approaching the time when they may be considered as responsible, initiating factors in organizing and administering public education. Many of the individuals within the group have already demonstrated their ability to work on terms of equality with those hitherto called "leaders in education" in whatever phase of educational leadership the opportunity offers. Yet too many of our administrators are still un- conscious that the classroom teacher is becoming aware of the fact that there are educational problems to solve ; that she has professional problems of her own which she must solve, which none but she can solve. We are yet too confused in our minds regarding "class consciousness." Too much fear is manifested lest this "class consciousness" become a narrow disposition to use the advantage of numbers for selfish group advancement; too little willingness to recognize that it is the dawning pride of position, the recog- nition that the place in education which is occupied by the classroom teacher is the strategic position so far as the development of the child is concerned, and an acceptance of what that fact means in determining the status of the classroom teacher in the ranks of educators. Perhaps our recognition of our own importance and our newly awakened consciousness of our numerical preponderance in the educational world has made some of us a bit overbearing and noisy. Those who have felt that this is true may also remember that it is a fault of youth which time alone will cure and that the classroom teacher as a recognized associate in education-planning and in education-administering is very youthful indeed. It has been intimated by those versed in the history of the National Education Association that other groups have manifested like tendencies until they were sobered by age, humbled by knowledge, and disciplined by experience. Yet, whatever her faults and failings may be, the classroom teacher, upon recognition of her status, has gone about it to make herself fit for responsibility . There is no group so insistent upon higher qualifications, nationally standardized requirements for certification and better training in professionalism than is our group. Can you help us to bring these things NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 277 about ? We must have a better understanding with our teacher-training institutions, more coöperation between the experienced teacher in the field and the training teacher and her instructors in those institutions to bring about the last. We and our administrators must work together and in larger units to gain the second, and to gain the first all of us must work in closer harmony with those who furnish the financial support of our schools, for until we can offer higher salaries than our national average now is, our insistence upon better preparation must be fruitless. More than that, we must make it clear that discrimination against a child because he is six years old instead of sixteen, or because he is a rural child instead of an urban one, must cease . All are entitled to teachers of equal prepa- ration, and in turn the teachers are entitled to equal financial consideration, based on preparation and training, regardless of the grade or place in which they choose to serve. Fundamentally, there is no year in a child's life more important educationally than any other. This Council of Edu- cation, whose finest service it seems to me has been in the clarifying of national thought on education through free discussion, can certainly help us there. We are trying in this Department to stimulate our members to con- tribute to educational method and procedure as well as to receive ; to be aware that there is a contribution which they can make; to be unafraid in offering what they have acquired from years of observation and experi- ence, knowing that it has a value because it is first-hand, practical knowl- . edge. We have come to realize that education is not a one-man job ; that the superintendent cannot settle questions alone, even if he wishes; that questions so handled are never even temporarily disposed of; we have learned that no educational question is ever settled, but that it comes nearer a rational solution when all concerned in it concern themselves in its solution. The classroom is, and always will be, the scene of the teacher's greatest contribution to education; your greatest help to us can be in helping us realize and remember that we are teaching children, not subjects. To make our children grow to their utmost capacity is our classroom aim. We are measured by their development and by their reaction to the prob- lems of their world, not by our spectacular teaching "stunts." Can you help us to make administrators and the general public realize that the administrator from the educational side of his work (not his business ad- ministration) must ultimately be measured by the capacity of his teachers for self-development, initiation, research, administrative ability in their fields, and by their promotion of education before the public, and not by his exclusive pre-eminence in the educational field. It takes a big man to develop in his teachers a desire to organize for professional service, to push them out of their limited classroom point of view and scope of ac- tivity into a participation in educational movements of national significance. Yet, if any single thing requires to be done to assure educational progress and adequacy, that ability to advocate the professional organization of 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION teachers on the part of administrators seems most needed. You in this Council have the opportunity to do this service through your interpretation ofthis need,both to teachers and to administrators. You ask ifyou canhelp usin research work. We have the Research De- partment ofthe National Education Association; in our own department we are doing some research work, not only for the value of the material we gather together, but for the education of our own group in doing it. We need the experience of doing it. Much of what we do may seem to you trivial, but it closely affects us and our work, and what helps us to help ourselves has a definite value in education. We should not like to give itover to other hands to do. Eightyper cent of the membership of the National Education Association is made up of classroom teachers, yet only twenty per cent of the teachers ofthe United States belong to this national group. We are attempting to reach the teacher who is not yet conscious of her professional obligations, topresent to her thework that theDepartment and the National Education Association are doing to improve the conditions under which teachers work. For many years you have played a conspicuous part in determining the policies of this National Association. Not many members of our Depart- ment are included in your membership. Yet many of us recall that much of the inspiration we have had in the annual conventions has come from our opportunity to sit "on the side lines" and listen to the discussions through which your conclusions have been reached. We believe that your best service to us will lie in your willingness to appreciate our attempts to aid in improving the classroom service throughout the country, to help us to appraise our labor, and to interpret us and our ideals to those who as yet "know us not." IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHER TRAINING FOR HEALTH EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS EMMA DOLFINGER, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF HEALTH EDUCATION , AMERICAN CHILD HEALTH ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY No part of education has shown such swift changes in the past few years as health education. Ten years ago, schools in general seemed to see in the children trooping through their rooms only disembodied minds-minds floating about completely detached from the concerns of daily living, if what was poured into these minds were any criterion of the purpose of the teaching. Abstractions about the structure of the body were common, but constructive applied health teaching was seldom seen in any curriculum. Then came a period of awakening when it was asked if the classroom teacher could not teach health. Then followed a time when a group of child health authorities, led by the late Dr. Emmett Holt, together with a group of pediatrists and nutrition workers, took counsel and after months NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 279 of careful consideration laid down some simple rules for child health, in- cluding only the essentials possible to any child and fundamental to his health and growth. Rules of the game, as they were named, were presented to teachers, parents, even social workers, together with the suggestion that regular weighing and measuring be used as a means of further interest. The be- lief was that by using sufficiently interesting methods, children could be enlisted to live these rules with consequent improvement to their health. The plan succeeded. Teachers found it possible to modify child be- havior by such methods. The more successful the teacher, the more in- sistent became her demand for more knowledge to fortify her teaching. In consequence, extension courses sprang up for teachers in service; summer courses developed in universities and Chautauquas; and health education courses now take their places in the catalogs of most institutions. But such methods are inadequate, since even now but a small number of our children are being reached with positive health education. This will be true until every teacher who leaves her training school, goes forth health minded and professionally trained to conserve and to improve the health of every child who shall come under her care. It is a problem for the teachers' college worthy of its best efforts. Last week there was held in this city a series of informal conferences on Health Problems in Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools. Par- ticipated in by members of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, and American Health Association. The discussion showed infinite diversity in the details of administration in the conception of student needs and how to meet them, in the interpretation of a school's responsibility in the matter of health education. But certain large lines of thought emerged as fundamental to any program in any school. These I wish to indicate to you. 1. Determination and in some institutions demand to aim at a much higher physical efficiency and hence social efficiency of the students than ever before. 2. Need to provide students with a stock of fundamental knowledge so selected from the sciences as to increase intelligence of behavior in relation to personal and community health situations . 3. Need to give students the arts, skills, and enthusiasms for making healthy children, by modifying behavior, by creating proper attitudes, and by giving functioning knowledge. May I enlarge a little on the first aim in training teachers for health education? It is a fair test of any preacher's program to say: "What has it done for you?" Is it not fair, therefore, that the faculty of the training school should be hearty supporters of the health examination ? should take steps to remove their own handicaps ? should follow some form of active outdoor recreation ? should observe the "Rules of the Game"? and should be profoundly ashamed of preventable illness and of any degree of inefficiency traceable to less than positive good health. 280 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The maintenance of high physical efficiency in the interest of high social efficiency should have some sort of professional recognition in fac- ulties as well as in the student body. This is one important step toward improved teacher training. For such an attitude at the top, student health examinations with cor- rective and educational follow-up would be dignified and more closely knit into the professional conception of the student's professional re- sponsibilities. Similarly the question of housing and feeding of students would become as much educational as utilitarian. In recent discussions, it is evident that many of the colleges are already putting all college feeding under the con- trol of a health minded and scientifically trained food expert. An or- ganization that forces housing standards in affiliated homes up to the living standards of the best (not the most elaborate) in modern dormitories, will safeguard and teach in these realms. In the field of recreation, the conferences brought out descriptions of movements to provide opportunity to acquire skill in the techniques of the sports and activities which can be carried on in any community after col- lege-both to give assets for later personal enjoyment and to give pro- fessional leadership skills in this field. Also most significant is the grow- ing emphasis on athletics for all, athletics not only as an expression of physical well being, but also as a means thereto, athletics for every student as well as " team athletics" for the gifted few. In so brief a summary of the needs and tendencies in teacher training for health education, one can only point out the trails. In the field of subject-matter the significant point in present-day thought is recognition of the need to include more of the sciences and the arts in the health education program. Administrators are looking for a new type of science teachers (in social, physical, and biological sciences) . They want the man or woman whose point of view is social-educational. They want the man who has the training and the vision to reorganize a science subject-matter in relation to the classroom teacher's needs which are for functioning knowledge, ap- plicable to the immediate needs of daily life. They want the teacher who can and will bring his science equipment to the service of all the other factors and courses contributing to the program. Coördination, working together, reintegration of existing courses, rather than additional courses , are the immediate needs . In the recent conference such pioneer courses were described-courses in which the rich kernel of useful application to the needs of daily life made up the course, rather than the former logical pure-science content hitherto alone considered respectable by science teachers. Such needs as the above cannot be met by accident. Nor can we pro- ceed with certainty on a basis of opinion alone. Research into the nature and content of such courses is necessary. Dr. Frazier, of the Colorado State Teachers' College, the other day expressed belief that if all teachers' NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 281 colleges would bind together, divide the work, and pool their results, in a very short time we should have a scientifically constructed course of study for the training of teachers. I should like to add to Dr. Frazier's last sentence the phrase, "in health education." The third essential is providing the teacher with the arts, the skills, and enthusiasms to put into action the health program. Without this factor , the other two are inadequate. The most heartening feature of the recent discussion was descriptions of training schools where there are now in op- eration complete programs following the plan outlined in the Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education . Student teachers thus see and assist in the health education activities of children. They watch the youngsters grow in strength, in poise, in health, in the joy of life that comes when the body puts no barriers before the free spirit . The students experience the satisfaction and conviction that comes when one learns to convert a health enthusiasm into a health achievement. Thus are real teachers of health made. In conclusion, may I point to the need for experimentation, for research, and for conferences in unending cycles, as the essential needs for the improvement of teacher training in health education. The 1925 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence contains summaries of the research in various elementary school subjects-among them, health and physical education. The recent normal school health conferences expressed the conviction that we must have such studies on the teacher training level. With this desire, I again express the hope which the Joint Committee and the Tech- nical Committee have long held-namely, that this Joint Report may stimulate those studies in the fields of student health service, of health education courses, and of practice teaching, so necessary for the develop- ment of the well-balanced program in teachers' colleges. Any teacher with enthusiasm can improve the health of his pupils by leading them to follow the "Rules of the Game," but he cannot make his greatest contribution without training. It is, therefore, plainly our high opportunity, in the teachers' colleges to support enthusiasm and conviction, with enlightenment and skill. RESPONSIBILITY OF SCHOOLS FOR CONSERVATION OF VISION LEWIS H. CARRIS, MANAGING DIRECTOR, NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE PREVENTION OF BLINDNESS, NEW YORK CITY Modern school systems are concerned not only with imparting knowl- edge but also with the physical condition of those to whom knowledge is to be imparted. This is witnessed by the rapid rise of health education in our public schools. Sight conservation is a definite and important part 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of every health program. Vision, poor enough to constitute an educational handicap, is responsible to some extent for retardation, added cost of school systems, failure to obtain an education, elimination from school , and juvenile delinquency. The removal of the effects of serious visual deficiencies by schools in coöperation with the medical profession will reduce retardation cost, elimination, and the delinquency above referred to. It is important that school administrators should have some knowledge of the amount of seriously defective vision existing among school children throughout the country in order that they may judge the extent of this educational handicap. Recent studies indicate that from 1/10 to 1/8 of the children in the public schools suffer from visual handicaps serious enough in their nature to be classed as "health defects." Fortunately, a considerable part of this 10 to 12 per cent have educational handicaps which can be obviated by wearing properly fitted glasses. Unfortunately, only a small number so handicapped have been provided with such glasses. In general, school systems have two main responsibilities in conserving sight: First: The elimination of causes insofar as they inherently exist in the physical conditions of poor housing and lighting, in the use of poorly printed textbooks, in the inculcation of poor physical habits, and in the requirement of work which necessitates eyestrain. The limits of this paper will not permit a discussion of this responsibility. Second: The discovery as far as may be possible of children in school with such poor sight that they are educationally handicapped, and to pro- vide for the removal of this handicap or, when complete removal is im- possible, to provide for education around such a handicap. It is with this problem of the discovery and removal of such handicaps we are here primarily concerned. The Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association, in coöpera- tion with the National Committee, for the Prevention of Blindness, has in preparation a monograph on Conserving the Sight of School Children , which, it is hoped, can be published early in the summer. The purpose of this report is to supply to teachers, school officials, and all others con- cerned with the problem the information, advice, and practical directions which will permit the conservation of eyesight of all school children. In brief, this report will contain: (1) A statement of the extent of defective vision among school children, in accordance with certain defined deficiencies. (2) Standards for various classes of defective vision constituting health defects . (3) An outline of the duties of teachers, school nurses, and trained non-medical examiners and school physicians in the conservation of the eyesight of school children. (4) Recommendations of administrative procedures for use in school districts . NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 283 Some of the conclusions and recommendations as at present formulated will indicate the importance of this report : CONCLUSIONS 1. The methods of testing vision in the schools of the various cities and States of the United States vary within very wide limits. 2. According to the present methods of testing vision, about twelve per cent of school children have uncorrected or uncorrectable defective vision. 3. The tests usually made in public schools do not cover the desired field com- pletely: a. A test (such as the Snellen chart test) to determine visual acuity, is not a substitute for a thorough eye examination. A test for visual acuity may and often does fail to show diseased conditions of the eye, and often fails to detect hyperopic (farsighted) and astigmatic conditions. b. The amount of training and experience of the examiner is the principal factor in determining the relative value of an eye examination. c. No periodic eye inspection should relieve the classroom teacher from reporting unusual eye conditions whenever found. 4. There is a wide difference as to what is to be regarded as defective vision in the schools of the various cities and States . 5. The absence of 20/20 vision in either or both eyes, or the existence of symptoms of eyestrain, such as headaches, red or scaly lid margins, and tiring of the eyes, indicates the need for further examination by some competent person. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Under the present policies, the question arises, "How thoroughly are diseased eye conditions among the pupils of public schools discovered ? It is very likely that teachers, nurses, and other non-medical school examiners will make many of the eye inspections for some time to come. Therefore it is most desirable that the school personnel be carefully instructed in the best methods of conserving sight. 2. Eye inspections of all pupils should be made in the schools yearly or as frequently as possible, under the best possible and most accurate conditions, by the most skilled persons available. This service should be part of the health supervision program and should be administered by the municipal or State De- partment which gives the best results. 3. Every teacher should be trained to report to the Health Division of the schools any abnormal eye conditions which may be observed. 4. On analysis it appears that the laws of the various States in regard to test- ing and conserving the vision of school children differ greatly. There is need for a uniform model law to be drafted and adopted by all States and cities of the United States for the examination of the eyes of school children. Adequate powers and sufficient money should be made available for school boards to carry out and enforce the provisions of such a law. 5. Greater emphasis must be placed upon the matter of conserving children's vision, especially from the standpoint of ( 1) finding and correcting the faulty conditions of vision, (2) providing properly lighted class and work rooms, ( 3 ) making special provision through conservation of vision classes for those having seriously defective eyesight. 6. While the care of the physical well-being of the child as far as his school life is concerned, is a duty which devolves upon teachers, nurses, school physicians, and other school personnel, this fact is in no sense to imply that parents are to be relieved of their duties . 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The city of Cincinnati is an example of a large municipality having an excellent program for sight conservation. The superintendent of schools and his assistants have extended a cordial invitation to all delegates to visit the schools. It is hoped that you may take advantage of this invitation and that you will observe some of this special work. The fol- lowing is a brief account of sight-saving activities in the Cincinnati schools : I. Examination of the eyes of school children-This work is under the direction of the city health officer who details one of his assistants for full- time service with the Board of Education. This officer has as his as- sistants physicians and nurses and there is a part-time doctor and nurse in each school building. Once every year a routine physical examination is made, a part of which is a simple Snellen chart test of visual acuity. The most obvious cases of poor vision are referred to an oculist for further examination. In this the nurses are given the responsibility by the school physician, of seeing that particular pupils are taken to an occulist or an eye clinic. Teachers and nurses both are urged to report to school physi- cians cases of eyestrain which they may observe from their daily contact with pupils. II. School representatives-In every school in Cincinnati there is a so- called "school representative," who keeps in close touch with the super- visor of sight conservation. It is the school representative's responsibility to learn from conference with the supervisor of sight conservation the principal efforts to be made in this direction and to carry these teachings back to her school and demonstrate them to the teachers. She also has the responsibility of securing from the school physician, nurses, and teach- ers a list of the pupils who are known to have or who are suspected of having seriously defective vision. The school representative then assists in helping to get glasses where they are needed and in such follow-up work as can be done better by the representative than by the school nurse. The school representative is also, to some extent, an authority on proper light- ing and seating to avoid any undue eyestrain. She also acts as an advocate for better lighting generally. The school representative may or may not be the teacher of the sight conservation class in the school. III. School lighting-An intensive campaign is being carried on by school authorities to obtain the best possible artificial lighting for all of the public schools. All of the sight conservation classrooms are equipped with the best lighting devices. The lighting in these rooms proved so satis- factory that there arose at once a demand for better lighting in the ordi- nary classrooms, and in consequence a number of classrooms have been equipped in similar manner. The financial burden, however, of changing the entire system of artificial lighting in the city would be too much to make sweeping changes. Therefore, in lieu of complete changes, frosted bulbs of high power are now being substituted for clear glass bulbs as fast as the latter have to be replaced. One school in Cincinnati deserves particular attention with respect to its lighting. The Sherman School, one of the oldest school buildings in the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 285 city, has been completely equipped with modern artificial lighting. The relief to pupils and teachers more than compensates for the expenditure made for this purpose. As a matter of fact, the pleasing effect of good light offsets the more or less obvious defects of an old school building and a heating system which still uses stoves. It is interesting to note in this connection that the lighting system of this building was installed by the pupils from the Electrical Department of the Vocational Schools; hence, it was done at a less cost than would have been necessary if a commercial concern had done the work. The actual cost for the 24 rooms of the Sherman School was approximately $3,000. It is estimated that this cost would have been $4,000 if done by an electrical contractor. This cost, $4,000, however, makes a total outlay of only $175 per room a very moderate expenditure to be made in improving an old school building, even if the expectation of use is only a few years. The cost becomes of little or no account when the saving of eyestrain, even for one year, is taken into consideration. The superintendent of schools and his associates are constantly striving for improved methods, both of artificial and natural lighting for installa- tion in new buildings which are to be erected. The city supervisor has a foot-candle meter, and upon the invitation of the principal of a school, will measure the light available in the various rooms. As the result of this activity, during the first year one school building was re-lighted and re-decorated and during the second year two more had the same treatment. All new buildings are now provided with modern lighting facilities. IV. The conservation of vision classes are under the direction of a woman known officially as the Principal of the School for the Blind. Her duties are largely supervisory. She has direct charge of seven classes, one of which is for blind children, who are finger readers. In addition to this direct responsibility for the organization of conservation of vision classes, she has general responsibility for conserving sight throughout the school system. She also has the responsibility of training teachers for Southern Ohio, of conferring with the State director in charge of conservation of vision classes, and of making a budget for the Cincinnati classes in her charge. She has responsibility for eleven full-time teachers and two part-time teachers . In the organization of the conservation of vision classes the most modern methods only are used. The ocular standard of admission to such classes is as follows : 1. Children who cannot read more than 6/24 at distance and who cannot read 2.00 at 20 c. m. 2. Myopes who have more than eight diopters of myopia. 3. Children who have progressive myopia. 4. Hyperopes who have symptoms of asthenopia and who have more than five diopters of hyperopia. 5. Children who have an astigmatism of more than 3.5 diopters and whose vision cannot be brought up to more than 6/24. 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 6. Children with maculae, nebulae, leuconae, which interfere with sight and lead to eyestrain. 7. Cases of keratitis. In the interstitial type, if the vision remains low after the eye has been quiet for three months, or in persistent recurrent conditions while under treatment. 8. Children having congenital cataracts, or secondary cataracts where no acute condition is present, with vision 6/15 or less. 9. Children having congenital malformations, where vision is 6/21 or less. 10. All cases having a chronic disease of the fundus, where the vision is 6/12 or less . NOTE. It is assumed that these conditions exist after the proper refrac- tions have been made. The teachers of the classes are required to have considerable familiarity with all of the eye conditions of the pupils in their charge and are re- quired to adjust the school work to the limitations set by the supervising oculist. This means in many instances personal service (which may fairly be called social service) outside of regular school hours. There is a yearly re-examination of the eyes of the children in the con- servation of vision classes, with the result that oftentimes there is such im- provement of vision that children are enabled to return to the regular classes. Every conservation of vision classroom is well-lighted, having the best natural and artificial light which the building provides. This is to conform to the general principal that conservation of vision class pupils must be subjected even less than the pupils of regular classes to any eye- strain. All seating in these classrooms is with modern adjustable and movable desks. Plenty of space is provided for physical training work and for manual work. All rooms are supplied with large tables which are used with the younger children for hand work and for elementary instruc- tion work. All of the rooms for older children are equipped with type- writers. The sight saving classrooms are either equipped with facilities for preparing a noon-day lunch by the teacher herself or in connection with a lunchroom in the school. This is necessary on account of the long distances which the children must travel in order to reach the conservation of vision classes. All material and devices especially adapted to children with poor sight are provided, such as large type books, large pencils, wide spaced paper, etc. As far as possible the children take their work with the regular classes and the special teacher has to a considerable extent tutorial responsibility in this respect. The classes are graded as far as possible, taking into consideration the small number of children who can be gathered in any one school. Two of the classes are in a junior high school building and one teacher has the responsibility for assisting pupils with poor sight in one of the senior high schools. The teachers of the classes are all specially trained for their work either by training in some other place or through an apprenticeship system in the Cincinnati schools. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 287 DISCUSSION MARY E. MURPHY, DIRECTOR, ELIZABETH MC- CORMICK MEMORIAL FUND The Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education has for many years realized that an important factor to be considered in connection with the health of school children is ventilation. For several years, there has been a Sub-committee on Ventilation which has studied the question, with the idea that recommendations similar to those which have been made in other fields might be presented by the Committee. There has been a development in the point of view of educators in general on this question from the attitude which considered only the needs of frail children to a realization that all children in all schools must have provisions for better air conditions in order to insure good health. The true story of the boy who brought his frail, undernourished friend to the open air school doctor with the query, "Say, doctor, how sick has a feller got to be to get in this 'ere school ?" continues to be a challenge. The Sub-committee on Ventilation has made a study, covering a period of years, of experiments in schoolroom ventilation. The members of the Committee themselves were convinced by certain successful instances that the proper method of ventilation was through simple, direct ways of ad- mitting fresh air, but they felt that it was necessary to have even more facts to present in making a recommendation of the general application of the method. Some of the instances referred to were not accompanied by records or studies which would furnish real evidence that might be used as a basis for a Committee report. Great strides have been made, however, by the New York State Com- mission on Ventilation, since the experiments made under this Commission extended over a long enough period and were checked by a sufficient num- ber of tests to make the findings sound. The observations and studies of the Commission indicate the advantage of direct admission of fresh air in schoolrooms over every other method of ventilation. The Committee on Ventilation of the Joint Committee on Health Prob- lems, therefore, feels that its most important function at this time is to make available to the public, and educators in particular, the findings and recommendations of this Ventilation Commission's Report, together with the observation of our Committee on other experiments which have been noted during the many years which we have followed this problem . The Commission's study included investigations into the physiological and psychological effects of various air conditions. Briefly, the findings were as follows : 1. The ordinary effects of stale air have nothing to do with oxygen or carbon dioxide content, but vitiated air has a distinct influence upon appetite and the inclination to physical work. 2. The factors in ventilation which produce bad effects are over-heating, excessive humidity, and lack of air movement. 3. Comparatively slight degrees of over-heating produce derangements in 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the circulatory system, lower efficiency, and tend to promote susceptibility to respiratory infection. Various methods of schoolroom ventilation in use were tested, including window and fan ventilation, humidification, and recirculated air, with the following conclusions : 1. Modified window ventilation alone without suitable means of exhaust was unsatisfactory, but with provisions for outlet through gravity ducts was found satisfactory. 2. Ventilation by plenum fans with gravity exhaust was satisfactory from the standpoint of aeration, but this system necessitates a higher temperature and provides a relatively constant temperature also. 3. Re- circulated air was found economical and harmless to health, but the humidity necessary produced discomfort and the air was stale. The important deduction from the survey of the various methods of ventilation was that window ventilation with provision for outlet was found the most satisfactory method. This deduction was based on observa- tion of the effects as regards comfort and effect on health, chiefly with reference to respiratory diseases. There was overwhelming evidence that the cooler room with less air movement was more comfortable. Two experiments in New York City-one lasting eight weeks and the other twelve weeks-made to test the relative merits of fan and window ventilation showed a definite excess of respiratory diseases among children in the fan ventilated room. The warmer fan ventilated room averaged 18 per cent more absences due to respiratory illness and 70 per cent more respiratory illness among the children in attendance. The study indicated that a slightly higher temperature and more uniform air conditions of the fan ventilated room tend to promote susceptibility to respiratory diseases. Window ventilation depends for its success upon certain provisions : 1. Radiators long enough to extend the full width of the window and pos- sibly somewhat beyond. They may be equipped with either automatic or hand control. Protection of the pupils from excessive heat can be provided for by metal shields. 2. Deflecting boards placed at the bottom of the windows, the windows being opened from the bottom. 3. Window shades firmly attached-preferably double shades attached mid- way between the top and bottom, to prevent movement due to the air flow. 4. Exhaust ducts with an area of not less than eight square feet for a 40-pupil room, placed opposite the windows, provided with dampers which may be adjusted to suit the weather conditions. These ducts should be car- ried up through the interior of the building, with opening on the roof. 5. The schoolroom should not be overcrowded. 6. A large thermometer with a danger signal pointing at 68° should be under the constant observation of the teacher. Modified window ventilation has been employed with great success in several schools designed by Mr. Samuel Wheeler. Notable examples are the Sherman School at Fairfield, Conn., and the Longfellow School at Bridgeport, Conn. In these schools large rooms are provided with two NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 289 outlets leading to the roof. Repeated observations of these schools have indicated to the Committee the success of the method. An example of a large school ventilated in a similar way is the Thomas Snell Weaver High School, at Hartford, Conn., which was designed by Frank Irving Cooper. The results here will be watched with particular interest, because practically all the other experiments have been in smaller schools. This school accommodates about 1300 pupils. The chief difficulty in the path of admission of fresh air into the school- room by direct methods is the present and pending legislation. In many States there are laws requiring 30 cubic feet of air supply per minute per pupil. These were based on the belief that air change was the main issue in good ventilation, which the recent studies have proved erroneous. Ventilating engineers are planning to promote legislation throughout the country based on this assumption . Open window ventilation cannot provide 30 cubic feet of air supply per pupil per minute and, therefore, would be illegal in States where such laws exist. It is, therefore, important that an educational program be promoted which shall make widely available the facts concerning air con- ditions and lead to the revision of legislation in regard to schoolroom ventilation which shall permit of window ventilation. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AMERICAN TEACHERS COLLEGES —ABSTRACT CHARLES MCKENNY, PRESIDENT, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE YPSILANTI , MICHIGAN, CHAIRMAN The Committee on Teachers Colleges, of which I am chairman, is today making its fourth report. The first report was a general survey of the entire field to discover the number of teachers colleges, the degrees which they offer, the number of graduates, the year in which they began granting degrees, the number of degrees granted, the academic and professional qualifications of their faculties, the faculty load, and other interesting items. The first report was the result of an investigation carried on by the chairman . The second report was an exhaustive and illuminating study on "Sum- mer Sessions in State Teachers' Colleges," and was presented by Dr. Joseph E. Avent. The third report was made by Dr. F. R. Hamilton on "Fiscal Support of State Teachers' Colleges." This was a scholarly and valuable investiga- tion which brought out the fact that in the ten States studied the cost per student to the State in 1923 for a year's attendance at a teachers' college, exclusive of capital outlay, was seventeen per cent lower than it was in 1913, and that during the same period the cost per student to the State for a year's attendance at a university or agricultural college, exclusive of 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION capital outlay, was ten per cent higher than in 1913. During the decade ending 1923 the teachers' colleges and normal schools of the country have been much curtailed in their work through lack of financial support. It is a great misfortune that the Council has no means of publishing its reports, for the data collected by Dr. Hamilton should have the broadest publicity. The fourth report will be presented today by President L. B. Mc- Mullen, of Flagstaff, Arizona, on "The Teacher's Load." THE TEACHING OR SERVICE LOAD IN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES-ABSTRACT OF PRELIMINARY REPORT L. B. MCMULLEN , ASSOCIATE IN NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION , TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AND PRESIDENT, NORTHERN ARIZONA NORMAL SCHOOL, FLAGSTAFF , ARIZONA Purpose-A study of approximately 2500 individual teachers in ap- proximately 75 teacher-training institutions of the United States to deter- mine (1 ) whether or not these institutions are able at present to reach the standards set up by the American Association of Teachers Colleges (20 ) whether or not the present use of time in the various departments, e.g. art, education, English, etc., is in need of being weighted in order to secure an equitable distribution and, if so, what the weighting should be, (3 ) to compare the service load of teacher training institutions with that in uni- versities and colleges. Procedure Diary blanks were sent out to 4000 teachers in approxi- mately 100 institutions, in which blanks the teachers kept an accurate record for one week (using a ten-minute interval as the unit) of the time spent in the following activities :-( 1 ) class work, (2) committee work, (3) exercise and recreation, (4) outside or home work, (5) preparation for school work, (6) routine work, (7) student conferences and super- vision, (8) miscellaneous activities. See Questionnaire for details. Results From data of 29 schools in 22 States, 1118 individuals (this being a part of the date, only.) Class work, midscore 15 hours per week, range from 1 to 25 plus " ،، " Committee 3 1 24 " " Recreation 3 1 25 plus " 66 “ " " Outside work 9 1 25 " " Preparation 8 1 25 " Routine 9 1 25 “ " 6 1 25 Student help " " Miscellaneous 8 1 25 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 291 Total work having a direct bearing upon instruction between 40 and 42 hours per week, ranging from less than 12 to 78. Recommendations-( 1 ) That the training school corps be graded up to the level of the other departments of the schools, in scholastic preparation and salary. ( 2) That by better schedule making, by faculty discussion, and more careful supervision, the range of service load be decreased. ( 3 ) That this Association attempt to increase, in the public mind and in the minds of its teachers, the recognition of the principle that teacher training is a full-time job . QUESTIONNAIRE FOREWORD TO COOPERATING TEACHERS The American Association of Teachers Colleges has asked its Committee on Standards and Surveys to make an intensive study of the teaching or service load of the teachers in teacher training institutions. Out of such an investigation will come results of value to teachers colleges and to the teachers themselves . The committee believes that the most promising way to collect the necessary data is to ask several thousand teachers to keep an accurate diary for one week, using the blanks and the code herein provided. Please go at the work of making this report with an open mind. It is not an impossible task. It has been done on a small scale and it can be done on a large one if you will give it intelligent, conscientious,, and accurate attention.-Com- mittee on Standards and Surveys : W. P. Morgan, Chairman, H. A. Brown, E. S. Evenden, Acting for the Committee, L. B. McMullen. GENERAL DIRECTIONS If there is a delay in the mails and you can not begin on December 7, begin as soon thereafter as possible and continue for seven days-crossing out the dates printed in the Diary ( pages ........ ) and inserting the correct ones . In the Class Data below-in column 3 use your 1922-25 catalog ; in 5 indicate fully, e. g. , 9 to 9:50 ; in 6 use M. T. W. Th. F. S.; in 7 give the live enrolment for the week; in 8 give the year above high school graduation in which the course is scheduled or usually taken; in 9 put the number of times you have taught the course ( here or elsewhere) including the present. In using the Code-add the number that you have given to the class in the class data (if a class is involved) . For example, a ten-minute period spent in talking to class number one would be recorded as Ct. 1. In the Diary each block represents ten minutes. Blocks are provided from 6 A.M. to 12 P.M. Put in each block one of the abbreviations explained on page 2. If your occupation is not provided for, leave the block blank. When the record is completed (including the Summary) enclose it in the envelope provided, seal, and return it to the office of your school for forwarding to the above-named committee. 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PERSONAL DATA Name of Institution . Date of First Employment in it......... Years of Experience ( including present) . Married ? ... Sex ? .... Degrees ? .... Position held in Institution ...... .Name.. CODE Class Work Routine Work Cd-Teaching a demonstration lesson. Ra-Attending school assemblies . Ce-Examination, quiz or test. Re-Correcting papers, notebooks, etc., Cf -Field trip or excursion. not exam. papers . Cl-Laboratory work ( with class ) . Rd-Departmental meetings. Cr-Class recitation. Re-Examination papers, correcting of. Cs- Supervision of study. Rf - Faculty meetings . Ct-Talking or lecturing to a class. Rl-Letters on school business . Committee Work Ro-Office relationships, requisitions, reports , etc. Cm a-Work of .............. commitee Rp-Conferences or visits with parents. Cm b-Work of .... .committee Rr-Recording of class attendance, Cm c-Work of .... .committee daily grades (class book work) . Cm d-Work of . .... .committee Rs -Speaking at or conducting school assemblies . Exercise or Recreation Rt -Travel for school, no extra pay. Ee-Entertainments, concerts , theatres , etc. Ei-Indoor exercise and gymnasium Student Relations games . Eo-Outdoor exercise and outdoor Sc-Coaching athletics, dramatics , de- games. bate, etc. Es - Social games, cards, chess, billiards, Se-Extra- curricular activities super- etc. vision, chaperoning, etc. Sg-Group conferences with students. Outside Work Si-Individual conferences with stu- Oh-Household or home, garden, chick- dents. ens, etc. St -Teaching in training school, super- Oi-Investments or business interests . vision of. Ol -Lectures for pay including prep- aration. Op-Work for pay (not writing books Work of Special Nature or articles) . Ow-Writing books or magazine ar- Wb-Book reading, not class prepara- ticles for pay. tion. We-Educational magazines, reading of. Preparation for School Work Wm-Magazine reading in general ( in- Pd-Planning and study for a demon- clude weekly periodicals ) . stration lesson. Wp-Professional meetings , State or Pl-Laboratory housekeeping. sectional . Pm-Preparing or collecting material Wr-Research in education, personal. of a supplementary nature. Wt-Talks at institutes, parents meet- Po-Planning or study for observation. ings, etc. (without pay) . Pr-Planning or study for recitation. Wv-Visiting other schools or the Ps-Planning or study for supervision. classes of others . Pt -Planning or study for class talk or Ww-Writing for books or periodicals lecture. without pay. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 293 CLASS DATA 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 Code Cat .No. No. Department NAME OF CLASS Day of Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 DIARY' SUNDAY- December 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1Similar forms were provided for the other days of the week, Monday, Dec. 8 to Saturday, Dec, 13, inclusive. SUMMARY Count each symbol in the Diary and record the number (not minutes) below Cd Ct Ei Op Pr Re Rt Wb Ce Cma Eo Ow Ps Rf Sc We Cf Cmb Es Pd Pt RI Se Wm Ro C1 Cmc Oh Pl Ra Sg Wp Rp Wr Cr Cmd Oi Pm Re Rr Si Wt Wv Cs Fe ΟΙ Po Rd Rs St Ww 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE STILL PICTURE IN EDUCATION PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION, KANSAS STATE TEACH- ERS' COLLEGE, EMPORIA, KANSAS, AND READ BY CARL W. SALSER, DIRECTOR OF EXTENSION The stereopticon has become so important a factor in education that no school can afford to be without one. Its uses are many, its operation is simple, and its cost is trivial in comparison to the service it renders. Some educators who have not investigated its possibilities, nor experimented with it in recent times, may still look upon it as a toy, or as merely a means of entertainment. Though most of the leading schools are using it now to a greater or less extent, in but few places has it fully come into its own. The slide which is thrown on the screen has certain advantages over any other kind. It is large, so that the whole class may concentrate on the same thing at the same time. The teacher may point out the particular things she wishes them to observe. Help from the teacher is next to impossible while different members of the class are looking at different things. The darkened room also has its advantages. When a room is flooded with light, Johnny is as much interested in what Willie is doing as he is in what the teacher is saying. When there is little to be seen except the picture on the screen, the attention of the most restless is easily held. The moving picture also has stalked into the progressive school and es- tablished itself there, but it has its distinctive field and can never do the work of the still picture. In the first place, any school can soon acquire a stock of slides for the pictorial representation of fundamental things in any course, and these slides are always available. Movie films are ex- pensive, difficult to preserve, and often impossible to replace. At present, no school can keep a stock sufficient for its own use. Advantages of the still picture-For many purposes a still picture is preferable. It stays in sight as long as the teacher may wish. It may be returned to view instantly. It may be shown alternately with other pictures for the sake of comparison. Of many objects, fully as compre- hensive a view may be obtained from a still picture as from a moving one, and sometimes a far more satisfactory view, such as, for example, scenes along the Panama Canal, the Capitol Building at Washington, a banana tree, or George Washington. The range of subjects that may be shown with slides is infinitely greater than that of films. Any picture from photograph, post card, magazine, or book can easily be reproduced on a slide and added to the permanent col- lection. A teacher is fortunate who is able to get a film to illustrate any particular thing he may wish, and if he does get it he must use it at once and return it. When moving pictures are used in the classroom the pic- tures determine largely what shall be taught. But with slides the subject taught determines largely what picture shall be used. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 295 Another point is worth mentioning here. The operation of the new stereopticon is a simple matter. When the incandescent light is used, all the operator needs to do is to switch on the electric current and adjust his focus. The whole operation is as simple as turning on an electric light and adjusting an opera glass. With slides now being printed on short-length films and the automatic stereopticon provided, the handling is even more simple and the shipment of slides is greatly simplified and cheapened. Experience with reflectoscopes, or with any contrivance so far devised for throwing a reflection of any object or picture directly on the screen, has been, as a rule, rather disappointing. For satisfactory work, all light must be shut out of the room. In the average schoolroom this is difficult, if not impossible. Even when this is done, the image shown is never so distinct as that thrown by a stereopticon. When direct reflection is made, everything is reversed, as it is in a mirror. This gives a wrong impression that is sometimes quite serious. When a lantern is used that makes a double reflection and so sets the picture right, there is inevitably consider- able additional loss in the distinctness of the image. Where a dark room is provided, reflection from the original may now be done quite satis- factorily. The slide shows as correct a picture of an object as a photograph is. Slides may be satisfactorily used in semi-darkness with almost any stereopticon with satisfactory results. Ordinary dark green window shades pulled down and pinned, or otherwise fastened at the sides, will shut out the light sufficiently for a fairly good picture. Unlimited possibilities in the use of slides-The possibilities in lantern slides are practically unlimited. Perhaps they render the greatest aid to the geography teacher, but they also come in for invaluable help to the teachers of history, science, art, English, and even foreign languages . When children, or even grown people, see pictures of places or persons, they have more vivid and lasting impressions than they get from reading.. No amount of reading will produce such an impression of the court of Louis XIV and its grandeur as will a series of pictures of Versailles and its gardens. The slide is not being used in teaching literature except by a few who have come to appreciate its great value. At present no teacher is realizing all of its possibilities because the slides are not available. But sooner or later the slides will be an indispensable part of the equipment of every up- to-date schoolroom where literature is being taught. Robert Burns becomes a real personality with flesh and bones to the student who has seen his birthplace, Alloway Kirk, the Brig o' Doon, the room where the poet died, and the tomb that inclosed all that was mortal about him. In a similar way, interest may be awakened or greatly aug- mented in the personality and works of Shakespeare, Scott, Stevenson, Hawthorne, or almost any other literary character. But making the poets live again in the minds of the young is not all that may be done by the use of slides. To arouse the imaginations of the 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION young readers so that they may see things is one difficulty in teaching literature. If the teacher of literature could develop in members of his classes the power to get images from the printed page, and did nothing more, his labor would not be in vain. The slide is a potent aid to him in securing such a desirable end. If a class, for instance, while studying a lyric could all of them together look at a picture of what some great artist has seen in that lyric; if they could talk about it and compare the picture with the lines in the lyric, surely they would be able to see some- thing more in the next lyric read. Such pictures are to be found in the edition of Palgraves' "Golden Treasury," illustrated by Maxfield Parrish. Unfortunately this expensive and easily damaged book can not be used satisfactorily before a whole class at once. But slides, made from some of these admirable illustrations, would enable the teacher to accomplish about the same result. Shakespeare's plays were written to be seen, not read. Too seldom, alas! have beginners in Shakespeare ever seen any production of one of the great plays, much less a highly artistic presentation of one. Edmund Dulac's illustrations of "A Midsummer Night's Dream" or Hugh Thomp- son's pictures of "The Tempest" will add new beauties to exquisite pas- sages in those plays and stimulate new interest in the lines. All children love illustrated books, and most of us are childish in that particular. A few good pictures in a book excite curiosity. They are alluring temptations to read the whole story and at the same time increase the interest in the places, characters, and events depicted. The high price that publishers of magazines pay for a good illustration indicates their estimate of its value in "putting a story over." If children can see Frederick Remington's illustrations of "Hiawatha" on the screen, they are eager for the poem and will find greater delight in reading it. High school students will be similarly affected by E. Boyd Smith's illustrations of "Ivanhoe." But these pictures are copyrighted, some one may object. That is true, and therefore slide copies of them can not be sold. But every school system can easily be equipped to make its own slides. The process is neither intricate nor difficult. Anyone who can develop kodak films and plates and print pictures therefrom can easily learn to make slides. Neither is the equipment or materials for making slides so very expensive. No school that makes slides for use in its own classrooms is going to be disturbed by owners of copyrights. A few schools are using such pictures extensively in this way. Others are sure to follow. In history-One of the primary objects in the teaching of history is to make the past so real that the child will himself relive the historical ex- periences of the past. Pictures then should be used as aids to visualization not as objects to be visualized. Imagination that makes the picture real involves something more than a mere impression on the eye. Unless the pupil has been trained in the process of arriving at a conception of size the idea formed from the picture will be unreal and even absurd. The details NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 297 of an historical picture are important and to see details requires resource- fulness which comes only from careful training. But while the sense of reality through details is important the reality must in turn have meaning. The picture should provide not only images but ideas, which is the large aim in history teaching. The most desirable pictures for younger pupils are those that tell a story. The Lehmann series of wall pictures are among the best for the purpose. The story of medieval life is told more vividly in one of these pictures representing a medieval town than in pages of a text. How the people lived, how they built their houses, manufactured their goods and exchanged their wares, are all revealed in a striking and impressive manner . The picture to be of real historical value must be historically accurate. Unfortunately this is not true even of pictures found in textbooks. It is as great a violation of historical truth to have the illustration inaccurate as it is to have the text misleading. Lentze's picture of Washington Crossing the Delaware has little value from the standpoint of history be- cause it violates both the truth of history and of nature. The history teacher not only has an opportunity to impress facts and ideas through the use of pictures, but by carefully selected pictures a love for the best in art can be acquired. An appreciation of music by public school pupils has been developed to a high degree in recent years by hear- ing good music. To appreciate a Raphael or a Da Vinci is equally as im- portant, and the history teacher can help to raise the standard of art ap- preciation through the careful selection of pictures used in connection with the teaching of history. Pictures of persons, places, and objects associated with world significant events should be so used by the teacher of history that these representations will be recognized immediately by the pupils without name or label. Too frequently there has been a lack of connection between the picture and the text in our American textbooks in history. In Europe the arrangement is better. It is common in France and elsewhere in Europe to find historical albums consisting of several volumes to accompany the study of historical fields. The pictures illuminate the text and the text explains the pictures. The Germans also have surpassed us in the creation and use of pictorial matter. In fact history is taught quite as much from the wall pictures as from the printed page. But the use of pictures is fast becoming a practice in our American schools and the supply is practically unlimited. Picture post-cards, photographs, illustration in newspapers, magazines, and books, lantern slides, wall pictures are available in abundance and sure to enrich and make effective the work of the history teacher. Pictures to be of real educational value must be of interest to the pupil, serve as an aid to the interpretation of the text, must conform to historical accuracy, and if possible, represent real art. In Latin-One of the most effective uses of the slide is found in Latin classes-high school or college. In fact the still picture should be used 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to demonstrate clearly the general nature and practical use of Latin to pupils and their parents shortly before the children are promoted to the grade in which Latin is offered. Parents who may doubt the advisability of urging their children to take up the subject will see in a few minutes the immediate practical application of Latin to every-day life, and the children themselves will see the objective points in this new subject. A few concrete examples will suffice: a slide showing a page of Webster's dictionary with all the words derived from Latin clearly underscored. A diagram of a tree with video for the roots and the branches bearing 50-75 English words from this one Latin word alone shows vividly the way our mother tongue grew from classical sources. The preamble of the Constitution, or some other well-known paragraph, showing all the words of Latin origin in italics and a parallel form showing the Latin clement left blank. It is clear at a glance, then that the thought words of the English language are largely Latin in origin. English spelling is often a matter of understanding the original form of the word. With a knowledge of Latin a high school student is not likely to miss the "o" in temporal, "a" in separate or "a" in portable and "i" in audible. He also sees that hundreds of Latin words have been trans- ferred to English directly. Common abbreviations have a real meaning to the boy or girl with a knowledge of their originals. The slide will put these facts before larger numbers than any other means. Without further detail, let us note a few other slides that show im- mediately the connection of Latin with every-day life: Musical terms in modern Italian are clear to a student of Latin. French, Spanish, Italian, and English words in parallel columns bear witness to a common Latin ancestor. Latin forms the key to the meaning of the terms of the natural sciences. The direct and indirect bearing of Latin upon business and the various professions. The debt of modern architecture to that of Greece and Rome as seen in our public buildings and the Italian or Spanish style of dwelling houses. The seals of States having Latin mottoes of classical origin are brought vividly to mind, as are recent cartoons dealing with current topics, and the debt of modern advertising and commercialized names to Latin. Ideally considered, the Latin room should be fitted with sufficient equip- ment to flash pictures on the screen at the psychological moment during the recitation. Without frequent and numerous pictorial illustrations, Latin words to the youthful mind tend to become algebraic symbols, learned with reference to English definitions rather than to a concrete image of the real object. The pupil may use toga, domus, gladius, lectica, etc., with some understanding, but without the illustration before him at the time he first uses the word, he often goes without a vivid mental picture of the object. The Roman house (domus) is revealed by the slide in its various stages of development, with its interior arrangement, decorations, furniture and utensils. The class sees at once that life among the Romans NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 299 was a living reality and soon forgets what they have often heard about Latin being a dead language. Probably the average student of Latin and history conceives the notion that the Roman dress consisted of a toga, tunic, and a pair of sandals, but a few accurate slides on wearing apparel show definitely the various gar- ments worn by men and women at home or abroad for ceremonial use and for every-day life. On the screen the toilet articles of the Roman lady prove to be no less important than those of a lady of fashion today. In games and amusements tunic-clad children are seen playing with dolls, balls, skipping ropes, or knuckle bones, while the play activities of the adult life are shown in the cock fighting, dice-playing, chariot-racing, gladiatorial combats, and theatrical performances of that day. The in- sertion of an occasional slide of modern games and amusements serves to show that the play instinct is pretty much the same in the ancient and modern world. Trades and crafts picture agricultural implements and those of other occupations, such as carpenters, masons, merchants, and weavers, all as- sembled with great care from paintings, portraits, statues, coins, and from Pompeian and Roman ruins. Means of conveyance with their use and social standing are clearly portrayed, and in this day of hasty and inadequate road building, the Roman road, with its thorough methods of construction, stands out in striking contrast, showing conclusively that the Roman built not for his day alone but for succeeding generations. Thus by a serial in organized form the pupil is given a systematic con- ception of the main facts of Roman private life. Cæsar with his thumb- worn copy of the Commentaries becomes a living reality through the agency of a few well-chosen slides. Anecdotes of Cæsar, the Roman school of his boyhood days, scenes from his official and private life, the games provided by the ædiles, striking scenes from Gallic campaigns and the Civil War, the crossing of the Rubicon, the assassination, and Mark Antony's famous funeral oration are all worked out chronologically to give adistinct pictorial presentation of"the greatest Roman of them all." Virgil's Æneas wanders over the sea, and the slide shows him in the shock of battle, in the consternation of shipwreck, at Dido's court, in Sicily directing funeral games in honor of his sire, or treading the paths of the Elysian fields in the world below. The most conspicuous characters and episodes of Virgil's masterpiece lend themselves readily to pictorial illustration, and form one of the most attractive sets that can be placed before Latin classes. Certainly it would be a great loss if the most pic- turesque stories of classical mythology from Virgil and Ovid should not be reproduced for the masses by lantern slides or reflectoscope from many of the world's most attractive paintings. From the foregoing illustrations it must be concluded that the value and influence of the Latin class is increased many fold by the judicious use ofslides. 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The stereograph-It need only be pointed out here in passing that the stereograph, so far as suitable subjects will permit its use, is the most valuable of still pictures because of its third dimension. It creates a more perfect illusion brings out a wealth of detail and does not tire by its use. With valuable subject-matter printed on the back, the stereograph is convenient and ideal for individual study. It is also easily indexed and accessible. Being a photograph of an actual situation and not an artificial one the stereograph has every quality except color and this lack is made up to a large extent by its depth and the ability on the part of the ob- server to look into and around the different parts of the object or situation which has been photographed and mounted for the stereoscope. Thisen- ables the student to see an object in its right relation and lessens the danger of incongruity in the mind of the learner. In smaller classes the stereo- graph is especially valuable. Posters and charts-The lantern slide and motion-picture film have been so generally thought of as material for use in visual instruction that we have in many places overlooked the possibilities of the chart and poster in the schoolroom. This is not true in the commercial field however. To all 1 of us are familiar the great posters urging us to "keep that schoolgirl com- plexion" or assuring us that there are "moments that count." We know from similar sources that some makes of automobiles are "dependable" and even more so if they use tires that are "best in the long run." Those of us who run and read as straphangers know of the "57 varieties" and the merits of Blank's brand of spaghetti. We who read the commercial publications have studied Babson's charts, or read the graphs published by the Interstate Commerce Commission know President Walter Dill Scott was voicing our thoughts when he said, "Whenever we are puzzled by a confused mass of figures, whenever we want to get at the heart of a matter, we are glad to see a chart that gets down to the fundamentals and explains our uncertainty." We all agree that there is something about a chart that gives us a mastery over detail. It seems to present a complex situation as a panorama with each detail in its place and the relations and inter-relations orderly and definite. John H. Patterson, of the National Cash Register Company, says that a busi- ness and its relations that cannot be outlined, diagrammed, and charted has no reason for existence. Following that plan he has produced a series of charts, not only of his own organization but also of the various govern- mental activities. The General Electric Company teaches governmental and civic problems to Americanization classes for alien workers by using posters and charts; there must be a strong reason for so doing. They say it is because of the threefold appeal to the eye, the brain, and to action ; because they lend a spirit of animation to the printed information, thereby making it dynamic. Edgar W. Cooley, of the Educational Extension Department of the International Harvester Company, says years of experience have taught the Department two great truths. One of these is that people of all NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 301 classes, of all environments, have one thing in common-a desire to learn. The second truth is that no other method of instruction is so efficient as the visual method. As a means of obtaining knowledge, the eye is vastly more effective than the ear. What we see we more readily retain than what we hear. Department lecturers realize that were they deprived of the use of charts and similar helps their talks would lose half their effec- tiveness. At the Kansas State Teachers College, we encourage poster contests in the Training School. These posters cover many fields-better lawns, health, swat the fly, better books, dress, better English, and many others. We emphasize poster making in art classes because of the benefit which will come to the schools where this instruction will later be given. From our Extension Division are sent out sets of poster charts in the interests of better schools for country children. We have prepared in colors a photographic exhibit 8 feet high and 36 feet long showing some of the consolidated schools of Kansas. This was first shown at Cleveland and later used at State and county fairs. We find these poster charts arouse a considerable interest without creating antagonism to the cause we wish to help. The place of the poster has yet to be developed but we believe it has a place that through it we can easily and effectively reach many who could not otherwise be reached. This is especially true for the non-reader or the person in a hurry. Surgener says, "This picture tells me in an instant what would be spread over ten printed pages," and Arthur Brisbane affirms with, "A simple picture is worth a million words if the picture is right." The use of original paintings, watercolors, bronzes, miniatures, and etchings is a method of visual education by still pictures or objects, com- plementary to all the others mentioned. Many such exhibits may be obtained from organizations like the American Federation of Arts, the Chicago Society of Artists, the Taos colony of Artists, and from the artists individually, as, for example, Gerrit Beneker's industrial paint- ings. A permanent exhibit room is advisable for such exhibits, as there should be several exhibits in the course of a year, each exhibit remaining at least a month for its proper use. A regular fund for the support of such exhibits should be available; at Emporia Teachers College five per cent of the "student activity" fee goes to the Art Committee, which manages these exhibits, making a sum of about five hundred dollars per year. Students become very fond of these exhibits. They drop in to the exhibit room between classes or at noon and spend a few minutes of quiet contemplation of what is usually another world. The English and Latin and history classes find material for discussion; the newspaper English classes write art criticism; the Training School boys and girls visit the exhibits with their teachers and write their own interesting interpretation ; the classes in home decoration and landscape gardening find material 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for their use. Of course, the exhibits are immensely useful to the Art department. But beyond all this, the individual student is forming ideas of the fitness of things, of color, of design, of the everlasting utility as well as beauty of art. His home will be different, the skyline of his town ten or fifteen years hence will be different because of the impressions and impulses gained from these exhibits. Kellogg Library, at Emporia Teachers College, has a collection of some thirty thousand mounted and classified pictures. They are selected from magazines, advertising pamphlets, prints such as the Perry and University, and from wornout books. Supplementing this is a collection of illustrated books. This material lends itself to the needs of geography, history, literature, screen art, costume and pageantry, the classics, almost anything a school teaches. Last year, over 18,000 mounted pictures were checked out for use. We believe emphatically that the modern development of educational method and curriculum gives great opportunity for the wise and sys- tematic use of the still picture, whether in the form of slide, stereograph, photograph, mounted picture, chart, or original painting. THE ORGANIZATION OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION A. G. BALCOM, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK NEW JERSEY The use of material at hand-The appeal of the eye may be stressed in teaching in utilizing all of the resources of the average classroom equip- ment with little or no expense. The blackboard is for the use of teacher and pupils and not for ornamentation. It should be used to illustrate the subject-matter of the grade in so far as this is possible. Greater use should be made of the modern map, as it contains a wealth of information. Here may be found the location of places, transportation routes, topography, climatic influences, distances, and resources that contribute to man's neces- sities. Much more may be learned from the map than is ordinarily taught. More should be made of the picture illustrations that abound so freely in the modern textbook. Here is a fruitful field of work where the surface has hardly been scratched. These picture illustrations not only give in- formation on the subjects to which they relate but should serve as a means to word study and language work based on definite concepts. There should be in every classroom a pictorial corner to which every pupil may make a contribution gathered from the newspaper and magazine. Before these are hung up there should be a brief evaluation of them by the class and teacher. Cartoons, charts, and graphs should be made the basis of study in connection with the subjects of the curriculum on which they have a bearing. I know of a teacher who interested her pupils in collecting worth while pictures from the pictorial supplements of newspapers, magazines, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 303 and old books which they mounted on cards and classified. This collection became a source of information that proved of great value to this class and subsequent classes that were fortunate enough to be assigned to this teacher. Picture study may be further enhanced by giving attention to the pictures that adorn the walls of so many classrooms-some of these are reproduc- tions of famous paintings while others have splendid material for oral and written language. When I was in charge of an individual school I can recall such a classroom which had four fine pictures on the wall, two of which were Millet's "The Angelus" and Landseer's "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner" respectively. On the part of one teacher who occupied the room for over a year there was not to my knowledge a single reference made to these pictures, but when another teacher took the room, a study was made of them in which the class took the greatest interest. There was made an appeal to the imagination in which each pupil interpreted what the pictures meant to him. This led the pupils to find out all they could about these artists from the reference books in the school and at the public library. From the foregoing it will be seen that much teaching may be vitalized through making the most of picture illustrations within the reach of all teachers. The stereograph-The stereograph becomes a vital aid to teaching if it is used in connection with a definite plan. No other type of illustration gives such an opportunity of developing keenness of observation, initiative, and self-expression as the stereograph when used by a resourceful teacher. The appearance of depth and life-like effect in the stereograph is given through the use of a two-lens camera which presents one picture of the object as it appears to the right eye and the other as it appears to the left eye. When using a stereoscope to view these pictures the two images are blended by the mind so that they appear as one with the effect of relief. There should be in every school, where stereographs are a part of the visual equipment, a teacher who is enthusiastic and experienced in the handling of them and who will be willing to demonstrate their use to other teachers from time to time. The slide-The improvement of the modern stereopticon with its mazda lamp enables the teacher to use slides without fussing and trouble. It has been found that dark shades and a screen are really not needed to show slides in the classroom, for with the ordinary shades drawn and the lantern placed on a movable stand near the front of the room or on one of the front seats with the blackboard as a screen a clear sharp picture may be had large enough to be seen from every part of the room. This does away with the expense involved in providing dark shades and a screen. Some prefer the daylight screen in which fairly good projection may be had within a certain angle of vision but, in my opinion, not so satisfactory from all parts of the room as when the blackboard is used. Besides when the screen is used, it becomes one more thing to be handled by the teacher. Other things being equal, the fewer factors that enter into the showing of slides will result in the greater use of them by the busy teacher. Show 304 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing slides under these conditions involves a good light in the lantern which can be obtained by always having the lamp, mirror, and lens properly lined up. More than half of the schools of Newark have a collection of slides of their own that belong to the principal or have been purchased through the Board of Education. In an inventory taken three years ago these slides in the schools numbered approximately 25,000 with 300 in some schools and 1700 in some of the larger schools. About this time it was decided to have available for the schools from a central depository a collection of slides not duplicating those belonging to the individual schools. This collection has grown until now it numbers 8000 with definite plans for its enlargement each year. All slides for teaching should have good photography and should be used in connection with a definite plan of presentation and development of the lesson. Simply showing pictures is not teaching. The motion picture film-The film is the youngest member of the family of visual aids, and by reason of the element of motion given to the objects represented it is likely to become the most effective, particularly where motion prevails. The film has its limitations and only should be used when its presentation of the subject lends greater reality than can be given in any other way. The film and the motion picture machine are expensive as compared with other illustrative material and therefore should be restricted to uses as above indicated. We all have much to learn in handling the film for instructional purposes. There will be various meth- ods evolved by different teachers as applied to the use of film in the audi- torium and in the classroom. In my judgment, no film should ever be shown for instructional purposes without the purpose of its being used set forth by the teacher or the one in charge. Pupils who are to see the film should be prepared by the information contained in a digest or synopsis which should be in the hands of the teacher three or four days in advance. Commenting on the film while it is being shown is recom- mended, particularly, for the ear-minded pupils. A reaction on the film to clarify the impressions made by it is quite necessary. Where a number of classes assemble in the auditorium for a film showing, it is a good thing to have them take turns in handling the film, one class doing it at one time and another class the next time. One group of pupils may give the teaching purposes, another group may read the titles orally, and another group conduct the reaction . Where the authorities are committed to a policy of using film for in- structional purposes in a large city school system, the purchase of film will prove to be more economical than renting. In Newark we began to pur- chase film three years ago and have now over 300 reels in our film library. More than half of these are new prints with the remainder made up of used films gathered from many sources. There is no film in the library but that will serve some instructional purpose. The film still picture-This, in my judgment marks a forward step in visual instruction though it is in an experimental stage. The pictures are NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 305 printed on a strip of standard width non-inflammable motion picture film and are from 25 to 50 in number. A specially constructed lantern is used where the optical system allows the light to pass to the film but not the heat. This is specially recommended for classroom use. With further experimentation and development there will be fine possibilities in this type of picture presentation. At present the pictures suffer in definition and light as compared with the slide. The contribution of the library and museum to the schools-Newark is fortunate in having a public library and museum, which are administered in the interests of the schools. Inspection of many classrooms in the Newark schools will reveal much illustrative material in the form of pic- tures, charts, specimens, and exhibits that have been supplied by the public library and museum to teachers who are trying to improve their teaching through its use. Those who have charge of this work are most anxious to serve the schools and are pleased to get suggestions from teachers as to type of material that will be most helpful. The Museum has about 65,000 objects and will have more when the new building is completed. The library has over 500,000 pictures, many of which reinforce these objects. The Children's Room and the School Department have reference books and information files consisting of clippings, pamphlets, and periodicals as well as classroom libraries. All of these have been used freely by teachers and pupils in the Newark Schools and will be used to a greater extent as time passes . The department of visual instruction-In a large school system there should be a Department of Visual Instruction to unify the various agencies that contribute to this type of teaching. It should be under the direction of a practical schoolman or woman who has had many years of successful experience in the classroom and who has the vision that the greatest factor in education is the teacher and that all else is secondary. This department should have the leadership of one who sees that visual aids are a means to an end and that much teaching may be done without their use at all. This department should conduct experiments to test the relative value of visual aids and should make a study of equipment to the end of getting that which is up-to-date, efficient, dependable, and economical. This department should give teachers an opportunity to be trained in the use of visual aids and to this end there should be a highly successful teacher of experience who has a vision of the appeal of the eye in education and who would spend her time in the field giving demonstration lessons and assistance to teachers. The organization of visual instruction along the foregoing lines will stimu- late teachers to a more careful preparation of their work and give pupils an added interest in the pursuit of knowledge. 306 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A LAST WORD CONCLUDING STATEMENTS OF A REPORT ON VISUAL EDUCATION MADE BEFORE THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION AT TWO DIFFERENT SESSIONS ; THE FIRST AT SAN FRANCISCO, JULY 5, 1923, AND THE SECOND AT CINCINNATI, OHIO, FEBRUARY 25, 1925 L. N. HINES, PRESIDENT, INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TERRE HAUTE AND CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON VISUAL EDUCATION About three years ago, President Seerley, of the Iowa State Teachers' College, and then president of the National Council of Education, appointed a committee to make a report on visual education, materials, methods, system , etc. The committee appointed by President Seerley includes : L. N. Hines, president, Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Chairman ; W. C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Susan M. Dorsey, Los Angeles, Calif.; David B. Corson, Newark, N. J.; Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Ky.; Olive M. Jones, New York City ; Thomas W. Butcher, Emporia, Kans.; Ernest L. Crandall, New York City; and Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash. The first and larger part of the report of this committee was made at the meeting of the National Council at San Francisco in July, 1923. At that time Superintendent Dorsey discussed the subject, Visual Education in Community Center Work; Principal Olive M. Jones, The Child and the Commercial Moving Picture; Dr. Ernest L. Crandall, Typical Visual Aids and How to Handle Them. Mrs. Preston took part in the dis- cussion, while the chairman of the committee summarized, in a way, the current educational situation in regard to visual education. No report that this committee, or any committee, could make within the limited time assigned it could exhaust the topic in hand. Subjects like the following : Can Moving Pictures Stimulate Mental Growth ?; Can Visual Aids Make Education Too Easy ?; The Latest Psychological Researches in Visual Education; Teaching Literature with Films and Slides; Teaching Public Safety through Pictures ; The Teaching of History by Visualization ; Training in the Use of Visual Materials ; Limitations on Visual Instruction ; Securing Satisfactory Visual Aids at Moderate Cost; The Educational Value of Pictures ; Visual Instruction in the High School Laboratory ; Visual Short Cuts in Education; Bringing Current History Into the Schoolroom ; The Literature of Visual Education; Teaching Hygiene Through the Picture; The Future of School Movies ; Visual Imagery in Geography ; The Challenge of Visual Education; The Cultural Force of the Picture ; Financing the School Movie; So-Called Educational Motion Pictures; Visual Instruction Programs; Standards for Judging Educational Films and Other Pictures, may be gleaned from the magazine Visual Education, or the magazine The Educational Screen, and other such NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 307 publications. All these and others remain to be treated by any committee that undertakes to exhaust the subject in hand. Visual education is here to stay. Since the beginning of formal school work, we have been educating the young through the ear and the printed page and we have not been paying so much attention to education through the eye, by seeing the things that pupils have discussed or by seeing pictures of these things. It has usually been a program of reading and telling, ask- ing questions and answering them. This modern world has injected into education through the accomplish- ments of science the big question of what we shall do with the material in the form of pictures that has been so freely given us. One dares not specu- late as to what future problems in education, science will give us through its inventions. Current history will soon be taught in the schoolroom through a system of television; the time may be approaching when a big fire occurring on Fifth Avenue in New York will be seen in every schoolroom in America while it is actually going on. Wemaybe on the eve of a time when moving pictures of a real battle will be carried over every wire system in the country or by wireless, into every home and school to those who may want to see what is going on. Further, we hardly dare to wonder as to what the visual education of the future may be. There are those, of course, who deplore the fact that giving the reproduction of a fact or event through pictures does not involve the mental work and growth in securing images equally as lively from word descriptions. It is true that one good look at a thing will lead to a fuller comprehension ofwhat that thing is like than ten thousand words of describing. There are those who think that such habits of learning induce and encourage laziness . They say that the new-fangled methods of teaching through pictures do not require the study and mental effort of the older methods of learning. However that may be, the picture is here and we must deal with it to the best of our ability. Increasing millions of dollars are being put into the development of the picture industry. It remains to be seen whether the schools can catch step with this great movement, utilize all the materials and methods that may be best suited to the schoolroom, and extract from the great educational movement the helps that ought to be brought into every schoolhouse in the land. Those who saw on exhibition in Chicago the reproductions of the ships Christopher Columbus used in discovering America do not need many other helps in understanding about the size and sea-worthiness of the ships that Columbus used in bringing this continent to the knowledge of men. Alook at these ships as they floated on the waters of Lake Michigan was a lesson in visual education such as no written or oral description could give. We cannot take ships themselves into the schoolroom, but we can take pictures of them, both still and moving, and take them to every schoolroom if we have 308 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the money with which to buy the material and the knowledge to use it when it is once given to us. The truth is that most of our education in this modern world comes from the eye. What is seen will not be so readily forgotten as that which is heard. We face the question squarely as to how we shall best use in the schoolroom the material that science has given us. Opinions may differ as to the best methods of securing results, but so-called visual education is here . all about us, in and out of our school system, and school people must learn the best method to use what has been given them. Every teacher of every subject in every school can make use of visual education material. To the uninformed this may seem like a broad state- ment, but so far have the makers of visual material progressed that they can illustrate, in some way any lesson in any subject. This is especially true of the still picture material. The cost of films has greatly hampered progress in the use of moving pictures in the schoolroom, but doubtless a way will be found in time to make available for every schoolroom still and moving pictures. The won- derful resources of eye-instruction will be made available everywhere and teaching will be more efficient at all times and in all subjects. SECRETARY'S MINUTES—INDIANAPOLIS MEETING OFFICERS President-JOSEPH M. GWINN, Superintendent of City Schools ... .... San Francisco, Calif. Vice-President-HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, Ind. Secretary, ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education .. .Washington, D. C. The National Council of Education was organized in 1880, growing out of a paper read by Thomas W. Bicknell before the Department of Superintendence. See Proceedings of 1880, pages 90-94. The active membership of the Council is limited to 120 elected members, one half of whom are chosen by the Council, the other half by the Board of Directors of the Association. The list is published in the Proceedings in alternate years and is found in this volume, pages 000-000 . For constitution and by-laws see Proceedings of 1906, pages 608-11. The Council meets twice each year, once in February and once in June. FIRST SESSION- MONDAY AFTERNOON, JUNE 29, 1925 The meeting was called to order by the President at 2:15 P.M. in the Palm Room of the Claypool Hotel. J. J. Tigert, United States Commissioner of Edu- cation, addressed the Council on "The Year's Progress in Education." The final report of the Committee on the Status of the American Woman Teacher was presented by the chairman, Anna Laura Force, Principal of Lincoln School, Denver, Colorado. This report was supplemented by a paper on "Growth of Teachers in Service" by A. L. Threlkeld, Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado. A lively discussion followed the reading of the report, in which interest centered NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 309 particularly on the single salary schedule recommended by the committee. While there was general approval of this recommendation as a condition to be ultimately brought about, many pitfalls were seen in the process. It was encouraging, how- ever, to note that Dr. Tigert in his address stated that 100 cities in the United States now observe the single salary schedule. On motion of John R. Kirk, the report with its recommendations was unanimously approved. Henry Lester Smith, chairman of the Committee on Vocational Education, pre- sented a report on the first division of the work of the subcommittee on part-time education, dealing with "An Analysis of the Social Position, Educational Status, and Current Working Conditions of the Part-Time Student Group." SECOND SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JUNE 30, 1925 The report of the Committee on Membership was first read, with recommenda tions for supplying vacancies in the Council membership and offices as follows : 1. Membership-a. To succeed themselves with terms expiring in 1931 : Charles H. Judd, Dean, School of Education, University of Chciago Mrs. Josephine C. Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Washington C. R. Richards, Superintendent of Schools, Ardmore, Oklahoma J. F. Sims, President, Teachers College, Stevens Point, Wisconsin R. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools, York, Pennsylvania Thos. D. Wood, Teachers College, Columbia University A. Duncan Yocum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. b. To supply vacancies, with terms expiring in 1931 : Margaret Alltucker, Assistant Director Research, National Education Association, Wash- ington, D. C. , to succeed Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews , Boston, Massachusetts Frederic Archer, Superintendent of Schools, Greensboro, North Carolina, to succeed E. C. Brooks, Raleigh, North Carolina T. H. Harris, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, to suc- ceed Charles H. Keyes, Saratoga, New York (deceased) c. To supply other vacancies : A. L. Threlkeld, Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Calorado, with term expiring in 1927, to succeed William McAndrew, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Illinois. (Could not accept) A. B. Hill, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock, Arkansas with term expiring in 1928 , to succeed Grace Shepard. (Membership lapsed ) 2. Officers: President-Henry Lester Smith, Dean of School of Education, Indiana Uni- versity, Bloomington, Indiana, with term expiring in 1928, to succeed Joseph M. Gwinn, San Francisco (Expiration of term) Vice-President-Florence M. Hale, State Supervisor of Rural Education, Augusta, Maine, with term expiring in 1928, to succeed Henry Lester Smith (recommended for presidency) Executive Committee-George W. Child, Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah , with term expiring in 1928 , to succeed David B. Corson, Newark, New Jersey. (Expiration ofterm) Membership Committee-Harry B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, California, with term expiring in 1928 , to succeed Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart (Expiration of term) Olive M. Jones, New York City. Reelected, with term expiring in 1928. By unanimous vote the recommendations of the Executive Committee were ap- proved and the above members and officers declared duly elected. The following resolution was adopted by the National Education Association delegate assembly at the general meeting in 1924, and referred to the National Council of Education for recommendations on mode of expansion thus provided : Amend Article 4, Section 2, of the By-Laws by adding the following words : ' In addition to the 120 members thus selected from the active membership, the National Council may in its By- Laws provide for the admission to membership of representatives from the several departments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department.' Accordingly the Executive Committee of the National Council had conferred and now recommended to the Council that either the number of departments in the National Education Association to be represented in the Council be limited or representation from each department be limited in the beginning, that the work of the Council could be more effectively reorganized and carried out in the transition stage. On motion of E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas , it was unanimously voted to recommend to the National Education Association that representation from all departments ( 15 in number) be admitted to the 310 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Council, but the number from each be restricted to three, these three to be chosen as follows: One with membership expiring in two years One with membership expiring in four years One with membership expiring in six years One elected biennially thereafter The requests of Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education, Albany, New York, and R. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools, York, Pennsylvania, that their unavoidable absence from this meeting of the Council be excused, were unanimously approved. An open forum on Continuity of Education was conducted by Joseph M. Gwinn, chairman of the Council Committee on Continuity of Education. Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, chairman of the Committee on Illiteracy, presented the report of A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Con- necticut, a member of her committee, on "Financing the Education of Adult Il- literates." Mrs. Stewart then introduced H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware, another member of her committee, who read a paper on "Suitable Texts for Adult Beginners." Adjourned. OFFICERS FOR 1925-26 OFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean of School of Education, Indiana Univer- sity ........ Bloomington, Ind., President Term expiring in 1928 FLORENCE M. HALE, State Supervisor, Rural Education ..................... Augusta, Maine, Vice-President Term expiring in 1927 ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Chief, Home Economics Education Service Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion ..... Washington, D. C., Secretary Term expiring in 1926 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE THE PRESIDENT, ex officio, chairman ANNA LAURA FORCE .... ..Denver, Colo....... Term expiring in 1927 GEORGE W. CHILD, Superintendent of Schools ..... Salt Lake City, Utah Term expiring in 1928 A. J. MATTHEWS, President, State Normal School ...... Tempe, Ariz....... Term expiring in 1926 COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP THE PRESIDENT, ex officio, chairman JOHN R. KIRK, President, State Teachers College ...... Kirksville, Mo ...... Term expiring in 1926 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 311 WILLIAM B. OWEN, President, Chicago Normal College ..... ...... Chicago, Ill........ Term expiring in 1926 CARROLLG. PEARSE .. Milwaukee, Wis.... Term expiring in 1927 J. STANLEY BROWN, President, State Nor- mal School .... .... De Kalb, III......... Term expiring in 1927 H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of Schools . Berkeley, Calif..... Term expiring in 1928 OLIVE M. JONES, Principal of Public School No. 120 .... ....... New York, N. Y... Term expiring in 1928 TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1926 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council MARY C. C. BRADFORD, State Superin- KATHERINE D. BLAKE, Principal Public tendent of Public Instruction, Denver, School No. 6, New York, N. Y. Colo. EDWARD BUCHNER, Johns Hopkins Uni- ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Secretary, versity, Baltimore, Md. State Teachers Association, San Fran- C. P. CARY, Madison, Wis. cisco, Calif. W. M. DAVIDSON, Superintendent of J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary, National Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Education Association, Washington, FRANK P. GRAVES, State Commissioner D. C. of Education, Albany, N. Y. DAVID FELMLEY, President, State Normal OLIVE M. JONES, Principal Public School College, Normal, Ill. No. 120, New York, N. Y. ELIZABETH HALL, Assistant Superintend- H. H. SEERLEY, President, State Teach- ent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. ers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. DAVID B. JOHNSON, President, Winthrop, CORA WILSON STEWART, Chairman, Na- College, Rock Hill, S. C. tional Illiteracy Commission, Frank- JOHN R. KIRK, President, State Teach- fort, Ky. ers College, Kirksville, Mo. HARLAN UPDEGRAFF, President, Cornell CHARLES MCKENNY, President, State College, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, Principal, State JOSEPH ROSIER, President, State Normal Normal Training School, Castleton, School, Fairmont, W. Va. Vt . H. LESTER SMITH, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1927 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council W. C. BAGLEY, Teachers College, Co- GEORGIA ALEXANDER, 520 N. Audubon lumbia University, New York, N. Y. Road, Indianapolis, Ind. MILTON BENNION, University of Utah, ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, State Depart- Salt Lake City, Utah. ment of Public Instruction, Austin, J. A. CHURCHILL, State Superintendent Texas. of Public Instruction, Salem, Ore. J. E. BURKE, Superintendent of Schools, AGNES E. DOHERTY, Central High School, Boston, Mass. St. Paul, Minn. I. I. CAMMACK, Superintendent of ISABEL L. ECKLES, States Superintendent Schools , Kansas City, Mo. of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. DAVID B. CORSON, Superintendent of Mex. Schools, Newark, N. J. ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal of the W. A. LEWIS, President, State Normal Lincoln School, Denver, Colo. School, Hays, Kans . J. W. SEARSON, State University, Lin- A. L. THRELKELD, Assistant Superin- coln, Nebr. tendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. 312 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Elected by the Association Elected by the Council WALTER R. SIDERS, Superintendent of MAY TRUMPER, State Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello, Idaho . Public Instruction, Helena, Mont. H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of J. H. WAGNER, U. S. Bureau of Educa- Schools, Berkeley, Calif. tion, Seattle, Wash. ROBERT H. WRIGHT, President, East D. B. WALDO, President, State Normal Carolina Teachers' College, Green- School, Kalamazoo, Mich. ville, N. C. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1928 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council THOMAS W. BUTCHER, President, Kansas ROBERT J. ALEY, President, Butler Col- State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. lege, Indianapolis, Ind. JOHN CALLAHAN, State Superintendent E. M. BAINTER, Junior College, Kansas of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis . City, Mo. E. G. DOUDNA, Secretary, Wisconsin J. STANLEY BROWN, President, State State Teachers Association, Madison, Normal School, De Kalb, Ill. Wis. CHARLES E. CHADSEY, Dean of School J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of of Education, University of Illinois, Schools, San Francisco, Calif. Urbana, Ill . T. H. HARRIS, State Superintendent of MELVIN G. CLARK, Superintendent of Education, Baton Rouge, La. Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. E. E. OBERHOLTZER, Superintendent of A. B. HILL, State Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas. Public Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. CARROLL G. PEARSE, 3104 Wells St., W. A. JESSUP, President, State Univer- Milwaukee, Wis . sity of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. GEORGE D. STRAYER, Teachers College, MINNIE J. NIELSON, State Superintend- Columbia University, New York, ent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. Y. N. D. S. B. UNDERWOOD, East Carolina Teach- JAMES J. VAN SICKLE, Orlando, Fla. ers College, Greenville, N. C. ALBERT E. WINSHIP, Editor, Journal of MAY WADE, Elementary Teacher, Education, 6 Beacon St. , Boston, Mass . Berkeley, Calif. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1929 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council EMILY GRIFFITH, Principal, Opportu- E. E. BASS, Superintendent of Schools , nity School, Denver, Colo. Greenville, Miss . FLORENCE M. HALE, State Agent for J. A. C. CHANDLER, President, College Rural Education, Augusta, Maine. of William and Mary, Williamsburg , R. G. JONES, Superintendent of Schools , Va. Cleveland, Ohio. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Superintendent of UEL W. LAMKIN, President, Northwest- Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. ern Missouri Teachers College, FREDERICK E. FARRINGTON, Chevy Chase Maryville, Mo. School, Washington, D. С. A. J. MATTHEWS, President, State Nor- LIDA LEE TALL, Principal, State Normal mal School, Tempe, Ariz. School, Towson, Md. S. M. N. MARRS, State Superintendent T. E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of of Public Instruction, Austin, Texas. Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 313 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council MARY MCSKIMMON, President, National G. W. A. LUCKEY, U. S. Bureau of Education Association, Principal , Education, Washington, DC. Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. THOMAS W. PALMER, President, Ala- WILLIAM B. OWEN, President, Chicago bama College and Technical Institute Normal College, Chicago, Ill . for Women, Montevallo, Ala. M. E. PEARSON, Superintendent of JOSEPH SWAIN, State Dept. of Public Schools, Kansas City, Kans. Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. GEORGE L. TOWNE, University Publish- ing Co., Lincoln, Nebr. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1930 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council C. E. BEACH, Superintendent of Schools, CORNELIA S. ADAIR, 2121 Park Ave., Enumclaw, Wash. Richmond, Va. FRANCIS G. BLAIR, State Superintendent SARAH LOUISE Arnold, Lincoln, Mass. of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, Chief Home Eco- M. L. BRITTAIN, President, Georgia In- nomics Service, Federal Board, Voca- stitute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. tional Education, Washington, D. C. E. W. BUTTERFIELD, State Commissioner JOHN W. Carr, Educational Depart- of Education, Concord, N. Η. ment, Capitol, Frankfort, Ky. H. W. FOGHT, President, Northern Nor- OSCAR T. CORSON, R. F. D. No. 2, Ox- mal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, ford, Ohio. S. Dak. J. W. K. DWYER, Superintendent of C. B. GLENN, Superintendent of Schools, Schools, Anaconda, Mont. Birmingham, Ala. WIL LOU GRAY, State Supervisor, Adult L. N. HINES, President, State Normal Schools , Columbia, S. C. School, Terre Haute, Ind. CHARLES S. MEEK, Superintendent of CARLETON B. GIBSON, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. Schools, Savannah, Ga. THOMAS A. Мотт, Superintendent of A. B. MEREDITH, State Commissioner of. Schools, Seymour, Ind. Education, Hartford, Conn. HELEN C. PUTNAM, M. D. , American EDWIN S. MONROE, Superintendent of Academy of Medicine, Providence, Schools , Hammond, Ind. R. I. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1931 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council MARY D. BRADFORD, 1211 Gilpin Ave., MARGARET ALLTUCKER, Research Di- Wilmington, Del. vision, National Education Associa- GEORGE N. CHILD, Superintendent of tion, Washington, D. C. Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. FREDERIC ARCHER, Superintendent of J. G. COLLICOTT, Superintendent of Schools , Greensboro, N. C. Schools, Columbus, Ohio. T. H. Harris, State Superintendent of MARIE GUGLE, Assistant Superintendent Education, Baton Rouge, La. of Schools, Columbus , Ohio. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, State Superin- THOMAS E. FINEGAN, 350 Madison Ave., tendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, New York, N. Y. Wash. FRED M. HUNTER, Superintendent of C. R. RICHARDS, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif. Schools, Ardmore, Pa. 314 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Elected by the Association Elected by the Council JESSE H. NEWLON, Superintendent of J. F. SIMS, President, State Normal Schools , Denver, Colo. School, Stevens Point, Wis. PAYSON SMITH, State Commissioner of R. O. STOOPS, Superintendent of Schools, Education, Boston, Mass. York, Pa. S. L. SMITH, Agent for Julius Rosen- THOMAS D. WOOD, Columbia University, wald Fund, Nashville, Tenn. New York, N. Y. CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, Field Sec- A. DUNCAN YOCUM, Professor of Edu- retary, National Education Associa- cational Research and Practice, Uni- tion, Washington, D. C. versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. ACTIVE EX- OFFICIO MEMBERSHIP J. J. TIGERT, U. S. Commissioner of Education ... .. Washington, D. C. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary, National Education Association .... Washington, D. C. WALTER R. SIDERS, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, National Education Association .... Pocatello, Idaho JOY ELMER MORGAN, Director of the Division of Publications, National Education Association . Washington, D. C. MARY MCSKIMMON, President, National Education Association Boston, Massachûsetts FRANK W. BALLOU, President, Department of Superintendence, Superintendent ofSchools .. ......... Washington, D. С. THE YEAR'S PROGRESS IN EDUCATION JOHN J. TIGERT, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON, D. C. During the past year there has been a heroic attempt upon the part of those responsible for the appropriation and expenditures of public runds to economize as far as public needs would permit. Such an attitude is necessary if we are to face the problem of growing debts. The Federal Government has made large reductions during the past four years in its debt and operating expenditures, but the tendency among States, counties, and cities, has been toward an increase of debts and expenditures. This situation cannot continue indefinitely, and already the necessity for careful scrutiny of public spending is spreading over the Nation. In view of this situation, it has been exceedingly difficult of late to maintain the schools at a normal efficiency and take care of additional costs entailed by suspended building activities during the war period and constantly increas- ing enrolment in the schools. Returns have not been made to the Bureau of Education for the year 1924 by all the States. With fairly complete reports from 44 States, it is possible to offer some estimates with reference to the increased attend- ance and costs. In 1924, there were 29,346,000 children of school age in the Nation, which was an increase of 2.5 per cent over 1922. At the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 315 same time public school enrolment in 1924 reached the figure of 24,076,000, which was 3.6 per cent greater than in 1922. It has been necessary to provide educational facilities during the past two years for approximately 837,000 additional children. The necessity for increased costs becomes more evident when it is noted that the increase in the elementary schools is 1.6 per cent greater than in 1922, while the increase in enrolment in the high schools is 17.7 per cent greater than in 1922. In view of the pro- portionately greater increase in high school attendance and likewise greater costs per capita for secondary education, it would seem that the great problem of providing adequate funds is constantly accentuated. In 1924, current expenses were approximately 11 per cent greater than in 1922, in- volving an extra cost of some $175,000,000. Outlay for buildings and grounds went forward at a much greater rate. In 1924, approximately $376,000,000 was expended in this way, which exceeded the expenditures for the same purpose in 1922 nearly 23 per cent. At the present time it is a satisfaction to report, after a careful survey of the field, that the State legislatures were able to carry out their programs of economy without appreciable injury to the schools. Upon the con- vening of the legislatures which met this year in most of the States, quite a number of letters were received in the Bureau of Education from chief educational officers in the States expressing hope that the schools would not be set back, and again when the legislatures had adjourned other letters came displaying gratification that the schools had not suffered. In only a few States were there reductions of appropriations for school purposes and these were not great. Practically no progress was made in legislation with reference to either State or local administration. A number of States considered proposals for the adoption of county administrative organiza- tion, but defeat was general on this proposition. No State changed its system with respect to local district machinery either in 1924 or 1925 . There was a movement in some of the legislatures of the Middle West to set up a " community unit" of local school administration, but county and district organizations everywhere held their ground. With reference to consolidated districts, considerable progress was made toward more generous provision of State subsidies for rural schools, the enlargement of areas of consolidated units, the establishment of county-wide plans of consolidation, and better provisions and regulations for the trans- portation of pupils. About 1000 consolidated schools were established during the past two years, making a total of 14,000 in the United States . It is estimated that the enrolment in consolidated schools is now nearly three million pupils and the annual expenditure for transportation is $30,- 000,000. No less than ten States passed legislation this year definitely improving the situation with reference to consolidated districts. There is little that is constructive in this legislation, but it stands out in a significant way during a year almost barren of legislative progress. To this might 316 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION be added the encouraging fact that Massachusetts adopted a new school code in 1924 and Tennessee followed suit in 1925 . As a result of the effort to promote economy and efficiency in public affairs, there has resulted during the past year a wider adoption of the budget system for county and other school taxing units. It is hoped that the budget system will soon become universal, for school officials owe to the public and to the schools that all school matters shall be put on an exact business basis. Another source of encouragement is in the fact that a few States increased the State's contribution for schools during 1925. Out- standing among these are New York, which provided an increase of ap- proximately $9,000,000 in its appropriation for school purposes, effective July 1, 1925 ; Montana, where an act referred to the people the question of providing for a five-mill State school tax; and Oklahoma, where a pro- posed amendment to the State Constitution will, if ratified, provide for a State fund sufficient to make $15.00 available per pupil in attendance. All efforts made in the 1925 legislatures to pass acts displacing popular election of county superintendents with appointment by county boards failed, but in several instances acts were passed which should improve the quality and training of county superintendents. There is little doubt that the conception of the properly qualified and professionally trained county superintendent is growing. The year marked a continuation of a well-defined tendency in recent years to transform normal schools into teachers' colleges, with four-year courses and degree-conferring authority. This was done for two institu- tions in Arizona and nine in Wisconsin. Arkansas also changed the name of its normal school to teachers' college and increased the appropriation for its support. Some progress was made in six or more States in the direction of better qualification of teachers through improvement of certification laws of one kind or another. One of the pronounced trends of educational progress during the past year has been an increased emphasis and a steady accomplishment in the direction of a reorganization of curriculum material to meet modern needs. Particularly encouraging is the interest displayed in revising the elementary school curriculum. Every child is affected by the elementary school, since all children are required to attend school for a certain number of years. About three-fifths of the children of the country never receive more educa- tion than the elementary schools have to offer. It is thus evident that the elementary school curriculum is a vital factor in our national life. Not enough attention has been given to the elementary school. Secondary and higher education have occupied the minds of many of the leading edu- cators, but with the advent of better-prepared elementary school supervisors, principals, and teachers and of research workers in the field of elementary education, the elementary school is coming into more prominence. Various organizations ,and schools of education are actively engaged in studying the problems of the elementary school curriculum. Many city NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 317 courses of study have been revised or are in process of revision. Scissors and paste are no longer used when a course of study is being revised. Teachers, supervisors, subject research specialists, and others make careful studies of the needs of the child and of the community and base the course of study upon these needs. The tendency is to give more attention to what were once considered fads, as music, art, handwork, and the like. These are often spoken of as special activities, but they are now considered as necessary as reading, writ- ing, and arithmetic. The three R's, although still receiving more than 50 per cent of the school time, are now recognized as a means and not an end in themselves. However, this movement for a scientific modern curriculum has not yet reached the point where one can profitably summarize the advance which has been made on a national scale, but one cannot think of educational betterment without turning his mind to the attention that is now generally given to curriculum reconstruction. During the past year, likewise, there has been an awakening over the country with reference to the needs of moral and character instruction in the school. A variety of plans and programs have been put into operation in many places. These are practically all in an experimental or evolution- ary stage, and quite local. Accordingly, it is not possible to make any gen- eral statement regarding the actual accomplishments in this field. In reviewing the year, I think that we are all aware of the fact that very definite attention has been given to the problem of better individualized instruction . The year marks a distinct step toward more adequate oppor- tunity for the individual pupil and away from the old mass methods. Individualized instruction was a subject of much discussion at the Depart- ment of Superintendence meeting in Cincinnati and at other important educational meetings during the year. A joint conference on the subject was conducted at Philadelphia under the auspices of the Bureau of Educa- tion in coöperation with the University of Pennsylvania. In order to meet the requirements of the individual child, several plans of individual instruc- tion are being tried out at various points. Of these plans perhaps those that are best known and are being watched with the closest interest are the Winnetka and the Dalton plans. Modifications have been so varied that it is impossible to say now which plan is receiving more approval. It is still less possible to predict whether either of these plans will be eventually successful in a program for general adoption. Nevertheless during the past year the realization of the difference in the ability of children and a con- sequent necessity of some reorganization to meet this need, has become deeper and far more general . Standardized intelligence and achievement tests, which until recently were subjected in many places to either doubt or dogma, have become prac- tically universal in our city school systems for one purpose or another. Today, school superintendents who do not employ these tests find them 318 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION selves in a rapidly diminishing group, looking on as the educational world moves away from them. Even in the rural districts, where educational progress has ever been slowest, there is a marked increase in the use of tests. At least ten States now report to the Bureau of Education State- wide testing programs, generally under the direction of the State depart- ment working through county superintendents and supervisors. Related to this same question of individualized needs and tests the new interest in physically and mentally handicapped children should be at least mentioned in passing. A number of States now specifically authorize local school boards to provide schools or classes for the deaf, the blind, the back- ward or crippled child, and in some instances State funds are allowed in aid of these special schools or classes. In 1925, a half dozen or more States passed laws designed to promote the education of the physically or mentally handicapped. Massachusetts provided for the care and treatment by cities and towns of underweight and undernourished children. Rhode Island authorized transportation of crippled children to school. New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Ohio all passed laws affecting the wel- fare of handicapped children. In this general connection it seems proper to mention the increased emphasis which has been placed during the past year on research and scien- tific methods in education. Oratory, influence, and opinion hold a con- stantly diminishing power over the destiny of our schools. In all direc tions, even in the most backward sections of the country, insistence is made for facts with reference to schools. School boards and to a less extent the public are beginning to realize, though sometimes it seems all too slowly, that education is a technical field. Consequently, not being content with guesswork and rule-of-thumb methods, boards of education, with popular approval, are organizing research bureaus or departments to compile data regarding practically every phase of the school system. However, this is not done without considerable agitation and opposition at certain points. Nevertheless, progress is definite. In 1923, there were about 80 research bureaus in the cities of the country. Now there are some 120 such bureaus. During the past year education for better citizenship has continued to receive that popular interest and attention from educationists which began immediately after the war. After a good deal of use and abuse of such terms as "Americanization," "adult education," etc., we are now beginning to formulate a real program not only for better citizenship as an objective in the regular school curriculum, but among our citizenry of all ages and nationalities. About twenty States have now established directors for this kind of service in their State departments. Many laws were passed in 1925 relating to patriotism, good citizenship, and like matters, including such enactments as the requirement that the flag be displayed on schoolhouses, provision for the teaching of the Constitution of the United States in the schools, creation of patriotic holidays and proper regulation of their ob- servance, provision for evening schools and similar classes for foreign-born NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 319 subjects, etc. On the whole, there can be no sound objection to this class of legislation, but one observation may be made here with regard to it. Restriction of time to be devoted to such matters in school hours and other details should not be enacted by laws. In my judgment, if it appears desirable to require by law that some special subject be introduced into the public school curriculum, it should be sufficient if the act simply makes the requirement, leaving the details as to method and procedure to the proper administrative officers in the schools. Aword might be offered here with reference to platoon schools. For the past four years the Bureau of Education has promoted conferences on the platoon plan in connection with the Department of Superintendence, the purpose of these conferences being to bring together as much accurate and scientific data concerning the advantages and disadvantages of the platoon type of organization as was possible at the present stage of development. In September, 1924, I addressed a letter to the superintendents of the 68 cities which have a population of 100,000 or more, asking them to give me frankly and as completely as they could the results of their experience, observation, and study both as to the merits and demerits of platoon schools. Replies were received from 56 of the 68 cities. Of these 56 cities, 24 had platoon schools and the superintendents in all these favored the plan except onewho stated that his experience had been too brief to express an opinion at this time. Thirty superintendents from the whole number stated that they were favorable to the plan and expected to establish schools on the platoon plan; 22 stated that they were unable to form any opinion because of lack of experience ; four stated that they were not favorable to the plan. The number of cities having this plan continues to increase. In April of this year, 93 cities, with a total population of 16,000,000 in 30 of these cities, had adopted the plan in one or more schools. In recent years there has been marked progress in the field of kinder- garten education. According to the statistics for 1922-24, the kinder- garten enrolment of the country shows an increase of 61,523. In 1920-22, the increase was 44,881 . In 1918-20, 37,811. These figures show the progress to be cumulative. The gain for the six years from 1918 to 1924, therefore, totals 144,215. This is an average gain per year of 24,036. The total kindergarten enrolment of the country is now 617,353. This growth in the enrolment shows that the kindergarten is increas- ingly accepted as an organic and essential part of the school. This fact is shown also in other ways. One is that first grade rooms are being equipped so as to make it possible for the work in these grades to include activities similar to those of the kindergarten, and the second that the courses of study for the primary grades are being organized without a break from the kinder- garten up. Several cities have published such courses . Among these are Denver and San Francisco, which did so in 1924. The supervision of the kindergartens is combined with that of the primary grades in 100 of the 159 cities that provide kindergarten supervision. The organization of 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION combined kindergarten-primary courses in teacher-training institutions, to take the place of the former separate courses for these two groups of teach- ers, is an additional evidence that the kindergarten is now recognized as an organic part of the school. In 1923, 75 such courses had been organized. In the field of higher education there is evidence to the effect that the great rush to college which occurred immediately after the World War is gradually settling down to a more normal increase in students. The en- rolments in agriculture and engineering have remained stationary for several years, whereas in liberal arts, business and commerce, medicine and home economics they have gone forward rapidly. Consequently within a relatively short time we have witnessed a great social change, the signifi- cance of which we do not fully appreciate, namely, that it is now approxi- mately twice as usual for young men and young women to go to college as it was only about 15 years ago. On account of this increase in the proportion of our young people who go to college and because of the growing diversity of tasks in industry, busi- ness, engineering, agriculture, and the professions, which require specialized preparation, new curricula are being organized to meet these demands, as for example, in nursing, dental hygiene, evening and extension education, junior colleges, teacher training, accountancy and a host of others which might be mentioned. There remains as yet the problem of the better organization of these and other courses of study for the most effective work. To a considerable degree the necessary financial adjustments to support the increase in student enrolment and in extent of work have been made. State legislatures have in most instances responded favorably to the needs of the institutions for larger appropriations for buildings and maintenance. The privately supported universities and colleges have adjusted their finan- cial difficulties somewhat more slowly, because in most instances it has been necessary to secure larger endowments through special campaigns requiring several years for completion. Even yet some of them are struggling to accomplish this objective. Out of all the present discussion concerning higher education it seems clear that the American people are anxious to have the youth of today better prepared for life than ever before, that every young man and young woman shall be given an equal opportunity to demonstrate his or her capacity for higher education and that the colleges and universities shall be kept close to the needs of the people. In other words, in higher educa- tion, as well as in elementary and secondary education, we are striving to preserve and develop the spirit of democracy which is the ideal of our civilization. A brief paper of this kind does not permit a complete summary of edu- cational progress during the year. A number of important phases of edu- cational progress could be added to what we have said, particularly with reference to the field of secondary education, including the growth of NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 321 junior high schools; but we shall forego a presentation of these and close with a bare statement with reference to the salary situation. As regards the salaries of rural teachers, there is a slight increase in the country as a whole, as reported to us in 1924, over the salaries reported in 1923. There was an average increase in salaries paid rural teachers, in all types of schools, of $24. The lowest increases were in the one and two teacher schools, averaging five and six dollars, respectively. The highest increases were in consolidated schools, in which there was an average in- crease during the year of $53. The cities of the country have generally come to the realization that teachers must now be paid salaries at least equal to the purchasing power of the salaries of 1914. On the whole, teachers' salaries in city schools exceed in purchasing power the salaries of 1914, although in some instances this is not true. During the past two years the increases in salaries of city teachers have been relatively small , amounting on the average to about three per cent. One of the significant movements in cities is that of providing equal pay for equal training and experience, regardless of whether the teacher is employed in the primary, intermediate or secondary grades. More than 100 cities have recently adopted this plan of single salary schedules. REPORT ON STATUS OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN TEACHER ANNA LAURA FORCE, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN SCHOOL, DENVER, COLORADO, CHAIRMAN Contribution by Classroom Teachers-"The outstanding contribution of the past two decades by classroom teachers," according to Miss Julia A. Spooner, Portland, Oregon, "is their organization of teachers as teachers. The classroom teacher's contribution to herself, to her own development and outlook has been bettering the conditions under which she works. Her best contributions to her own group have been the awakening of her professional self-consciousness, her determination within her own group to raise and reach standards which match those set by the ablest leaders in education for themselves and her consecration to the creed that not the supremacy of one but equality of all brings best results to our Nation." Rural Teachers-Mr. Keppel, sunperintendent of Los Angeles county schools, has well said of the rural teachers : "As we follow them out into the country away from the cities, they are increasingly ever more and more giving their lives as martyrs trying to maintain an American Nation with American ideals and trying to do it with inadequate preparation, salaries and support." Another student of rural education claims that "The dead of the transient 322 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and untrained majority of our teaching population forms the heaviest handicap of educational efficiency." Where the county unit prevails or a consolidated school system exists, there is demand for a higher grade teacher, one who has more than mini- mum preparation, one who is paid a better salary and receives more help- ful supervision. Single Salary Schedule-The report on the"Single Salary Schedule" as presented by Miss Cora B. Morrison, Denver, Colorado, presents a reform in our educational system which will establish conditions that will react in adequate service to the public. The single salary schedule recognizes the fact that the elementary teacher, in order to meet efficiently her vital responsibility to the public should be as well trained and as highly educated as the high school teacher and it endeavors to provide a salary which will not only enable her to make preparation but which will hold her per- manently in the service of the elementary schools. At the same time it protects the right of every child to a well prepared, adequately trained teacher. Marriage and Women Teachers-A very careful study of "Marriage and Women Teachers" has been made by I. N. Edwards, Chicago Uni- versity, published in the May issue of the Elementary School Journal. The following quotation from the article gives a fair and logical opinion of the status of the teacher who marries and wishes to continue teaching : No court of final jurisdiction, it seems, has yet passed upon the constitutionality of a statute specifically stipulating marriage as a cause for dismissal of women teachers-the law contemplates that every teacher be given the opportunity to fulfill the obligations of her contract. So long as such obligations are met, the law is satisfied; when they are not met, the teachers may be removed. Women in the Administrative Field-Women teachers have not in- frequently demonstrated ability in the administrative field. The memoirs of Mary Lyon, Alice Freeman Palmer, and Ella Flagg Young offer the best testimonial to this declaration . A recent report of Women in Administrative positions in the educa- tional field compiled from the Educational Directory, 1925, published by the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. gives the following data : In the United States there are : 8 State superintendents 9 deputy superintendents 1 commissioner of elementary education 40 city superintendents 856 county superintendents 6 public school managers in cities of 30,000 population or over 10 presidents of universities and colleges 9 presidents of junior colleges 55 heads of departments of education in colleges and universities 110 deans or advisers of women in colleges and universities 4 directors of extension 1 president or dean of schools of law NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 323 3 principals of State public normal schools 15 principals of city public normal schools 71 directors of county normal schools 144 directors of kindergarten training in colleges, normal schools and in kinder garten training schools 26 executive officers of State library commissions 7 directors of library schools. Dr. James F. Hosic, Teachers College, Columbia, who made a valuable contribution to this report at Cleveland, 1924, on Single Salary Schedule, believes that (in his report to the National Council on the Status of Amer- ican Women Teachers) "we should emphasize the advantage to be ob- tained by raising every year the standard of preparation required for ap- pointment of teachers. So long as young girls without experience can qualify for the regular positions in the elementary school by two years of normal school training, as is now the case in almost all the cities of the country, a brief tenure, low salaries, and little recognition are inevitable. We must educate the public to understand that the task of teaching is one for the expert. "Many teachers, in my judgment, have made a mistake in showing them- selves unfriendly to modern scientific methods of investigation in the field of education. Business and engineering are both rapidly becoming true professions . No one expects the man in the street to become a practicing engineer except after a period of rigorous training. Business on the higher levels is rapidly approaching this same status. The older professions of medicine, law, and theology long ago reached it. Teaching must be raised to this level also . "The stand taken by the Board of Education in Cincinnati should be made known to school boards everywhere. In that city for some years appointment to a position as teacher has required scholarship and training equivalent to that represented by the Bachelor's degree. There has ap- parently been no lack of candidates to fill the teaching positions. Indeed, those who are familiar with the attitude of normal school students testify that these students welcome the opportunity, when it is offered, for a more extensive course than is now usual. A period of training in prep- aration for elementary school teaching should be quite the equal in length and thoroughness to that recognized as essential for high school teaching. The scholarship required is in one case undoubtedly different from what it is in the other, but it is no less exacting. The day when all the children entering the school were lumped off together has past. More and more the teacher is called on to carry out a program of adaptation to individual differences . This requires an equipment not dreamed of or possible a few years ago. All women teachers should be awake to this fact and should make every effort possible to qualify for the new duties which lie just ahead. After all, the future of the woman teacher is in her own hands ." Homer H. Seerley has made a valuable contribution to this subject in Bulletin 1922, Number 44, The American Teacher. He claims that : 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The improvement of the army of teachers in the United States is an undertaking that is worth the large investment required, as thereby standards of scholarship, of preparation and of efficiency can be exacted and accomplished. The various higher institutions of learning, the numerous colleges, public and private, have united in making up a national system of preparing teachers by coöperating in every way that can be invented to forward scholarship, knowledge and culture as the necessary bases of a notable, progressive and complete civili- zation. He further reports what he is "led to believe is sound pedagogical doctrine as well as genuine Americanism. " As I see it after some years of administrative business with teachers and with training teachers for educational service, I am convinced that with all the rights of citizenship now equally conferred that there is no problem as to status of the woman teacher that does not equally apply to the man teacher. There is no required difference today in education and training, there is no difference as to qualifications and opportunities that is not in the control of the individual who decides to enter an occupation that is either professional, business, industrial, domestic, or humanitarian. There should be no legislation that can be State or National that will recognize any special rights as an individual because a certain occupation has been selected. There is no reason why teachers should expect more for themselves than other public servants have so far as public guarantees and permanent service is concerned. It is evident that the success of a teacher can not be protected or insured by any system that takes away a part of the entitled income in order to get the financial means to later pay a retiring allowance. Teachers should have the rights of citizens to conduct their own business, to practice their own thrift, to possess their own earnings and to invest their own savings-in fact, the authority and the right and the privilege to be treated as human beings of enough business capacity to live their own lives, practice their own judgment, devote themselves to their own ideals and make their own history. Too much of modern thinking and planning seems to proceed upon a theory that teachers by their own calling and through their own service can not avoid incompetency, dependence and legal professional protection. Teachers should be men and women in the fullest sense of the word and should refuse to recognize any aim that subordinates their personalities, destroys their independence, and refuses to recognize their latent and practical capability. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Superintendent of the Department of Pub- lic Instruction, Capitol Building, Denver, Colorado, presents the following report : The Status of the Colorado Woman Teacher as Affected by the New Minimum Salary Law and the New Certification Law-Exalting the work of the teacher and professionalizing it according to the highest standards, has long been the aim of the educational forces of Colorado. Among the various agencies that have been adopted toward that end, none have been more fruitful of rapid progress than the minimum salary law for teachers and the certification law for teachers adopted within recent years in Colorado. The minimum salary law has gone far toward remedying the disgraceful con- dition of an illy paid teaching staff, while the certification law creates the op- portunity for the teachers to earn constant financial promotion and to gain the increased dignity of professional standing. To those who seek to assist in building a State through a broad visioned and efficient system of education, it is indeed a gratification to realize the school bet- NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 325 terment that has been brought about by the improvement in the standards of teach- ing. And after all, the teacher is seventy-five per cent of the school value. How- ever important school buildings and equipment, school libraries, playground ap- paratus, and other additions to the material environment of the school may be, the core of it all, the vital creative impulse is, and must ever be, the teacher. When it is remembered that less than thirty years ago Colorado, in common with many other States, had no minimum salary law, no tenure of office, no single salary schedule, no highly professionalized certification requirements ; and these conditions are contrasted with the present status of the teacher, and consequently, the present welfare of the schools, it is indeed cause for congratulation, that such fruitful pieces of legislation are beginning to function in the educational life of the Commonwealth . Today in Colorado no teacher may write even the county examination unless she is a high school graduate and has done some collegiate or professional work. No first grade county certificate may be renewed unless a minimum of twenty weeks of work has been accomplished in an Institution of Higher Learning. Each biennium the requirements for certification are increased. When the school year of nineteen hundred thirty- one shall have arrived, a very desirable condition will have been established in Colorado schools, for, not even in the most remote rural school, will the parents of any Colorado child be asked to accept the services of a teacher with less than two years of collegiate or professional training in an institution of higher learning. Contrast this with former days when it was possible, though not frequent under the law, for schools to be maintained with a teacher in charge who had only an eighth grade education. As each additional professional attainment is reached, there is a cor.esponding increase in salary and a greater presumption of longer tenure of office. One of the visions of child lovers throughout America bids fair to be realized in the near future through the raising of the requirements for the certification of teachers, to a level approaching those of the qualifications demanded of mem- bers of other professions. A trained teacher in every school house for every American child. This is the vision, this the hope toward the realization of which the best minds in the educational world are devoting their energies. Beautiful school buildings ? Yes, undoubtedly, with ample grounds and adequate equip- ment, with the fine arts to add their loveliness to the school house ; a school plant measuring up to Twentieth Century standards ; but above all, a professional group of teachers from the kindergarten up holding their own with lawyers, doctors , ministers, and all the other professional groups, because of the splendidly fulfilled requirements of a strict professional method of certification. A group that has come into its rightful heritage of civic and governmental recognition because of its magnificent exemplification of the four marks of a great profession: the pos- session of a body of accurate and comprehensive knowledge, a group of funda- mental and inclusive principles, a set of standards to which they measure up, a method of practice which they use with skill, and supremely, a flaming devotion to the great calling through which they function. This is the status of the teacher today. Because the teacher has achieved it, the community begins to recognize the full meaning of this great profession. Miss Cornelia Adair, member of the committee who has already made several contributions to this report, submits the following on the "Status of the Classroom Teacher" : The past twelve years have shown a most remarkable development in the professional growth and attitude of the American teacher. This development has made itself manifest in a variety of ways, chief among which is the organiza- tion and work of teachers' associations. A glance at the list of affiliates of the 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION National Education Association and of the National League of Teachers Asso- ciations will verify this statement as to the numbers of associations. The first work of these associations was largely the establishment of that in- separable trio-salaries, tenure, and pensions. While none of these three have been set up in every State in the Union, nevertheless the principles of adequate salaries, reasonable retirement allowances and indefinite tenure have been accepted by almost all members of the educational world so that the profession presents an undivided front whenever these matters are the subject of legislation. Therefore, to this extent the status of the teacher has become more professional. Another result of this development is the change in the teachers' professional outlook. Last summer between forty and fifty per cent of the public school teach- ers in the United States attended summer schools. Every city within a hundred mile radius of a college has its system of university extension; while some of the larger cities,-for example, Cincinnati and Buffalo-have complete systems for teacher training in the service. Most of these systems give a cultural, as well as a professional background. One of the direct outgrowths of more adequate academic and professional train- ing of teachers has been the changed attitude toward supervision. Formerly, the supervisor was a superior, well-educated being, who came to criticize-con- structively or otherwise ; now, since many teachers are of equal training and experience, the work of the supervisor is the improvement of the schools through the coöperative effort of everyone connected with the school system. Lately, teachers ' organizations have turned their attention to the intensive study of problems affecting their daily work. In one club bulletin we read of the Denver teachers' coöperation in curriculum building. Superintendent Newlon, with characteristic directness, cut through the usual difficulty in this sort of co- operation by allowing the teachers school time to accomplish this work. From the National League of Teachers Associations comes a report on the Social, Pro- fessional and Economic Status of the Teacher. From Duluth, a study of Living Conditions of Teachers in the United States, Minneapolis has made a Survey of Tenure whose findings are based on teacher turnover. Milwaukee has pub- lished a bulletin on the Platoon System, San Francisco has studied the question of Professional Reading. A committee of Pueblo teachers have worked out a splendid report on Minimum Essentials in the Grades. Portland, Oregon, has made an excellent study of the Exceptional Child in School. The Dallas Club and a number of other clubs are studying Teacher Ratings, and so on. Many of these studies are of such a high character that they have been accepted for credit by colleges and universities . One of the most outstanding reports on one of the most vital questions affecting the status of the classroom teacher is the report of the Denver teachers' association on the single salary scale. This report states that there should be but two fundamental factors in determining the salary of a teacher, namely, academic and professional training, and length of service, in the words of a successful State superintendent, "The single salary schedule will give greater significance to teacher training ; it will help to solve the problems of the elementary schools ; it will give hope to the teachers and bring rich rewards to the pupils." These, then are some of the factors in the improvement of the status of the American Woman Teacher. Recommendations to the National Council of Education on Status of American Woman Teacher-1 . The legal status of the teacher should be clearly defined by the passage of certification, tenure and pension laws. 2. The economic status should be determined by (a) Salaries that are commensurate with scholastic, cultural and pro- fessional attainments including successful experience in teaching. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 327 (b) Tenure that gives stability to the profession and relieves the mind of uncertainty. (c) Pensions and retirement allowances that permit the teacher to re- tire with dignity in keeping with services rendered. 3. The professional status will be determined by the legal and economic status . It must be constantly changing through requirement of more adequate preparation. (a) Preparation should meet legal requirement for courses in education presupposing a scholastic and cultural background. (b) Departments of education in colleges, teachers' colleges, and all teacher training institutions must be held responsible by law for profes- sional courses offered and opportunity for practice teaching under scientific supervision . (c) Opportunities provided for teacher participation in administrative policies, such as curriculum building, teacher rating schedules, supervision councils, salary and pension studies, will awaken a professional self-con- sciousness . (d) If the professional status of the teacher is to be recognized by the public she must be able to interpret school activities in terms of present day theories and practices. (e) The teacher should not only support local, State and National organizations but she should participate in policy making, take part in discussions, serve on committees, prepare and present reports, serve in any capacity that makes her an active participator instead of a passive listener. (f ) The Education Bill, sponsored by the National Education Asso- ciation and supported by thousands of members of other organizations, will provide legislation that will greatly improve the status of the teacher. By this act, there will be large appropriations made for teacher training institutions that will give greater opportunity for preparation for all teach- ers, especially rural teachers. (g) It is the responsibility of every member of the teaching profession in the American public school system, in the State institutions and in col- leges to work out and support administrative policies that will develop and strengthen State systems; that will provide larger administrative units whereby both cost and educational opportunity between town and country children may be equalized. Our country boys and girls are entitled to an education at least somewhat comparable to what has long been provided for city children. (h) Professional spirit should be an outcome of the teacher's consecra- tion to her task. A code of ethics may inspire and stimulate a teacher who has already attained professional outlook but it alone will not change one's habits of thinking. She must "Hold heart and mind open to new ideas, fine ideals and more splendid objectives." This report includes several studies and reports, previously presented to the National Council of Education by eminent educators and published as a part of the N. E. A. Proceedings 1923 and 1924. 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There are still many phases of this subject to be studied that will be taken up by other committees under different titles. However, this final report with recommendations is now submitted to the National Council of Education for approval, as the committee has completed its work. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Addresses and Proceedings, N. E. A. 1918, 1923, 1924 : 2. Research Bulletins of the National Education Association . (a) Teachers' Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Vol. I, No. 3, May, 1923 . (b) Public School Salaries in 1924 and 1925. Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2, Jan. and March, 1925. (c) Problems of Teacher Tenure. Vol. II, No. 5, Nov., 1924. (d) Teachers' Retirement Allowances. Vol. II, No. 3, May, 1924. 3. Annual Reports of N. E. A. Committees : (a) One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems. (b) One Hundred on Rural Teachers' Problems . (c) One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure. (d) One Hundred on the Problem of Retirement Allowances. 4. Association Bulletins and Leaflets : (a) The Education Bill and Discussions, Dr. George D. Strayer. (b) The Nation's Teachers, Olive Jones. (c) Home Bulletin Plan No. 1 (A problem for Teacher's Home) . 5. The American Teacher Bulletin 1922, No. 44, Homer H. Seerley, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. 6. Women in Administrative Positions. Compiled from the Education Directory 1925. Published by the U. S. Bureau of Education, Wash- ington, D. C. 7. Marriage and Legai Cause for Dismissal. I. N. Edwards, Elemen- tary School Journal, May, 1925, Chicago University. TEACHER GROWTH IN SERVICE A. L. THRELKELD, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO . In order to establish a point of view from which to consider this special topic it is necessary to see what we mean by growth in general and how it comes about. It is obvious that there is no possibility for growth unless there is activ- ity. A person cannot grow if he does not act. It is by his initiative and aggressiveness in controlling his environment to the furtherance of his own ends that he goes on to something bigger and better. But we should not lose sight of the fact that activity in itself is not NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 329 significant so far as intellectual growth is concerned. It must be activity plus experience. Experience is not made up of mere happenings but con- sists of meanings which these happenings have to the individual. Two persons may have an illness ; both recover, and in all external aspects the two cases may be about the same; but one may have the experience of the illness and one may not. This is due to the fact that the first or the one who gets experience reflects upon the thing that has happened to him , goes into the causal factors of it and arranges to control these causal factors so that he can prevent his having such a thing happen to him again. He comes then to an understanding of the causes back of the event and how by control of these causes he may get the result that he wants, either for himself or for others. In other words, he has experienced intellectual growth and enrichment as a result of the happening which he has under- gone. The other person does little or none of this reflection and has there- fore not had the experience which the happening itself had potentially within it. It is this ability to derive meaning which enables us to use the things which happen to us as means by which we can go ahead to more desirable levels. It is this which constitutes experience. Therefore, growth comes out of such activity as becomes experience as experience has just been defined. It is perhaps needless to say that most of our experience must come out of that which constitutes his paramount life's direction or interest. It is in the field of activity connected with this purpose that the happenings occur upon which he can reflect and by virtue of such reflection control conditions to the end of a higher level of results. This special interest or field of action in the case of the school teacher is of course the business of teaching the pupil. It is here that we have the source of teacher growth. This means when carried further that the growth of the teacher cannot be brought from the outside into the schoolroom where the activity is. It is within any particular situation where the teacher meets the pupil that we have the source of the activity out of which the experience of both pupil and teacher is to grow as far as the functioning of the school is concerned. In other words, the growth of the teacher must focus upon the activity of the pupil as he proceeds through the educative process. Nothing that is essentially external to this source can be a factor in teacher growth. Stated in another way experience which is to represent teacher growth must be obtained primarily where education goes on; namely, in the field of the teacher's work. In other words, teacher growth originates in and focuses upon his everyday work. It is somewhat misleading then to speak of teacher growth in service because that implies that there could be such growth somewhere else, when as a matter of fact that is not possible. Do I mean to say that there is nothing of value in a teacher attending summer sessions of colleges and universities, or other sessions for that matter, which seem to be located at a distance from the field of the teach- er's activity ? Of course I mean nothing of the sort. What I do mean 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to say is that in the case of the growing teacher, the teacher who is actually growing, summer schools, or professional courses anywhere are means to his work in the fields. It is reversing the proper order of things for a teacher to attend professional courses as if they were the source of his professional growth. They are means to ends, which ends are in the lives of the pupils whom he is to teach. The proper attitude is that he is to find something in the professional courses which inherently links up with the solution of definite problems which face him in the field. In other words, if a teacher attends our professional schools and evaluates all that comes before him out of a consideration of the problems which exist in the field where the life that he deals with is going on he will be making our professional courses serve their proper end. This point of view places a tremendous responsibility upon the adminis- trators of school systems because it presupposes educational programs out in the field which give the teachers the desire and the opportunity to work out problems as they perform their everyday duties. In fact, it is this working out of pupil growth problems which should be the everyday duty of teachers . It is doubtful if teachers who come from a school in which there is not an aggressive educational program in operation, if there be any such, get any worth-while value out of attending professional courses in our colleges and universities. But those who come from school systems where teachers are not only permitted but encouraged to coöperate in the solution of our problems in educational technique have intelligence back of their choices of courses and back of their evaluation of matters presented in these courses. To be more specific, if teachers are to grow in service they must be mak- ing a definite continuous study of all the problems appertaining to curricu- lum making. This is true because curriculum making is not a special interest in activity within the educative process. It is as broad as educa- tion itself. There is no question of method, classification of pupils, educa- tional guidance, construction and equipment of buildings, and the like which is not inherently a part of the great problem of curriculum recon- struction. It is the essence of our business as educators. Therefore, if a teacher is to grow he must be continually and primarily interested in a study of what the child should learn, what by virtue of his original nature he can learn, and what technique and materials will make the best connec- tion between these two factors. Again let me emphasize the fact that this problem obviously is inherent to the situation in which the pupil is. The study of it must always begin in and continually be directed with reference to this fundamental fact. And this is what we mean by the teacher's field work. It is his whole work as a teacher. His growth in service is his whole growth. As a further and more specific illustration of the effectiveness of curricu- lum reconstruction as a means of teacher growth perhaps I am justified in running some risk of violating the principles of good taste in order to refer NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 331 to the curriculum revision program which has been in operation in Denver for about three years. It has been based upon the principle of extensive teacher participation as well as upon many other considerations. I shall not take time to go into detail any more than to say that committees and teacher groups that have gone far enough with their work to get courses of study ready for tentative use in the classroom have experienced a growth which they themselves unhesitatingly declare to have been the richest pro- fessional experience which they have ever had. May I quote from a letter which we have received from one of the most prominent of curriculum specialists in this country, a man whose name is known wherever this prob- lem is seriously considered, and whose services were had for several days by certain of our committees. In response to our inquiry for suggestions con- cerning a person to be director of our department of curriculum he said the following: " I realize that in terms of the knowledge of the course of study any man will have to measure up pretty well to hold the respect of the various groups which have been working on the course of study. These groups are intelligent and well informed. There are very few men, if any, who could not learn a good deal from the people in these groups. Some of them appear to me to be as intelligent and capable as most of the national committees with which I have worked. I was particularly pleased with this evidence of the success of your plan." It is obvious that after teachers have been working in the field on prob- lems of this kind they go to our professional schools with a high degree of definite motivation. They are after something and they know what it is when they see it. In other words, it is a case of personalities which have gathered in meanings from experiences out of which comes the desire for more experience. Such persons are dynamic factors, whereas those who go through a humdrum life of following directions without questioning, a life largely of routine, merely get a certain mechancial skill and never really grow. So what I have tried to emphasize here is, first, that growth comes out of dynamic qualities, that it is inseparably linked up with activity, with doing something combined with reflective study, resulting in meanings which give the means by which further growth is to be directed. Second, the source of such activity, and therefore the primary and only opportunity for teacher growth originates in and focuses upon the teacher's job in the field. All else is contributory in character and must function as means to this end. In the third place, I have attempted to illustrate the sort of thing in the field which is necessary in order that teachers may have the opportunity for professional study and growth ; namely, continuous curriculum reconstruc- tion. 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SUITABLE TEXTS FOR ADULT BEGINNERS H. V. HOLLOWAY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION DOVER, DELAWARE *All that is found in books is not truth, nor has all knowledge been com- mitted to the printed page, but a mastery of books will continue to be the "Open Sesame" to the world's stored-up wisdom. The geologist may read the riddle of the rocks, the chemist and the physicist may reveal the myster- hes of the electron, the astronomer may part the curtain that conceals the infinity of the universe, but until they give expression to their findings in language they shut from the world the maximum benefits of their dis- coveries. The ability to translate thought into printed words and printed words back into thought constitutes one of the outstanding superiorities of man over the other animals, and only those men who have this ability may hope to live on that plane of independence and self-satisfaction to which their capacities usually entitle them. Communication of ideas is necessary for coöperation, and coöperation is the sine qua non of modern civilization. The year 1919 is a very significant date in the history of education of Americans. It marks the beginning of a very definite and widespread attempt on the part of this country to set its whole educational house in order. By that date the debris of the Great War had in a large measure been cleared away, and we were prepared to begin the task of remedying some of the glaring defects which the national inventory required by that war had revealed to us. The educational tests of the men called to the colors in that war would indicate that instead of having approximately 5,000,000 illiterates, as shown by our most recent census, there are in all probability more than 20,000,000 persons in this country over ten years of age who for all prac- tical purposes are illiterate, that is, unable to read well enough to read a newspaper and to write well enough to write a letter. These figures are so appalling in the light of the responsibilities which a republican form of government places upon its citizens that there is small wonder at the recognition of a new and vital problem in our national life, namely, the education of the adult illiterate. To be sure some of our States have for years limited the right of suffrage to their literate citizens, but men partici- pate in community life in many and perhaps more vital ways than by voting. We may, therefore, expect to find clustering around this date the preparation and publication of a great many textbooks having for their aim the elimination of adult illiteracy and the preparation for real American citizenship. For the purpose of dealing with the subject of "Suitable Texts" in these fields, we must recognize three distinct types of persons to be reached, each requiring a different type of text, and a decidedly different method of pre- sentation ; namely : NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 333 1. The adult literate, foregn born. 2. The adult illiterate, foreign born. 3. The adult illiterate, native born. The term "adult" above used means any person over sixteen years of age, that is, beyond the age of compulsory school attendance. For the classification of a given group for teaching purposes a more extended division must, of course, be recognized, as for instance, in the first two general classifications, those speaking no English and those speak- ing some English. In the preparation or the selection of suitable texts four other considera- tions should be held in mind; namely, purpose, content, method, and motiva- tion. These are closely linked together. Purpose, for instance, determines content, directs method and supplies motivation. Content furnishes moti- vation through method, etc. Purpose-What are some of the most important purposes which the author of such a text should have in mind ? The following are suggested: 1. To teach to read and write : a. To connect the name with the thing b. To connect action with its name c. To teach how to determine the name of the thing or action from the letters or sounds which compose it. d. To teach the words showing relations e. To direct the learning of letter formation 2. To develop skill in reading and writing. 3. To develop right ideals, attitudes and habits in relation to self, family, fellow man, democratic institutions, industry, and leisure. Content-The content or subject matter of the text ( 1) must primarily be worth while; (2) it must contribute to the realization of the purposes above set forth; and (3) it should have an emotional as well as a utilitarian appeal, that is, it should contain elements of humor, appeals to personal pride, love of country, and the like. In dealing with this phase of the problem it must be constantly borne in mind that we are dealing with adults. The psychology is adult psychology and not child psychology. No grown-up individual will be overenthusiastic about learning to read : It is Mother Goose's cat. Good morning, Big Gander. Can Kitty see Me ? The Goose said, "No, I did not make the bread" and the like. The subject matter must be worth while from the adult point of view. It must also meet a felt need on the part of the learner. The test of the material from that standpoint is its application to the daily life of the individual from the time he gets up in the morning until he goes 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to bed at night. This is particularly the case when he comes in contact with the world outside of the family. If he learns in the class to read traffic signs, danger placards, advertisements, directions for his work in the shop, how to mix fertilizers or sprays, how to cultivate crops, etc., he can see at once that reading is not a matter for school children alone, but it has a definite value in the daily routine of the adult. In the light of its purposes the subject matter must concern itself with the individual, the support and education of his family; his social needs and obligations, his political duties, his obligations to the State in the way of obedience to its laws, and sharing in its expense; his work and the necessity for it, and the like necessity for saving a portion of his earnings and the wise spending of the rest; the wise use of his leisure time through the instrumentalities of music, art, nature, recreation, books, the theatre; and finally and above all, it must set forth in simple form his fundamental moral and religious obligations. This subject matter should be so arranged as to present the fewest difficulties possible, beginning with those situations which present the greatest need, and gradually, very gradually, progressing toward the more difficult ones. Most of our books proceed entirely too rapidly to this point and thus discourage the learner, if he has not a very good teacher. The learner must look forward to the time in his work when he can read not only the sentences of each page, but the stories in the later pages, stories full of dramatic interest, such as, for instance, the story of how Hilda left her electric iron on the ironing table without dis- connecting it, to answer the door bell, and how the wind blowing the door to locked her out with a fire and her baby within, etc. Method-The adult, especially the illiterate adult, thrown suddenly into a new language environment finds himself confronted with a very difficult problem. The sign language may help him in satisfying his greater needs. His ability to draw, if he has any, may be another means of expressing. his thought, but both of these are crude and unsatisfactory. The best approach to a method of attack is a consciousness on the part of the author or the teacher of the type and magnitude of the difficulties to be met. To that end I would suggest that each for himself should under- take the acquiring of a new language, particularly one in which the read- ing order and the letter forms are different from the English, as Yiddish or Japanese. Not that he should use any foreign language whatever, either in the book or in the class room, except for literate foreigners, but that both the author and the teacher may be properly sympathetic toward the learner and thus emphasize that simplicity which is the first character- istic of good method. Practically all, if not all of the books on the market, at the present time are too difficult for the use of the illiterate beginner, whether foreign or native born. As in the selection of subject matter so in the presentation of the same the psychology is that of the adult rather than that of the child. In the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 335 adult there is a far richer apperceptive background than the child possesses . There is a keener appreciation of the value of the knowledge and skill that is being sought; there is a greater reasoning power and a greater power of analysis to be reckoned with, but naturally a less retentive memory. "Language is caught rather than taught." A recognition of this fact will banish from the classroom the use of any language except English. The adult is also more independent than the child. Good method em- phasizes this. It must, therefore, make the learner self-helpful. The word, phrase, and sentence method violate this principle. The learner should be taught the sounds of the letters of the word, and their names as well, but a clear distinction must always be made between the names of the letters and the sounds that they make. With this the good teacher will have no difficulty even if the text neglects to point it out. John Amos Comenius in 1657 established a principle in language teach- ing in his Orbis Sensualium Pictus that holds good today, not only in that field, but in every other where original concepts are to be taught. The object and its name may be bound together by means of the picture. Texts for illiterates should, therefore, be profusely illustrated, or, if lesson sheets are used, they should be supplemented by actual photographs of the things that lend themselves to pictorial representation. No teacher will undertake to teach without an abundance of illustrative material, or fail to make use of every device for connecting the word with the thought. The good book should help to this end. Motivation-1 once asked a group of second grade children why they wished to learn to read. These were some of the replies: "To get promoted, to be able to read stories, to read the 'funnies'" (in the Sunday newspapers ) . Should you ask a group of native-born illiterates why they wish to read, you would probably get some such answers as these : "To read the news- papers, to read the Bible, to read the farm journals, to read legal papers that I have to sign, to protect myself from sharpers," etc. The foreigner would probably add: "To get my 'papers,' to learn about the country and the laws, to be a good citizen, to learn to read books," etc. Ifthe book contains subject-matter that makes possible the attainment of these ends, the problem of motivating the work, that is, giving it the urge of meeting a felt need, will guarantee attendance upon classes and interest while there. It is the testimony of all teachers of classes for teaching adults to read and write English, that the application of the learners, growing out of their interest, makes it a much easier task than teaching children the same thing. 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CONTINUITY OF EDUCATION OUTLINE FOR OPEN FORUM, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA CHAIRMAN It is assumed that a better education would result were all the agencies contributing to the education of the individual operating more connectedly within themselves and with the other agencies, and under a better common understanding and unity of purpose. It is assumed that great waste is due to "gaps" and "conflicts," and lack of correlation in the whole program of education. Is there need for a more comprehensive curriculum, a part of which would be for the school, a part of which for the home, a part of which for the church, a part of which for vocation, etc., etc. ? To what extent is there need for greater continuity in education? How may this greater continuity be secured ? The following are suggestive of elements in education where greater continuity is needed : I. Between the nature of the child and education. II. Between learning and living. III. Between society and education. IV. Between church and school. V. Between home and school . VI . Between vocation and school. VII . Between leisure and recreation and school, etc., etc. 1. Between high school teaching and college teaching. 2. Between college and professional schools . 3. Between the junior and senior high schools. 4. Between the kindergarten and first grade, etc., etc. a. Between reading and arithmetic. b. Between physical education and health education. c. Among all so-called subjects in the primary grades . d. Between subject specialists and school principals, etc., etc. Discussions of not over five minutes were invited on any of the above or on other related themes. Dr. Gwinn opened the Forum by a discussion of the plan used in the San Francisco schools to bring about continuity of education by having no separation between the kindergarten and primary schools and maintain- ing as little supervision as possible up to the third grade. The super- visors of special subjects, as music and drawing, have been made con- sulting specialists for these grades. Continuity of education, not only from grade to grade, but from subject to subject in the same grade, and from school to outside agencies was considered. Great interest was manifested in the topics under consideration, and it was generally agreed that the large problem involved in securing continuity of education now lies in the intermediate school. Department of Adult Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES Indianapolis Meeting OFFICERS President-CHARLES M. HERLIHY, State Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, State Department of Education.. Boston, Massachusetts Vice-President-FLORA D. SMITH, Director of Americanization .... ..Los Angeles, California Secretary-ROBERT C. DEMING, Director of Americanization, State Department of Education Hartford, Connecticut Treasurer-ELLA THORNGATE, Supervisor of Americanization ......... Omaha, Nebraska Historical note-The Department of Adult Education was established by vote of the Representative Assembly, July 8, 1921, as the Department of Immigrant Education. The first meeting was held in 1922 in Boston. Proceedings of 1922, page 905. In 1923 the Department was recognized by the National Education Association as a departmental organization, and in 1924 the name of the Depart- ment was changed to the Department of Adult Education. See Proceedings of 1924, page 566. This Department meets once each year in June. The Department of Adult Education convened at the Y. W. C. A. at Indianapolis on Monday, June 29th, 1925, at 2 P.M. About 200 were present. President Herlihy opened the session by expressing thanks to the local committee for their hospitality and coöperation and in a few preliminary remarks outlined the history of the Department and its growth. He mentioned the fact that naturaliza- tion and immigration have been and are the peculiar functions of the United States Government, but it has never defined any policy relating to assimilation. Although outstanding progress has been made by the schools, they cannot do it alone. Five minutes after leaving the classroom the pupils may see citizens violat- ing the ideals taught. Our problem is great but our ideals are sound and the schools are able to shoulder the responsibility. At the afternoon session on Monday, June 29th, President Herlihy appointed an Auditing Committee consisting of Alfred E. Rejall, Wil Lou Gray, and Clutie Bloodworth ; and a Committee on Resolutions consisting of Agnes M. Bacon, Victoria Lyles, Marguerite H. Burnett, and Chester A. Graham. The regular annual business session of the Department was held on Tuesday afternoon immediately following the close of the program. The report of the treasurer, Miss Thorngate, was called for and given as follows : Amount in Treasury at beginning of year....... $134.29 RECEIPTS Amount received for Membership dues .... 213.11 Amount on hand ... 134.29 Total amount in the Treasury for the year 1924-1925 . $347.40 DISBURSEMENTS Paid for Advertising Placards . 11.75 Office Expenses 10.00 Printing Programs 14.95 Foreign Language Information Service. 10.00 Mrs. H. C. Kiernan-Advertising . 19.80 Ed P. Judd Printing Co... 2.50 E. A. Tryon Co. -Rubber Stamps ..... 2.40 Postage Exchange-Secretary's Office . 15.00 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Printing of "Proceedings" 1924 60.50 Membership Cards 3-75 Printing Programs 33.50 Expense-Treasurer's Office 8.25 Total Expense $192.40 Total Amount Received ... $347.40 Total Amount Expended . 192.40 Amount Remaining $155.00 Balance now in the Treasury . $155.00 The report of the Auditing Committee was received. The treasurer's report was accepted. The report of the secretary, Mr. Deming, was called for and given as follows : The report of the secretary of the Department of Adult Education will be brief. Our treasurer's report shows we are distinctly solvent and flourishing, our record of 240 members shows that we are expanding. This membership is not, however, satisfactory-we should have five times as many . It is evident that results will not come from membership committees but from the leadership of those in authority. Following the last Washington meeting a Journal of Proceedings was published and dis- tributed to every member of the department, something that has proved a most valuable assistance. According to vote the interstate Bulletin has been published and circularized as a medium for exchange of thought between all those engaged in this form of work, and in fact reach- ing some 6000 individuals interested in our problem. We have great hopes for its further success . This department is determined to be more in the public eye than ever, as in addition to our problems of pedagogy we have involved in our problem the growing problems of illiteracy, im- migration, radicalism, assimilation, and the greatest challenge to our philosophy of education and our ideals as a democracy. Let us build well. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was called for. The report follows : Report of Committee on Resolutions: The undersigned Committee on Resolutions, appointed by the President of the Department ofAdult Education of the National Education Association at the meeting of the Department in Hollenbeck Hall of the Indianapolis Y. W. C. A., Monday afternoon, June 29, 1925, begs to present, after due consideration, the following report : I. Be it Resolved, That this Department extend a unanimous vote of gratitude to the good people of Indianapolis, to the local organizations interested in adult education, and par- ticularly to the most efficient and fine-spirited local committee, who, by their hearty welcome, royal entertainment, and thoughtful attention to the details involved in a meeting of this kind, have made our first annual meeting such a worth while and delightful experience. II. Be it Resolved, That a unanimous vote of gratitude be extended to the Indianapolis Y. W. C. A., and particularly to the educational secretary, Miss Taylor, for the use of their building and the many courtesies shown us during this meeting; and that the secretary of this Department transmit this resolution to the general secretary of the Indianapolis Y. W. C. Α. Whereas, we have with so great a measure of progress and success come to the close of the fourth year of the life of this Departmnt, and, Whereas, this progress and success has been due so largely to the keen, far-sighted, fine- spirited leadership of our retiring officers, and particularly that of our faithful and untiring President, Mr. Charles M. Herlihy, Be it Highly Resolved, That we extend a unanimous vote of sincere appreciation to our retiring officers, and particularly to Mr. Herlihy, for the most sane and inspiring beginning which has been made, and, That we pledge ourselves to meet with similar faithfulness the challenge of adult education in the United States of America. IV. Whereas, the United States of America stands in the eyes of the civilized world as committed to a policy of universal education, and, Whereas, it has been repeatedly stated by competent persons in this Department that the importance of elementary education does not vary with age of the student, that the op- portunity for education is the right of each and every person, regardless of age, creed, race or place of birth, that the opportunity for education should not be limited to any special time of the day or year, and that the offering of the opportunity for adult elementary educa- tion is the responsibility of the public schools of this Nation; Be it Therefore Resolved, That this Department commits itself to the proposition, that edu- cation for adults who voluntarily seek it should be an organic part of free universal public education, that the opportunity for such education should be offered by the public schools, at such times and in such places as meet the needs and convenience of the students. That elementary education for children and elementary education for adults are not two separate independent units, but are only two phases of the same unit, that the major objectives in education do not vary between the education of children and the education of adults. That in a local school system the teachers of children and the teachers of adults should have a definite understanding of their common major objectives in education, and, That all adminis- trative officers, supervisors, and teachers in elementary education for adults must maintain the high professional standard and the scientific methods of research which have been established by the teaching profession of the Nation. DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 339 V. Whereas, Mr. Daniel J. Tobin, of the American Federation of Labor, and Mr. Garland Powell, of the American Legion, have asserted the desires of those organizations to assist in the development of an adequate program of adult education to meet the needs of all the people in all parts of the Nation, and have invited us to call upon their local organizations for active assistance: Be it Resolved, That this Department accept the invitation of the American Federation of Labor to call upon its National, State, and local organizations for active cooperation in the development of adequate programs of adult education for all adults, regardless of race, color, creed, age or place of birth, and, Be it Resolved, That this Department and the individual members thereof accept the in- vitation of the American Legion to call upon its National, State, and local organizations for active cooperation in the establishment of adequate programs of adult education for all adults regardless of race, color, creed, age or place of birth. VI. Whereas, a recent Nation-wide study regarding the educational qualifications for naturalization by Miss Marguerite H. Burnett, of Delaware, has indicated an almost universal desire on the part of persons engaged in the preparation of petitioners for naturalization for a more universal standard of educational requirements , and Whereas, a wide variation in such requirements seems to exist at the present time, and Whereas, very satisfactory results have been attained in places where there has been an insistence upon high educational requirements and a close coordination between the Federal examiner and the local educational authorities upheld by the judges presiding in Naturaliza- tion Courts, Be it Therefore Resolved, That the President of this Department appoint a committee of five members of this Department, which shall make a final report at the next annual meeting of this Department and which shall have full power to act in the proposal of, and if possible the establishment of a uniform standardized educational requirement for admission of aliens to citizenship. Amendment: to Section VI-Resolved, That the resolution authorize this committee to con sult the governmental authorities as to their views of requirements for citizenship. VII. Be it Resolved, That the Department of Adult Education of the National Education Association go on record as highly commending the twenty-one States of the Union who have so recognized the importance of adult education that they have provided State leadership in the development of this work. VIII. Be it Resolved, That the Department of Adult Education of the National Education Association go on record as highly commending the State legislatures which have provided financial backing and assistance for State-wide and local development of adult elementary education. IX . Be it Resolved, That the Department of Adult Education of the National Education Association renew its commitment to the eventual establishment of a literacy test for voters in this Republic. X. Be it Resolved, That Mr. H. J. Langoe, of Portland, Oregon, Editor of the United American, be most highly commended for his unselfish, capable service to adult education through the medium, The United American, with special reference to the June, 1925, issue. That this Department, through its Treasurer, pay to the said Mr. H. J. Langoe the sum of Fifty Dollars ($50.00) to partially reimburse him for the expense of providing one thousand copies of the said June, 1925, issue for this convention and, that all members of this Depart- ment, particularly the State directors, shall do all in their power to provide financial re- imbursement to the editor through the distribution of this magazine to teachers and other interested persons. For the Committee: Agnes M. Bacon, Rhode Island, Chairman; Marguerite H. Burnett, Delaware; Chester A. Graham, Akron, Ohio; Victoria Lyles, Oklahoma. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was accepted and the resolutions adopted. It was voted to transmit Resolutions IV and IX to the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association. ( These resolutions were later endorsed by the National Education Association. ) The report of the Nominating Committee, previously appointed by the President, was called for. Mr. Graham, of Akron, Ohio, reported: President- Robert C. Deming ; Vice-President-Wil Lou Gray ; Secretary- Willie Lawson; Treasurer-Ethel Richardson. The report of the Nominating Committee was accepted and the secretary was instructed to cast one ballot for the election of the above officers . It was so voted and the officers declared elected. President Herlihy resigned the chair and the new president called for any further business . Mr. Langoe expressed his appreciation of the aid and support given him by the Department. Upon motion the meeting adjourned. 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OUTSTANDING ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ADULT EDUCATION SINCE THE WAR CHARLES M. HERLIHY, MASSACHUSETTS STATE SUPERVISOR OF ALIEN EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Educational programs of citizenship training for adult men and women constitute the most recent development of the public schools in the United States. The impetus for this work was furnished by the war-time dis- closures of the tremendous number of native illiterate and non-English speaking immigrants in the military and naval forces of our country. Illiteracy and Americanization campaigns were vigorously prosecuted in all sections of the country during the period from 1917-1920. Public interest was aroused and many types of Americanization programs were proposed to remedy these important ills in our body politic. The assimilation of the foreign born was a new call for service and this appeal met a most enthusiastic response in every civic, fraternal and patriotic organization. Following the propaganda of the war period this work was given the careful consideration which it deserved. From 1918 to 1920 school programs of Americanization were well established in several States, notably, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massa- chusetts, Delaware, Ohio, South Dakota, and California. The Illiteracy Commission of the National Education Association, under the able leadership of Mrs. Cora W. Stewart, conducted live campaigns to arouse public interest in the size of the illiterate problem in the Southern States. Demonstration schools for adult illiterates were conducted by interested volunteers in a number of counties and the work was officially recognized by the State departments of education in North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Arkansas. A National survey of the State programs of adult education in elemen- tary subjects conducted by the author in the spring of 1925 showed the following interesting facts about the present status of this work: 1. Number of States that have enacted legislation favoring the establishment of adult schools-31 . Minnesota Ohio California Iowa Michigan Massachusetts Missouri Wisconsin Rhode Island North Dakota Tennessee Connecticut South Dakota South Carolina Montana Nebraska Alabama Idaho Delaware Mississippi Arizona District of Columbia Arkansas Utah New York Maine Nevada Pennsylvania New Hampshire Washington Oregon 2. Number of States that furnish educational leadership for adult education in the State Department of Education-21 . Minnesota South Dakota Pennsylvania North Dakota New York Ohio DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 341 Wisconsin Rhode Island Delaware Alabama Connecticut District of Columbia Mississippi Nevada South Carolina Arkansas Oregon Maine Massachusetts California Oklahoma 3. Number of States that provide financial aid to local districts conducting adult classes-21 . Minnesota Alabama Washington North Dakota Maine California South Dakota New Hampshire Delaware New York Massachusetts District of Columbia Pennsylvania Rhode Island Virginia Wisconsin Connecticut South Carolina Tennessee Nevada Arizona 4. Number of local communities in the United States reported from 21 States in which adult classes are conducted-670. 5. Approximate number of students enrolled in classes for adult illiterates and adult foreign born in United States-282,000. ( 21 States ) 6. Number States conducting special teacher training courses for adult schools- 11. California Pennsylvania Connecticut Delaware Wisconsin Arkansas South Carolina Massachusetts Oklahoma New York Rhode Island The 1920 Federal census shows that every State in the Union has more than 5000 foreign born adults and native illiterates. Thirty-one States to date have recognized the importance and the needs of public school programs for adults needing elementary civic instruction and have enacted legislation favoring this work. It is significant to note, however, that there are only 21 States in this group in which the work has been rec- ognized by the State department of education as deserving of the services of a director and supervisors. In addition to the 282,000 students recorded officially from the 21 States in the above survey there are undoubtedly 50,000 adults enrolled in classes in the larger cities of those States which have not provided State leadership for this work, e. g. Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Trenton, New Orleans, and Milwaukee. This grand total of more than 325,000 adult students is the most signifi- cant proof of the strength of the adult education movement in the United States at the present time. Despite the waning of the public interest in the Americanization program and the serious retrenchment policy in public expenditures the school programs for native illiterates and adult foreign born have steadily improved during the past five years and the outlook from a National standpoint is most promising. The immediate practical aims of Americanization work have to do with the teaching of English and the preparation for citizenship. The direct results of this work have shown that the adults who attend such classes are helped not only in learning to talk, read and write English, but also in understanding their duties and privileges as American citizens. 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The bad social effects of illiteracy and the unfortunate misunderstand- ing of the public in regard to the disposition and contribution of the foreign born to our American life can be corrected only by the right type of edu- cational program. The antidote for intolerance is right information, and the school programs for Americanization in the several States where this work has been conducted during the past decade have been responsible in no small measure for the friendly spirit of coöperation and understanding found there at the present time. PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR ADULT EDUCATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE EMPLOYER LOUIS A. BOWMAN, CHAIRMAN , NATURALIZATION COMMITTEE, CHICAGO ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS It is my privilege to bring you a brief message regarding the interest of employers in adult education, as manifested by a piece of constructive edu- cational and patriotic service rendered by an organization of business men who represent in spirit and purpose the new commercial and industrial era, in the early dawn of which we are now living. This group is the Ameri- canization Committee of the Chicago Association of Commerce, working through its subcommittees on educational classes and on Naturalization. The theme might be termed "An Adventure In Americanization" look- ing out upon and venturing in to two but slightly explored regions; first, that of adult preparation for citizenship, and, second, that of appropriate and impressive induction into citizenship. I. Preparation for Citizenship-It is a fundamental economic necessity to prosperity that there be "a good job for every man," but equally neces- sary is it that there be "a good man for every job." It was with some- thing of a realization of these that this Committee started its work in 1918, and immediately found that there were 300,000 non-English speaking adults in the industries of Chicago operated by members of the Associa- tion. This appealed to them as the greatest possible field for Americani- zation work, a field which our great educational system was not reaching, and which by many may have been thought to be entirely out of its province, Çoöperation between these two great forces, industry and edu- cation, was early judged to be imperative, if the field was to be entered and cultivated. Leaders in both fields were consulted and a coöperative arrangement early consummated. It was clearly apparent that the close interdependent relationship of em- ployer and employee afforded a contact and an opportunity for educational and patriotic service and for mutual benefit, which the schools could not create or maintain in large degree through dealing directly with the em- ployee alone, as an independent individual unit. The employers could create an interest in qualifying for American citizenship, and in self-im- provement and acquiring knowledge necessary to efficiency and happiness DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 343 and good citizenship, which the forces of education could not. So the coöperative effort between the employers and the educators and in behalf of the employees and the Nation was begun and the story can perhaps be summarized in six concise paragraphs, as follows : First. The Employers' Response-As in all new efforts there were at first those among the employers who said it could not be done, that it was no use; but, also, there were, as is always the case, those who believed it could be done, and went to work to get it done. It's a good thing some times not to know enough to know that something good and desirable can- not be done, but to just to go ahead and get it done. So, while some em- ployers hesitated and held back, adverse and fearful of introducing class work into shop and factory, others responded to the need and the opportu- nity, to the result that 400 different classes have been organized and main- tained, not in schoolrooms but in industrial plants, a few being in depart- ment stores, office buildings and a considerable number among hotel em- ployees. Second. Employees' Response-More than 10,000 different men and women have attended these classes, some entirely on employers' time, and some upon half employers' and half individual time, and some entirely upon their own time. Third. Educations' Response-Our board of education responded promptly and generously to the need created by this adventure into a ter- ritory heretofore untouched by any agency and especially trained teachers have been supplied for all classes, the courses being four, beginners, inter- mediate and advanced English, and in citizenship. The very flower of the men and women of our teaching force were assigned to this service, and in a truly patriotic and altruistic spirit they took it up, not for the pitifully inadequate remuneration, but primarily for the good they could do. A great need was met for the work in Chicago and throughout the Nation when Miss Frances K. Wetmore, capable, versatile, devoted, patriotic soul that she is, prepared, and the Association of Commerce published, the First Book in English for Non- English Speaking Adults. Fourth. The Employers' Benefits-They are many, and taking ex- clusively their own statements, we find as follows : fewer accidents, one great manufacturing corporation attributes the reduction of from 22 acci- dents per month to four per month, to the training received in these classes ; better morale, their men more loyal, more efficient, more contented; better quality and larger quantity of work done; possessed of a different spirit in their work. Fifth. Employees' Benefits-Many they are; he has become worth more to his employer, to his family and to himself, he has been taught to think which is greater than the things he has learned, for I have never forgotten this deeply significant sentence, coming to me in my sixth grade reader, " The great use of a school education is not so much to teach you things as to teach you to think" ; he has become a more intelligent em- ployee and a more patriotic and loyal member of the body politic. After 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION one year's work, an official of one of our great transcontinental railroad systems says, "Of immeasurable value both to employees and railroads," while a high official of another great railroad system, the two reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, says : "This work is having a very wholesome effect on the forces referred to, it is making the employees more valuable to us and to themselves. They are becoming more proficient and more interested in the detail of their work." I have heard that "interest" is the greatest word in pedagogy, and often wonder if it is not the greatest word in industry, in commerce, in civics and in religion. Sixth. Education's Benefits-Many, too, are found here. To have brought this large volume of better service to industry and commerce is in itself a wonderful achievement, to have brought so much of cheer, ambi- tion, hope, inspiration, and practical training, to have so transformed the attitude of mind, to have so broadened the outlook upon life, to have so enhanced the usefulness to themselves, families, employers, and country of these thousands of heretofore non-English speaking adults, wholly un- reached by educational forces, is an outstanding accomplishment of or- ganized education worthy of the enthusiastic gratitude of every loyal Amer- ican, and ample reward for all the time, money, mentality, and energy ex- pended. And many of these new recruits from industry, brought under the benign influence of our educational system, have continued their studies after acquiring citizenship, in the regularly organized evening classes, in the school buildings, going forward to greater accomplishment, greater use- fulness, greater happiness. However, let the proper educational official speak for himself as to the benefit to education, for in the last annual report of the Superintendent of Schools of Chicago I read, as follows : "The most noteworthy improvement in the evening schools during the year was the large increase in the number of foreign born, studying the English language, history, and civics in preparation for naturalization, the increase being from 11,791 to 17,112. This increase was largely due to the active coöperation of the Chicago Association of Commerce Americanization Committee which made an unusually intensive campaign among employers in September." II. Induction Into Citizenship-But an important step remains yet to be taken when the adult foreigner is fully prepared to transfer his allegiance to his adopted country, and here again one committee, one year ago, thought it saw a further opportunity for patriotic service which would help in cor- rectly interpreting the American spirit to those receiving the honor of American citizenship. This step is a judicial proceeding. So we first set about to acquire the good will and active coöperation of the judges in our courts who preside over naturalization proceedings, and one by one they consented to conducting, at the close of the naturalization days, a brief inspirational patriotic program, lasting never over thirty minutes, consist- ing of a salute and pledge to the flag, always conspicuously present in the court rooms, a patriotic song as a solo, an address of welcome to new citi- zens by a leader in public life, lawyers, judges, merchants, clergymen, bank DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 345 ers, have all served; words of counsel from the presiding judge, the singing of America by the entire company, presentation of naturalization certifi- cates, each new citizen receiving a small American flag, and where possible a hearty handshake and word of congratulation. During the last year we have held 40 such programs, welcoming 6000 new citizens, with a con- siderable majority of whom I have personally shaken hands and spoken a cordial word of welcome, and I have seen reflected in their faces a spirit of gratitude, of satisfaction, of loyalty, which means much for the future welfare of our country. The whole spirit and demeanor of court clerks and attaches has been changed, the judges themselves have felt an intensified interest in the men admitted and have prepared and delivered most valuable and inspiring addresses and the new citizens have gained a higher and nobler conception of the dignity, the significance and the responsibility of American citizenship. And so the adventure into "preparation for and induction into Amer- ican citizenship," commerce and industry working unitedly with the forces of organized education and the judiciary coöperating so heartily, has proven itself to be a worth while contribution to the cause of education and good American citizenship among those who, not inheriting it, choose to ac- quire it. OUTSTANDING NEEDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROGRAMS OF ADULT EDUCATION FOR NATIVE ILLITERATES CLUTIE BLOODWORTH, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EXCEPTIONAL EDUCATION ALABAMA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION , MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA The first need in the development of any program is an organizing force. Some group of people must feel the need of getting certain specific things done. If the group know what they want and want to the point of de- termination to get what they want, they can usually locate the hummocks by which to cross the swamp. If the message they send out as they travel has the right quality, if it has the intrinsic, human appeal of the yodel of the mountaineer the group will gather numbers that will act with the same unity that prompted the followers of the Pied Piper. The setting up of definite goals to be reached by the education of native illiterates and the interpretation of these goals to the general public is the first need. The promoters of a program of education have not found the right key in which to pitch their piping. The air is necessarily plaintive, but it should not be vague and sentimental. It must be irresistible with that quality of beauty which is inherent in the struggle toward a saner group living. In the thirteen years of experimenting in eradicating illiteracy it should be dis- covered whether or not the teaching of illiterate adults is as unavoidable as preparing the soil for a new crop. If the teaching of adults has in- disputable reasons for its promotion, then present those reasons to the pub 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lic until the public is convinced a program of adult education is a necessary development of National stability. In developing any kind of educational program the directing force should be located in the State department of education because the department views the field from a vantage point, has already surveyed it and is already in possession of the facts fundamental to the making of an educational pro- gram. The second need of the development of the program is the incorpora- tion of the program of adult education as a part of the official general program . Third, the native illiterates must become acquainted with the entire group of people making them the beneficiaries of a program. Webster says acquainted, in the sense I am using it, is obsolete, but in the daily speech of our isolated people the meaning is still alive. The manner of approach will make the native better acquainted with the stranger than the stranger is with himself perhaps, for the native retains the on-guard attitude de- veloped by generations of hazardous living. He sees the friendly hand outstretched in friendly fashion, but he looks beyond the hand to make sure of the friendly spirit that controls the hand. These are the people who still believe "A man's home is his castle." A few years ago a young woman, a new and a first home demonstration agent in a certain southern county, found herself late in the afternoon in a remote and unfamiliar part of the county. Stopping at the first house she reached, she asked the woman who came to the door, "May I spend the night here?" She ex- plained her dilemma. The woman listened patiently to the end and then said, " I dunno. You'll hav ter wait and see what he says er about hit." When he arrived, again the story was repeated and the two listeners heard the girl through without comment. Then the woman spoke as if she had been pondering the matter some time. "Ain't cher got no folks?" she asked. Then the girl's family was enumerated. When at last the reasons for a girl's wandering about the country alone were explained and adjudged real though strange the man turned and said, "Ma, I don't know but you might as well let her stay. You kin put her in the orgin room." The "orgin room" is the best the house affords, the room where the organ is kept. When the native white illiterate concludes the knocker-at-his-door is worthy, the hospitality offered his guest is unreserved. Burns has said : To see oursel's as others see us ! It wad frae monie a blunder free us And foolish notion. The promoters of the program may suffer some embarrassment in the attempt to make themselves known to the shrewd, independent, sensitive though illiterate pioneers. The promoters may have "the giftie gie" then to see themselves possessed of several "foolish notions" that have caused them to blunder. If their hands are offered condescendingly, those Amer- icans will know it. If the hands are extended to "slip" those Americans a DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 347 charity offering the blunder will ruin the program. When these people, handicapped by remote living, have met and understood their new neighbors and have learned of the hospitality which their neighbors offer because they in return expect to be benefited by the association, then and then only will the projected program be accepted with enthusiasm. Courses of study prove the fourth of the outstanding needs. In the process of making themselves and their proposed social service known to the beneficiaries of their plans and in the closer sympathy and understanding thereby resulting, the promoters of a program will see goals begin to glow like wayside lights through the dusk leading to a marked place for arrival . Teaching people to read and to write should be incidental to reading for profit and writing for the transaction of daily living. Farming, garden- ing, home-making, health teaching would have large place in the course of study, but humor, poetry, adventure and all that constitutes literature must be included. In one school, in a very backward district, the daily reading of bits from Uncle Remus kept the school chuckling the long day through. Every pupil in school was given a name from Uncle Remus . A simple poem about a tree : Upon whose bosom snow has lain; Who intimately lives with rain. adds new interest to the familiar surroundings too often undervalued. The fifth need is books. More textbooks for slow readers would make it possible for independence in reading to be attained more rapidly. Gov- ernment bulletins are not usable by farmers and farm women because the print and the language make them hard except for skilled readers. Libra- ries containing books attractive to adults who are slow readers would hasten adult education at a rate impossible to estimate. As soon as some skill in reading has been acquired, the pupil in the adult schools begin the search for books that are easy to read but have the contents sought by mature readers. To teach illiterate adults requires qualifications of a high order. Patience, sympathy, understanding, professional training that gives the technique of teaching required for the particular task, and a breadth of education that will make the school session an experience of fine living all these are the requirements without which the work may go toward, but will never arrive at, even a low goal. If teachers of the type described are kept in the field, they must be paid and the salaries must be such that teachers can afford to continue in this line of work. Whether the training be given at normal schools as a part of the usual training, or after normal school graduation at institutes held for the purpose, I am not prepared to decide. But the teacher should be enabled to enter training for adult teaching knowing that she would find specializing for it as advisable as specializing in some other type of teaching . 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STATE AND LOCAL SUPPORT AND LEADERSHIP FOR ADULT EDUCATION WILLIE LAWSON, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION , LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS Any discussion of plans and specifications for an adult education program naturally falls into two divisions-what should be and what is. As a rule "things as they should be" is the easiest subject in the world to speak on-visions, dreams, hopes-indefinite and vague, which may or may not ever be attained. On this subject "Local Support and Leadership"- however, it is different, for I am basing my remarks on the program as out- lined by the different States which have undertaken the job of standard- izing and stabilizing adult education within their own boundaries. The success of adult education in America does not depend upon legisla- tion but upon leadership and support. Leadership rather than support is the keynote, for enormous programs have collapsed and well supported organizations have lost power and faded away into nothingness all because of inefficient leadership. Because we have in our hearts a very strong sympathy for the "man who ain't had no chance," illiteracy and adult education work has a very strong emotional appeal. For this reason a very guarded and sane publicity pro- gram is necessary. If too much emphasis is placed on the sob section of the situation the emotional, demonstrative "howling reformers" want to take the job away from us. Theirs is no standardized plan but a mission- ary "labor of love" with a huge enthusiasm to begin the work but no con- tract signed to complete it. We couldn't do without them, don't mis- understand me, for a maximum part of our State and local support is the right attitude of the public toward adult education. If the enthusiasts will stand by and tell the story, while trained people do the work, they will have done their duty well. Getting the coöperative, sympathetic, "I'm for you" attitude of the so-called educated people is one of the hardest jobs of all. So long as there are people in the world who insist that every man has an equal chance from birth, regardless of blood or environments or foods or training or even sometimes the water he drinks and the air he breathes, so long as there are those who insist that our educational system attempts to make ditch diggers into preachers and garbage men into lawyers instead ofseeing that true education does not necessarily change the occupation, but raises the standard and makes easy the difficult places in whatever pro- fession or job the individual is interested-so long as those things are true, just so long will we have to spend a certain part of our time-not too much-educating the educated. Too, there are occasionally educators-State superintendents, for in- stance-who have not seen the value of adult education to community building as well as to the public school system itselt. Allow me to quote from a letter which came to my desk recently from a State superintendent of education : "We devote all of our time and money to the education of DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 349 children to the exclusion of adults." His attitude reminds me very much of Dr. Claxton's interpretation of the prophet story-"A prophet spent the night with a widow who had left only one day's rations. She generously shared it with him and, to her amazement, the next day the larder was replenished. So long as the prophet stayed there was plenty of food. Would a wise woman have asked him to leave ?" Where we have adult education our children are better cared for with ( 1) better schools, (2) better teachers, (3) increased daily attendance. Would a wise educator then refuse to adopt adult education? "The dear people," as our legislators so lovingly call the voters, will not support what they do not understand, and to understand they must see the work done in their own localities and hear of it being done in others. We not only admit the value, but we urge the use, of a safe and sane publicity program through the coöperation of editors (State and local), of club women and their news sheets, of Lions, Rotarians, etc., of the American Legion and its auxiliaries, of banks through the columns of their bulletins and of the colleges and universities through their monthly newspapers. Real news, I am told, is telling something before it happens. No populace, however, will feed for any length of time on "we are planning to put on a campaign" unless the announcement is backed up by a story of the success of the movement. Tell what you are going to do, tell it as you do it, and tell that you have done it. First of all, adult education is here to stay. Dr. Graves, commissioner of education in New York, says : "We have determined to give to each and every one all the training of whatever kind he can possibly utilize." Under the Smith-Hughes Act, Federal government and State governments in many States are caring for those adults who wish to take special training, through evening classes, in agriculture, home economics, and various trades and industries. But even this reaches comparatively few. Out of a million adults in Arkansas last year only about 1000 were able to take advantage of this night school training. Too, there are schools for adults in various cities over the country built up by far-sighted individuals-Miss Griffith's Opportunity School of Denver for instance. There are many classes in special work being supported by churches, men's civic clubs, and women's organizations. This is true in our State, and I'm sure that it is in others. But what we are including in this program is the promoting of such a system of schools for adults as we have for boys and girls under fifteen. The ultimate aim of an adult education movement, so far as I can de- termine from reports which I have studied from eleven States, is that it shall be a part of the public school system both as to leadership and support. The State work should be in charge of a director who is a member of the State department of education. There should be an appropriation included in the budget of the State Department which will take care of director, printing of texts where necessary, publicity, and at least a part of teachers' salaries. Local work should follow the same plan. In a county the 350 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION county board of education should make an appropriation which will care for a county director, publicity, and also match State funds for teachers' salaries. A city system may adopt the same method. This is not a dream, but a practical aim. In some places it has been reached, though not per- fected. The Connecticut commissioner of education says, "This need- that of teaching foreigners was at first met by voluntary teachers and by private funds, but it has now come to be recognized as an integral part of our expanded local and State systems of schools and is supported from the public treasury." For the first time in Arkansas a city board of education has elected for next year as one of its regular faculty a full-time, trained teacher who will organize Opportunity Schools in the city and supervise the work done there by teachers paid (also for the first time) by the city affiliated Parent- Teachers Association. These schools will be open from September fifteenth to June first-the same term as the regular day schools. This is the result of work in that county last year carried on successfully by a State worker. Adult education a permanent part of the public school system both as to support and leadership is the solution of the problem. Browning says : "Man's reach must exceed his grasp or what's a heaven for?" We might leave the problem just here, since the solution has been given, but for the fact that I remember my feeling at the first illiterate conference I attended when I was only three months old, professionally speaking, and all of the other delegates were anywhere from two to ten years old. They talked standards, permanent organization, State appropriation with a freeness and abandon which I dared not adopt. I went home absolutely overwhelmed with the enormity of the undertaking. They had money, power, support, leadership, so, of course, they could succeed. We had none of those, so we had better withdraw. Not a soul at that conference took the time to tell me that they had gone through the same period of development which we were enduring in Arkansas and I thought that they began where they were at that time. Had it not been for Mrs. Stewart's inspiration, we might never have weathered the storm. Like many difficult and disagreeable experiences, it was good for us. We began to secure reports and records from other States and so to see how they reached this height (it seemed almost perfection to us as beginners) . To you who are more advanced than we, I can only say our aim is the same as yours-"adult education as a part of the public school system," and the quickest way to attain this is to create public sentiment for the proper legislation to make this possible. The surest way to secure coöperative sentiment for this work is to place a trained worker in the field (by private subscription, if necessary) who will make a success of enrolling and teaching adults in an evening school. 'Tis old but true that "nothing succeeds like success." To you who are pioneering adult education work I would like to give a resumé of the status of State and local support and leadership at the present time in some States . South Carolina has the most comprehensive and far-reaching State pro DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 351 gram among the Southern States at the present time, and this proves my statement that competent leadership is the key to success, for when Miss Gray took charge of this work in 1919 they had been receiving financial support from the Legislature for three years and the funds had not been touched-not even been wasted in effort, much less utilized to advantage- all for the want of a leader. Their State financial support has increased from $5000 to $45,000 in nine years and local support has grown from indifference to the employing of special teachers for work in mill towns partly supported by mill exeси- tives. Active coöperative support is gotten from every available source- bankers-savings accounts for adult pupils; American Legions-scholar- ships to summer opportunity schools ; State University-publicity through University of South Carolina News ; Federated Clubs-assistance in pub- lishing Bible story readers; individuals-prizes, use of cars, etc. A leader is a person who knows how to use to advantage, so as to get results, every offer for coöperation. In South Carolina when the bankers say: "We endorse the work of the Illiteracy Commission and pledge our- selves to support this program," Miss Gray says, "Thank you. We would like to have the banks start savings accounts for all adults who learn to read and write." The State Federation of Women's Clubs passed a reso- lution pledging their members to do all that they could to further the work. "All that they could" happened to be assisting in publishing Bible story readers. In fact, every person who offered support was given a job by a leader who had her program so outlined that she knew what she needed and could use. Promised support becomes active support only at the demand of the leader. Mississippi's plan should be interesting to those who are just beginning a program of illiteracy eradication and adult education. They are ab- solutely in the chrysalis stage. No laws, no leader, no appropriation-"no nothing "- except the determination of those who understand the need to establish such a system. Theirs is, to begin with, a two year program-one year State organization and the second year actually beginning and teach- ing schools for adults. They expect during the first year to perfect a county committee with local sub-committees in each county in the State. This committee shall be made up of a county superintendent of education, Parent-Teachers Association member, Federated Club member, president of county teachers association, county health officer, minister, business man, editor of the county paper, and member board of supervisors. The duties of these county and local committees shall be to locate illiterates, secure teachers, arrange time and place, enrol adult pupils, and secure any funds by individual donation necessary for books, etc. Most States have gone through such a stage. I would not presume to throw cold water on the plant, for, as a beginning, it is absolutely in- valuable and almost necessary. It checks up on conditions; places the needs before the people; arouses citizens to their responsibility in the matter; and serves to determine three important points without which 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION there can be no permanent organization-first, that there must be a head, a leader ; second, where we expect to get the support and how much we shall need; and, third, just where to begin the work on an intensive scale for the conclusion of every State organizer to whom I have talked is that the ultimate end is intensive work. Some States work from a county program out, while others from a State program in. Either plan is sat- isfactory, if we can carry in mind all along that intensive county work is necessary at one time or another. We have used the latter plan and the greatest difficulty we have encountered is in losing State interest when we begin to localize. Briefly summing up, let me say then that the ultimate aim for adult education is that it shall become a permanent part of the public school system. The Nation is striving for this in a Federal Education bill; each State is pushing forward to this end through State legislation and coöperative public sentiment; many localities have already attained the goal and are having regular night schools for adults with as long terms as the regular day schools. The idea of giving each and every person a chance for all the training that he needs is new in the history of civilization. Before there will be the proper support for such work, the need of it must be shown and the results in personal happiness and economic progress must be proved. Leadership is the keynote to success in this unique program. A leader- ship which can persuade the classes to give the necessary aid and a leader- ship which can persuade the masses to make use of the aid after it has been given ; a leadership which has the enthusiasm to launch such a program and the practical knowledge and persistency to complete it. Support has been forthcoming where it has been sought. The people are in a mood to be convinced that the world needs trained people in every job and profession. Too long we have accepted poor labor because of the excuse "I didn't have a chance to learn" ; too long have we endured small enrolment and still smaller average daily attendance in our day schools because illiterate parents underrated the value of an education ; too long have our charitable and correctional institutions had to care for those whom education and training would have saved from such a fate. Adult education is being accepted by the business, the religious, and the social worlds in whatever sections of the country it has been introduced. Adult education is here to stay because America still believes in the principals on which it was founded-liberty and justice for all. INCULCATION OF IDEALS IN CIVICS HOWARD BRADSTREET, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF ADULT EDUCATION HARTFORD , CONNECTICUT American ideals are vague and myriad. The civics class presents those that relate to the government and its underlying principles. They are not Utopian plans towards which we may or may not be tending, but the DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 353 working principles put into the working constitution of a new government. These principles are not based on abstractions. The divergent results of some 180 years of laboratory work in government in the colonies were brought to a focus in 1787, and out of them through acceptance, rejection, and compromise the Constitution emerged. The first problem in their inculcation is a clear conception of what these fundamental ideals are, and the second is that of showing the method of their development. The first aid is history, especially biography, and more especially the wrestling of different types of mind with the same problem-the Hamil- tons and the Jeffersons. Every foreign-born knows the name of Wash- ington. Few know to what an extent he represents the English idea as opposed to the Roman. To appreciate Washington, they should know Napoleon; should understand the contrast between imperialism and democ- racy, between the army and the school as the basis of the Nation's life, between ambition for the crown and for the farm on the part of a leader. There is more meat in the story of Washington than has usually been set before the class . Action on the part of the group is desirable. The short play dealing with personalities at important periods of our history is fundamentally educational. The use of club or organization methods in place of the regular class routine is still more valuable. Individual opinion brought into group action in some practical form, however slight, gives training in facing a question, making a decision, and abiding by the result-all of which are presupposed before handling the ballot, but which are all new to a large number of the foreign adults. Department of Business Education OFFICERS President-LLOYD L. JONES, Vocational Counselor, West Commerce High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Vice-President- IRVING R. GARBUTT, Director of Commercial Education, Woodward High School Cincinnati , Ohio Secretary-J . O. MALOTT, Commercial Department, Yeatman High School .. St. Louis, Missouri Historical note-The Department of Business Education was created in response to a petition read at the meeting at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, from the Business Educators' Association, requesting admission as a department of the National Education Association. See Proceedings of 1892, page 31. The Business Educators' Association was organized in New York City, in 1878. Its constitution was revised for acceptance by the Department of Business Education and may be found on page 958 of the Proceedings of 1894. This Department meets once a year, in June. TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JUNE 30, 1925 First Joint Luncheon Conference with Department of Vocational Education Given under the Auspices of the Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce. Presiding, F. H. Fishbach, President, Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce. Business Training Problems THE MARRIAGE OF ETHICS AND ECONOMICS-Merle Sidener, President, Sidener-Van Riper Advertising Co., Indianapolis, Ind. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES- Myron Jermain Jones , Director of Labor Relations, B. F. Goodrich Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio. ON WHAT BASIS SHOULD OUR HIGH SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES BE ORGANIZED ?- E. W. Barnhart, Chief, Commercial Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. С. JOINT CONFERENCES OF "VOCATION ALISTS"-John N. Greer, President of Department of Vocational Education, and Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JUNE 30, 1925 TWENTY- FIVE YEARS OF TYPEWRITING AND TYPEWRITING METHODS-Harry C. Spill- man, Education Director, Remington Typewriter Co., New York City. HIGH SCHOOL TRAINING FOR SECRETARIAL WORK-Dora H. Pitts, Teacher of Short- hand, Western High School, Detroit, Mich. COÖRDINATING BUSINESS EDUCATION WITH VOCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES-Stanley Roth, Personnel Director, L. S. Ayres & Co., Indianapolis, Ind. VITALIZING THE BOOKKEEPING PROGRAM-Jay W. Miller, Instructor in Bookkeeping Methods, Summer Normal Session, Gregg School, Chicago, Ill. ARE WE IN STEP- INDUSTRY AND BUSINESS TEACHERS ?-Sherman Perry, Correspond- ence Adviser, American Rolling Mill Co., Middletown, Ohio. RESEARCH METHODS IN COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS William L. Connor, Director of Research, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. BUSINESS ASPECTS OF SCHOOL ACTIVITIES -Paul H. Seay, Treasurer, Withrow High School , Cincinnati, Ohio. THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 2, 1925 Presiding, Irving R. Garbutt, Director of Commercial Education, Cincinnati, Ohio. Interpretation of Business and Educational Requirements TEACHING OF BOOKKEEPING AND CALCULATING MACHINES AND ITS RELATION TO BUSI- NESS-J . C. Springman, Director of Commercial Department, Pontiac High School, Pontiac, Mich. [354] DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 355 THE USE OF CALCULATING MACHINES IN CLASSES IN COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC- H. B. Loomis , Principal, Hyde Park High School, Chicago, Ill. JUNIOR BUSINESS TRAINING ITS CONTENT AND SCOPE-J. O. Malott, Commercial Department, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo. STANDARD PROCEDURES IN BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND THEIR APPLICATION TO BUSI- NESS TRAINING- C. A. Hyre, Business Manager, Cleveland Clinic and Asso- ciated Hospitals, Cleveland, Ohio. THE FUNCTION OF THE SUPERVISOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION-E. F. Killam, Supervisor of Commercial Education, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo. THE PRESENT Trend in CoMMERCIAL TEACHER TRAINING-M. E. Studebaker, Head of the Department of Commerce, Ball Teachers' College, Muncie, Ind. THE PLACE OF THE TYPEWRITER IN HISTORY AND EDUCATION-ABSTRACT HARRY COLLINS SPILLMAN, EDUCATION DIRECTOR, REMINGTON TYPE- WRITER COMPANY, NEW YORK CITY The advent of the typewriter heralded an educational renaissance and was followed by a tidal wave of demand for vocational and utilitarian subjects in our schools. Business colleges sprang up all over the land and began to teach our boys and girls seriously and for the purposes of life. Within twenty years from the birth of the typewriter, the American schoolhouse had been turned upside down. Today there is hardly a college or university in the land that has not been shaken loose from its exclusive academic cast, while the American high school has become the university of the common people. To say that the invention of C. Latham Sholes had a large part in this educational awakening is not an idle compliment but an historical fact. But Sholes' contribution was not only mechanical, social, political, and educational-it was also spiritual. It is well to recall that although he invented the typewriter, he didn't perfect it. When he had done what he could with what he had where he was, he wrapped the infant in swad- dling clothes and sent it down into the beautiful Mohawk Valley and to the town Ilion, famed already as the home of the well-trained artisan . To the House of Remington and to the world, the inventor said : " I feel that I have done something for the women who have always had to work so hard. This will enable them more easily to earn their living." Thus in surrendering the typewriter he sanctified it with the spirit of service. However better we may make the writing machine, we cannot divorce it from those inborn attributes of freedom and service wherewithal the in- ventor blessed it. The typewriter is too big to belong to any man, or any organization of men-even to those who make it or those who buy it-the typewriter, thanks to the benediction of Sholes, belongs to humanity. Sholes didn't work for some of us; he worked for all of us. There is hardly a man so steeped in ignorance and scarcely a woman so circumscribed by poverty and squalor but that the life has been in some measure brightened and the task to some degree lightened by the invention of the typewriter. 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssocIATION SECRETARIAL TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL- ABSTRACT DORA H. PITTS, FIRST ASSISTANT IN THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT WESTERN HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICHIGAN Training for service in the community, for participation in social life, for knowledge and ability to adapt one's self to business as a whole, are the true objectives of commercial education. Secretarial training fits the pupil to become a self-supporting and self- respecting citizen who is able to serve the community in many ways. It prepares the pupil for participation in social life because it is a cultural subject. It develops originality and initiative; it trains the judgment; it strengthens the memory; it awakens the imagination; it coördinates the processes of the brain and the hand; it vitalizes both oral and written communication; and it broadens and quickens the intellect. The study of personality, which is an integral part of the course, stimulates emulation and strengthens ambition. No other commercial subject affords a better opportunity for the pupil to grasp the fundamental principles of business and to gain a wide out- look upon industry. A good textbook is the foundation upon which rest the supplementary activities of the course. Lectures, educational films, inspirational plays, demonstrations of office appliances, a study of office organization and standards, filing, composition of letters and business memoranda of various types, writing of commercial and legal forms, and daily dictation and class discussion based upon the laboratory exercises, are some of the features of the work. The pupils gain actual experience by acting as secretaries for the school executives . Progress in industry demands that the highest type of office worker shall not only be equipped with a knowledge of shorthand and typewriting, but shall also possess the training and initiative necessary to solve the many problems which constantly confront the business man of today. The high school, through the course in secretarial training, is prepared to meet this requirement, and its service in this field is richly rewarded. COÖRDINATING BUSINESS EDUCATION WITH VOCA- TIONAL OPPORTUNITIES—ABSTRACT STANLEY ROTH, PERSONNEL MANAGER, L. S. AYRES & CO . , INDIANAPOLIS INDIANA An appallingly large proportion of all employed people are not doing the kind of work for which they are best fitted. The schools are doing their best to better this condition by training children for vocations and by giving vocational information and counsel. Business, on the other hand, is devoting an increasing amount of attention to the proper selection and placement of employees. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 357 Still , I believe both educators and business men will readily admit that much remains to be done . There is a great opportunity at hand for a far-seeing, patient study, made coöperatively by business representatives and school representatives, to determine to what extent the schools may better distribute their pupils among their vocational classes and better expend their funds available for vocational education. Such a study would aim to find out, for instance, whether, in a given community, the number of children trained for stenographic work is larger than the needs warrant, whereas the number trained in the use of the statistical machines is too small ; whether the students who have been given intensive salesmanship instruction actually have gone into the selling field and stayed there; whether the equipment and teaching staffs devoted to instruction in the trades, such as printing and millinery, are costing more or less than is justifiable. I believe it is the obligation of business men to express their wants con- cretely, rather than vaguely. I believe they cannot fairly criticize the schools, so long as they do not do their share, by helping determine along which lines vocational training can be most profitably directed. I know that the schools have many times and in many places undertaken studies of the kind I have in mind; but it seems that broader and more permanent organization is needed, involving both educators and business men, working persistently, if slowly, on a five or ten-year program that will yield specific results. VITALIZING THE BOOKKEEPING RECITATION- ABSTRACT JAY W. MILLER, INSTRUCTOR IN BOOKKEEPING METHODS, SUMMER NOR- MAL SESSION, GREGG SCHOOL, CHICAGO ; VICE- PRESIDENT, KNOX SCHOOL OF SALESMANSHIP , OAK PARK, ILLINOIS Bookkeeping has always been regarded as the crux of the orthodox commercial course. Every commercial teacher, then, should know the principles of bookkeeping and be able to teach the subject in an emergency. The approach taught will depend upon the system used. The teacher should know the various methods of approaching bookkeeping but should not confuse his students by teaching more than one. Whatever the ap- proach used, it should and must be developed in easy and understandable terms . Go slow and be sure the student does understand. The high school emphasizes the class method of instruction-the business college, the individual plan. The logical method is doubtless a combina- tion of the two plans . Teach the student to think out the transactions for himself. But be ever on the alert to lend a helping hand before the student becomes dis- couraged. This will allay, although it will not cure, the copying evil . 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Rubber stamps, discriminatingly used, save the teacher's time. Erasures should be strenuously opposed. A carefully worked out grading system should be used. Examinations should be short and frequent. Objective tests should be used with discretion in bookkeeping. Give frequent drills in finding errors in the trial balance. Stress what the trial balance will and will not do. Use an articulation statement or skeleton ledger in helping to find errors. Utilize advanced students in helping to find errors in the work of the beginners. Machine bookkeeping is important but not a substitute for knowledge of the principles. Not all bookkeeping roads lead to the Certified Public Accountant examinations . Use the key sparingly. Do not allow it in hands of the student. Mem- orize frequently-used totals for rapid checking of outgoing papers. Stay away from the desk as much as possible. Teach more-tell less. Study accounting as a background for more efficient teaching of book- keeping. ARE WE IN STEP-ABSTRAСТ SHERMAN PERRY, CORRESPONDENCE ADVISER, AMERICAN ROLLING MILL COMPANY, MIDDLETOWN, OHIO Business men of the executive type complain bitterly that the high school commercial course fails to turn out a product that can assume reasonable responsibility and perform duties speedily and accurately. Moreover , they say, young men and women are woefully lacking in that one essential, without which life is a failure-initiative. Long experience as a business teacher and years of work in one of our greatest industries have convinced me that this failure charged to the high school business training is true, and unless there is that sort of teaching that will turn out a dependable product, I believe leading industrial execu- tives sooner or later will have nothing to do with the commercial depart- ments of our public schools. They have never taken you seriously. They have never been "sold" on your services. They can be alienated, and if that comes to pass, it means "shut up shop," because business will refuse to be taxed to support a non-productive, but expensive commercial course . When I was teaching, more than one keen business man said to me: "You're an expensive piece of overhead. You send to us young men and young women poorly trained, and I have to do what you were paid to do." And the office manager of one of Detroit's greatest industries said to me : "You commercial teachers don't know what we are doing, and you make no effort to find out; yet, you flatter yourselves by thinking you can send us someone who knows more about our business than some of us who have grown gray at the work." Business teachers can well afford to take their cue from that criticism. Get out of the classroom and find out what the business man wants. Talk DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 359 with him. Get into his offices. Ask questions. He will gladly tell you all he can. He will even turn his offices into a laboratory for you, because he needs you. And, if he needs you, you need him. As correspondence advisor for The American Rolling Mill Company, it is my job to try to improve our letters to help those that write our letters to write better letters. Half of your students do not know what a sentence is. Punctuation is a puzzle. They scatter periods and commas with perfect abandon; but they know nothing about the colon and semi-colon . Rarely does one know how to use affect and effect, principal and principle, farther and further, lose and loose, it's and its, and the like. And when it comes to writing the simplest letters, they are failures. As to pride in workmanship, they will hand in anything they think the boss will sign. If these conditions are to pass away, if commercial educa- tion is to take the place it so richly deserves, teachers must first be business men and women. They must not only know: they must be able to do. Boards of education must demand experience as well as training. Teach- ers will be selected not so much for degrees and diplomas as for scars. THE BUSINESS ASPECT OF SCHOOL ACTIVITIES- ABSTRACT PAUL H. SEAY, TREASURER, WITHROW HIGH SCHOOL AND TEACHER OF ΒΟΟΚΚΕΕΡPING AND COMMERCIAL LAW, CINCINNATI, OHIO In this commercial age it is not surprising that we should find business slipping into the activities of the pupils of the schools in an astonishing number of ways. The high school pupils of today do not have to wait until they are outside the school walls to get experience in business. They constitute a community that is constantly engaging in some activity out- side the prescribed courses . This activity often arises from the interest aroused in some subject that they are studying. For example, in the Withrow High School, in Cincinnati, the pupils have organized more than a dozen clubs, which include such interests as debating, foreign languages, commercial law, and mathematics. What finer business preparation for organizing and conducting a real business could one get than is to be had in a live club with a full set of officers and committees ? The office of the school treasurer, equipped with a check-writer, an adding machine, and a variety of files, and handling thousands of dollars a year, affords a fine opportunity for getting a varied experience as cashier, bookkeeper, and file clerk. The school bookstore and lunch room furnish the pupils employed there a training in speed, accuracy, and courtesy under the most trying conditions-everybody in a hurry. In the school newspaper and the annual is to be found every problem that would confront an organization out in the business world doing a similar piece of work. Where is there a finer place than the principal's office for senior and 360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION juniors to become familiar with the business of a real office, meeting people, using the phone, and doing the varied work of the office ? All of these experiences help to bridge the gap that exists between the ordinary school life and the business world, and gives the pupil a start rather than the usual shock and set-back. His feeling of confidence is born of experience rather than the so-called nerve peculiar to the youth just out of school . THE TEACHING OF BOOKKEEPING AND CALCULATING MACHINES AND ITS RELATION TO BUSINESS- ABSTRACT J. C. SPRINGMAN , DIRECTOR , COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, PONTIAC HIGH SCHOOL, PONTIAC, MICHIGAN Machine bookkeeping and machine calculation are used extensively in offices. It is necessary that a good course in each should be given a place in every high school commercial curriculum. The kind of machines to be taught, who shall take the work, and the nature of the courses will depend upon the kind of machines used in the community by industry. Conferences with office managers are necessary, so that the courses may be planned to train pupils to meet the requirements of business. The work should be planned so that expensive equipment may be in con- stant use . Machine bookkeeping may be successfully taught as a part of the regular bookkeeping course. Machine calculation is preferably taught as a separate course. The work should be given to pupils in the eleventh and twelfth grades and the requirements of business should be constantly kept in mind. The plan and method of instruction in teaching machine bookkeeping and machine calculation in Pontiac High School is the result of eight years of experience. Those who employ our pupils tell us that they are well trained and can readily adjust themselves to the requirements of business. THE USE OF CALCULATING MACHINES IN CLASSES IN COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC-ABSTRACT . HIRAM B. LOOMIS, PRINCIPAL OF THE HYDE PARK HIGH SCHOOL CHICAGO, ILLINOIS For three years the Hyde Park High School has used calculating machines in its classes in commercial arithmetic. The practice was introduced to add interest to a subject which many pupils regarded as a DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 361 "rehash of old stuff" and to give pupils an acquaintance with the use of an office appliance destined to come into greater incidental use by those who are not experts. The fact that the calculating machine saves time is bound to produce this result. The course, however, is in arithmetic, not in the calculating machine. While it is not planned to turn out expert operators, enough practice in the fundamental operations of the machine is given to avoid the establish- ment of wrong habits. It has been deemed especially necessary to give considerable drill in touch addition . The theory of the course is that homework should consist of pencil arithmetic, that facility in this should be secured by frequent short tests in class, but that the greater part of the class period should be given to prac- tice with the machines. As soon as the pupils have learned to multiply on the machine, problem after problem, especially in percentage and interest, is worked in class ; and since multiplication soon becomes a rapid process even for the beginner, it is possible to give a large amount of practice. Moreover, every pupil works during the whole class period. Subtraction is taught simply because it is needed in division, the hardest of the fundamental processes on the machine, especially when decimals are involved. Division is then used to solve another set of problems, though in this case no such saving of time is shown as in multiplication. As a matter of fact, apart from straight addition, multiplication is the opera- tion most employed on these machines. Problems involving division, pro- vided the divisor remains the same, are changed into problems of multiplica- tion by the reciprocal of the divisor. Through the course above outlined, pupils not only get nearly, if not quite, as much practice in the solution of arithmetical problems as in a course of equal length in pencil arithmetic but also gain a working knowl- edge of a useful office appliance. JUNIOR BUSINESS TRAINING—ITS CONTENT AND SCOPE-ABSTRACT J. O. MALOTT, YEATMAN HIGH SCHOOL, ST . LOUIS , MISSOURI The commercial courses are gradually being remodeled so as to in- clude a type of business education and training that will be more appro- priate to the needs and maturity of the pupils in accordance with how surveys show how the "drop-outs" are employed. Surveys show that those students who do not graduate usually get into general office work instead of stenographic and bookkeeping positions. In order to best prepare for this general office work into which three-fourths of the commercial students go, we should offer to the students during the first two years of high school a thorough and comprehensive course in business education and training. In considering a course to better meet the needs of this seventy-five per 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cent who do not graduate and who do general office work, we must look to the individual business enterprise and study its organization. The workers within a business enterprise, whether one or many, are there solely that the various functions within the enterprise be performed as efficiently as possible. These functions are practically universal. Some of them are receiving, stock keeping, purchasing, production, advertising, selling, ship-- ping, billing, bookkeeping, crediting, and collecting. Furthermore, the principles of business, the functions within a business, business practice and procedure, the instruments of business, business papers, office practice, the common business services, business attitudes and virtues are basic and con- stant throughout the country. A cross-sectional view and analysis of the various ranges of jobs in business such as messenger, clerical, selling, busi- ness expert, paid manager, and owner manager, and the innumerable levels in each of those ranges, together with data relative to initial employment and promotional opportunity. would help us to determine the organization and presentation of business education and training. Such an interpreta- tionofbusiness expressed in bodies of knowledge, skills, and attitudes would give us sufficient substance for a basic, integrating commercial education upon which would be based technical commercial training. Inthe past the core of our commercial course has been changed to com- ply with the commercial teacher's interpretation of the changing business needs. The basis or core of the technical commercial training, which was to constitute for the pupil his preparation for the initial job and his founda- tion for training in business, was at first penmanship and arithmetic. Then, bookkeeping became the core. In the next period, we found bookkeeping to be the core for boys and stenography for girls. Now the demands of business have shifted to the clerical in specialized functions. An interpreta- tion of the St. Louis senior commercial occupational survey, compiled by the speaker, points out, as does other surveys, that the first two years of the high school commercial course should be devoted to a thorough and com- prehensive course paralleling business information and practice and organ- ized about the functions within a business so as to best prepare the drop- outs for the kind of employment open to them and at the same time give the right kind of training to those who remain in school to graduate. It is believed that a course of this type will teach the pupils to do better those things they will be most apt to do as they drop-out during the successive years. It is also believed that it will be of value to the extent to which the student pursues the course . DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 363 STANDARD PROCEDURES IN FUNCTIONALLY ORGAN- IZED BUSINESS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO BUSINESS TRAINING —ABSTRACT C. A. HYRE, BUSINESS MANAGER, CLEVELAND CLINIC AND ASSOCIATED HOSPITALS, CLEVELAND, OHIO According to one office manager it takes approximately three months and costs $200 to train a graduate from a business school or college to the degree of efficiency essential for the proper performance of his duties in the specific departments in which he may be placed. It follows that the average office manager will hire only those can- didates who have had definite experience in the line of work in the position to be filled. It behooves educators and business managers alike to dis- cover the reason for this lack of training which approximates business experience. How then is the aspirant for a business position to secure the requisite training ? A close analysis of many types of business has shown that all types have certain definite functional departments which are common to all, and that should a model business be set up with standard procedures for the purchasing, storing, production, selling, collection, and administra- tive report control departments, around this frame work can be fitted such routine details as can be readily adapted to any type of business. Can our business schools be organized to provide a practical training comparable to that which a young medical graduate receives during his intern service in the hospital or the budding lawyer in moot courts or the normal school student in the practice schools ? Present indications are that such a system will be established under the leadership of instructors who appreciate the need of training their pupils to adapt their routine acquirements--bookkeeping, general clerical work, and so forth to the practical requirements of the various functional departments of a business organization. To accomplish this means a concerted demand for such a development on the part of the business educators. When such a demand is made the textbook publishers in turn will develop the essential manuals . By the establishment of business schools organized according to this plan the training of the student will approximate the actual conditions he is to meet in whatever business organization he may be employed, and thus the need of the manager and of the business school graduates will more nearly bę met. 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE FUNCTION OF THE COMMERCIAL SUPERVISOR- ABSTRACT E. F. KILLAM, SUPERVISOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION ST . LOUIS, MISSOURI It is a far cry from the simple school system of fifty years ago to the complex and highly organized system of today. In the early school, with its stern discipline and its academic curriculum, there was little thought of any connection between the school and the activities of the outside world. The pupil was trained in the classics. Those not adapted to this kind of training were forced out of school. In contrast to this simple system is the all-inclusvie system of the present day, with its new theories in education, its many and varied departments and its broad curriculum. It is the complexity of this new system that has given rise to the need of supervision, and it determines to a great extent the work of the supervisor in a public school system. One of the outstanding functions of every supervisor is to give help to the classroom teacher ; in other words, to make smooth the track along which that teacher has to run. It should be his duty to improve, by suggestions and conferences, the classroom instruction and to make every effort to see that the teacher is provided with those things which will aid in her work. The supervisor of commercial subjects has another duty that is of vital importance to the school system. He should endeavor by conference with business men to bring the school and the business world more closely together, that each may have a better understanding of the other. And, lastly, the commercial supervisor, working with the commercial teachers, should endeavor to raise the standard of the work so that commercial edu- cation will stand second to none in the great educational system of this country. Department of Classroom Teachers SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-JULIA A. SPOONER .. ..... Portland , Oregon Vice-President-EULA F. HUNTER ... .Fort Worth, Texas Members of Executive Committee: Eastern Section- JULIA E. SULLIVAN Charlestown , Massachusetts Middle Section-ANNA M. THOMPSON Kansas City, Missouri Western Section--JEAN L. SOULES .. ... Spokane, Washington Historical note-The Department of Classroom Teachers held its first session at the St. Paul meeting, July 8, 1914. It was organized in response to petitions representing classroom teachers in all parts of the country. See Proceedings of 1914, page 909. For the Constitution and By-laws of this Department see Proceed- ings, 1924, pages , 468-70. The Department of Classroom Teachers coöperates with the National League of Teachers' Associations, whose officers for 1925-26 are : President-Harriet E. Scofield, Fuller School, Minneapolis, Minnesota ; Secretary- Myrtle Harper, Hiawatha School, Minneapolis, Minnesota. This Department meets once each year, in June. The first session of the Department of Classroom Teachers was held in the Senate Chamber of the State Capitol, Indianapolis, Indiana, on Tuesday after- noon, June 30, 1925. The meeting was called to order by the president. The following program was presented: REPORT ON SABBATICAL LEAVE Kansas City, Missouri, Teachers' Coöperative Council, represented by Anna M. Thompson. INTERPRETING THE Schools to THE PUBLIC-WHAT TO INTERPRET George W. Frasier, President, Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. HOW TO INTERPRET IT Merle Sidener, President, Sidener-Van Riper Advertising Co., Indianapolis, Ind. TWENTY- FIVE YEARS OF EDUCATION PROGRESS- FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION Mabel V. Wilson, President, Seattle Grade Teachers' Club, Seattle, Wash . THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHERS' COLLEGE J. A. Hill, President, West Texas Teachers College, Canyon, Texas . MEETING THE CHALLENGE Louisa McDermott, San Francisco Grade Teachers' Association, San Francisco, Calif. Frederick L. Whitney, Director of Division of Educational Research of Teachers' State College, Greeley, Colorado, appeared in the place of George W. Frasier who was unable to be present on account of illness. Second Session, Thursday Afternoon, July 2, 1925 Business Meeting- President Julia A. Spooner called the meeting to order. The minutes of the last business meeting were read by the acting secretary, Jean L. Soules, and approved. The next order of business was reports of regional conferences held during the year by the various members of the executive com- mittee. Miss Hunter's report showed that she had done valuable work in Texas in awakening interest in the National Association. Conferences were held at Canyon [365] 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION City, Austin, and Kingsville, Texas; and addresses were given before teachers' institutes and teachers' organizations. Miss Sullivan paid tribute to the pioneers in the work of the Department and reaffirmed her allegiance to the Education Bill. She reported conferences held in the following places: Somerville, Mass .; Boston, Mass .; Rochester, N. Y.; Newport News, Va.; Richmond, Va.; Philadelphia, Pa.; and Baltimore, Md. Miss Thompson gave a comprehensive report of the conferences held in the mdidle section of the country at Kansas City, Mo.; Topeka, Kansas ; Denver, Colo.; and Evanston, Ill . Miss Soules' report showed that her conferences had covered a large territory including Walla Walla, Seattle, and Spokane, Washington ; Pocatello, Idaho ; Salt Lake City, Utah ; Cheyenne, Wyoming; Aberdeen, South Dakota; Miles City, Butte, and Missoula, Montana. President Spooner gave a report covering activities for the year including a regional conference held in Portland, Oregon, and also an extensive field trip from January 23 to March 23 in which she met groups of teachers in thirteen States. In some places conferences with groups of teachers and administrators were held, while in others she addressed the entire teaching body on the work of the Association and also of the Department. The following places were visited : Albuquerque, N. Mex.; Birmingham, Ala.; Louisville, Ky.; Minneapolis, Minn.; St. Cloud, Minn.; Fargo, N. Dak.; Bismarck, N. Dak.; Billings, Mont.; New Orleans, La.; and Phoenix, Ariz. The report carried the following recommenda- tions: 1. That organizations be urged to publish some form of publication and to maintain as large an exchange list as can be made. 2. That wherever organizations exist through which regional conferences may be arranged, such conferences be held in greater numbers and representing greater areas . 3. That in unorganized territory, conferences of other types be held to promote the idea of professional organization for the solution of educational problems . 4. That the work of developing classroom leadership and of giving increased recognition of classroom problems and their importance in the educational scheme in State organizations, be continued. Two years ago the department requested State associations to place classroom teachers on State association programs. Seven of the 48 letters were answered. This year a similar request was made and 19 acknowledgments were received. In a number of instances, notably Wash- ington, North Carolina, Nevada, Colorado, and Pennsylvania, such recognition has been accorded. Arizona, Montana, and Alabama were particularly responsive. 5. That the Department move as rapidly as possible toward the installation of an executive secretary, whose duties shall be field service in the interests of the department, and the regular clerical and administrative duties ordinarily devolv- ing upon such an officer. Such secretary should be chosen by the department and be accountable only to it for the performance of her duties. No regular officer performing the duties of the classroom can carry the entire burden of work entailed by the size and importance of the classroom teachers' department if its functions as outlined in the constitution are to be carried out. 6. That the executive committee of this Department invite the executive committee of the National League of Classroom Teachers to form with it a joint committee to study ways and means of amalgamating at some future time the groups which are practically identical in membership and are closely related in purposes and objects . Before such a consolidation can be effected , all teachers must be convinced that the time is ripe for it; that the department has complete autonomy in the conduct of its own affairs ; the financial status of the department must be defined and assured ; representation in the department for the administration of business must be placed upon a delegate basis; the plan of selection of delegates must be worked out with meticulous care to secure justice, in apportioning delegates in the method of selection of them. A little difficulty will be found in cities where active organizations exist ; but many teachers who belong to no local organization belong to the National Education Association and are therefore entitled to repre- DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 367 sentation. In many States now on a delegate basis in State organization, class- room teachers secure little recognition and would therefore have little oppor tunity to name delegates to the department. In other States where organization has not been developed, no machinery exists through which the classroom teacher can operate to select delegates. In all instances special care must be taken to plan in such a way that classroom teachers and classroom teachers only participate in the selection and instruction of delegates to the National Department meetings ; and that all classroom teachers, members of the National Education Association are assured of a voice in such selection and instruction. Such a plan cannot be easily or quickly worked out but a commission appointed by these two executive boards can profitably give two or three years to such a service whereby the two great representative organizations of teachers in the United States may safely join forces to bring about professional development which they have individually set as their mutual objective. The motion was made, seconded and carried that the National Education Asso- ciation be requested to print, separate from other material, this report of the presi- dent, Miss Spooner. The following reports were given: Study of the Evaluation of Classroom Instruction-Second Report, by Guy M. Wilson, of Boston University. Presented in part by President Spooner who announced that a complete report would be ready in 1926. Reduction of Clerical Work-Julia Sullivan ( adopted ) . The Advancement of Women to Administrative Positions-Julia Sullivan (adopted) . Retardation Due to Overcrowding ( report of progress work to be continued) - Jean L. Soules. Miss Soules stated that two other problems had been assigned to her but as yet there was nothing to report. Frances Harden, of Chicago, read a letter addressed to Jesse H. Newlon, Presi- dent of the National Education Association, and moved that it be sent. Itwas so ordered after inserting the further point "organization represented." The letter, as given in the motion, follows : MR. JESSE H. NEWLON, President, National Education Association. DEAR SIR: The Department of Classroom Teachers respectfully requests you to direct the Secretary of the National Education Association to prepare and have published in the September or October issue of The Journal of the National Edu- cation Association each year the full list of the members of the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association of that year together with the educational position, the organization represented, and the home address of each member. Miss Harden explained that she had tabulated a list of the delegates to the Representative Assembly for the year 1921. Of 563 delegates, 81 were classroom teachers. Miss Harden explained the need of our having this information to aid in communicating with teachers concerning regional conferences . After some discussion the motion was carried. The recommendation made and adopted at the Washington meeting, July, 1924, was read by the president : We now make the single recommendation that the department strongly urge that an adequate medium of communication under the sole direction of the De- partment of Classroom Teachers be provided by the National Education Associa- tion. It was moved and seconded that a committee be appointed to study the ad- visability of publishing a yearbook-a book which will be to the Department of 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Classroom Teachers what the yearbooks are to the Departments of Superintendence and Elementary School Principals ; that a preliminary report be made at the winter meeting and the final report at the next summer meeting. Carried. The first item under new business was the election of officers. After reading the rules for election, the president ruled that the precedent set by the National Education Association, having the secretary cast the ballot for each office for which there is but one candidate be followed. Miss Bowman was named chairman of tellers. The other two members were Mr. Tanner and Miss Krusen. Miss Harden, of Chicago, nominated Miss Spooner for re-election. Miss Spooner declined the nomination. Miss Mellish, of Massachusetts, then nominated Julia Sullivan who was unanimously elected. On nomination by Miss Keeton, of Texas, Miss Eula Hunter was unanimously elected to succeed herself in the office of vice- president. The nominees for secretary were Miss Shelton, of Oakland ; Martha Harris, of Indianapolis ; William Tanner, of Los Angeles ; Frances Harden, of Chicago ; and Clara Lynn, of Seattle. Miss Harden withdrew her name on the ground that the middle section already had two members on the executive committee, and Mr. Tanner withdrew in favor of Miss Shelton, of Oakland. Balloting resulted in the election of Miss Lynn. Edith B. Joynes, of Norfolk, Va. , was unanimously elected executive member for the eastern section. The meeting then proceeded to the consideration of the recommendations made in regional conferences, twenty-three in number. On fourteen of these recommenda- tions no action was taken as each of these had been disposed of by special reports already acted upon or by the requested action having been taken. Action taken by the meeting on the remaining recommendation was as follows : (The numbers refer to the number of the recommendation in the complete list.) 1. That the sabbatical year idea be stressed. ( Committee on sabbatical leave, Teachers' Coöperative Council, Kansas City, Missouri, invited to present its report as part of Classroom Teachers' Department program, June 30, 1925, at Indian- apolis. ) Moved that the executive committee continue to work along this line, stressing the subject in regional conferences. Seconded and carried. 2. That a simplified rating system open to inspection by the teacher, be urged. Referred to National Education Association Committee of One Hundred on Class- room Teachers' Problems. See Minutes of Meeting of Committee of One Hundred, July 3 , 1924, and February 26, 1925. Moved that the Committee on Rating be continued . 3. That universities be urged to give credit for time and thought spent in con- structive organization work. Referred to Committee of One Hundred. See minutes of that committee for July 3 and February 26. The recommendation of the executive committee that the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teach- ers' Problems be requested to make this one of its major activities for the year 1925-26 was accepted. 7. That the conference approve the continued study of the single salary schedule by the Department. Referred to Committee on Single Salary. Adopted after being amended as follows : The single salary schedule has been studied by the committee as to teacher qualification and certification and experience or service. I recom- mend that a study also be made, in connection with the above, of the teacher load in primary, grammar and high school work-Do inequalities exist? If so, to what extent ? What changes will be needed in order that those of equal certification may render equal service for equal pay ? 8. That we emphasize the importance of having a classroom teacher on the general program of every State association convention. Second letter ordered sent to officials of State Teachers' Association. The president reported progress. It was moved, seconded and carried that we continue to emphasize this point. 9. That we approve the regional conference idea and request that such con- ferences be held as often as possible. Notice ordered sent to President and Secretary of National Education Association. This was adopted. Miss Manthey then moved : "That this body thank the president and other members of the execu- DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 369 tive board for the excellent work which they have done in the regional conferences and that it heartily endorse the work which they have done." The motion was seconded and carried . 10. That all committees studying classroom problems should be headed by a classroom teacher. Notice ordered sent to President and Secretary of National Education Association with note of appreciation of appointment of Anna Riddle as chairman of Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems. Moved that a letter be sent to Mr. Crabtree and Miss McSkimmon, informing them of the endorsement of this recommendation by the Department of Classroom Teachers . 17. That the Department request the National Education Association to work for policy of reckoning successful classroom experience as counting toward college credit so that teachers who have given long service may be enabled to secure their degrees without exhausting the energy and usefulness of those aspiring to acquire the same. It was suggested that two points of credit be granted for each year of successful experience from the sixth year to the twentieth year. President directed to gather data on present allowances before business meeting in July. After much discussion it was moved that we continue to hold the attitude expressed in the recommendation. Seconded and carried. 18. That membership on the Executive Committee automatically bring with it membership on Committee of One Hundred for study of Classroom Teachers' Problems. (Since Committee appointments are included in duties of President of National Education Association, request was sent to President and Secretary that members of Executive Committee be appointed upon Committee of One Hundred. ) Moved that such a request be sent. Seconded and carried. The president then read the four recommendations adopted by the Regional Conference held in Evanston, Illinois : 1. That the course of study be simplified as the crowded curriculum prevents thorough mastery of subject matter. It was moved, seconded, and carried that a letter be sent to the Department of Superintendence expressing appreciation of the work on curriculum, now being done by that department. 2. That nation-wide and community activities, introduced into the school, be limited in number in order to prevent too many classroom interruptions that in- terfere with the best interest of the pupil. No action was taken on this as the matter had already been handled by our action on Recommendation No. 14. 3. That each State director of the National Education Association prepare a list of all teachers' organizations, this to be kept on file and published once a year in official publication. By this means greater coöperation among the different or- ganizations of the State may be established. It was moved, seconded, and carried that the recommendation be endorsed and that the executive secretary of each State association be informed of this action. 4. Resolved that this conference request the National Education Association to go on record as favoring putting the cost of the passport on a pre-war basis and accepting the offer of foreign countries to omit the visé tax. It was moved that we endorse this recommendation . Seconded and carried. JEAN L. SOULES , Acting Secretary. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SABBATICAL YEAR KATHERINE M. MORGAN , KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI , CHAIRMAN This committee was appointed to "collect information and make a recommenda- tion to the council concerning the subbatical year." The report therefore consists of two parts : the first information, and the second a recommendation . Information we have grouped under three heads : 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. Reasons for and benefits of the Sabbatical Leave. 2. Extent of the practice. 3. Nature of the practice. I. Reasons for and benefits of sabbatical leave. The committee believes that the reasons which had led other cities to plan for, adopt and continue the sab- batical leave have equal force in Kansas City, and therefore we quote some authoritative opinions. Boston, a pioneer in the granting of sabbatical leave, thus states the fundamental reason for the practice: "The Board believes that a sabbatical year is justifiable only as a means for improving the work of the teacher." The success of the plan is attested by Superintendent Burke. He declares that in every case there has been marked improvement in the work teachers do after they return from leave. This he says is because of "a new angle, a new point of view, and the added stimulus to the work" . Rochester is another city satisfied with the results. According to Assistant Superintendent O'Hern, Rochester considers its expenditure for a teacher training, which for fifteen years has included the sabbatical leave, "the best investment imaginable in teacher training" . The plan advocated for New York, but not yet adopted, was worked out by a committee of superintendents, principals, and teachers, with the idea that benefit would result to the school system "by retention in the service of experienced teach- ers who through rest and change afforded by a long absence from school would be less subject to lengthy periods of illness, or early disability retirement." The opinion of the finance and budget committee is interesting. In the school budget report, August, 1923, adopted by the board of education without debate, Arthur S. Somers, Chairman, says : "Your Committee recognizes the sabbatical year to be desirable." In a general way the benefits of the sabbatical leave are evident to anyone who considers the subject. In the words of the Minneapolis teachers, "to fulfill its purpose the sabbatical year should afford both rest and improvement; it should embrace recreational as well as cultural opportunities." We enumerate a few of the outstanding benefits : 1. The general culture value of travel is a special need of teachers, and the summer is too short for extended foreign trips in which the main purpose is serious study. 2. It offers an opportunity to get advanced or other degrees under favorable circumstances, and thus equip teachers for their work more speedily. 3. The increased fitness and enthusiasm due to the physical and spiritual bene- fits of a change will enhance the teacher's service to the community. 4. Last, but not necessarily least, it will build up the school system in two ways : (1) by the training of teachers of less experience during the absence of experi- enced teachers on sabbatical leave ; (2) by adding an incentive to young men and women contemplating the profession, II. Extent of the practice-The idea of a sabbatical year is not new. Itwas largely practiced in Europe before the War. In our own country, universities and colleges give sabbatical leave as a matter of course. The practice is on the increase in city public schools. To quote from the National Education Associa- tion publication, Teachers, Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923 : "It is becoming the practice in many cities to grant teachers leave of absence for professional study or educative travel and some are beginning to encourage this by partially financing the teacher who wishes to use this method for his improvement." As might be expected, Massachusetts was a pioneer in this progressive move. ment. Sabbatical leave was inaugurated in Cambridge in 1896. A generous plan was adopted by Boston in 1906, and the next year Newton followed suit. Such typical cities as these have well established systems of subbatical leave : DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 371 Rochester, New York; Pueblo, Colorado ; Newark, New Jersey, and Richmond, Virginia. One of the most recent cities to formulate rules is Minneapolis where the adoption of the sabbatical leave came as the result of activity on the part of the Minneapolis federation of teachers. As mentioned in the first division of this report, a plan is under consideration for New York, and a similar plan is being advocated for Chicago by Superin- tendent McAndrew, a staunch believer in the principle of the sabbatical leave for teachers. From these facts it is clear that the practice has passed the experimental stage, and is fast becoming a recognized means of securing for the community the benefits of teacher improvement. III. Nature of the practice-The specific rules under which the sabbatical leave is operated differ somewhat in different cities but certain features stand out as of paramount importance. The committee will confine its report to a brief presenta- tion of these outstanding features. 1. Frequency-The usual plan is to grant leave after seven years' service ( as in Boston and Rochester) , or after ten years' service (as in Newark and Minne- apolis ) , for study and travel ; after twenty years' service, for rest and recreation. In Richmond, a peculiar plan is in existence, whereby every three years a semester's furlough is granted. 2. Amount of compensation-Here we find two favorite plans: Half pay, some- times with a maximum limit, and full pay minus the pay of a substitute. The former plan operates in Newark, Boston and Richmond, and in Rochester (limit $1000) , Pueblo ( limit $900) , and Minneapolis (limit $500 for a semester's leave) . The latter plan is being advocated for New York and Chicago. It is customary to reinstate teachers who have been absent on leave in the positions which they previously held, and to grant to them any regular salary increment to which they would have been entitled had they taken no leave. 3. Number invited-Some limitation is always put in the rules, usually per- mitting only a certain percentage of the teachers to be absent on leave at any one time. In Minneapolis the limit is 1 per cent; in Rochester it is specifically 15 persons. Experience shows that the number is not excessive. In Newark 13 leaves were granted in the initial year and in Boston the annual coverage for a period of five years has been 35. 4. Basis of choice-In all cases the chief consideration seems to be length of service. Secondary considerations are distribution by schools, and distribution by service. The New York plan takes into account the definiteness and effective- ness of the plans submitted by the teacher asking leave. Teachers in general favor a practically automatic basis of choice, reducing to a minimum the possibility of favoritism. 5. Teacher responsibility- This responsibility is usually twofold. In the first place, the teacher is asked to sumbit, if not plans for the leave, at least reports during the leave, including the character scope and progress of the work under- taken. In the second place, teachers are pledged to remain in service, ordinarily three years after the expiration of leave, or pay back pro rata unless incapacitated or discharged. 6. Cost-It is encouraging to note that the monetary cost to a school system of so desirable an improvement as the sabbatical year is really slight. If compensation is full pay minus a substitute's salary, it costs nothing at all. If compensation is half pay, the expense is small, for the other half of the salary of an experienced teacher will nearly, if not quite, cover the cost of a less experienced supply. In Rochester, in 1923, the net cost was $2,327.00, since supply teachers were employed at minimum salaries. 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Conclusions-In view of this information, your committee feels that a sabbatical leave is a possible goal toward which Kansas City teachers should work. Ex- perience of other cities indicates that applications would not be too numerous. 1 These applications would undoubtedly be made by the most ambitious teachers, since some sacrifice is necessary to secure the privilege of a subbatical year even when partially financed. Rough estimates indicate that even generous provisions of say one half pay (maximum $1200) for one and one half per cent of the teachers in our system, could not possibly cost over $8000 a year, and the annual expense would probably be covered by $5000. Compared to the benefits to our school system and through the school system to our entire community, this seems an economic expenditure of public funds. We therefore conclude our report with the following recommendation : That the Coöperative council request the board of education early in the fall to formulate rules granting sabbatical leave to teachers of the Kansas City system, and allow a teacher committee to share in the preparation of details. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE SINGLE SALARY SCHEDULE ΑΝΝΑ Μ . THOMPSON , KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI The belief that any year of a child's training in the elementary school is as important to him as any year in the secondary school, and hence requires teachers of special training and experience, has led a number of cities to adopt a single salary schedule. By "single salary schedule" is meant a schedule which pays the same salary to teachers with equal training and experience regardless of whether they teach in elementary, junior or senior high school, and which pays larger salaries to teachers in similar positions who possess larger amounts of academic and professional training. In reply to the recent Salary Inquiry sent out by the Division of Research of the National Education Association, ninety cities submitted copies of single salary schedules, which are in effect at the present time. The Department of Classroom Teachers was anxious to know how these single salary schedules are working out in practice. What are their advantages and disadvantages ? To secure this information direct from the teachers themselves, letters were sent to the president of local teachers' organizations in those cities reporting the use of single salary schedules. The president of these local associa- tions were requested to ask two high school teachers ( one man and one woman ) , two elementary teachers ( women) , two elementary principals ( one man and one woman) , and one high school principal to express their opinion as to how the single salary schedule was working out in practice in their local school systems. Each teacher, replying, was asked to keep in mind the particular group of teachers or principals which he represented. Below is a list of the questions asked by the Department of Classroom Teachers and following each question is a summary of the replies : 1. On the basis of the experience of your city to date with the Single Salary Schedule, in your opinion would the majority of the teachers (or principals ) , in your group recommend the adoption of a Single Salary Schedule in other cities ? "Yes" was the answer to this question in one hundred per cent of the cases replying. Additional comments were as follows : The adoption of a single salary schedule is the only fair thing to do. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 373 Teachers should be paid on basis of worth, but that plan isn't according to human nature . Our single salary schedule has enthusiastic support. We are most heartily in favor of it. Personally, not caring to become other than an elementary teacher, I never planned to stay in the profession if any opening in other lines presented itself, until the single salary schedule made it too attractive to leave . From all I hear, all the teachers in our city are satisfied with our single salary schedule. The majority of our teachers are in favor of a single salary schedule only because there are more women teaching than there are men-otherwise the answer would be different. Our teachers most heartily recommend the adoption of a single salary schedule in other cities. We are so pleased with our own. 2. Estimate the percentage of teachers ( or principals) in your group who are now satisfied with the principle of the Single Salary Schedule. Of 34 people replying to this question, fifteen estimated that 100 per cent of the teachers or principals in their group were satisfied with the principle of the single salary schedule ; one person estimated 98 per cent satisfaction; six people estimated 95 per cent satisfaction; five, 90 per cent; one, 80 per cent ; four, 75 per cent, and two people estimated that only 66 2/3 per cent of their group were satisfied with the principle of the single salary schedule and these are women. 3. In case dissatisfaction exists, in your opinion what are the most important reasons for it? Among the answers given to this question were these : Many teachers are short of training and this prevents their being benefited by a single salary schedule. There is dissatisfaction only among those who plan to teach high school, and among special class teachers . A single salary schedule is all right in principle, but unless it is applied rather loosely, persons with larger classes and greater responsibilities will not be given an adequate consideration. Some object that more work is required of high school teachers in way of prepa- ration and extra-curricular activities. The salary schedule instead of representing the minimum amount is in practice the maximum standard. If young men are better paid there might be more young men enter the teaching profession. When the single standard is a reality instead of a pretense which it is now, such a system will work all right, but not until then. Women still expect men to take them to shows, dances, banquets, buy them gifts, pay their way everywhere they go, when those same women under this system are making as much money as the men who are taking them. Married men usually feel that they should receive a higher salary. The most important reasons for dissatisfaction with our single salary schedule are: the present low salaries and human selfishness . The single salary schedule is possibly unfair to those of long experience but little training. In some cases it may result in a lowering of high school salaries . A teacher with less training who does the same work for the same number of hours receives a lower salary. The dissatisfaction seems due not to the single salary schedule in theory, but to the way it is put into effect in our school system. When the single salary schedule is adopted it means that all salaries are ad- justed to the grade school standard or the high school standard. If salaries of elementary teachers are raised it means a very large additional expense to the city. If salaries of high school teachers are reduced, satisfactory schools cannot be maintained. 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 4. From your experience, what do you consider the strongest points in favor of be maintained . single salary schedules ? Among the answers to this question were these: It forces better academic preparation. The elementary teachers are more con- tented and treat high school teachers as fellow sufferers, not as bloated bondholders. Pupils, leaving high school now plan to get an A. B. degree before starting to teach. Putting over the work properly in the kindergarten and the grades requires as high degree of skill as in the high school, and for equal preparation and equal efficiency deserves an equal salary. If there is any difference, a higher skill is required in the grades than in the high school. ( An elementary principal. ) Contentment of the teaching staff. Equal remuneration for equal service results in increased ambition of teachers which results in higher standards of preparation and more efficient teaching. The single salary schedule secures better teachers for the elementary schools. It promotes interest in professional standing and encourages further training. It creates pride in teaching as a profession. It results in growth of teachers in service and esprit de corps among teachers, The professional status of elementary teachers is improved. Teachers with college education may continue working in the grades where work is more interesting to them. Teachers who are especially adapted to work in primary and intermediate grades remain in the elementary school, because there is no difference in salary. This prevents dissatisfaction and there are fewer misfits in high school. Many teachers formerly went into high school because of the higher salaries who would have done better work with younger children. It enables a teacher to qualify and stay in the work that is most to her liking. With the single salary schedule the teacher in the grades does not need to leave the work she prefers in order to receive a salary equal to that of the teacher in high school. The single salary schedule offers a better chance for broadening and specializing in lines of work in which a teacher is especially interested. It is an incentive for grade teachers to finish college and prepare as much as high school teachers. It will tend to keep a teacher in a school system where advancement is possible through preparation and experience. The single salary schedule tends toward friendly coöperation of teachers. The only point in favor of it is that the cost of becoming educated is the same for women as for men, and requires just as much time, so that if training is the only thing considered, women should get the same salary as men. Marriage should also be taken into consideration. The single salary schedule lessens dissatisfaction. It puts men and women with the same training, experience, and ability on the same basis. It creates a better feeling among women. A large number of women are carry- ing family responsibilities. The single salary schedule inspires better effort on the part of women. The single salary schedule prevents factional quarreling . The work is about equally absorbing in all grades. The standard of living is the same for teachers of all grades. Recreating, summer school, etc., are necessary for all. There is a close relationship between salary and standards of health, poise, proper attitude of mind, etc. These are important in all teaching. The single salary schedule draws to the school system the best teachers in all departments . It holds superior teachers in elementary schools . It is a great incentive to teachers to raise their qualification. Our single salary schedule is based on edu- cational qualification and experience, not rating. The teachers are continually studying in order to raise their standard, hence we will soon have a very superior class of teachers in all departments of the school. I have talked with teachers ; high school and elementary principals, high school and elementary, men and women; and I have not found any dissatisfied with the DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 375 single salary schedule. In fact, all are pleased with it. We endorse it most heartily. The above statements are based on replies received from elementary and sec- ondary school teachers and principals from the following cities : Colorado Springs, Colorado; Denver, Colorado ; Des Moines, Iowa ; Detroit, Michigan ; Hammond, Indiana ; Harrisburg, Pennsylvania ; Peru, Indiana, and San Antonio, Texas. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHER RATING ΑΝΝΑ Μ . THOMPSON, KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI The personnel rating plans of "Big Business" whereby each worker is considered as an individual, and the service which he renders his employer as compared with that rendered by other employees, and rewarded according to its rank, have aroused new interest in the problem of teacher rating. The fact that a pupil's work is today measured more scientifically than ever before also suggests the feasibility of analyzing the teaching job and measuring an individual teacher's contribution to the life of the school in which she teaches. The fact that many educators now see that the problem consists in rating teach- ing, rather than the teacher, also adds new interest to the subject of rating. The very fact that teacher rating is practised so extensively is sufficient reason for classroom teachers' study of the problem. Teachers know that judgments are being given as to the effectiveness of their work, and that in many instances these are snap judgments rather than carefully thought out ratings, according to a plan agreed upon by both the supervisory and teaching staff. In other words, since rat- ing is being done, it ought to be done as scientifically as possible. Recent surveys on the subject of teacher rating shows it is in operation now in approximately 75 per cent of the cities of the United States over 25,000 in population. Unjust rating cannot help but lead to poor morale among the teaching corps ; and the result of poor morale is poor instruction for boys and girls. An honest analysis of teacher rating-the purpose of it-the points to be rated-the char- acter of the marks to be given and the proper administration of a rating system are all topics which lead the teacher to measure her job and herself. The teacher who is honest with herself recognizes her weaknesses as well as her strong points ; and self-improvement in order to render larger service is her chief reason for rating herself. A satisfactory rating scale is usually the result of the coöperative work and mutual agreement of the administrative, supervisory, and classroom staff. For this reason, one of the fundamental principles of any system of teacher rating should be this, namely: A teacher rating system should be developed through the coöperative effort of those who do the rating and those who are rated. Since one of the chief justifications for any rating system is the improvement of instruction, a second fundamental principle is this: A rating plan must have as its main purpose the guiding of teachers into better service. The carrying out of this principle requires that the results of an individual teacher's ratings, when completed, should be automatically transmitted to the teacher in written form for her information and guidance. "Secret" ratings defeat the purpose of improving instruction, for when a teacher is not informed of those points which her supervisor or principal considers weak, she can hardly be expected to correct them. Furthermore, where there is secrecy there is always apt to be more or less suspicion. For complete understanding between the one who rates and the person rated, the results of ratings, when com- pleted, should not only be automatically given to the teacher, but the teacher should also be fully informed, in advance, upon beginning service in any school system, 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION what points will be considered in estimating the value of her work. In other words, she should understand the plan and the method by which she is to be rated. This means that rating schemes should be as objective as possible, and be ac- companied by definite directions as to their use. The New York City plan of teacher rating requires that every school principal send a carbon copy of his rating report of each individual teacher to the teacher concerned. Unfortunately this practise is not followed in many cities. A review of returned questionnaires of Dr. LeRoy King, of the University of Pennsylvania, who made a survey of the status of teacher rating in the larger cities of the United States a year ago, showed that in only twenty-one out of seventy cities are teachers given a copy of their ratings. In forty-one of these cities teachers have access to their ratings upon request. However, many teachers are too sensitive and lack the courage to go to a prnicipal or superintendent and demand to see a copy of their ratings. This is especially true when she has a suspicion that her rating is low. And the very fact that it is low is all the more reason that she should have it, so that she may strengthen the weak points in her teaching. In addition to New York City, the following cities reported to Dr. King that teachers are given copies of their ratings : Altoona, Pennsylvania; Beaumont, Texas ; Denver, Colorado ; East Chicago, Illinois ; Mansfield, Ohio ; Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; Moline, Illinois ; Muskogee, Oklahoma ; Paterson, New Jersey; Racine, Wisconsin ; Richmond, Indiana ; St. Joseph, Missouri ; and Winston- Salem, North Carolina. A review of 103 rating plans in current use shows that the three, four, and five point scales are the ones most frequently used in rating teachers . Teachers are most often rated as 1, 2, 3, or 4 or excellent, good, medium, or poor. Weighted scales are also being developed and used. According to this plan, each factor on which the teacher is rated such as : Instructional skill, initiative, discipline, scholar- ship, etc., is given a varying number of points the total for a perfect score is usually one hundred points. Until the teaching job is more clearly analyzed and more scientific data are available as to the relative importance of such factors as instructional skill and leadership it is difficult to construct a "weighted" scale of real merit. However, I would not infer that lack of standardization of present rating systems of different types is a sufficient argument for not using them. We have to select from what rating systems we have, and by further use and study seek to improve them. Both mental and achievement tests have tended to bring about a fairer estimate of a teacher's work. Teachers are no longer automatically blamed for a pupil's failure. School administrators now realize that pupils of high intelligence will often succeed in meeting the minimum requirements of a course of study with a poor teacher, while a group of pupils considerably below average in intelligence cannot meet the maximum requirements of a standard course of study even with a highly qualified teacher. Recognition of the vast divergence of ability between pupils, while it shows the complexity of a teacher's job and the difficulty of rating accomplishment, should lead to a fairer viewpoint relative to teacher rating. School administrators are coming to recognize the importance of the work of the classroom teacher more and more. It would appear that most school administrators are more eager than ever before to have a scientific basis, rather than opinion unbiased by facts, on which to rate their teachers . As classroom teachers we should welcome all op- portunities to coöperate with school administrators in the further study of this vexing problem of teacher rating. Destructive criticism of present rating schemes will not solve the problem. Coöperative constructive effort alone will do it. Among the questions relative to teacher rating which we might well discuss in local groups during the coming year are these : What should a teacher rating scheme measure ? DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 377 What are the points on which a teacher can be rated so that the rating is fair to her, to her administrative officer, and to the children and general public to whom she is responsible ? Should a teacher's final rating be made by only one person ? And if so by whom and why ? What procedure should be followed in the development and carrying out of a teacher rating plan, in order that it will work as well in practice as in theory? Openmindedness on the part of all concerned, i. e. teacher and supervisory and administrative officers, scientific research and study, and a fair trial throughout a period of years are means by which successful teacher rating scales and methods of carrying them out can be developed. REDUCTION OF CLERICAL WORK JULIA E. SULLIVAN, BOSTON , MASSACHUSETTS The Washington meeting of the Department voted that the Department continue to urge the reduction of clerical work on the part of the classroom teacher ; that simplified forms for records and reports be used. The instructions to the com- mittee were to bring in reports of such places as have made notable progress in reduction of clerical work on the part of the teacher. Your committee has received sample forms of record sheets and reports from about 75 cities throughout, some of which have been so voluminous that one can- not wonder, at a wave of protest from those teachers being obliged to continue the use of them. We have so far been unable to find any place where notable progress has been made along the line of simplified records although some superin- tendents report that they are working along these same lines. The ultimate solution of much of this difficulty would be the appointment of clerical assistants in every school or district, assistants who would relieve the classroom teacher of the burden of the unnecessary clerical work. The Research Division of the National Education Association in compiling its Salary Report statistics found that many cities are employing clerical assistants . (National Education Association Report. ) Clerks in principals' offices : 51 cities of population over 100,000 employ 2947 clerks with a median salary of $1372. 137 cities-population 30,000 to 100,000 employ 799 clerks-median $ 973 . 167 cities-population 10,000 to 30,000 employ 312 clerks $966 median salary. 87 cities-population 5000 to 10,000 employ 106 clerks at salary median of $767. 74 cities-population 2500 to 5000 employ 83 clerks-median salary of $886 . Total from the 516 cities-employ 4247 clerks-median salary $ 1216. These totals show the number of clerks employed and hence indicate to some extent the relief given teachers as well as principals. Your committee requests the Department that time for further investigation be allowed to the Executive Committee in order that classroom teachers from the various cities may be asked to keep a strict account of the amount of time con- sumed in keeping the records in their respective schools. It is felt that in this way only may a definite solution of our problem be reached . 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON WOMEN AS ADMINIS- TRATIVES IN THE EDUCATIONAL FIELD JULIA E. SULLIVAN , BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS At one of the Boston conferences the National Education Association was asked to endorse the policy of the Advancement of Women to Ad- ministrative Positions in our Schools. At Washington a committee con- sisting of Miss Julia Sullivan as chairman and Miss Eula Hunter was ap- pointed to investigate this question and to report upon it at the Indianapolis meeting. In studying this question of our own we must not lose sight of the women in all walks and professions and we find that during the World War, in replacing the labor of men by that of women, many adverse con- ditions were met and endured, and women achieved a deserved recognition as potent factors in the industrial world. Several bulletins on occupational statistics have been recently issued by the Federal Census Bureau showing figures having a direct bearing on problems of women in industry. Contrary to general impression, women seem not to have gone into absolutely new occupations to any great extent. They had however en- larged their field of work by entering in greater numbers occupations in which they formerly had scant representation. Healthy increases occurred among women engaged in proprietary, of- ficial, and supervisory pursuits in nearly every field of employment which augurs well for the cause of all. Women in Administrative Positions in the Educational Field, as Compiled From the Educational Directory : 1925, Published by the U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Study of the educational field reveals the following facts: 1. State Superintendents and Deputy or Assistant Superintendents of Public Instruction in State Departments of Education: Arkansas : 1 Deputy Superintendent California: 1 Ass't Superintendent in Charge of Americanization 1 Commissioner of Elementary Schools Colorado: 1 State Superintendent 1Deputy State Superintendent Idaho: 1 State Superintendent 1Ass't State Superintendent Iowa: 1 State Superintendent 1Deputy State Superintendent Montana: 1 State Superintendent 1Deputy State Superintendent New Mexico : 1 State Superintendent North Dakota: 1 State Superintendent DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 379 Porto Rico : 1 Ass't Commissioner of Education Washington : 1 State Superintendent 1 Ass't State Superintendent Wyoming : 1 State Superintendent 1 Deputy State Superintendent TOTAL : 8 State Superintendents 9 Deputy or Ass't State Superintendents 1 Commissioner of Elementary Schools 18 GRAND TOTAL 2. County Superintendents : Alabama: 1 Montana: 46 Arizona: 12 Nebraska: 62 Arkansas: 6 Nevada: 1 California : 24 New Hampshire : 3 Colorado: 54 New Mexico : 14 Connecticut : 2 New York : 47 Florida: 2 North Carolina : 3 Idaho: 37 North Dakota: 33 Georgia: 3 Oklahoma : 29 Illinois: 15 Oregon: 18 Indiana: 1 Rhode Island: 2 Iowa: 56 South Carolina : 1 Kansas : 72 South Dakota : 52 Kentucky : 25 Tennessee : 7 Maine: 14 Texas: 36 Massachusetts : 1 Vermont : 25 Michigan: 21 Virginia: 2 Minnesota : 38 Washington : 21 6 West Virginia : 9 Mississippi : Missouri : 27 Wisconsin : 28 TOTAL : 856 3. City Superintendents : Arkansas: 2 Maine: 2 California : 4 New Jersey : 1 Connecticut: 3 New Mexico : 2 Florida: 2 New York: 1 Georgia: 1 Pennsylvania : 7 Idaho: 1 Rhode Island : 1 Illinois: 4 Tennessee : 1 Indiana: 1 Texas: 1 Iowa: 2 Vermont: 2 Kentucky: 1 Wisconsin; 1 TOTAL : 40 4. Public School Business Managers in Cities of 30,000 Population or Over : Evanston, Illinois (district No. 76) .. 1 Muskegon, Michigan 1 Auburn, New York .... 1 Beaumont, Texas 1 Ogden, Utah 1 Portsmouth, Virginia 1 TOTAL 6 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 5. Presidents of Universities and Colleges: California: 1 New York : 1 Georgia: 1 Ohio: 2 Massachusetts : 2 Virginia: 1 New Jersey : 1 Wisconsin: 1 TOTAL : 10 6. Presidents of Junior Colleges : TOTAL . 9 7. Heads of Departments of Education in Colleges and Universities : Alabama: 2 Missouri: 5 Arkansas: 1 Nebraska: 1 California : 1 New York : 1 Georgia: 1 (colored) North Carolina : 4 2 North Dakota : 1 Idaho: 1 Ohio: 1 Illinois: 3 Oregon: 1 Indiana: 1 Pennsylvania : 1 Iowa: 1 South Carolina : 3 Kansas: 2 Tennessee : 1 Kentucky : 1 Texas: 6 Louisiana : 1 Utah: 1 Maryland: 2 West Virginia 2 ( 1 is Massachusetts : 2 colored) Mississippi : 5 Wisconsin: 1 TOTAL : 55 8. Deans or Heads of Departments of Home Economics: TOTAL : 110 (In Colleges and Universities ) 9. Deans or Advisers of Women: TOTAL : 294 (In Colleges and Universities) 10. Directors of Extension: TOTAL : 4 11. Presidents or Deans of Schools of Law: TOTAL : 1 12. Presidents or Deans of Schools of Medicine TOTAL : 1 (Penn. ) 13. Principals of State Public Normal Schools : TOTAL : 3 14. Principals of City Public Normal Schools : TOTAL : 15 15. Directors of County Normal Schools : TOTAL : 71 16. Directors of Kindergarten Training in Colleges, Normal Schools, and in Kindergarten Training Schools : TOTAL : 144 17. Executive Officers of State Library Commissions : TOTAL : 26 18. Directors of Library Schools : TOTAL : 7 PROGRESS REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RETARDA- TION COSTS DUE TO OVERCROWDED CLASSES EULA HUNTER, FORT WORTH, TEXAS The recommendation that this Department study the matter of the cost of re- tardation as caused by large classes in the primary grades was adopted at the meeting in Washington last summer and assigned by the executive committee to the western section . There appear to be two main heads under which this question must be studied : (1) To what extent is overcrowding the cause of retardation ? (2) How much would it cost to make the classes appreciably smaller ? Under the first head a number of questions present themselves. ( 1) Given two teachers of equal skill, two classes of similar capacity, class rooms equally equipped, and working conditions equally favorable ; give one DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 381 teacher thirty pupils and the other forty-five. In which class will the greater number of children remain to repeat the term's work ? (2) Does the smaller class enable the teacher to discover early in the term the weak point or the strong points of each individual pupil and in the succeeding weeks to remedy weaknesses or develop special abilities ? (3) Is the teacher of a small class able to maintain a higher standard for her class so that all who enter the next higher grade go well prepared ? (4) How many primary children fail to accomplish the term's work because of inability to adapt themselves to school environment and how much would these children be helped by receiving more individual attention than is possible with the larger group ? (5) If the teacher had opportunity to direct the advance study of superior children could the number of special promotions be increased ? Under the second head still other questions are raised: (1) How much does it cost to have a child repeat a term's work ? (2) What would be the cost of providing enough classrooms and teachers to eliminate such amount of retardation as can be charged to overcrowding ? (3) If the cost is seen to be about equal, would there be still further financial benefit in eliminating the habit of failure which many children acquire under our present system ? (4) Would this benefit extend to society after the child is out of school ? These questions and many others arise in the minds of earnest, thinking teachers. As a matter of OPINION the teacher says that small classes permit of more efficient teaching. Her experience seems to show this. In a group of teachers such as this, it is not necessary to emphasize the importance of spiritual values in education. That this part of a teacher's work suffers in a very large class is certain. For the purposes of this study, however, we must think of teaching as instruction, merely. The Division of Research of the National Education Association, coöperating with the committee, has summarized for us the findings of some of the studies made by educational investigators. (1) The Bureau of Educational Research of the University of Illinois issued in 1922 a bulletin on Relation of Size of Class to School Efficiency. The study was prepared, in part, from a report by P. R. Stevenson. The achievements of pupils while members of a small class were compared with their achievements while members of a large class, the time covered by the experiment being two con- secutive terms . The achievements of the children were seen to be approximately equal. However, we note that the small classes range in size from 33 to 45 and the large classes from 42 to 52. If the experiment had been made with small classes of a size not exceeding 30 while the class of a size at present usual, i. e., 45 to 50, were taken as a large class, the comparison would apply with a greater force to our problem. Taking 45 as a critical size, Prof. Stevenson found the loss in efficiency greater in second grade than in fifth, or seventh, as class size increased beyond that point. We must keep in mind that Efficiency as thus measured is considered with respect only to the progress of pupils through school, as compared with the in- vestment made by the community for their education. No account can be taken of that part of a child's education which comes from acquaintance with his teacher, and from her sympathetic understanding of his peculiarities . (2) I omit the findings of the North Central Association of Colleges and Sec- ondary Schools, since our study applies especially to primary grades . (3) In a study of Fifth Grade reading made at the Worcester State Normal School, the gain in reading skill made in a half year by a class of twelve pupils was 22% greater than the gain made by a class of 26 pupils of equivalent initial intelligence. Again it is significant that the class considered large enough to test the difference in achievement was smaller than the small classes studied by Mr. Stevenson. 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (4) Frederick S. Breed and Grace D. McCarthy of the University of Michigan summarized the results of certain studies on this subject. They report the con- clusions of O. P. Cornman, that medium sized classes make somewhat the best showing, and that large classes make a poorer showing in primary than in grammar grades. Medium sized classes range from 40 to 49 and large classes are those of 50 or more. R. A. Boyer finds that in primary grades, classes ranging from 40 to 44 are best. Based on enrolment, promotion records from 32 cities for 1,348 classes C. L. Harlan's conclusion is that "Efficiency is to be increased through improved methods of instruction and more efficient supervision of large classes, rather than through reduction in the size of classes," remarking, however, "Promotion rates cannot be taken as true measures of a school's success ." The Courtis Arithmetic tests were used by Harlan. The Southeastern Michigan Superintendents' Round Table de- cided to conduct a study using the experimental rather than the statistical method. Grades 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 were included in this study. Spelling was chosen as the testing subject as being the most measurable subject. The test was made with 82 classes in pairs, one large, one small. In all grades except seventh, improve- ment was greater for large classes than for small. Differences in ability of the compared classes were not considered. Another analysis of results in which groups of similar ability were compared showed that the larger classes, averag- ing about 45 surpassed the smaller averaging 26.7. These investigations would appear to show that classes from 40 to 45 are more efficient than those much smaller or much larger. John C. Almack of Stanford University gathered the judgment of 1088 ex- perienced teachers and superintendents. The judgment on the size of class from which average results may be expected approximated 36. Three factors were considered in measuring efficiency ; instruction, discipline , and demand upon the energy of the teacher; apparently the larger the class, the lower the efficiency of teaching. It is evident that this method lacks exactness, but it is significant that the greater the experience of teachers and the better their training, the stronger is their belief that they can get better results with small classes. It is pointed out that there is reason in this conviction of teachers, in that their judgments fit the facts unaccounted for in the other methods of investi- gation. Critic teachers in normal schools quite generally say emphatically that small classes are better than large. Teachers in training schools are not being trained in the technique of instructing large classes. A questionnaire sent out by the Bureau of Educational Research of the Uni- versity of Illinois, and answered by 270 superintendents in cities having a popu- lation of 25,000 or more, shows that 95 superintendents consider 30 to 34 the best class size in Grades 1 to 3, 95 favor that size for grades 4 to 6, while 105 favor it for grades 7 to 9. For grades 10 to 12, 95 superintendents consider 25 to 29 the best, and an equal number favor classes of 20 to 24. Since classes larger than 35 are looked upon with disfavor by superintendents and teachers, let us all study this question and if we still feel convinced that small classes are better, let us be able to give sound reasons for our opinion. It is we teachers who must convince the tax paying public that overcrowding class- rooms is short-sighted retrenchment, and not genuine economy. It is the opinion of many educators that where children are grouped according to ability, large classes can be instructed with efficiency. Such ability grouping is difficult, if not impossible, in a school system which provides in a building only one teacher for each of the eight grades. In such a situation, where classes must be heterogeneous, even one or two additional teachers could noticeably decrease the number of pupils per teacher, or could give to children who most need it the individual instruction which, otherwise, they must fail to receive. An attempt has been made to ascertain the current practice in regard to class size, but the information yet gathered is insuficient for a report. Within the next few months a questionnaire will reach you. You are urged to give it careful consideration and to answer it with all possible accuracy and promptness . DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 383 INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC— WHAT TO INTERPRET FREDERICK L. WHITNEY, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH COLORADO STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, GREELEY, COLORADO The widening responsibility imposed upon our public schools by new and more complex conditions of modern living has been pointed out by Dewey and others. The school is taking over many functions and duties which the home used to take care of. Our curriculum has widened and deepened from the time of the three R's to the present complex enrichment which touches many phases of present living. The colonial school and that of the early nineteenth century was com- paratively easy to "sell" to the public. The authority of the printed word was dominant, for our colonial fathers inherited directly the reading ob- jectives of the Reformation. The schools were reading schools with an occasional arithmetic or writing master located across the way and giving instruction for added compensation. The colonial public was satisfied with the occasional spelling bee and the annual school exhibition at the close of the year. Nothing was expected but facility in oral reading, spelling, and figuring, and this on the part only of the exhibition class or of a selected champion. That this was true up to 1845 is well shown in Caldwell and Courtis's reprint and interpretation of the first recorded school survey in Boston, Then and Now in Education . But about 1825 the enrichment of the curriculum began, the subject of geography coming first, and now our public desires reports frequently on the success with which the schools make contact with social life. In what terms shall we interpret the public schools to our constituents ? There are five facets of society which summate the greater portion of our living-practical efficiency, citizenship, health, recreation and religion. At what points does the public school touch these and with what effect in making life happy and worth while for the greatest number of our people ? I. Our constituents want to know, and should know, to what extent, if at all, the schools give to our younger citizens a feeling of need for infor- mation, skills, and appreciation about the practical business of life. And, more important still, to what extent the schools succeed in developing this tripartite need. First of all, there is a common heritage here which must be transferred to all as they need it. Then, in later school life, on higher levels of activity special fields of ability must be taken care of. Reporting to the public the activity and efficiency of the schools in giving to the members of our democracy a control of the tools and "sets" of the life they must live and the skills of some vocation is perhaps our first responsibility. At least it is called for most insistently by our constituents. II. But to our leaders and in particular to the small percentage of our citizens who exercise the franchise, those activities of social life coming 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION under the term "citizenship," seem important; and there is a desire to know in what manner and with what success the public schools help our younger citizens to learn to coöperate in the regulation of the society of which they are a part and to participate in the civic and other group enterprises of the community, district, state, nation, and world. How are we increasing the intelligence of every citizen in the realm of ideals and objectives here ? What knowledge are we imparting of the means of group control ? What opportunities are we furnishing for the development of proper attitudes and good habits here ? How are we suc- ceeding in any attempt we may be making to raise the general levels of appreciation of proper regulative machinery as necessary to general well being and satisfaction Such questions as these we are bound to answer although they be not presented as specific categories. Our public must know the details of our technic and results here even though they do not ask. The prestige of the public schools will be increased by frank but modest interpretation of its program in this realm, and opportunities for further good work will be opened by a general knowledge of what has been done. It will be recognized that these two phases of social life, although they have been discussed in separate paragraphs, are intermingled and inter- dependent, and this is true of course of all of the five segments of living under discussion. There are no air-tight compartments here. III. The schools must guide and instruct in matters of health, and the public should receive frequent report of our success there. This is one of the most important fields of purposeful activity. Maintenance of life on a high level of bodily health is at the basis of enduring satisfaction in busi- ness, social life, recreation, and even in religion. Food, clothing, shelter, and bodily care are important factors in all life activities. At what point does the curriculum of the public schools touch these matters ? To what extent are we teaching food needs so that children and adults may meet them intelligently and effectively ? How are we effecting a correlation of attitude and intelligence in what our children and their parents wear ? What contribution are we making to improve- ments in housing conditions ? Are we passing on the essential information about these important items of social life and at the same time helping to equip each person to act effectively here by giving him practice in important items of right living in the light of accepted health objectives? IV. But the schools have responsibility in the matter of recreational activities also, and the increasing proportion of time left free in the life of all people because of modern tools and efficient organization of industry and and business makes it imperative that frequent report be made to our con- stituency of the part the schools are taking in changing attitudes and practices here. Do we teach leisure activities so that they carry over into adult life and become permanent play habits, reading habits, avocational habits ? Is the period of bodily activity in recreation lengthened in the individual life as DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 385 a result of our teaching ? Are standards of satisfaction raised for all play and avocational activities through public school experience ? Is original nature refined and socialized in the adult as a result of child play? Is the variety of leisure time activity increased through our instruction to include not only those of sense and those involving mere social contacts, but also art activities, the making of useful and beautiful articles, and as well those in the mental realm, such as drama, reading, as produced and as observed, the satisfaction of intellectual curiosity, simple investigation of the more important realms of truth, and the like ? If the schools can answer questions such as these affirmatively and fully it will become more apparent to the public at large that they are really an effective factor in making life happy, worth while, and successful. V. The public schools are restrained from participating in life activities which have to do with sectarian belief, but if one may include under the term religion not only worship but morality it is clear that they may affect materially these two facets of social life. The public is entitled to know what relation the schools have to these important matters. Are they god- less or immoral ? Or do they teach reverence and the golden rule ? There is found much in both educational and in lay literature now about character education and instruction in religion. The activities of the Character Education Institution and the report of statewide religious sur- veys are notable examples. What part are the schools taking in these move- ments ? Are teacher committees studying curricula for character develop- ment? Is the administration investigating or trying out one of the plans proposed for religious instruction in school time ? But outside of these are more apparent, organized projects. The public school has always made constant report to its patrons in terms of the place its faculty is taking in the life of the community. With what elements in the social life of the district do teachers ally themselves ? What segments of the total of group activities are they found in? Are they an important part of organizations having worthy objectives ? Are they members of compromise groups ? Do they take an active part in activities of distinctly negative value ? The character building function of the schools will be interpreted perhaps most clearly in terms of answers to such questions. After all, to paraphrase an old adage, the public may not be able to hear well what we say in our reports here because what we do speaks so loudly. VI. Thus far I have said that the schools are obligated to make frequent report to the public in terms of whatever contribution they are making to happiness and efficiency in the important phases of social life; namely, business, civic beauties, personal and community health, leisure time ac- tivities, and morality and worship. But most important of all, perhaps, is our success in interpreting to the public the new objectives of education as we are beginning to understand them. A. Formerly the terms knowledge and education were synonymous. The man who knew was the educated man. The content of information pos 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION sessed was not very important. To be a specialist in any field of fact, that was to be educated. Many of our constituents still have this viewpoint, and are ready to evaluate the public schools in these terms. But many modern educators are now defining education as doing, not as knowing. The effective use of knowledge possessed is the criterion. One of the most important duties of controlling bodies and administra- tive officers is to interpret the activities of the school to its patrons in the terms of this practical objective. We must report not how many ob- solete words from the Webster "Bluebook" our pupils can spell orally, but what mastery they have of the 100 spelling demons or the 2,000 word list when seated with pen in hand to write a letter or other composition. We must evaluate our home economics curriculum in terms of its con- tribution to happy home life in our district, command of the vernacular on the printed page in terms of life reading habits and appreciations developed, knowledge of the rules of the game in sport in terms of attitudes and coöperation and concrete instances of good team work among children and adults in the community. B. Formerly education was thought of as preparation. Not the present act, but the remote purpose was important. Each stage of advancement in child life was in order to function effectively on the next level, and the final goal was to act in the rôle of adult. Many of our patrons still judge the curriculum of the schools on the basis of its provision for these more or less distant values. They decry interest as too soft, and they mean that in their opinion the schools should give each pupil something very difficult to do each day, something chosen on the basis of adult opinion and according to adult standards. But the modern school must interpret education as life and as growth to its constituents as a continuous process of desirable changes in human nature. Is each school activity of each school day made worth while to the pupils themselves ? Is conscious purposing present in every school exercise, pur- posing from the viewpoint and on the level of understanding of the child himself? Is each unit of the course of study representative of worth while special activities and organized so as to be of value to childhood now ? Are children little citizens living happily now in their school community and gaining appreciations, attitudes, and habits of social coöperation valuable at every stage of development through childhood and youth to adulthood? C. Of old, we interpreted education as abstracted from all extraneous factors, as of the cloister. The Chinese examination cell situation is illus- trative of this. The student isolated from all social contact manipulates his theories and philosophies, but no tangible social outcome results. But one effective way to sell the schools to the public is to help patrons to understand that the type of education the modern school must furnish our citizens takes place in a social situation and cannot be effective or worth while otherwise. Do our building plans show this, when a bond issue is pending, by providing homelike class and conference rooms and situations DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 387 for the development of civic attitudes and skills ? Can we report more than one-half of each pupil's school day as given over to participation in study of the social sciences and in worth while group activities, using but the smaller portion for an individual mastery of the minimum essentials of the tools of knowledge ? Are our extra-curricular activities losing their "extra" character and becoming gradually shifted to the required program of the school day ? Affirmative answers to such questions as these will prove to our public that the type of education provided will help children more surely to take their appointed places in modern society and live more happily and more effectively. D. Again, educators are obligated to interpret to the public the shift of viewpoint in curriculum making which has taken place in modern times. For centuries the subject matter for the schools was chosen on the basis of tradition or with the idea that it would not matter very much what children study. The important thing was to cause them to study hard enough, thereby developing for each a supply of general "mental power" which in adult life could be used in any realm of activity desired. To illustrate concretely, there was a time when the corner grocer, if there was a corner grocer, kept his accounts in Latin and when the Latin secretary as an im- portant functuary was in every European court. Then, the presence of Latin in the school curriculum was justified by social needs. But, when Latin ceased to become the vernacular anywhere and was no longer an in- ternational language, it was retained in the curriculum because of its gen- eral disciplinary value, and this hoary fallacy is still the gospel in many educational situations and in many communities . But we are obligated to pass on to our public the conclusions of modern educational psychology here, to explain to them that education, to be effective, must be in terms of specifics, that the schools must teach children to do better those things which they will do anyway. Can we report increases in enrolment in social and physical science classes and decreases in Latin and Algebra groups ? Are our pupil unit and clock hour costs showing comparisons in favor of subjects of study the items of content of which have frequent contact with real life activities ? Do our annual reports give the data of social and business surveys to check the actual things done in our community ? Can we report the work of teacher committees in using this material for the revision of our courses of study ? If we wish to interpret the administration of our schools as economical, there is an excellent opportunity here to show that funds are not being spent on traditionary subjects which are no longer justified in the light of recent science, but that the money of the public is used for the passing on of those important items of race knowledge and skill which will function in child life as it is now and adult activities of tomorrow. E. Finally, one of the most effective bases of interpretation of modern education will be in strict accord with every parent's strongest desire, namely, that his own child be given opportunity for development to the extent of his own individual capacity. While education in the larger sense 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION must be social, a group matter, yet learning always takes in the individual. If we can show to our patrons that our curriculum and our administration of it provides effectively for individual differences, we are selling our schools to each separate parent in terms which he can well appreciate, the welfare of his own child. If we can show also that we have fully passed beyond that stage of maukish sentiment for the under-dog when unwarranted totals of school time and public money were spent on the retarded and the sub-normal pupil, we have gone far toward proving to the public the efficiency of our educational program. But we must show at the same time that our smaller groups of gifted children are discovered and amply pro vided for so as to insure for our democracy of the next generation the leaders necessary to its happiness and efficiency. Summary- I would say, then, that in order to justify our present admin- istration of the public schools we are obligated to interpret them to our con- stituents in terms of contributions made to practical efficiency, citizenship, health, recreation, and religion, at the same time showing in what manner and to what extent they are organized in accord with modern educational dicta for outcomes and objectives, namely, education as doing, not as know- ing, education as life, not as preparation, education as a social matter, not as asceticism, education in terms of specifics, not on the basis of formal dis- cipline, and education organized in accord with knowledge about individual differences. It will be recognized that illustrative items of interpretation only have been given in each section. The total could not be included in a brief discussion. FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION MABEL V. WILSON, PRESIDENT OF SEATTLE GRADE TEACHERS' CLUB SEATTLE, WASHINGTON The aid which the Federal Government has given to the cause of educa- tion in the States of the Union has been derived from two sources-land grants and direct appropriations from the United States treasury. Land grants have been made to the States for the common schools, for normal schools, for State universities, and for State colleges. To a group of educators it is needless to more than refer to the origin of the land grants for the common schools. The five States admitted to the Union from the land which constituted the Northwest Territory were admitted with the understanding that the section numbered sixteen in each township be given to the people of that township for the use of public schools. Later, we know that in many of the States the section numbered thirty-six in each township was likewise set aside for common schools. Ac- cording to the enabling acts admitting the several States to the Union, these lands and whatever proceeds might be derived from them were wisely designated as for no other purpose than for the support of common schools. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 389 To relate just how the schools have made use of and profited by their handling these land grants would be to relate a number of long and varied stories. Sufficient it is for us to realize that the State permanent or common school funds having as their foundation the original Federal land grants are constantly decreasing as regards the proportion which they bear of the total cost of education in the separate States. You will pardon reference to the State of Washington, but upon short notice I naturally found Washington statistics more readily accessible, and I believe that one State is about as typical as another in the respect of its common school fund. In spite of original generosity and State supplementing, the proportion of revenue derived from the permanent school fund and the proportion of revenue derived from State supplementing, are both constantly decreasing. In 1905 the permanent school fund of Washington furnished 8 per cent of the total revenue for schools. In 1924, the income in that State, based upon the original Federal Land Grants, had further decreased until it was but 5 per cent of the total cost of the common schools of that State. The five States which derived the highest / per cent of their total revenue from permanent school funds in 1905 were: Wyoming, Nevada, Texas, Utah, and Oregon. Perhaps there is no better way of coming to an appreciation of the decline in the present importance of the Federal land grants as sources of revenue than by comparing the per cent of the total school revenue of these States as derived from permanent school funds in the year of 1905 with that per cent fifteen years later. In Wyoming, in these fifteen years, the approximate percent of the total school costs which was derived from permanent funds fell from 49 1 per cent to 23 per cent, in Nevada from 49 per centyto 11 per cent, in Texas from 27 per cent to 13 per cent, in Utah from 21 per cent to 4 per - cent, and in Oregon from 13 per cent to 4 per cent. Recent studies of the school support situation will reveal further evidence of the constant decrease in the per cent of the total cost of public school education which is being derived from the original Federal land grant source. They will also reveal the facts that revenue derived from State support is likewise decreasing and that local taxation for the support of public schools is increasing faster than State support. The second educational purpose for which Federal land grants were made was for State universities. Grants of so much were made to the individual States as they were admitted, together with other grants made in lieu of previous grants to States already admitted to the Union. The State of Washington received 72 sections from one grant and 100,000 acres from a second grant. No portion of these grants was to be held for less than ten dollars per acre. The proceeds from the sale and leasing of these lands was to constitute a permanent university fund, to be invested and held by the State, and only the income thereof to be used exclusively for university purposes. Again, as an example of the relation which the permanent university 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fund, created from the original Federal land grants, bears to the total cost of financing the State university, we find this true in the State of Wash- ington. Of the total grant of 146,080 acres, 93,909 acres still remain in the grant. The total current receipts from the permanent fund created by rental, interest on investments, interest on bank deposits, etc., for the biennial of 1921-23 amounted to a little more than $40,000, while the current receipts for the same period from taxes, student fees, etc., amounted to more than $2,300,000. Thus it is seen that the Federal land grants in that State bear less than 2 per cent of the present university cost-State taxes alone furnishing fifty times the amount of revenue now being derived from the Federal land grant source. The third educational purpose for which Federal land grants were made was for normal schools. Some States shared in the land grants of 1841 made for the purpose of internal improvements ; and which gave, including the quantity given both before and after admission, a total of 500,000 acres to each State profiting by the provisions of this act. Other States shared in the swamp and overflowed land grants of 1850. In lieu of these grants the State of Washington, with other States, was granted 100,000 acres for the establishment and maintenance of a scientific school, 100,000 acres for State normal schools, 100,000 acres for public buildings at the State capital, and 200,000 for State charitable, educational, penal, and reformatory institutions. Of the 100,000 acres granted to the normal schools of the State of Washington under this act, 70,000 acres yet remain unsold. Continuing along the line of the relative amount of money that the Federal land grant source is contributing to education in this particular State, we find that for normal schools, it bears the relation of about 1 to 14-that is direct taxes, the main source of normal school income, furnishes fourteen times the amount of income furnished by the Federal land grant source. The fourth educational purpose for which Federal land grants were made was for State colleges. Along with many of the States, Washington received 90,000 acres of land for the use and support of an agricultural college. The proceeds of this grant, together with the proceeds of the 100,000 acres granted for a scientific school operate jointly for the support of the State college. For the biennial ending September 30, 1924, the current income from these two funds furnished $150,000 of the total operat- ing cost of 1,800,000 or approximately eight and one-third per cent of the total amount. While a study of other States will reveal different methods by which Fed- eral land grants were secured, and decidedly different ways of handling these four Federal land grants after they were secured, it will not, I believe, reveal other than that they bear an increasingly small per cent of the total cost of that particular branch of education to which their proceeds are applied. After this hurried and somewhat local view of Federal aid to public education from the land grant source, we come to the subject of Federal DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 391 aid from the source of direct appropriations from the United States Treasury. Direct appropriation funds operating are the Morrill fund which sup- ports instruction in the State colleges, the Hatch and Adams funds which are used to carry on the work of the experimental stations, the Smith-Lever fund, which provides for the carrying on of coöperative extension work, and the Smith-Hughes vocational fund which gives to the support of voca- tional education in the public schools of the States. Individual man is always jealous of his power, and small groups of men have likewise always been jealous of their power. Whenever steps have been taken to have the government of the United States advance the general welfare of the people, the question always arises : "Just what local power will be usurped by this step, and just what valued traditions will be lost in the granting of this increase or power to central authority ?" The Constitution left education to the States and with this group jealousy of rights, it was but natural that opposition to Federal aid would arise, and as early as 1857 when Justin S. Morrill introduced his bill pro- viding for land grants for colleges, which colleges should be devoted to cer- tain specific purposes, such remarks as the following were made: "The bill proposes to give the States their own property and direct them how to use it." "It is using the public lands as a means for controlling the policy of the State legislatures." But the opposition to Federal aid was fighting a losing fight. If the government could give land grants, why not land grants with a more specifically defined purpose and specific money appropriations ? From the time of the second Morrill Act of 1890 to the time of the proposed Sterling- Reed Bill, Congress has increased its subsidies to the States. As local com- munities continue to demand better education, the question of how to get the money is ever present. State legislatures seem to seek in vain for ad- ditional funds, and look to the Federal Government for aid. Every time the States have been offered larger sums of money, they have accepted the offer. The total subsidies to the States for educational purposes in 1922 was $ 15,000,000. This is small when we realize that the subsidies for education and for roads stand in the relation of about 1 to 9 . The Morrill Act of 1862 granted to each State 30,000 acres for each Senator and Representative in Congress. The second Morrill Act of 1890 gave an outright annual appropriation of $25,000 per year to be applied to instruction in agriculture, the mechanic arts, the English language, and various branches of science. If any portion of the subsidy was lost or misplaced, it was to be replaced by that State, and until such replacement no subsequent appropriation would be paid. In 1907 an amendment to the second Morrill Act increased the subsidy to $50,000 a year to each State and Territory and provided for using the money to prepare instructors to teach the subjects for which purpose the colleges were established. The Secretary of the Interior was to inspect the colleges and withhold the funds if conditions were not satisfactory. Thus 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the power of the Federal Government was not to be exercised so much by way of control as by way of definite guidance in the expenditure of the funds as regards the specific uses to which they shall or shall not be put. 1 In 1887, Congress, in the Hatch Act, provided for an annual appropria- tion of $15,000 to each State for the purpose of carrying on experimental work in farming and farm projects. The stations were to conduct re- searches and experiments bearing directly upon the agricultural industry of the United States, with due regard for local conditions and needs. Under the Adams Act of 1906, the subsidy of $15,000 was increased to $30,000 per year, and Federal control was greatly extended by the following re- quirements : Each station was required to present annually a detailed statement of receipts and expenditures of the Federal funds to the Secretary of Agriculture who could withhold allotments, subject to an appeal to Congress, if the conditions at the stations were not up to requirements. It is interesting to note in this case of Federal control that the States have found little or no use for their prerogative of appeal. In 1921, the total Hatch and Adams subsidies of $1,440,000 to the States, was supplemented by the States to the amount of $3,786,997 . The Smith- Lever law of 1914 provides for a fund to be administered by the State college. It is really a coöperative fund supported in part by the general government, and in part by the State and the county or smaller local unit. The work consists in the giving of instruction and practical demonstration in agriculture and home economics to persons not attending or residing in the agricultural colleges. As with other appropriations, every precaution was taken to safeguard the funds. Several new and significant provisions in the handling and in the ad- ministration of Federal aid were made in the Smith- Lever law. First, $10,000 was given to each State regardless of its needs and the remainder was to be apportioned in the proportion which the rural population of each State bore to the rural population of all of the States as shown by the last Federal census. Second, the plan required that the States match the Fed- eral dollar. Third, the State relation service was given charge of all of the cooperative relations of the Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural colleges. In the administration of the Smith- Lever law, the States relation service has performed a great piece of work through its county agents. In the United States, two thousand such agents disseminate information regarding proper methods of farming, while home demonstration agents give practical demonstrations and advice regarding cooking, sewing, proper diet, house- hold budgets, etc. In 1921, of the $16,000,000 expended for this work, the Federal Gov- ernment furnished $6,000,000 and State legislatures, county and local sources appropriated the greater part, or $10,000,000. It was the opinion of many that the provisions of the Smith- Lever law did not extend far enough. Hence, in 1914, a Federal commission on DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 393 National Aid to Vocational Education was appointed to consider the ad- visability of such legislation as was then being advocated by Senators Carrol S. Page of Vermont and Hoke Smith of Georgia. The committee consisting of nine members, returned a lengthy report which recommended that Federal aid be applied to Vocational Education for the following reasons : ( 1 ) There was a pressing need for vocational education. (2) The problem of vocational education was too extensive to be worked out except by a national agency. ( 3 ) The States were too poor to attempt its solution. (4) Federal aid to vocational education would stimulate local interest in this direction. (5 ) Such Federal aid would be constitutional since it promoted the general welfare. (6) The mobility of the population and of the laboring population in particu- lar, justified the application of Federal resources to this problem. (7) The facts that teacher training in vocational subjects is expensive and that teachers are migratory both justified Federal aid. (8) A bureau should be maintained by the Federal Government for the purpose of collecting and distributing information on vocational subjects. As a result of this report the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 was passed. It contained the following provisions : first, coöperation with the States in the promotion of vocational education in agriculture, in the trades and industries ; second, coöperation with the States in the preparation of teach- ers for vocational subjects ; and, third, for the appropriation of money and the regulation of its expenditure for the purposes of the act. The act further provided for the creation of a Federal Board for Voca- tional Education to consist of the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, the United States Commissioner of Education, and three citi- zens to be appointed by the President and to represent commerce, agricul- ture and labor interests respectively. The three citizens were to receive an annual salary of $5,000 each, and $200,000 annually was placed at the disposal of the Board for the purposes of administering the act and of conducting studies in coöperation with the departments named. The States were to accept the act by legislation, and were to appoint a Board of three or more members to work jointly with the Federal Board to carry out the purposes of the act in that State. The following statistics show the increase in vocational education in the five years from 1918 to 1922 inclusive. The number of State directors and supervisors employed under control of State vocational boards in 1918 numbered 139, and in 1922 they num- bered 226. The number of schools of all types approved under State plan in 1918 were 1741 , and in 1922 were 4945. Enrolment in vocational classes in 1918 totaled 164,186 and in 1922 totaled 475,828 . The total expenditures for teacher training during this five year period was $ 36,521,522 of which amount the Federal Government contributed 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 24 per cent, the State government 29.4 per cent and the local governments 46.6 per cent. These figures clearly show that local communities have faith in voca- tional education under Federal guidance and that the purposes for passing the act are being justified. It remains to be seen just what the next step in Federal aid to public education will be. The play has been written, revised, and re-revised ; and has been named in turn the Smith-Towner, the Towner-Sterling, and the Sterling-Reed bill. At every rehearsal some force has upset the scenery, but the advocates of the measure, undaunted and ever gaining in strength, still continue to back the play and the work goes on. Only an enlightened public sentiment seems to be needed and it will come. States can no longer live unto themselves alone, for this is not the age for an isolated method of living. Industry has outgrown State borders . When the good of the cause as a whole suffers, education must do likewise and must not only accept Federal aid but must also submit to a certain amount of national guidance when such guidance comes to the rescue in the unselfish interest of a higher and broader type of nationalism. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHERS' COLLEGE J. A. HILL, PRESIDENT, WEST TEXAS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE CANYON, TEXAS In the summer of 1924 the then president of the University of Texas stated on several different occasions that the normal schools of Texas had made more progress in the last decade than had any other group of educa- tional institutions in the United States in any similar period. This is a comprehensive statement, and even if half true, is a significant fact in the history of Texas and of the Nation. Its interest on this occasion lies in the probability that what is true of Texas in this respect is at least in some measure true of the rest of the Nation. There is no doubt that the evolu- tion of teacher-preparation in the United States has been one of the out- standing features of educational development during the past ten to twenty years . In view of the prime importance of the teacher as a factor in educational progress any evidence of improvement in his working effectiveness becomes at once a matter of interest to educators and to the public. It is the pur- pose, therefore, of this paper to discuss "Educational Progress during the last twenty-five years as measured by the development of normal schools into teachers colleges." In order to find a proper beginning let us briefly recall the general nature of the average normal school at the opening of the twentieth century. Let us see just what facilities the Nation had in 1900 for the professional prepa- ration of its teachers. Let us also see just what opportunity the teacher DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 395 had at that time to make of himself a distinctly professional worker -one set apart by his superior knowledge of his field and by the skill with which he performed his work. The average normal school of twenty-five years ago offered a curriculum on an academic level with the better class of high schools and academies. Entrance conditions were low, unstandardized, and loosely administered. It was more difficult to get into the insane asylum than into the average normal school. The work of the normal school consisted mainly of a review of the common branches of the public school and led to a life certificate. Its faculty was generally small in number, but composed of men and women who were far above the average teacher in intelligence and professional spirit. The teacher of the average normal school of that day was the one redeeming feature of the system. However, he, like all other teachers of his day, was unacquainted with the technique of teaching and the great body of scientific educational facts that have been discovered in recent years. The physical plant was very poor, salaries paid instructors were meager, and the student-body was small, but rather mature and earnest. The primary function of these schools was the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools, and it must be said in passing that considering the handicaps under which they labored, the old normal schools served well their generation, though the number of teachers they reached directly was relatively small. While they administered professional narcotics to many teachers in embryo, they also stimulated others to noble professional effort and helped to keep alive the true spirit of teaching. These schools de- veloped an educational leadership without which our common schools would have found difficulty in "carrying on. " There were approximately 130 such schools at the opening of the period under consideration. There were also some half-dozen schools for teachers which had re-organized their curricula and were conferring Bachelors' degrees. A number of our lead- ing universities, State-supported and privately endowed, had established departments of education and were beginning to offer courses in the science and art of teaching. However, in these latter institutions such departments were objects of ridicule on the part of other departments. Education courses were called "crip" courses and the education department of the University of Texas was popularly known on the campus as the "Pee- doggy" department. The average college professor of that day believed that a sustained study of mathematics, for example, was a high compliment to one's academic instincts, but that a study of how to teach mathematics could only testify to one's inanity. Such an atmosphere on the college campus would not induce the best talent to adopt teaching as a profession. Indeed, it will be seen from this general view of teacher-preparation at the opening of the present century that there was little in the situation to challenge red-blooded men and women to become teachers and there was little chance for one who was in the profession to set himself apart as a technically trained expert in a highly organized scientific field of public service. 396 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION But forces were already in motion that were destined to transform the face of education, make of teaching a highly scientific and technical voca- tion, and put in the hands of the embryonic teacher the implements whereby he could hope to become expert in his field and eventually take his place alongside his highly trained, highly respected, and highly paid fellow in other professions. Just what were these forces ? First, there was a gradual accumulation of scientific knowledge of education and its problems. The field of educa- tional research in departments of education in our universities was gradu- ally widened and every form of problem in public education was subjected to scientific study in spite of the gibes of academic critics. This knowledge slowly filtered into the curriculum of the normal schools, and through these and other agencies found a measure of function in elementary educa- tion. This process has gone on until it has been possible to classify our new data somewhat according to the organization of our public free schools into primary, intermediate, and high schools. This has introduced the idea of specialization not only into the field of teaching as a whole, but also into its various phases or departments. I mean that we have developed a science of primary education and of secondary education, and there is now developing a science of intermediate education. We are even going further in our specialization process, and are sub-dividing these respective fields . These developments have made necessary a longer period of preparation for teaching, whatever the field in which one wishes to work. Dovetailing exactly with this growth in the body of scientific knowledge of education has been a growing consciousness of the need for a larger and richer background of general knowledge and culture prerequisite to spe- cialization in the educational field. With the implements of knowledge so abundantly at the disposal of all who will use them the average teacher of today finds himself put to it to keep culturally abreast of the public he seeks to serve. The scholastic standard of the old normal school of ten and twenty years ago is entirely inadequate for even the mediocre teacher of today. In increasing numbers our educators are unwilling to remain un- educated and they are literally thronging our institutions of higher learning with a view to enriching their cultural background and improving their professional fitness. As hinted above, this is partially the result of the rapid rise in public intelligence. It is the judgment of the speaker that the average child of a dozen years today has a much wider range of information than the youth of twenty had fifteen years ago. Life contacts have multi- plied even in the last ten years almost beyond comprehension, and the school's former monopoly on learning has been broken. This fact alone would drive our teachers to seek every form of personal and professional improvement and put upon them the necessity for sustained study in the various fields of human learning. Normal schools have thus been enabled to raise their admission requirements some three or four years and their graduation requirements proportionately. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 397 Parallel with these influences the normal school product has gradually sifted into the high schools. The universities and privately endowed colleges were not meeting the demands of the secondary schools for teachers. The stronger class of graduates from the normal schools took favorable rank as department teachers, principals, and superintendents, because they usually carried a fine professional spirit and interest which was too often lacking in graduates of liberal arts colleges and universities. In many instances the university resented the entry of teachers, so lacking in what was termed scholarship, into the high schools and through the control of accrediting agencies sometimes discredited the product of the normal school. This is still true in certain parts of the United States, where standards for teachers are set up by traditional liberal arts colleges and universities through the monopolistic control of accrediting agencies. This irritated administrators and teachers in normal schools, but drove them to think more seriously upon the problem of teacher-preparation. The main criticism aimed at their work was that it was superficial. There was not enough real substance to it. It was pithy. This was a just rebuke, in the main, and could only be met by a thorough-going revision of the program. Unwittingly, the liberal arts colleges, with a combination of social circumstances, literally drove the normal schools into a much larger program, which involved the material raising of entrance conditions and a curriculum covering four years of work beyond high school gradua- tion. Another factor which was making for the transformation of the normal school was the very rapid development of the high school. The number of high schools multiplied rapidly around the opening of the century and the number of those who attended them multiplied even more rapidly. In parts of the country this is still going on and wherever it takes place the foundation for the enlarged program of the normal school is successfully laid. It should not be understood, however, that normal schools exercised no initiative in the matter of expansion. Leaders in the field had for twenty- five years been gradually arriving at the conviction that teacher-preparation was a much longer and a more complex matter than a simple and hurried review of the common branches. In 1902 President Seerley, of Iowa State Teachers College, said : I think the State normal school ought to be a training school in which all kinds of teachers needed by all grades of public schools can be prepared. I believe in * the training of teachers for primary and elementary grades It is cer- tainly the function of the normal school to do such work, but that cannot be its sole function as there is no reason that excludes a normal school from training high school teachers if the State sees fit to properly support and equip such departments In 1903, John R. Kirk of Missouri State normal school said : It is asserted here that we may safely turn over the high school instruction to university graduates. Against this propagandism, reason and common sense 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION protest. Already the high schools of several states are seriously damaged by being made the practice schools for inexperienced and undirected university grad- uates who are inexcusably ignorant of school government, discipline, class man- agement, and the direction of student work, and who from long isolation in spec- ialized study have become unconscious of all practical avenues to the souls of * * ordinary pupils It is evident, therefore, that the student who has lived several years among the profound scholars and splendid men in the university has not only had his mind withdrawn from all ideas of practical school manage- ment or tactics, but he has grown accustomed to those forms of instruction that are least adapted to elementary and secondary schools. He is not a safe person to be entrusted with elementary or secondary instruction until he has been over- hauled in some school which will recast his ideas of teaching and compel him to acquire reasonable skill in teaching by virtue of some well directed practice. In 1912 the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association put forth the following declaration of principles : The twentieth-century normal school is dedicated to higher education, with the special function of supplying teachers for the rural schools, the elementary schools, and the high schools . Its entrance requirements as to scholarship will be practically the same requirements that are now demanded by the college-graduation from a four-year high school. It will extend its courses of instruction and practice, as conditions may demand, to four-year courses, thus giving it as high a standing in the way of discipline and scholarship as the college now possesses. The extent of the change from normal school to teachers college is re- vealed in the following data : In 1900, there were approximately 125 normal schools and five teachers colleges. In 1910, there were 196 normal schools and eight or ten teachers colleges . In 1918, there were 156 normal schools and 27 teachers colleges . In 1920, there were 138 normal schools and 45 teachers colleges . In 1922, there were 110 normal schools and 80 teachers colleges . The Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., is authority for the statement that there are now 110 normal schools and 88 teachers colleges. However, it is probable that these last figures do not take cognizance of the recent change to teachers colleges in Wisconsin, Tennessee and prob- ably other States . In discussing this same subject in his "Administration of Professional Schools for Teachers," Walter D. Agnew says : The first significant observation is the remarkable growth of the schools in attendance. The gain in the number of schools is only 26.5 per cent while the gain in attendance is 61 per cent. This gain has been almost wholly in the insti- tutions offering the four-year courses. Whereas in 1902-1904, 41 per cent of the students were in the 34.8 per cent of the schools offering two years or more college work, now 69.2 per cent of the students are in the 54.5 per cent of the schools offering four years of college work. Another important observation is the fact that while twenty years ago 38 per cent of the students were in the 47 per cent of the institutions offering no college work, now, not only are there no schools below the two-year college grade, but DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 399 a meager 17 per cent of the students are in the 31.1 per cent of these institutions of two-year college grade. Having considered at some length the forces which have transformed a majority of normal schools into teachers colleges let us briefly notice the character of the new institution and some of the results of our short ex- perience with it. Perhaps the first fact of importance is to be found in the changed entrance requirements. Teacher-preparation now begins on about the same academic level on which it ended under the old normal school system that is, with graduation from an accredited high school. The curriculum covers four years beyond this point and leads to a Bachelor's degree on an academic level with that degree in liberal arts college. Its curriculum is organized and administered with a view to the preparation of rural school teachers, kindergarten-primary teachers, grade teachers, and high school teachers of every class. The content of the course of study is such as to give cultural background to the nascent teacher, while putting into his hands at the same time the implements of modern scientific educa- tion and developing professional technique. The so-called academic sub- jects are approached from the viewpoint of one who expects to present it to another and hence are surrounded with a distinctly professional atmos- phere that gives color and meaning not to be found in such courses in liberal arts colleges. Observation and practice-teaching have reached their best development in the new institution, though these yet constitute the largest uncharted field in the whole program of teacher-preparation. Next to this, the preparation of teachers of music, drawing, public speaking, and physical education (in which public sentiment has not yet been sufficiently aroused) , and teachers of home economics, manual training, and agricul- ture (in which there is competition from A. & M. colleges, State univer- sities, and industrial schools ) constitutes our next greatest problem in the expansion of function. When the public schools have come to understand that it is the proper function of the teachers college to prepare teachers for every kind of position in the public schools it will be easier for these colleges to offer an attractive and worth-while program to teachers of special subjects. In the matter of results from the change to teachers college the follow- ing appear incontrovertible : 1. There is now going on a revolution in the scholastic and professional ideals of teachers. This is demonstrated in the phenomenal growth in the last five years in student enrolment in teacher-preparatory schools through- out the country and in the rapidly increasing number who complete four years of professional college work. Conditions in my own State, I dare say, are typical. There are 30,000 white teachers in Texas. The teachers colleges have enrolled during the current scholastic year approximately 16,000, or half the teaching force of the State. There are other thousands in departments and schools of education in the other colleges of Texas . This revolution in professional ideals is further indicated in the passing of 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION certification by State, county, and summer normal examinations. Teachers in growing numbers themselves look with contempt upon certificates ob- tained without college work, or regard them at best as temporary expe- dients. This improvement in the ideals of the teacher is highly significant for the schools and for the Nation, and the enlarged program of the teach- ers colleges has made no small contribution to this result. 2..A corollary to the above movement has been the growth in prestige and influence of the teachers' college among the various educational factors of the State and Nation. It is really getting so in Texas that a teacher may belong to a teachers college faculty and yet be respected by his co- laborers in other institutions of higher learning. Indeed, places of educa- tional leadership are being entrusted to members of faculties of the teach- ers colleges; legislators are giving these institutions a larger place in their thinking ; superintendents, principals, and other administrative authorities are seeking teachers college products as never before; and the public is slowly but surely coming to look with favor upon their work. All of this is the result, at least mainly, of the larger program of these colleges. 3. A new quality has been added to the campus life of these institutions . The four-year college course is appealing strongly to the best products of our high schools and a better prepared body of students is entering the pro- fession through the teachers college. If I may be pardoned for again using Texas as an example, I should say that a majority of the honor graduates of all high schools within 100 miles of Canyon are students in the teachers college there. Moreover, the two years added to the curriculum are trans- forming college atmosphere, fastening the ideals of the institution upon the student, and making possible the establishment of campus traditions. Individual loyalties are set up, and group activities are showing decidedly improved results. The number attending teachers schools is rapidly in- creasing. Dr. J. C. Evjen in 1922 showed that there was a gain of 61 per cent in attendance in the twenty years preceding, and that 83 per cent of the students in 1922 were in the colleges with four-year courses. This gain becomes more significant when it is remembered that the curriculum in the meantime was raised from two to four years . 4. The re-organization of the old normal school into a teachers college has greatly stimulated faculty members and has led them in great numbers to improve their academic and professional equipment. One Texas school sent away 25 per cent of its faculty in one year for graduate study. In fact, this form of development has been so rapid that it has been difficult to keep the organization intact and going at full speed. 5. The four-year program has focused the attention of faculty members more completely upon the problems and function of a teachers college. The movement has been accompanied by a considerable measure of self- surveys and other forms of introspection. Productive scholarship has been stimulated and we are finding out things for ourselves. For one thing, we have discovered that there is neither reason nor rhyme in the distinctions of training, experience, and salaries among teaching positions. As stated DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 401 in the Carnegie Foundation Report, Bulletin No. 14, 1920 : "Proper training for teaching the third grade should be as prolonged and as serious as training for teaching the tenth or twelfth grade and should be equally well rewarded. To pass childhood through a graded quality of instruction in order finally to place those who survive in charge of real teachers only at the top, is a blunder that explains more of the dire results noticeable in our schools than we dare acknowledge." Those who contend, therefore, that the four-year program of the teachers college is designed primarily for the preparation of high school teachers, are still in the position of the nineteenth century school trustee who thought one did not need to know much in order to teach little children . The foregoing results in themselves are sufficient to justify the expendi- ture of far more than the expansion of these institutions has cost, but they can only be appreciated when considered in connection with the difficulties of the task. There was involved the reorganization of entrance require- ments and raising the same some two or three years. There appeared the danger that such action would reduce attendance and cut down appropria- tions, already lamentably small. There was the re-organization of the whole course of study, involving its length, its breadth, and its depth. There was the faculty, inadequate in number and lacking in scholarship and professional training. There was the great body of ex-students who might feel that the new regime would discount their attainments, and hence their loyalty might be shaken. There was a lack of equipment and floor space. The legislature could not understand the increased costs and was slow to provide necessary funds. The university and other colleges op- posed such expansion and openly criticised the normal schools for departing from the purposes for which they were created the preparation of rural and grade teachers. The normal schools themselves had only imperfect vision and had to feel their way slowly. In the face of these odds the transition from normal to teachers college has been little short of marvelous. And yet, the process is far from com- plete. Many of the obstacles mentioned above and others, too, still exist. For example, an ideal course of study has not yet been found. An exami- nation of this question reveals a wide diversity of judgment as to what ought to enter into the curriculum of a teachers college. Other profes- sional schools have fairly well standardized their requirements and the speaker is of the opinion that the same can and will be done for teacher- preparation as fast as the science and art of education is developed. The question of observation and practice-teaching also involves many unsolved problems. There seems to be no generally accepted practice as to the time, the amount, or the conditions under which it should take place, though it has been often said that "the training school is the heart of the teachers college." The financial question also remains unsolved. Legislatures have not yet been induced to give teachers colleges physical plants at all commensurate with their needs or the public service they render, though progress is being 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION made in this direction . Salaries are still below the level of those of other institutions of higher learning. It is no uncommon thing in different parts of the country to find a professor of education in an industrial or technical or liberal arts college receiving a great deal better salary than a professor of education in a teachers college. To the speaker it is a queer piece of reasoning that sees greater value to the State in the preparation of a teacher at a college whose teacher-preparing function is incidental than in one which makes this its only aim. The fact is, the present discrimination against teachers colleges in the matter of salaries is an insult (though not intended) to every teacher in the country who loves his profession and desires to see it placed upon a genuinely professional basis. Finally, the teachers college program is being retarded by an indifferent public, by low professional ideals of great numbers of teachers, and by a few educational leaders who have not yet seen the problem of preparing teachers in its proper setting. Of course, the public is still thinking of us in terms of the old normal school which was so overshadowed by uni- versities and other institutions of higher learning as to be regarded as of little relative consequence. Time itself will eventually correct this atti- tude, but so much is involved that the teachers college cannot afford to wait on it. The public must be educated to discriminate between the prepared and the unprepared teacher. As to the teachers, there was a time when there was no opportunity for attending a teachers school, but the day now is when a man or woman ought to be ashamed to ask entrance to the profession without having attended a professional school for teachers. Teachers ought no more think of seeking professional preparation in non- professional schools than do doctors, engineers, or ministers. In the meas- ure that we magnify our own schools we magnify our own profession, set ourselves apart as a body of specialized workers, and build a real profes- sion of teaching. As long as teachers would as readily attend any other school for their professional preparation as they would attend a teachers college just so long will there be no real profession of teaching, respected and paid by the public commensurate with the service rendered. Such, my fellow-teachers, is the story of the "growth and development of normal school into teachers college." We feel that it constitutes an honor- able chapter in the history of public education. But we are not looking backward. Our faces are to the future and we look with confidence for yet greater achievements in the field of teacher-preparation. In the words of another, "Tomorrow belongs to the professional teacher. " Department of Deans of Women SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS , 1925-26 President- FLORENCE PURINGTON, Dean, Mount Holyoke College .. South Hadley, Massachusetts First Vice-President-ANNA V. DAY, Dean of Women, State Normal School Milwaukee, Wisconsin Second Vice-President-AGNES E. WELLS, Dean of Women, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Secretary-MARTHA DOAN, Dean of Women, Earlham College .. .....Richmond, Indiana Treasurer-ANNA E. PIERCE, Dean of Women, New York State College for Teachers Albany, New York OFFICERS OF SECTIONS Universities: Chairman , WINIFRED ROBINSON, Dean, Women's College, University of Dela- ware, Newark, Del.; Secretary, WINIFRED G. RICHARDSON, Dean of Women, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Colleges: Chairman, ETHEL BREWSTER, Dean of Women, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.; Secretary, DOROTHY STIMSON, Dean of Women, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. Normal Schools and Teachers' Colleges: Chairman , EDITH BARNARD, Dean of Women, State Teachers' College, Maryville, Mo.; Secretary, MAHALA DORCAS PRICHARD, Dean of Women, Fairmont State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va. High Schools: Chairman, JOSEPHINE T. ALLIN, Dean of Women, Englewood High School, Chicago, Ill.; Alternate, OLIVIA POUND, Dean of Women, High School , Lincoln, Nebr.; Secretary, MARY E. TOBIN, Dean of Women, Lowell High School , Lowell, Mass . CHAIRMEN OF STANDING COMMITTEES Program-FLORENCE PURINGTON, Mt. Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass . Press and Publication-HELEN MARY SMITH, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio . Relation to Other Organisations-ANNE DUDLEY BLITZ, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Health-ANNA E. PIERCE, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N. Y. Audit-MRS. BARBOUR WALKER, William Smith College, Geneva, N. Y. Membership-THYRSA W. AMOS, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Historical note-The department of Deans of Women was formerly the National Association of Deans of Women. Its meeting is first reported in the Proceedings for 1918 , pages 391-417. This Department meets once a year, in February. The twelfth meeting of the Department of Deans of Women opened with a luncheon Thursday, February 26, 1925. Members of the National Association of Secretaries of College Appointment Bureaus and Principals of Private Schools for Girls shared in this occasion. Anna V. Day presided. President Agnes E. Wells, extended greetings to the members and guests. The program followed as an nounced. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 26 , 1925 Morning 8 :30-10.00 Registration and meeting of Executive Committee. 10:00 Meeting of Association of Secretaries of College Appointment Bureaus . Speaker: R. J. Leonard, director of the school of education, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University. COÖRDINATING AND HUMANIZING THE MACHINE. General Discussion led by Mrs. May L. Cheney, President of the As- sociation, appointment secretary, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. [403] 404 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 12:30 Luncheon-Anna V. Day, presiding. GREETING, Agnes E. Wells, President COOPERATION BETWEEN OUR ORGANIZATIONS . a . Sarah Converse, President of the Association of Principals of Schools for Girls . b. Miriam F. Carpenter, Secretary, Association of Secretaries of College Appoinment Bureaus. RECENT MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN COLLEGES. Harry D. Kitson, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Afternoon 1:30 Registration. 2:00 General Session . Amendments, Election of Officers, Appointment of Committee, Old Business 3:00 CHARACTER BUILDING-Alexander C. Purdy, Professor of Practical Theology, Hartford Theological Seminary. Informal Discussion. 4:30 Adjournment. Evening 7:00 Formal Dinner-Anne Dudley Blitz, presiding. INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS - Mrs . Ellis L. Phillips, New York City, former President of National Association of Deans of Women. MODERN EDUCATION-Martin H. Fischer, University of Cincinnati. 9:00 Reception to meet Conference Speakers and Officers. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 27, 1925 Morning 9:00 SECTIONAL CONFERENCES : UNIVERSITY SECTION Chairman, Elizabeth Hamilton, Miami University. Secretary, Lucy J. Newton, University of Texas. YOUTH'S DEMAND-Maria Leonard, Dean of Women, University of Illinois. THE DEAN AND THE GIRL-Josephine P. Simrall, Dean of Women, Uni- versity of Cincinnati. INFORMAL DISCUSSION . COLLEGE SECTION Chairman, Mary Watson Green, Rockford College. Secretary, Ethel Hampton Brewster, Swarthmore College. CHANGES IN CURRICULA IN COLLEGES FOR WOMEN . Ada L. Comstock, President of Radcliffe College, Frances F. Bernard, Dean, Smith College, Discussion led by Mary Sinclair Crawford, Dean of Women, Carleton College. TEACHERS' COLLEGE AND NORMAL SCHOOL SECTION Chairman , Edith A. Barnard, State Teachers College, Maryville, Missouri. Secretary , Anna E. Pierce, State Teachers College, Albany, New York. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 405 THE SPECIFIC CONTRIBUTION OF THE DEAN OF WOMEN TO THE PROFESSION AL TRAINING OF TEACHERS-Lydia Jones, Dean of Women, State Teachers Col- lege, Ypsilanti, Michigan. Five-minute talks on : MY MOST DIFFICULT PROBLEM AND HOW I AM TRYING TO SOLVE IT. Dean Caroline Grote, Macomb, Illinois. Mrs. Louise B. Hastings, Maryville, Missouri. Dean Florence L. Richards, Winona, Minnesota. Dean Mahala Prichard, Fairmont, West Virginia. Dean Kathleen I. Gillard, Cape Girardeau, Missouri. General Discussion. HIGH SCHOOL SECTION Chairman, Josephine T. Allin, Chicago, Illinois. Alternate Chairman, Olivia Pound, Lincoln, Nebraska. Secretary, Elizabeth Hause, West Chester, Pennsylvania. Sarah M. Sturtevant, Teachers College, Columbia University. THE EFFECT THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL IS HAVING OR WILL HAVE UPON THE WORK OF THE DEAN OF GIRLS IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL-M. Edith Bell, Central High School, Columbus, Ohio. THE WORK OF THE DEAN OF GIRLS IN A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL-Lucy Elliott, Barbour Intermediate School, Detroit, Michigan. Afternoon 12:30 Luncheon I-Martha Doan, presiding. NEWER TENDENCIES AND PHASES OF THE WORK OF THE Y. W. C. A. Leslie Blanchard, Executive Secretary of National Students' Council. COOPERATIVE BUREAU FOR WOMEN TEACHERS-Margaret B. Merrill, Director, New York City. 12:30 Luncheon II. ( High School Section ) -Josephine T. Allin presiding. COOPERATION OF School And Court TO PREVENT DELINQUENCY-Mary Edna McChristie, Referee Girls' Division, Court of Domestic Relations, Cincin- nati, Ohio. THE GIVING of Scholarships- Rosalie Phillips, Associate Director of Schimd- lapp Bureau for Women and Girls, Cincinnati, Ohio. 2:00-3 :00 Groups I, II and III, Miss Hamilton, presiding. STUDENT GOVERNMENT-Dean Thyrsa W. Amos, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. SORORITIES-Louise Leonard, National President, Alpha Gamma Delta, Syra- cuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. STUDENT BUILDINGS-Mrs. Julius Schlotterback, Dormitory Consultant, Uni- versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 3:00 Group I.- Miss Green, presiding. STUDENT GOVERNMENT- Discussion led by Dean Miriam Gerlach , University of Oklahoma. Group II-Miss Newton, presiding. SORORITIES-Discussion led by Dean Bessie Leach Priddy, University of Missouri, Dean Mary Yost, Stanford University ; Informal Discussion. Group III.- Miss Hamilton, presiding. STUDENT BUILDINGS-Discussion led by Dean Irma Voight, Ohio University ; Mrs. Florence Goodspeed, University of Chicago; Dean Florence Purington, Mount Holyoke College ; Dean Jean Hamilton, University of Michigan ; Informal Discussion. 406 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2:00-4 :00 Group IV. ( High School Section)-Miss Allin, presiding. METHODS AND THEORIES OF VISITING TEACHER WORK-A GENERAL STATE- MENT-Edith W. Everett, President National Association of Visiting Teach- ers and Home and School Visitors. SOME SPECIFIC EXPERIENCES IN TWO SCHOOLS, DISCUSSION OF METHODS AND THEORIES-Mrs . Myron P. Mackey, Social Worker, Englewood High School, Chicago, Illinois. 4:30 Musical and Tea at Cincinnati Conservatory of Music. Evening 6:30 A. A. U. W. Dinner-Mary Ross Potter, presiding . RESPONSIBILITY OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN IN WORLD MOVEMENTS-Mina Kerr, Executive Secretary, American Association of University Women, Wash- ington, D. C. 8:00 General Session. RISING STANDARDS OF SCHOLARSHIP-Dean J. B. Johnston, University of Min- nesota. PROMOTING SCHOLARSHIP THROUGH THE HONOR STUDENT-President Frank Aydelotte, Swarthmore College. SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 28 Morning 9:00 General Session. New Business, Reports of Committees. MENTAL HYGIENE FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS-Coleman Griffith, University of Illinois. RESULTS OF RESEARCH WORK IN MENTAL HYGIENE-Frankwood Williams , Director of National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City. Afternoon 12:30 Luncheon at University of Cincinnati, Josephine P. Simrall, presiding. STUDENT HEALTH-Leonore Fields, Counsellor of Women, Antioch College. 2:00 General Session at University of Cincinnati. Welcomedby President Frederick C. Hicks, University of Cincinnati. THE COLLEGE AND PUBLIC HEALTH-George E. Vincent, Director Rockefeller Foundation, New York City. 4:00 Tea at Cincinnati Woman's Club . Evening 7:00 Meeting of the New Executive Committee. The program, so full of stimulating reports and addresses, was given with few changes from the published statement. The members of the generous and efficient Associate Local Committee, the offi- cers of the Cincinnati Branch of the American Association of University Women, Mr. Sherwood D. Shankland, executive secretary of the Department of Superin- tendence, and Mr. Joy E. Morgan, editor of the Journal of the National Educa- tion Association, were guests of honor at luncheon or dinner, and brought to us fraternal spirit and wise counsel. MARTHA DOAN , Secretary. At the first regular business meeting the following communication from Miss Wells to the Executive Committee was read: DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 407 "In view of the fact that the President and Secretary of the organization work together more closely than any other two officers and could thus help each other more if not elected the same year, and in view of the fact that I have held this office for one term, two years, I hereby tender my resignation as President to take effect at the close of this twelfth regular program, Saturday, February 28, 1925 . "I wish to thank the women who have co-operated so splendidly to carry on the work of this organization for the last two years, and to express to the organization as a whole my appreciation of its confidence in me in asking me to fill the office for one term and one half. Moved by Miss Simrall that Miss Wells' resignation be accepted with deep regret and sincere appreciation of the fine work which she had done for the National Association of Deans of Women. The motion was seconded and carried . PRESIDENT'S REPORT AGNES E. WELLS, DEAN OF WOMEN, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMING- ΤΟΝ, INDIANA The first conference that I attended was held in Atlantic City in Febru- ary, 1918, seven years ago. Every seven years we are supposed to have a complete change of structure. Let us hope that the troubled times ushered in by 1918 have spent themselves; that the period upon which we are now entering will bring greater stability in college life; that the puzzling problems will be fewer and that released from the necessity of combating destructive forces we may put our main effort upon construc- tive work. The past seven years have brought many recruits to our ranks. The newest aepartment, that of the Deans of the Secondary Schools , has developed by leaps and bounds. The demand for trained women to fill positions in the four departments, high schools, teachers' colleges and normal schools, colleges, and universities, has been very great. The membership of this organization has increased six hundred per cent. This has made necessary the development of State organizations to unify and standardize the work in all sections of the country. There are now twenty-three State associations, several large city organizations, and a west- ern conference which includes eleven States. To meet the increased demand for deans, a research committee was ap- pointed this last year with Dean Anne Dudley Blitz as chairman, to study the problem, which includes a standard course to be given in colleges and universities. Northwestern University, under Counsellor Mary Ross Potter's wise direction, is developing a course which will give dean's train- ing to both women and men. Many universities are giving summer courses, but there are few courses given in the regular college session. Dean Blitz's committee is sending out a questionnaire which we hope you will receive joyfully and fill out promptly so that the committee may report its findings in the 1925 Yearbook. We need a new textbook which is up-to-date. There must be some writer among us who would be willing to undertake the task or at least to compile the valuable material accumulated during the last few years as a result of our conferences. 408 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION So broad has our work become that it cannot be done by deans alone. The range of problems discussed in the program of this conference, in- dicates our need of expert advice and help from all departments of the university. In this connection read a little booklet entitled, Dialogue With a Dean, recently issued by Dean Ernest H. Wilkins, of the University of Chicago. Here one finds suggested enough material for three deans' con- ferences . To meet these enlarged demands and to do effective work from now on, this organization, as I see it, has eight immediate needs, some of which I mentioned last year : 1. A larger budget. 2. A central office perhaps in connection with the National Education Association office at Washington or the American Association of University Women Head- quarters. 3. An Executive Secretary through whose office the State branches might com- municate and work together very helpfully. 4. A monthly bulletin issued by headquarters. 5. A standardized program for deans' courses. 6. An avenue through which the thesis on deans' work by graduate students in various institutions might be made available for those who wish the material. 7. A textbook brought up-to-date including material for high school, teachers ' college, college and university deans . 8. A record of cases, given without names, as useful to us as law records to students of law. These suggestions and many more that might be made, would, if carried out, help materially the work with high school and college girls. I wish to take this opportunity to thank the members of the executive boards of last year and this year for their splendid coöperation and help; to thank all of the committees who have worked so faithfully to widen the scope of our usefulness and to increase the effectiveness of the organization . I wish to express the sincere thanks of the members of this organization to the local committee for their care in working out details for our com- fort and for their charming hospitality; the directors and assistants of the Hotel Gibson for their plans for our welfare and thoughtfulness in co- operating to make this conference a success; to the Club Women of Cin- cinnati who have entertained us and met us with such genuine friendliness. I wish to thank publicly the speakers on our program who have given of their time and strength and wisdom to help us in our work. We who must try to develop ideal college women need all possible help and inspiration. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 409 REPORT OF CHAIRMAN ON RELATIONS TO OTHER ORGANIZATIONS ANNE DUDLEY BLITZ , DEAN OF WOMEN , UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA ΜΙΝΝΕΑΡOLIS, MINNESOTA, CHAIRMAN The Chairman on Relations to Other Organizations attended the Exec- utive Committee meeting held at the Claypool Hotel in Indianapolis, Octo- ber 11, 1924. A list of organizations whose work touches that of the deans of women was submitted and the Chairman was authorized to communicate with their presidents and ask for suggestions for future coöperation. The list is as follows : American Association of University Women. Women's Foundation for Health . National Congress of Mothers and Parent Teacher Association. National Young Women's Christian Association. Federation of Women's Clubs . Association of Visiting Teachers . National Association of Occupational Bureaus in Colleges . National Vocational Guidance Association. Replies have come from four organizations, embodying the following suggestions : I. The American Association of University Women The work of the American Association of University Women and that of the National Association of Deans of Women is really identical in aim, though approached from different angles. The suggestions of various ways in which the American Association of University Women can help the work of the Deans of Women is as follows : 1. Standards in academic work and more particularly in conditions for women faculties and students in colleges and universities. 2. Scholarships and fellowships for undergraduates and alumnæ. We are giving at the present time through our national treasury about $70,000 a year . 3. University women's clubhouses over the country. 4. Special work for young mothers in pre- school education under the Rockefeller Grant. 5. International relations work, with two members of the staff in New York City, and special work in exchange of women lecturers and women students. 6. National and international clubhouses for university women. 7. A magazine devoted to information and discussion of interest and importance to university women. 8. Service in keeping university women growing after they leave college and making a contribution in their local communities. 9. Every possible kind of information and assistance to university women as individuals and in groups. 10. Connections for university women with many kinds of conferences and with many other organizations, as in the recent great Conference on the Cause and Cure of War. 410 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Special Studies and Surveys : 1. Report on dormitories prepared several years ago by the American Associa- tion of University Women Committee on Housing, based on a questionnaire sent out to deans of women. 2. Report of graduate scholarships and fellowships in colleges and universities open to women. 3. The pamphlet on "Expenses of Women College Students" prepared by the St. Louis Branch . 4. The article "Share of Faculty in College Administration" in October, 1924, Journal. 5. The article "Academic Status of Women on University Faculties" in the March, 1924, Journal. 6. The study of Self-help in Colleges and Universities done by the St. Louis Branch and about ready to go to press. 7. A study of coöperative houses for women students made by the Madison, Wisconsin, Branch to be published in the forthcoming March Journal. How the deans can help the American Association of University Women : 1. Give the alumnæ and undergratuates information about the work of the American Association of University Women. ( There has been the widest lack of information.) 2. Great influence in building membership with alumnæ and seniors to support all these lines of work . 3. Get support of administrative authorities of institutional members by cor- porate membership in the American Association of University Women and by sympathetic understanding. (You should see some of the letters which we received from university presidents last spring in response to my letter about corporate membership . They asked what in the world the American Association of Univer- sity Women had done or could do for their university and their alumnæ.) Many studies and surveys might be made with coöperation between the two associations, such as that on dormitories. Many other like studies are possible. II. The National Congress of Mothers and Teachers A letter received from the President, Mrs. A. H. Reeve, contains the following definite suggestion : I hope that we may be able to work out some mutually helpful plans, as our experience in high schools and in colleges has demonstrated the great need for a better understanding between parents and educators. Apart from the promotion of this coöperation between parents and teachers, one of the main objects of our Congress has come to be the education of parents. 1 believe that the Deans of Women can render a very great service by coming be- fore our high school associations and discussing with parents, and in many cases with parents and students, some of the problems confronting them. It is extremely difficult for the average parent to get an unprejudiced view of his or her own child, and this is one of the special lines in which they need education. I believe also that we should make use of every opportunity for conference of- fered by your State and National meetings and our own, for you have the expert knowledge and we have the audiences needing it. If it would be possible for you to send delegates to our Annual Convention, to be held in Austin, Texas , April 27 to May 2, I think they would find special interest in the Round Table Conference to be held on High Schools, and we should be most happy to have them take part DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN +11 in it; those on Recreation and on Social Standards would also be closely allied to your work. The topic of the Convention is to be "Home and School in Education," taking up the contribution to be made by each factor, I shall see that you have a preliminary program as soon as they are issued. III . The Young Women's Christian Association The Deans of Women Association might render valuable service to the Young Women's Christian Association in the matter of recruiting candi- dates for the school, calling attention to the fact that there is always a place in our movement for college trained young women desirous of allying themselves with a Christian organization working with girls and young women. IV. Women's Foundation for Health In view of the facts that the highest death rate has been recently shown to lie among women from 17 to 32, and that the greater proportion of these deaths are due to diseases contracted through disregard of funda- mental rules of right living, the Women's Foundation for Health would appreciate a definite piece of coöperation with individual deans of women, assisting in the interpretation of the Foundation Program by a selected group in every college or institution represented in the Association. This group could run from ten to as high as the enrolment of the institution would make feasible. The first step in this interpretation would be to get the pledge of the group to "stay by" until the experiment was concluded. The second would be the health examination according to the Foundation blank-or one covering the same points in general. The third step would be the "follow-up" of that examination to change the liabilities checked to assets, this to be done through a series of conferences of not less than eight or ten consisting of exercises adapted to the individual needs and ad- vice concerning nutrition, recreation, health habits, etc., also suited to the individual needs. The Foundation's Positive Health Series could supple- ment this follow-up and relieve the physical director considerably. The fourth step would be the checking-up examination to mark improvement. If the above could be followed out with a carbon of the first examination and the second sent to the Foundation we would have a splendid start for the present health statistics of college women and girls and the possibilities of improving through the right sort of attention to daily living according to health rules. The carbons sent in need not give the name of the indi- vidual examined since that might be objected to by the physician and ex- aminee. The heading up of the above would have to be carried on by each dean and through her to the committee on coöperation or if that committee can not assume the entire work-directly to the Foundation. This program would be a tremendous lift in the interpretation of posi- tive health. We have no statistics on health in the country and after all isn't it of vastly more importance to know how well we are living than how long? 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION V. The National Association of Occupational Bureaus This organization replied very cordially, but embodied no definite sug- gestions. A communication has been received since the arrival of the Chairman in Cincinnati, asking for a recommendation of the National Amateur Athletic Association, but since there has been no opportunity to look into the organization or its program, the Chairman has no recom- mendation to make. Recommendations-The Chairman suggests that the Executive Com- mittee appoint some one or more of its members as delegates from this or- ganization to the annual convention of the National Congress of Mothers and Teachers to be held in Austin, Texas, April 27 to May 2, 1925. The remaining suggestions for coöperation depend on the individual initiative of the members of this organization. We are already on record as opening our membership lists to the American Association of University Women in furthering research investigation along the lines of women's education, so we need take no additional steps to this end. Several organizations very kindly sent printed material which they felt might be of interest to the members of the National Association of Deans of Women. This has been placed conveniently for distribution, and the members are urged to take what they wish of the material. The Chairman would like to urge upon individual members of the Association that they send in to her the names of other organizations whose lines of interest might coincide with those of the American Association of Deans of Women. REPORT OF MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE THYRSA W. AMOS , DEAN OF WOMEN , UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA, CHAIRMAN The Membership Committee submits the following report : I. Method of procedure-The work of the Membership Committee has been directed as follows: 1. Division of the United States into six geographical sections. 2. Each member of the National Membership Committee responsible for securing membership of all classes of deans in one geographic area. 3. Each member of the National Committee has used as an advisory committee as many State presidents in her section as were available, or as she deemed needful to carry on the membership campaign. If there was no State organization, the Committee used outstanding deans in each State. 4. Plan of work for each geographic committee : a. Made lists of all colleges, universities, teachers' colleges, normal schools and high schools in area, with names of deans. b. Checked off deans already members, using official list of paid members. c. Sent letters to deans urging membership, enclosing membership blanks . d. Reported to National Chairman the officers of States organized. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 413 Publicity-Number of letters written to make inquiries and solicit mem- bers, 2,000. The committee feels that its greatest service this year has not been in increased membership of the National Association, but in the publicity which has been given it by the two thousand personal letters which have been sent out. This opinion is based upon types of replies which show an astonishing ignorance on the part of many educators not only with regard to the National Association of Deans of Women, but with regard to the actual work of a dean. The requests for information have been highly gratifying. Membership data-1. Number of members of National Association, 784. 2. Increase in membership over last year, 353. 3. Hope is for 1000 members . State organizations-1 . Findings . a. Number of States given some assistance in organization, 5. b. Number of States organized, 23. c. Number of unorganized States having deans' programs in connection with other organizations, 2. d. Number of regional organizations, 2. Western Conference. Inland Empire. e. Number of city organizations, 6. New York. Chicago. Portland, Oregon. Seattle. Oklahoma City. Houston, Texas . 2. Nature of assistance desired by States. a. Information on State organization, programs, specific problems that the various States are working on . b. Assistance in getting speakers. c. Articles that outline work of deans . d. Help college presidents and superintendents see the need of sending deans to the national meetings of Deans of Women. e. Inspire deans with professional pride. 3. Movements in the States for placing deans in high schools. a. Sixteen States have definite movements, fostered by : 1. State Deans' Association. 2. State Federation of Women's Clubs. 3. State Teachers' Associations . 4. State Boards of Education . 5. Councils of Administrative Women. 6. Parent Teachers' Associations. b. Growing public opinion back of this movement. +1+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Recommendations-1. That ways be devised to establish closer rela- tionship between the National, State, regional, and city organizations. a. The committee suggests that the National select certain problems of deans for study, distribute them among these various organizations and pro- vide a place in its program for reports of such studies. b. It suggests also that the Membership Committee be given a few pages in the forthcoming bulletin to furnish information about types of State organizations, to print a few representative programs, and to list a few specific problems that State organizations are studying. c. To propose that all State organizations be urged to make approaches to State high school principals' associations to secure a place on their pro- grams in order to present the work of high school deans. Unless this closer relationship is maintained the time is coming when the National organization will find itself so duplicating the programs of the smaller organizations of deans that its influence and power will be weakened. 2. That the Membership Committee be given authority to prepare some type of publicity material, giving a little history, the purposes, etc., of the National Association. The lack of this has been a real handicap to the present committee. 3. That the Membership Committee be given more direct association with the Executive Committee to keep in closer touch with the ideals and plans of the Association. Honorary membership-With appreciation of their significant service to education and to the education of women in particular, the committee. recommends that the title, Honorary Member, be given to : Dean Emeritus Ella McCaleb, Vassar College . Dean Emeritus Mary F. Farnham, Pacific University. Death of Miss Denning-The committee is grieved to report the death of one of its members. Miss Bertha Denning was killed in an automobile accident the last of January. Her sense of humor, her enthusiasm, her keen judgment, and her devotion to the work of deans endeared her to all. Her work as a member of the Membership Committee was untiring and most successful. Her loss is irreparable. CHARACTER BUILDING ALEXANDER C. PURDY, PROFESSOR OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY, HARTFORD THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT What is wrong with the youth of today ? One of the popular indoor sports of our time is to put and to try to answer this question. That is to say, it would be a sport were it not for the uneasy feeling one has that the investigation may disclose too much. It may turn out that the in- vestigator is in the position of a heavily defaulting cashier who is compelled DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 415 to expose the minor irregularities of a clerk. In other words, it is not likely that any of the ills of our time belong exclusively to one period of life. These ills run all through life, up and down the age scale. It may well turn out to be less of a sport than a penance to be forced to ask: What is wrong with youth today? My first answer to this question would be: I never met "youth." I would not recognize this famous figure were I to meet him or her or it walking down the street. I suppose "youth" when found will be arm in arm with "the average man" and "the man in the street." And I never saw any one of them. A certain eastern publisher is said to have tuned all his women's publications to a person known as "the woman in Des Moines." At length he sent an investigator to that city to find out through personal canvass more about her. After some weeks of search the investigator wired to his chief this somewhat Irish sounding message: "There is no woman in Des Moines." One is sometimes caused to wonder if there is any Ameri- can Youth. But there are young persons who face common problems. These dif- ficulties, perplexities, confusions, maladjustments, rebellions, not to call any of them by the older term sins, of youth are very real. Is it simply rationalizing when one confesses to the conviction that youth as a period of satisfactory living has been greatly overrated ? He who sighs for youth has in mind a highly imaginative state of being compounded of the un- questioned healths, enthusiasms, moral capacities, and delightful egotisms of youth and the mellow philosophies, gentle cyncisms, generous sympathies, and disciplined desires of the ripest maturity. No such youth ever was on land or sea. It is worth while to ask : What is wrong with young people today ? if we are honest and realistic in our investigation; willing to acknowledge the solidarity of all life; and eager to share the implications of our conclu- sions. It may well seem presumptious for me to raise this question and to move in the direction of an answer in the presence of those whose major responsibility it is to deal with the whole matter I can only hope that an observer's detachment and perspective may have value even to the expert. I once heard Dr. Henry Sloan Coffin define a pastor as a "trained, accredited, trusted friend-at-large." I do not know what the accepted definition of a Dean may be if there is any, but it cannot be less than "a trained, accredited, trusted friend-at-large to a community of youths," and as such the Dean, at least, has the best possible right to ask and to answer the familiar question which we have raised. DIAGNOSIS 1. The desire for self-expression-There seems to be pretty general agreement as to the diagnosis of the modern situation, at least in general terms. The desire for the fullest possible life is at the back of all our troubles. Everybody wants to live, not just exist. The old slang phrase, "This is the life!" puts everyone's conviction that there are levels of living. 416 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Just now the formula for the attainment of the fullest life is self-expres- sion. This is or at least may be something far more profound than a hedonistic desire for gratification on the lower levels of life. The popular song, " I want what I want when I want it" is, of course, a counterfeit of the desire for self-expression, although youth may be fooled into dignifying such an attitude as self-expression . "I want to do and be, what I want to do and be, when I want to do it and be it," is, rather, the watchword of a certain tidal movement which is moving our life from top to bottom. In all the arts this attitude is more or less influential. Music, for example when thus conceived, becomes not the discipline of sitting at the feet of great masters, of studying the themes they have developed, and then, at length, of developing in turn some theme in their manner, but music becomes the business of exploiting one's own moods and emotions . If theme there should chance to be, well and good, although probably a real theme would seem a somewhat suspicious factor to be well disguised. But no more the patient, diligent, laborious development of great ideas. So also in painting, sculpture, poetry, literature. It would not be fair to say that we do not find a genuine desire to expound life through the arts but rather that we discover a theory in the ultra modern aspects of them that by exploiting one's own insides we come at life. It was not so long ago, measured in years, that Mr. Dooley could cari- cature education in the following fashion. "Nowadays the prisidint of the institootion invites the studint into his private office and handin' him a turkish cigaret sez, 'And, now, me dear boy, what particular branch of larnin' would ye like to have studied fer ye be one of our compitint per- fessers. " But Mr. Dooley could scarcely caricature education in that direc- tion today. He would be more apt to write the president down as saying, "And now me dear boy, what particular branch of larnin' , if any, would ye like to study fer yeself today." If the principle of self-expression has done nothing more than reverse the caricatures upon education it has scored heavily. In manners the same influence is discernible. Sometimes one feels that the older generation is more deeply wounded by the younger at this point than elsewhere. Party calls, bread and butter letters, any sort of respect for host and hostess, or even for the property of the same, these little and larger niceties are memories of life on another planet. In religion, every man his own theologian and a new crop of fancy religions harvested yearly . As for dress ! Perhaps here one begins to suspect that self-expression is not the sole factor in the situation. For self-expression in matters of dress is discovered to be a remarkably standardized article. Did President Coolidge really suppose that his words to certain college boys, recently given wide publicity, advising them to wear suspenders in order to keep their trouser bottoms from dragging, would be heeded ? Certainly not. Certain selves, belonging to trousers makers or male fashion editors, have DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 417 not yet found expression in that direction. When the word comes to "Shorten Trousers," it will be obeyed as promptly as "Squads Right! " and the selves of innumerable youths will suddenly find expression, more adequate expression, in shorter trousers. The exploitation of sex and the sexual instinct has sought recognition and dignity under the head of necessary and proper self-expression. An English writer wisely asks, "Is it certain that this obsession of sexuality which marks the literature of our age is really the expression of a natural human instinct? Is it not due to the repression of wholesome instincts and emotions by the mechanization of modern industrial life? Every child is born into the world with the creative instinct of which the sexual im- pulse is one manifestation. This instinct seeks expression in a thousand ways-industry, art, music, invention, discovery, adventure, sport, conquest, achievement. In adolescence it comes into consciousness. In normal, nat- ural conditions it leads to courtship and marriage. This wholesome sexual love differs entirely from sexual lust. Lust is self-regarding; love is al- truistic. In sexual lust only one instinct is involved; in sexual love that instinct is qualified, disciplined, and ennobled by many other instincts- the paternal, the tender emotion, the spirit of self-sacrifice, and the re- sponsibility of a home.". This is an account of the normal activity of sex. "But," this writer continues, "the hideous developments of modern civiliza- tion alternately repress or stimulate by abnormal conditions. In England a million young men in the army, navy, shops, and offices are unable to marry when nature suggests it. They are often denied wholesome exercise and enjoyment. Other factors are commercialized vice, unwholesome food, drink, and habits of life, dull monotony of mechanical work, drab monotony of dreary streets and a degraded architecture, and extremes of poverty and wealth. And then when they have by a thousand inhibitions and repres- sions forced vigor into erotic channels, men say that we are dealing with a natural instinct." But what does all this mean in terms of the life of the privileged groups of young men and women who come to our schools and colleges ? Surely this is not a picture of their lives ? Certainly not, but on the stage, on the screen, in the novel, even in the classroom and library (for Freud spent his life in ministering to abnormal cases of perversion in one of the most degenerate of the capitals of Europe in an age of luxury) this twisted picture of sexual life confronts them and sex, which is, when normal, pow- erful enough, becomes imperious and is rationalized as self-expression . II. The revolt against external controls-When one turns to the other side of this world-wide movement for self-expression he finds the label, World-wide movement against external authority. These two belong to- gether. So long as external, institutional authority prevailed self-expres- sion was limited by the walls of institutionalism. The desire for self-ex- pression is not new but wider scope for such expression has come with the crumbling institutional walls. An observer has well said, "We of to- day are in a transition stage, passing from the level of arbitrary in 418 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION stitutional control to the free rational control of life. If the older control has been weakened, the new control has not yet organized itself. We are not under law, but under grace. The world is just finding that out, and many, in the first flush of freedom from the old restraints, act as those did in St. Paul's day who plunged the more deeply into sin that grace might abound." That "external authority no longer inspires awe and submis- sive obedience" does not need detailed substantiation or documentation. It is the commonplace of our daily thought and talk. Family, church, Bible, school, statute law, and constitutional amendment-every form of authority recognized in another day seems weakened. A Bible class of senior boys in a New England preparatory school brought this home to me the other day. We were discussing the Beatitudes. Do the Beatitudes correspond to your ideal of character ? I asked them. They were prompt and unanimous in their No! That the Beatitudes ap- pear in the Bible, that they are the words of Jesus, that they have the sanction of the Church, and in the case of these boys of their Homes ; that the discussion was on a Sunday morning, in the Principal's office, in the presence of the School Minister, none of these forms of authority, so potent in another day, seemed to be operative. Nor were these boys in a state of conscious rebellion against them. They were simply ignoring the existence of such institutions. And only as the Beatitudes were inter- preted in terms of their own experience, as laws operative in their own minds, and as applicable to their daily relationships, did they gain any au- thority over them. III . Mob-mindedness and the stratification of society on the basis of age-Of the minor aspects of this major situation-that is, the desire for self-expression and the revolt against authoritarian institutionalism-I mention two. The loosening of institutional sanctions before we have put into operation any other form of control has contributed to mob-mind- edness. Our own country is swept by crazes as never before. That we actually crave some form of group authority is shown by the avidity with which we accept social suggestion. The tidal movements of society seem to be increasingly potent. This may be largely due to accelerated inter- communication and to many other factors, but the breakdown of external forms of authority is, I believe, one factor. We seem to be but feebly suc- cessful in producing anything like adequate critical opinion. If one were to criticize the young people of today-so far we have sought to diagnose in general terms-it would be their failure or our failure to produce in- dependent critical opinion. The student mind seems no more capable of criticizing its own institutions and standards than does the public mind. Student life is accordingly regimented and standardized almost as com- pletely as business or professional life. European observers have recently commented upon this standardization. It is due to the operation of the same ambitions in student life as obtain in business or political circles. We hear this sort of judgment: The European student attends the university to develop himself; the American student to distinguish himself. The DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 419 fraternities and societies and class organizations practically compel con- formity to type. Athletics powerfully operate to the same end. Pas- sionate, unquestioning loyalty to the team, regular attendance at all games, is the unwritten law of the campus. The small college which has prided itself upon attention to the individual and his development is particularly subject to this form of mob-mindedness, for when there are but few stu- dents the unquestioning support of all college enterprises is even more im- portant and the pressure upon the individual to conform is correspondingly greater. The very lack of privacy which passes current as camaraderie, all doors wide open or to be opened with scant ceremony, is an item in this process of regimentation. All this is but to say that the forces which make for mob-mindedness do not stop outside the college gate. With the loosening of other sanctions comes the tightening of the undefined authority of the group, although I am not prepared to say what, if any, causal relationship exists between these two sets of facts. Another aspect of the situation is the increasing tendency toward the stratification of society on the basis of age. I suppose this too has an organic relationship to the other factors. At any rate, with mob-minded- ness and the relaxation of external controls youth increasingly flocks with youth. This is to me one of the melancholy features, if one is justified in thinking of any factor in the total situation as melancholy, of our present human situation. We were just beginning to lay this spectre of age, reck- oned in terms of years, and to judge people by their mental and spiritual vigor. What a false criterion of fitness age in years often is. One of the finest pieces of practical statesmanship I have ever known was the work of a man past ninety. He did what men half his years had not the insight nor the faith nor the energy to achieve. We had begun to believe that once one achieves maturity he has a better chance to live a full life as long-as his physical powers permit, than ever before in history. There are no chimney seats nowadays for grandsire or grandmother. In fact, these two had begun to seem like mythological figures so far as anybody now living is expected to fit into the traditional rôles. And then at this happy moment youth begins to insulate itself from maturity. Of course, it is nothing new for youth to insulate itself from maturity by its sophistication. That is to be expected. Mark Twain once said that when he was seventeen years old he could hardly stand it to be with his father because his father was so ignorant; when he was twenty he noticed that now and then his father said a sensible thing; and when he was twenty-five he was amazed to discover how much his father had im- proved in the last eight years. That attitude we expect. We smile, crookedly, and welcome those birds as they come home to roost. But the disconcerting factor is that our modern youth so rarely expose themselves to the ignorance of their parents. They have no chance to hear the sensible remark that mother makes now and then when they are twenty, and little opportunity to remark upon father's improvement when they reach twenty 420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION five. I have a friend who has purposefully purchased an exceedingly in- accessible spot for the erection of a summer home. In the summer time he removes his family, in toto, to that spot, by force, stratagem, or otherwise and there they live as a family for six weeks. They find it most satisfactory. But inaccessibility is increasingly rare. I have been trying to state in terms that command a fair degree of assent what the general situation is, under the captions: the desire for self-expres- sion, the revolt from authority, the tendency to mob-mindedness and the accompanying stratification of society on the basis of age. We now pro- ceed to calculate gains and losses. IV. Gains and losses-First of all the gains. Dean Hawkes, of Colum- bia, has put them well: "No one can be intimately familiar with the youth of today without realizing the fact that some of the finest fruits of the spirit are encouraged by this freedom from restraint and this attempt to express what is actually felt by the individual. And they are not the out- standing characteristics of our fathers. The virtues of frankness, freedom from hypocrisy and cant, independence, self-reliance, and ambition are de- veloped in a finer and more vital manner by our youth of today than ever before. Our younger generation is trying to work out its own life, to ex- press its own thoughts and ambitions as they actually exist in their own souls rather than under the guidance or suppression of dogmas imposed from outside." Dean Hawkes goes on to put the problem in a striking figure : We have learned in recent years that the atom contains a number of so-called electrons, which are darting to and fro with almost inconceivable speed and in quite unpredictable directions. The motion of these smallest of particles is called non-coördinated, because it seems to be entirely without relation to any motion of the mass of which they form a part and quite incapable of description in terms of laws or principles. These electrons, as they rush back and forth, are as ir- responsible to law and order as any member of the younger generation. Now when a gas-like steam is confined in a cylinder, the pressure of steam on the piston is due to the impact of these electrons, which bombard the walls of the cylinder with a perfect fusillade of firing. The higher the temperature of the gas the faster they work. But all in a perfectly haphazard manner so far as the individual particles are concerned. Each electron is expressing itself regardless of any other electron, rushing first in one direction, then in another. But what is the result ? Notwithstanding the haphazard way in which the bombardment in the interior of the cylinder seems to be taking place, this bombardment actually makes the piston rod move, and that in accordance with one of the simplest laws of physics. "The same God that coördinates the motion of electrons is Lord of the human spirit. All of the erratic and uncoördinated tendencies so prevalent today will certainly be synthesized, to the end that order and simplicity will result. This is a statement based on faith; a faith that can neither be demonstrated nor argued down." "There is, however, one great difference between motion in the atom and in our society. We are not electrons. We can help God to do his work of coördina- tion. Even if we couldn't He would do it just the same. But it would involve more human suffering and require more time. What can we do about it ? " DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 421 THE NEED FOR A NEW TYPE OF CONTROL I. Self-expression inadequate-Dean Hawkes has put in the figure of the electron, its likeness to and difference from the younger generation, the real nature of our problem, the modern statement of the problem of char- acter building. It is our privilege to assist in the discovery of a new type of control for society and the individual, a new principle of integration ; to do for this new time what powerful institutional controls have done in another day ; and to build up new institutions which shall embody this discovery. The principle of self-expression, narrowly conceived, is not adequate. For two reasons . First because the involved and highly complex character of modern society renders an exaggeration of the trial-and-error method far too costly. If the virtue of the younger generation is frankness, honesty, lack of hypocrisy, its vice is selfishness. Not of a petty, insignificant sort but selfishness elevated to the dignity of a philosophy and stated in the terms of the technical jargon of a half dozen sciences. One may have the faith which Dean Hawkes expresses that this process of trial-and-error, of knocking heads together like so many non-coördinated electrons, will eventually drive the piston rod of society and move us onward. But it is equally possible that chaos will be the immediate result. We cannot help having an intense interest in what happens in our time. We are concerned with our place in this new integration. I quite share the faith that eventually the eternal purposes will prevail. But what will our part be ? Will we share in this new and better life, or will we simply be plowed under? Self-expression, as a principle of life, tends to insulate the individual from the very experiences that develop a self worth expressing. The adequate self is not developed by saying, "Go to, now I will express myself. " Much of the crudeness which is manifested in the revolt against authority is the result of self-consciousness in self-expression. And self-consciousness inhibits the very growth of personality which expression seeks to stimulate. For example, no one is such a bore as the person who is ever seeking to give forth his ideas, his observations, his theories. The person who consciously seeks to express himself is insulating himself from the very social exper- iences which develop a self worth expressing. Youth in its revolt from all external authority often cuts itself off from personality-building ex- perience. The relation of parent, teacher, minister to youth is often tragically misinterpreted at this point. Youth seeking expression interprets maturity as attempting to prevent it and to narrow its life. Maturity sceking to enlarge the contacts of youth with the stuff of which selves are made interprets youth as narrow and dogmatic, the last charges which youth would bring against itself. II. Finding life through losing it-The way out of this impasse was put in classic form centuries ago, "Whosoever would save his life shall lose it and whosoever shall lose his life for my sake shall find it." Finding +22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION life by losing it for worthy ends this is the supreme need of our society today. Such a principle operative in life will build character, integrate society, and make for the kingdom of heaven upon earth. But to say this is only to state what Professor Hocking calls "the very true." Of course a sacrificial temper would do what needs doing. No- body denies that. It is axiomatic. If men would live by the golden rule our troubles would be over. We are so fond of the platitudinous. But how are we to create this new spirit and attitude? This is our problem. III . The failure of moral didacticism and repression-We have learned that our primary task is not moral didacticism. The intellect no longer rules. It may reign, like King George, but a parliament of passions is in actual control. A modern writer has cleverly compared man to one of those volcanic islands in the Pacific, a little surface soil, that is his reason, then down below hundreds of feet of mysterious formation, that is the rest of him. Dr. Kirk, of Baltimore, has used another figure to put some of the findings of psychoanalysis. Our minds are like a city. Certain streets are broad, well lighted, and well policed. Other streets are dirty, un- guarded, and inadequately illumined. In these disreputable sections are segregated-so we imagine-all the disreputable elements in the mind's pop- ulation. If one of these undesirables makes his way into the public avenues of the mind he is promptly sent back where he belongs (repressed) . But, we are beginning to learn that we are not necessarily through with him. He has the adolescent's trait of forming a gang (complex) . Sometimes the gang rushes the police and raises havoc in the very center of the city. And more subtle things may happen. It is very possible for the undesir- able to clothe himself in garments of light-indeed for his gang to so habilitate themselves then to saunter calmly by the entire police force, passing the time of day; to parade the principal streets as respectable citi- zens and indeed to become influential if not dominant in the life of the city. To drop the figure, we have become pretty thoroughly convinced that the way to build character is not by a direct assault upon the intellect alone nor by repressing what seems undesirable. This is not a new discovery though put in a new terminology. Wise men in all ages have known the feebleness of the intellect and the force of the desires. It was Anselm who prayed, "O Lord our God, grant us grace to desire thee with our whole heart; that so desiring we may seek and find thee; and so finding thee may love thee; and loving thee may hate those sins from which thou hast re- deemed us." We have been incited to seek for the moving factors in life. Whether these moving factors rise out of the racial history of the individual or out of the social situation we must seek to run them down. And having found what is elemental and basic we will seek to sublimate rather than repress it; to move life in constructive directions by the lift of the imagination ; to deal throughout with real rather than with artificial interpretations of per- sonality. Already this technique has got itself into our thinking about human problems even if we are blundering practicioners in its application. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 423 In the same connection, the endeavor to build character through the dis- covery and use of interests may be mentioned. People are as interesting as their interests. The other day the professor of laboratory psychology in a great western university was telling me of a discovery which he has recently made, in fact he was en route to a meeting of his peers to tell them of his find. By fastening tiny mirrors to the upper and lower lids of the human eye and then directing a beam of flickering light upon the eye he had discovered a slight upward movement of the eyeball with every down- ward movement of the lid, together with a curious elliptical movement of the lids themselves. And he had the photographic evidence and showed it to me. And he told me that no eye specialist, no physiologist on earth knew either of those facts about the eye. His own eyes were alight with interest, and my enthusiasm was kindled at the flame of his zeal. I asked him the significance of these discoveries and he did not know, but he had won his way to added bits of knowledge about that wonderful organ, the human eye. And one can well imagine the resources of character and personality which such an interest has evoked. What patience and in- dustry and zeal ! What a service to society! And all not in the name of duty or self-sacrifice but of an absorbing interest. We build character through the discovery and fostering of worthy interests. Another popular character building technique just now is the develop- ment and control of the individual through the deliberative group. We have been quite accustomed to organization as a device for shirking indi- vidual thinking or working. But in our national love of organization, there is an idealistic element, a conviction, usually not apparent to be sure, that we will be able to do in an organized formulated capacity what no one of us as individuals could possibly rise to. And there is that very possibility in group relationship. We are far from mastering the technique of the deliberative group, but it has large possibilities for character building. THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN CHARACTER BUILDING I. The failure of religion-One turns to religion not so much with the hope of discovering a new and more brilliant technique for character building as with the hope of interpenetrating techniques already known with apocalyptic fervor; of sustaining efforts already initiated with an adequate sanction; of energizing schemes for sublimation and for dis- covering worthy interests which shall appeal to the moving passions and for developing persons through the deliberative group of energizing such schemes with a mighty dynamic. But he is met on the threshold of hope with the fact of the failure of religion. I recently heard a brilliant young religious leader say that religion was not an important factor in the world today. I think I understand what he meant and in the main agree with him. He did not mean that all that passes as religion is to be set down as hypocrisy. On the contrary there is far less hypocrisy in religion then we are apt to think. The traditional deacon or Sunday-school superintendent or church pillar of fiction who is 42+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION all rectitude and respectability in certain relations of life but whose busi- ness dealings are far from decent, not to say Christian, is not necessarily a hypocrite. His religion functions but in very limited areas of his life. He is like the counterfeiter who left off his product the statement, En- graved and Printed in the United States Bureau of Engraving and Print- ing, and was detected because of the omission. When asked why he had omitted the phrase he replied, "Because it would not be true. These bills were not engraved and printed in the U. S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing." We smile, but who is not in the same general situation. We all of us are endeavoring to maintain certain standards inside social situa- tions which do not operate on that basis. Or put it another way. Take the religious experience of conversion. Aman calls upon the Universe, its Central and Ruling Powers, its God, to aid him in a right-about-face. And the Universe responds, however we may explain what happens, it does respond and he gets power to alter the course of his life. But where does this power operate ? It operates in the disturbed areas of his life, and only there. A religious experience does not automatically change a wife-beater into an internationalist. It makes him kind to his wife, and while there may be the basis laid for kindness to Germany, he may fail to see the connection between kindness in his own home and kindness to a far-off impersonal national entity. This, as I see it, is the explanation of the religious situation at present. At the close of the war there was a widespread, if vague and emotional, desire to see religion operate in wider areas of human life that is, inter- national areas . But there was no adequate basis of knowledge or interest in such problems. Moreover the forces which had been dominant during the war could not possibly be called Christian. It was inevitable that there should be disillusionment and reaction. This reaction meant, on the part of many deeply religious people, the turning to familiar applications of religion. It meant the same thing to many religious leaders who pro- ceeded to turn to fields of doctrine and controversy. G. K. Chesterton's oft quoted aphorism, "It is not that Christianity has been tried in the balances and found wanting, but that Christianity has been found difficult and never tried," is as inaccurate as aphorisms must alwaysbe. If Christianity has never been tried in the nearly two thousand years of its history what hope that it ever will be. Christianity, as Walter Rauschenbusch pointed out, has been tried and has proved workable but in the narrower and not the wider spheres of human relationships. Our task is to apply it to these wider spheres which, in our day, press in upon the individual with increasing weight. II. A religion that functions in the disturbed areas of life-But some- one objects, religion is failing today in these very areas of personal moral- ity. But in so far as there is failure is it not because there are not, any longer, areas of "personal" morality. If we mean sex, we have seen sex to involve such wide matters as housing, dietetics, architecture, amuse- ments, athletics, and indeed the whole economic question. The problem DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 425 of sex is not just a battle to keep one's self unspotted from the world, it has become a matter of cleaning up the world. We have not been successful in convicting people of social sin, that is to say in creating a sense in need in these wider relationships of life. Re- ligion will never operate there until the individual feels the responsibility of his own relationships to these wider spheres, and that with a definiteness and particularity which the old-time evangelist was able to produce. Who knows how to apply the power of religion to social problems. We tell youth that it ought to be informed on these problems. We devise forms of social service for summer vacations. But the religion of our young people will only begin to operate socially when they face the ques- tion of a personal vocation in terms of their idealisms. One remembers the comforting way in which young people have been assured by religious leaders that a devout Christian may "go into" any vocation. Christ's call is to the plow or the counter or the desk or the mine as well as to the pul- pit or the mission station. But the finest type of youth of today is not going to ask, May a Christian "go into" the ministry, law, medicine, en- gineering, education ? But he will ask, Do these vocations afford an op- portunity for the adequate expression of the Christian purpose ? Not, Is it compatible with the successful pursuit of a given profession to devote one's leisure to religious activity ? But is the absorbing and all-inclusive busi- ness of that vocation fundamentally Christian? Does it offer scope for the expression of the brotherhood in my heart in its daily grind of duties as well as in the lofty idealisms of its goals ? Every vocation gives a man a chance to pick up the wounded and robbed who have fallen by the way- side, but what about the main business which takes him from Jerusalem to Jericho? Is that main business an expression of his deepest purpose ? In. the whole field of vocational choices and vocational guidance religion may function socially and with power. III. Religion and personal values-But religion is and will remain per- sonal in quite another sense than the limiting one of which we have spoken. The Christian religion and Judaism have alike conserved personal values by finding them at the heart of the universe in a personal God. If it be objected that there are large difficulties in the conception of the personality of God in these days, one may answer in the words of a recent writer, "The choice today is not between a personal God and something lower but between a personal God and something higher." The supreme values of our common experience are conserved by true religion in the very heart of things. Religion with its reference to the unchanging and the eternal set in individual hearts and minds is ever an assurance of the importance of people. Perhaps, at bottom, our failures to help youth find itself and win its way to character are due to the fact that neither we nor they care deeply enough about people. I don't mean their souls. I have had people ex- press great solicitude for my soul who didn't care a penny about me as me. They had not known me long enough to care about me. They could only 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION care for some abstraction denominated a soul. If it is that soul which the psychologists have abolished they can have my vote if the subject is ever putto a referendum. But I mean the amazing almost incredible concern which Jesus of Nazareth manifested, with such calm realism. Here is a rich young ruler. Seehim rush up, "Good Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?" Just such a youth as anyone knows. All unexhausted if unorganized as to powers. Hot with ambition and energy, if self-centered. It brings a lift of emotion to anybody's heart to visualize him, clean, strong, yet troubled. "And Jesus looking upon him loved him." And so an em- brace? No! the surgeon's stroke! Here is a case of ingrowing religion. Finger too often on the pulse. "As a man who does not suffer from head- ache forgets his forehead and a man who does not suffer from toothache forgets his teeth so the righteous man thinks not of himself," runs the Japanese proverb. Negatively, you need to cut loose from the things which entangle you. "Go sell whatsoever thou hast and give to the poor." Or see Him deal with quite a different sort of character, Zacchaeus, the rich and presumably unscrupulous tax collector of Jericho. Not a sug- gestion of the surgeon's knife here. His attitude is all friendliness, all fellowship, all tact, and exquisite courtesy! Not a word about graft in Jericho, no reference to taxes or to what an elegant house Zacchaeus manages to maintain. For love that costs is a marvelous remedy and Zacchaeus knew what it was costing. The enmity of his neighbors was bitter enough to him, but that Jesus' should share it-this was a surgeon's knife indeed. And the very matters which Jesus had avoided came un- primed to the lips of Zacchaeus. "Behold, Lord, the half of my goods I will give to the poor; and if I have wrongfully exacted aught of any man, I will restore it fourfold." Nothing can ever supersede, in the building of character, personal deal- ings like that which are wise as the serpent and harmless as the dove. Organization and technique and theory can only at best afford ways and means for such opportunities. NEW DEVICES AND DESIRES IN COLLEGES FOR WOMEN ADA L. COMSTOCK, PRESIDENT, RADCLIFFE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS A year or two ago when President Meiklejohn set forth with great vividness the incompatibility of democracy and distinction, especially in the field of education, he defined as a conflict what seems to me to be rather a matter of direction of effort and development. Local conflicts and dis- turbances there are between the old and the new, the conservative and the radical; single champions there are like Mr. Meiklejohn himself, but the advances and retreats of any tendency in education as a whole seem to DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN +27 me more like those of a tide than of an army. For a time the great mass rolls slowly, irresistibly, in one direction; and then, less as a result of op- position than of the attraction of another force, it retreats and rises else- where. Such an ebb and flow seems to me to be common in all great human institutions in which the opposition is not so much between good and evil as between various forms of good. When the flood reaches its height, however, it is sometimes hard to be- lieve that it will ever subside, and that height, in the democratic tendency of education, we have just been seeing. For two or three decades, now, the effort at standardization has been to the fore. In the beginning, so far as colleges are concerned, it directed itself to the useful function of giving a well-defined significance to the bachelor's degree. Lists of first- rate colleges were compiled and changed overnight, as one institution after another managed to comply with stated requirements. As a necessary part of the standardizing process, standards of admission to college had to be made uniform; the amount and quality of work required for the degree had to be specified and made equivalent. The number and scholastic dis- tinction of faculties, the physical equipment of the college, the amount of endowment, the provision for the living arrangements and social life of students-all these things were discussed and analyzed, and standards were set to which a college must rise if its graduates were to be fully accredited members of the academic world. When I was a young girl, to transfer from one college to another meant, almost invariably, the loss of a year in academic rating. Today, such transfers take place with constantly in- creasing facility; and an effort is now being made to enable students to spend a year in foreign universities without losing step with their classes at home. The aim of all good deans and presidents has been to make sure that in no respect were their colleges failing to measure up to the standards set by their competitors ; and equivalency has in most cases been taken to mean uniformity. College courses have sometimes seemed to me to be tending to become like Ford cars in that the parts could be had any- where. This tendency to uniformity has been accelerated, in the last few years, by the vast number of students crowding into the colleges. The besieged institutions have had the realization that the rapidly increasing horde might become a mob, might, both through numbers and through heteroge- neity, lower the standards hitherto maintained ; and in this fear they have had to develop with great speed an improved organization and a more care- ful definition of standards. The common problem has led to much ex- change of ideas and devices at all educational meetings and conferences ; and the whole effect has been not only an increase in the feeling of brother- hood among the colleges, but a decided increase in what one may call the family resemblance. Standardization, so far as easily measurable standards go, in entrance requirements, in methods of grading, in schemes of study , in modifications of the elective system, and in requirements for the degree, has attained to an amazing completeness. As President Hopkins pointed 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION out not long ago, there are at present about 600,000 students in our colleges and universities today. So far as the printed menu goes, they are getting a table d'hôte dinner, varied but little the country over. Yet all the while the force that will cause this tide to ebb and another to rise has been slowly gaining strength. Where it began I do not know; but if I may cite an experience of my own, I shall be giving, I think, an example of a frequent occurrence. For many years I had been one of those who fought for the establishment of a better-defined college entrance requirement in English. The methods in use obviously admitted students who were deplorably ignorant of the simplest principles of composition. They could not spell, punctuate, compose sentences and paragraphs, or make a coherent plan. The fault seemed to me to be in the lack of drill in the schools, and the indefiniteness of the standard set for admission to college. Conditions improved gradually, the schools concentrated upon correctness in expression, and the day came when I faced a section of Freshman English, the members of which made fewer illiterate or careless mistakes than those of any section I had ever taught. The machine had worked; but it had worked, so far as that group was concerned, in an un- foreseen way. In all my teaching experience, I had never encountered so wooden and unresponsive a class. They were little Gradgrinds. The life had been drilled out of them, or rather, out of the subject and to resuscitate it was like trying to raise something from the dead-a process, I might say, vastly different from that of inducing a seed to sprout. The various dissatisfactions implicit in such a situation were bound in time to find expression in a new movement, the nature of which would depend upon the nature of the dissatisfactions themselves. They were not, in this instance, attributable to any one teacher or to any school or group of schools, for the class was widely representative. They were not at- tributable to the height of the standard set by the college. It is certainly not too much to ask that young women of seventeen or eighteen should be able to write correct and orderly English when they enter college. The trouble lay, and in most instances of the sort will be found to lie, in the dreadful literalness of the aim which has been set-the dreadful uniformity, therefore, of the result. It was, in part, the outcome of what Mr. George Vincent called in a recent address the convoy system of education, in which, as in a convoy, the pace set is that of the slowest member of the group ; and in part of concentration upon the effort to bring large bodies of student; all over the country to the uniform fulfillment of a common requirement. They had not ordinarily worked too hard. On the contrary, many of them had not worked hard enough. They had not been given too much to learn. Many of them had not been given enough. In a word, standardization had, in the day of its triumph, overshadowed education. And so, slowly at first, began the swing back to the consideration of the individual. In this paper I am going to run over briefly some of the com- paratively recent efforts which have as their object the study and develop- DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 429 ment of the individual. These efforts are not confined to the women's colleges by any means; but for the sake of definiteness I will speak of them only as they are going on in the women's college, and shall have in mind only eight of those colleges-Wellesley, Vassar, Smith, Mount Holyoke, Goucher, Barnard, Bryn Mawr, and Radcliffe. They are devices of which much has been said and written, though they are still young and in the experimental stage; but perhaps to survey them in one paper and as an exemplification of one tendency may revive discussion. The most direct answer to the teacher's plea for aid in getting back to proper consideration of the individual was-as befits an age of standardiza- tion-a standardized test, an intelligence or psychological test. How generally these tests are used in this country I do not know; it is said that ninety-five institutions gave these tests to thirty-seven thousand freshmen last fall. Of the eight women's colleges I have in mind, seven give them to new students, and in one of these instances the test is accepted as a substi- tute for entrance examinations. Everywhere, so far as I know, their re- sults are accepted somewhat tentatively, and, in general, such tentativeness is earnestly besought by the psychologists who devise them; but their use- fulness to boards of admission, to vocational and personnel bureaus, and to those who advise and discipline students seems to be beyond dispute. Sometimes the evidence they give confirms helpfully a judgment arrived at by other means. Sometimes, just as wholesomely, their findings introduce an element of doubt and bring about a more careful weighing of a student's case. Often they suggest definite and practical advice for a student who knows that in some way she is poorly adjusted to her college surroundings and duties, but who cannot identify her defect. Sometimes they assist deans in smoking out the extremely able who might otherwise drift through college undetected. To the vocational adviser or the adviser on choice of studies, they give, at any rate, a starting point for discussion of the student's tastes and aptitudes. Some one is quoted as having given the following reasons for applying these psychological tests to college students: ( 1) Se- lection of students for admission, ( 2) classification of students according to ability, ( 3 ) measuring the results of instruction, (4) determination of individual abilities and aptitudes, (5) coöperation with placement bureaus, (6) diagnosis of failures, and (7) scientific evidence of individual differ- ences. To these might well be added an eighth the establishment in the mind of the teacher or adviser or dean of the realization that the student in question is an individual requiring individual attention. There are a num ber of psychologies to be considered in the process of education of which the student's is only one ; and a device which influences so wholesomely the mental attitude of the teacher or adviser cannot be without its uses . Perhaps in this regard it is as well that these tests are known to be far from infallible. Theodore Roosevelt is said to have remarked in a moment 430 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of humility that he was the possessor of a mediocre mind highly energized. Examples less extreme may be found in any college where students rated in the lowest tenth by the psychological test are occasionally in the highest tenth in actual achievement. The realization that not only some of the finest but some of the most practically effective capabilities of the mind defy measurement causes the college officer to proceed with a wholesome wariness. Meanwhile the tests are given more and more generally; and the College Entrance Examination Board is likely soon to include one in its program of examination. Vocational advising, so far as women students are concerned, had its be- ginning also in a desire to provide for different aptitudes in individuals. In the first decade of this century, when the women in colleges and universities became quite suddenly not only much more numerous, but also much more diverse in type, the lack of variety in the occupations open to them became apparent. Law, medicine, and the ministry were open in a sense, but had such special handicaps for women that only those who had an unmistakable call went into them. Social service was still much more of a charity than a profession and rarely offered a means of earning a livelihood. Other occupations were uncharted and the ways into them unknown; and teaching was the almost inevitable resource of the college-bred woman who must earn her living. The disadvantages of this situation both for the teacher and the taught were obvious; and those of us who were deans and advisers of women students began to make local investigations of other occupations fitted for women. I remember well a week of the Christmas holidays in 1911-12 which I devoted to such an investigation in Minneapolis and St. Paul. The temperature that week never rose above zero ; but better than the tem- perature do I remember the complete though courteous discouragement with which I was met in many quarters. The department stores were partic- ularly impregnable to the suggestion that they might offer a field of useful- ness for college-bred women, not foreseeing that inside of ten or twelve years they would be eagerly looking for just such candidates. Three definite steps lay beyond such local and superficial studies as mine : (1) A study of the whole field of occupations open to women either ac- tually or potentially; (2) An analysis and tabulation of the ways into each of these occupations-the requirements for success in personal characteristics and in training ; and (3) The application to the individual case of the facts thus established. The effort to accomplish these ends has brought about in the last ten or twelve years a kind of welter of attempts both inside and outside of the colleges. Books have been written, bureaus have been established, com- mittees have been formed. Certain occupations, such as work in banks, for instance, have had a temporary vogue. The war, with its substitution of women for men in certain positions, opened new doors, many of which closed again when the specific occasion ceased to exist. It is curious to note how DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 431 little change in the outward appearance of the world has, after all, taken place. Teaching, nursing, and house work are still chiefly done by women. The business of the world and the professions thereof are still almost ex- clusively in the hands of men. Wall Street is thronged with men and Fifth Avenue with women. Nevertheless, a great change is noticeable in the attitude of mind of the girl in school and college. She no longer thinks of an occupation as something to be considered only by those who are forced to work by financial necessity. She no longer regards teaching as being the only field of work open to one without special talents. This may seem an inconsiderable result for so much effort, yet I sometimes think that it may work in time tremendous changes in the constitution of our society. Meantime, though bureaus of occupation outside the colleges have come and gone, within the colleges they have constantly gained ground. Perhaps a word or two may be said about the line of their development. The Appointment Bureau obviously looks in two directions. It is con- cerned with the world outside the college and with the opportunities it affords for graduates. From this point of view it needs to keep in touch with business, the professions, and the industries. It needs to inform itself constantly of the training which they require and of the gateways by which they are most accessible to women. As a practical matter, the placements which have been made must be followed up and connections kept with firms and institutions which offer advantageous openings for women. The Di- rector of the Bureau feels that she needs a corps of field agents. The in- formation so accumulated should be presented in some easily assimilated form to students in college, usually in lectures, with opportunities for the questioning of the lecturer afterwards. The Director conducts a lecture bureau or an institute. For many of the occupations it is important that the undergraduate should secure a foundation in college by electing the right. subjects, perhaps to the extent of choosing her major in a given field. At this point true vocational advising comes in with all that it implies in the way of knowledge of the student, her health, her social background, her tastes, her aptitudes, her character; and it is precisely at this point that the Appointment Bureau merges with the personnel research bureau, fully organized only at Vassar but hinted at in the development taking place in the other colleges. Somewhere in the college, we are told, all that is known about a student should be brought together. The bureau at Vassar states that it keeps on file the following material : ( 1 ) Group measurements of general intelligence, (2) Individual measurements of problem cases, (3 ) Estimates on various social, emotional, and intellectual traits, (4) Ques- tionnaires giving self-analyses, (5) An emotional stability questionnaire, (6) Abridged report of medical examination, (7) Academic achievement record, and ( 8) Entrance record and academic record, quantiler and rank orders . Of the eight colleges listed, all but one have occupation or appointment bureaus. In all some vocational advising is done either by the bureau or 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION through a committee associated with the bureau, or through the dean's office. In some the connection with the occupational field is maintained by the systematic bringing in of an expert from outside. In general, I am inclined to think that the tendency is toward resigning to an outside organization such as the Bureau of Vocational Information the keeping in touch with occupations in general ; and toward making vocational advising within the college a part of an effort to help the individual to attain her fullest de- velopment. Dr. Peters, of Goucher, concludes an address on A College Vocational Guidance Program with these words: "But it can no longer be in doubt that vocational guidance in the college is not only a window through which the college student looks out into the world, but is one of the coöperating agencies for the attainment of education." I have already spoken of the ill effects of what Mr. Vincent called the convoy system of education. Observers, both foreign and domestic, of our collegiate education have frequently objected to our comparative neglect of the ablest of our students. What the final effect of such neglect is on the standing of scholarship, on the teaching profession, and on the tone of our society is a matter for discussion and conjectures. Within the colleges it is certainly true that too few of those whose capacities were obviously first class have found in scholarship an outlet for their energies and ambitions. There are few colleges, of course, in which high attainment has not been recognized in one way or another-by election to Phi Beta Kappa, or by the conferring of the degree cum laude. Such honors have been based on av- erage grades in regular courses ; and, according to our present view of in- dividual differences, they have been far too easily attainable to be tempting to the really gifted. Professor David C. Rogers, of Smith, in discussing psychological tests, says that the ablest student tested may easily answer questions with twice the speed and at the same time make only one tenth as many mistakes as the poorest student. Quite evidently, the difference be- tween the grade A and the grade D in a course is an inadequate symbol of the difference in the abilities of two such students . The problem has been to find some way of giving the able student an incentive to exert his energies to the utmost; and in our American colleges generally efforts have been made to solve it. The commonest solution has been to work out a plan by which students of ability in junior and senior years, or in the senior year, should work individually under the supervision of a teacher or a department or in an independent line of study. Most often this work has been added to the regular course, and has not been the occasion of releasing the student from any of the regular obligations of his class. Sometimes it is possible for such a student to count such work for a fraction of his program; and in general, it seems to be the tendency to allow such substitution. Some colleges have gone further, however, and have instituted a plan by which a student may spend at least the latter half of his college course in independent work. Of the colleges on our list, two-Barnard and Smith-have such honor courses under full way. The DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 433 students enrolled in them (and such students are only those of conspicuous ability ) are exempt from the regular class attendance, from term examina- tions, and from the usual system of grading. At the end of the senior year, they are examined comprehensively in their subjects as a whole. In theory we have here the ideal conditions for the development of the young scholar -the proved ability of the student; the subject of her choice; the direction of the expert; and the substitution of the ideal of mastery for the more easily attainable and less worthy prizes, such as grades. Though these plans are more or less based on English practice, they are new in this country, and there has not yet been time to test their results. The students and the teachers who are working them out are for the most part enthusiastic. Certainly in these initial stages they offer a complete release for students of proved competence from the lock step. But what of the student who, academically, is not of proved competence, but who may, none the less, have powers which greater latitude and more individual direction might develop ? The general examination and the tu- torial plan now going into effect in Harvard and Radcliffe are designed to answer this question. In the words of President Lowell : We have thought that what is good for them (the especially able students ) is good also for others of less pronounced scholarly tastes. No sharp line can be drawn among students on this basis, particularly in American colleges where scholarly ambition by no means coincides with personal capacity ; where many men come, or are sent, rather for diversion than for education ; where the connection of strenuous intellectual power with success in after life is far from being recog- nized; and yet where we are striving to cultivate and stimulate natural capacity for use in all future careers . We have thought that, rather than segregate a small group of high scholars for specially favored treatment, it would be better to extend the benefit of it to the whole body of students, giving to each a chance to profit thereby as much as he can and will, showing them all what self-directed effort can mean to them, and winning to real intellectual interest many who would not otherwise care for it. Therefore, instead of creating a special course for honor men, we began twelve years ago to introduce a tutorial system and general examination for all undergraduates concentrating in one of the largest divisions of the faculty-that of history, government, and economics and have gradually enlarged the plan as the departments have desired its adoption. That it has not only given a more thorough training to the mass of undergraduates, but also helped to stimulate an interest in scholarship in a large number of men, there can be no doubt. Of the eight colleges on our list, two, as has been said, have full honor courses ; one has a general examination and the tutorial plan, and all but two have a scheme of work which upper classmen of distinction may carry as an addition to their regular work or as a partial or complete substitute for it. The individual is the subject of attention. Originally, I suppose, all our educational devices were the vigorous ex- pression of life and thought. In time, as their mechanism became more perfect, they hardened into forms. It is unnecessary to point out that each of the three devices I have discussed is subiect to the same danger. No 43+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION one of them is anything but a tool . No one of them can ever afford a substi- tute for the intelligence and solicitude which the teacher must bestow upon the student if anything worthy of the name of teaching is to go on. But new tools, new instruments, sometimes bring new zeal and new hope; and these I have mentioned have, to my knowledge, brought a much-needed stimulus into some of our colleges. With all these devices I am in sympathy. Indeed, I have had something to do with the adoption of each in the institutions where I have worked. Nevertheless, in education I must confess myself something of a mystic. Barrett Wendell says in his letters: "To be what he (the student) may be, and what we would make him, he needs not what we have to give him but the magic word that will speak to him. And when this is once spoken. somehow he flashes into a sane completeness of being that has often seemed unattainable." That is not the whole truth about education, I believe, but it has in it a truth which should not be forgotten. PRESSING NEEDS IN THE FIELD OF THE DEAN OF GIRLS SARAH M. STURTEVANT , TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY There is probably no dean of girls who is not very much aware of needs critically related to the degree of success in her work. Those needs range all the way from the lack of necessary working equipment of office space, secretarial assistance, assigned time for her duties and social rooms, to the active coöperation of principal and faculty. At every turn more or less severe limitations hinder the fruition of her labor, and tax her ingenuity and strength to make good those deficiencies. With few fortunate excep- tions deans of girls face their tasks with serious handicaps of various kinds. The approach to the topic at this time is, however, not that of the indi- vidual dean taking stock of the assets and liabilities of a particular situation, but rather to the pressing needs in the field as a whole as they might come to the attention of one thinking of the development of the profession as such. Every day brings many letters from deans and would-be deans, prin- cipals and presidents; it brings conferences with those who wish to employ deans or with those who are observing with interest the beginnings of the development of the profession of the dean of women and girls. Out of these many letters and conferences has come the conviction that there are at least four crucial needs that are worthy of the attention of every dean and might well serve as conscious objectives of their combined effort. The dean of girls needs and desperately needs to know what her task is. To you who are here it may seem unnecessary to stress this point. You are leaders in the development of this new office. In the annual meetings DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 435 there has been repeated effort to define it, but the fact remains that it is a common comment of non-school people and administrators that deans do not know their own mission. This comment indicates rather a dissatisfac- tion with service rendered than any clear conception of what the dean should do. Often the adviser of girls has found herself plunged suddenly into a per- fect sea of details. Committee meetings, program making, adjustments with faculty, social events, personal affairs of girls, scholarship standards, excuses to leave school, truancy, talks with mothers, sick girls to be taken care of, exhibits to be seen, cases of bad behavior, guests to be entertained, all contend for her time and attention. It is hard to get one's head above water, hard to get the points of the compass so as to direct one's course by any north star of steady purpose, but out of all these details which are never twice alike in any two schools or on any two days, there must come the realization that the task of the dean is not just keeping things going as they are, not just keeping things from "blowing up." She must be a builder of a new social order, positive, dynamic forward-looking in her policy. The office has arisen out of these times to meet a new time and she who holds it needs must be a seer whose knowledge and experience finds correlation in prophecy. The dean of girls is then first of all looking to the future, and especially to the part that women are to play in that future. She should be a student of the large problem of the happy integration of girls and women into a new society on new bases. There is need of such study, and that by women themselves. "Who among us," asks Professor Coe in his sympathetic analysis of the youth of today, "can say what is good taste in this woman's new world ?" How many of the "taboos" affecting women are rooted in by-gone conditions and are completely outworn ? Is it true, as the Pro- fessor says, who delightfully writes of "The Young Person" in the current Atlantic Monthly that "history and reason alike concede that untouch- ability is no more a moral requisite in young women of today than invisi- bility" ? What should her education be ? What can the high school do to help the girl who spends four years within its walls to a successful ad- justment to a status for which "we are unprepared either by habit or fore- sighted thought," to quote Professor Coe again. So far girls have been doing what has been planned for them by men who have up to this time for the most part administered our educational system. Now the pertinent question is being asked by both men and women as to whether a man's education is bringing the girl to her best womanhood. Should her health education, her preparation for her place in the modern home, her courses of study be the same as those outlined for boys and men? These contro- versial questions are heard in hot debate in Congressional Halls, but they assume a certain reality in the high school where come girls whose knowl- edge of American standards of home and family, of manners and morals have been chiefly derived from the moving pictures; where children whether rich or poor are handicapped by homes which have given them no picture 436 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of fine motherhood or fatherhood, has set for them no standards of love and unselfish service grown in an atmosphere of loyalty to the nobler things of life. These questions hold a direct relation to the future of civilization . The attempt to settle them for a particular school will take the dean into the detail of the organization and direction of the social program intended to give teaching and practice in the art of living together. Mary in spite of enthusiastic subject specialists may be unresponsive, playing truant, steal- ing. Her personal need may call for a case study that will seek to find the secret of her behavior, but Mary's case will never be solved as a single problem. It has infinite correlation with other problems. It calls for study of the whole field of the education of women and looks to a better social order through a better womanhood. The many details of the dean's work must of themselves assume meaning in the light of significant purpose. The difference between details with or without a unifying objective is an old one. From one point of view they are a dreary round of inescapable duties, from the other a luminous way to a new world; on the one hand the grind of a day laborer, on the other the creation of an artist. The dean of girls, as I see it, must join the ranks of the prophets, "who walked as seeing the invisible." It is the secret of faith which adds to vision, valor, and is the means by which man has through the ages dragged his reluctant self by slow degrees up from the depths. There are sociologists who decry idealism, and would fix our attention on things as they are without much hope of building further. But a more workable philosophy seems to be that prophesied by Professor Lindeman who says that "In relation to every- thing that is, the new philosophy will be realistic and in relation to all that may be, it will be idealistic." Translated into a dean's everyday ex- perience that means that while she faces fairly and squarely the fact of Mary's unsocial behavior, her ignorance, her selfishness, her unfavorable home conditions, she refuses to believe that there is yet no hope of her re- generation, but builds toward the woman who might be. I cannot conceive of a dean who, recognizing as she must the present situation, is not think- ing of a new social order made of better and better boys and girls, finer and finer men and women, motivated by ever higher purposes, and capable of The high second adventure and noble pressing need inendeavor. the field of the dean of girls is, as I see it, the discovery of persons who have particular qualifications necessary to suc- cess in the work of the social education of young people. There is increas- ing demand for advisers of girls. This association has gone on record as favoring such an administrative officer in every high school. If, however, the person elected to this office is to be useful she must be fitted to such service. Speaking of her own school, a teacher said recently, "We need a dean of girls very much, but the wrong one would do more harm than good." So it is. A task so large calls for fine leadership. It is not easy to inspire people with purposes that call for life loyalties. Such women as Ella Flagg Young who have been able to do so remain especially revered as forerunners of the type of women whom we need as deans of girls in our DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 437 high schools. The other day Chancellor Clark, of the American Univer- sity at Washington, said he needed great men to lead in research. He pointed to the fact that every such man meant an endowment of a hundred thousand dollars. In this field of endeavor it is not only money that is at stake but, if as a profession we mean anything at all, enriched personality, human happiness, better social relationships. We need great women to help in this task of character building, leaders with capacity for growth. What then are the qualities of leadership ? First, I should say, comes the quality of intelligence. Leaders among women must be capable of keen insight, able to "Look into the seeds of time and say which grain will grow and which will not," as they analyze the tendencies and influences that will determine the future status of women. They will need coura- geous, original, balanced mind, able to think ahead and to think straight ; able to know the difference in the moral significance of stealing and a hair- bob; able to meet the students in their thinking at the point of conflict. If the first quality of leadership is intelligence the second is no less im- portant. He who would marshal men or women to the great enterprise of noble living, must himself be capable of purposes so large as to embrace the whole of life, and be so tenacious of those purposes as to have them dominate action. We need women who to intelligent vision add volitional power. It means the ability to see life whole and then to follow the gleam at all costs. It means courage in the midst of discouragement. It means faith in the midst of failure. To these two qualities of intellectual power and volitional control must be added also a wholesome and altruistic emotional life. With mind and steady purpose must be humility, sympathetic imagination, and good-will that seeks to create fellowship. In order to meet the demand for the right people in these positions of leadership, we as deans may well seek out young people of promise and urge them to prepare for such service. None know better than you that the work of a dean of girls is exacting, fascinating, limitless, full of con- structive opportunity. It calls for the best womanhood that America can produce. It calls for women great in their own being, able to say like teachers of old, "Come, follow me, and I will make you." As we think of our great leaders, Alice Freeman Palmer, Mary Lyon, Lincoln, combining in themselves qualities of mind, purpose, and out- going good will all correlated in experience, and interpreting all in terms of a new society, you and I are asking, "Who indeed is sufficient for these things ?" and if we have to admit with Moses that "We are slow of speech," or of "unclean lips" like the Prophet Isaiah, it will not be the first time in the history of the world that people called to service have used what they have to forward the redemption of the world, until a better leadership has evolved. A third thing, which as I see it hampers the best development of the field of the dean of girls is a need of a more intelligent understanding of the problems of social guidance on the part of superintendents, principals, +38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and people in general. By tradition and custom, men are in administrative positions. They haven't yet always seen the significance of the change in the position of women, not only for women, but for the world of men and women. For the most part they haven't yet seen that it may be equally as bad for women to have their education entirely dictated by men as for men to have their's entirely planned by women. They have not yet seen that if there are selfish, irresponsible, incorrigible, and delinquent boys and girls "there are processes producing these young people, all around us," as Jane Addams and Dr. Van Waters have reminded us; that those social processes must be met by other social processes as real as they and as potent. Definitely what are the ways and means of making a better social order ? Shall we provide more courses in mathematics, or in English-more maps, more plate glass windows ? Will these meet the need of practice in being responsible ? Or satisfy the cry for adventure that characterizes boys and girls? Are the elaborate buildings that too often serve as a memorial to a local architect and evidence his complete lack of knowledge of the needs of the school, sufficient to insure the boy against moral degeneracy? If a boy read Latin glibly, is it an assurance that he is above lying? The answer is obvious, and yet we go at trying to improve schools in that way, and will go on with that more material evidence of a progressive spirit, until com- munities and administrators fairly answer the question, "How important is it to provide teaching in right social practices ?" When the issue of char- acter building as the chief aim of the secondary school is justly met, there will be money for the things that are the most important. Youth, whether they know it or not, and many times they do know it, need some intelligent and sympathetic guidance in social relationships. Again, if administrators understood better what the task is there would be more intelligent appointments. My observation leads me to think that there are many appointed with a lack of understanding. Or if there is a fine woman appointed, she is often expected to function without help or equipment. Every year there come up to summer school to be taught those who have been appointed to be deans, but their teaching schedule has not been lightened, their duties defined, nor an office granted them. Such things would not be if administrators understood better what the social needs of boys and girls are. As long as they think that the adviser is chiefly in- terested in dancing, cigarettes, and rouge, concerned with the periphery of life rather than with the great problems of right living with people as its solution affects world relationships, we may expect inadequate provision for this important phase of teaching . This means that deans must deliberately go about teaching people what they are trying to do. A regent of a great university called the attention of a group to the fact that a whole generation is now lost between the ideas in universities and the ideas of the rank and file of men. Even so is it in the field of the education of women and the building of character. If we be- lieve in our mission, we as deans will have to bridge the gap by the educa DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 439 tion of our administrators and communities by word perhaps, but chiefly by fruitful justification in our work in the output of nobler womanhood. The fourth pressing need in the education of girls as central to a better social situation, is the need of more scientific knowledge of social facts on the part of deans themselves. Intelligent purpose demands knowledge. "A man's judgment is no better than his information." In his New Dec- alogue of Science, Mr. Wiggam puts the matter in a startling way, "Men have never been truly righteous because they did not know how. They could not obey God's will because they had no way of finding out what it was. The spirit of the old Commandment to love thy neighbor as thyself was right, but how could a man love his neighbor intelligently when he did not know what was good for him ?" In other words, he who would build anew must build on a solid foundation of facts as far as they are avail- able. "The Good Samaritan on the road to Jericho, and the Good Samar- itan on Broadway live in two different worlds." If friendly policy is to be valid and constructive, it must be cognizant of those differences. As a pro- fession we need to put our practice on more solid bases than it is. In this regard we must follow the example of other professions, which found their beginning in the intuitive interest and ability of gifted souls but which have developed scientific material by progressive study and investigation. There is time to mention only a few phases of social interest in which at present there is material of great significance to the adviser of girls . First, the studies in psychology that have to do with the emotional life are bringing to light significant material in regard to motivation. The single truth that all activity is an effort to meet life and to get its satisfac- tions is in itself so illuminating as to completely change one's attitude toward non-social behavior in the individual and the prescription for its cure. Psychology is today offering material that is germane to our task and the case studies being made by psychiatric clinics testify to the tragic mistakes of teachers and advisers who are ignorant of the simplest facts of psychology. Second, the currents in modern life are very complex. It is not easy to get at facts, much less to interpret them. We all suffer from too narrow a view of things as they are, but since we are today bound together by in- visible ties to all the world, we as deans cannot hope to solve a local ques- tion without reference to the master currents of thought any more than ahome can bring up a daughter apart from a community. The result will be either a runaway child or a hopeless prig. The facts brought out by Dr. Marian Van Waters in the little volume Youth in Conflict, as the result of her experience in a Juvenile Court in Los Angeles, are important to us. In what way home conditions, school conditions, community conditions, industrial conditions afflict our youth of all classes, we must know. What facts can help us to a better understanding of what a woman's status will be ? Are we not as deans trying to interpret behavior in terms of an old order ? What facts could help in the decision on the question 440 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of vocational training for women and girls? What facts can help to a better understanding of the meaning of that stated objective of secondary education, worthy home membership? Several books recently fromthe press are prophesying that, as physics and chemistry have been the instruments of material progress, biology will inthe next centennial assume the center of the stage, and must of necessity do so, if we are to preserve what we have achieved of civilization. The facts of biology are, with those of psychology and sociology, bound up with our efficiency as a profession. They will affect the organization of schools, the curricula, the findings of case studies and are necessary materials if wehope to contribute anything to the discovery of laws underlying the art of living together. There is also the whole realm of method in the everyday teaching in the extra curricular activities which concerns us all, and may well be a field of research for each one. The effect of inter-scholastic games on the health of girls is still being debated. How does the college citizenship of girls from high schools having deans compare with that of girls whose schools have had no special provision for teaching in social living? Are there not techniques of procedure which if known would eliminate mistakes involving life tragedies? Permanent success in our work depends in part at least on our knowing facts of social significance and being able to interpret them. To the busy deans struggling with each day's work, it may seem almost impossible to take time to read or to do research, but she who does not is like the physi- cian who allows his rounds of practice to prevent his keeping abreast of progress in his field. I see these four outstanding needs, which are bound to affect the de- velopment of our profession; first, the need of understanding the true significance of the task; second, the need for better and better women in the field; third, a clearer understanding on the part of administrator and people at large of the real meaning of the work of an adviser of girls ; fourth, a more scientific knowledge on the part of deans, of facts that con- cern social relationships. To the meeting of these needs, this department might well turn its active attention. STUDENT GOVERNMENT THYRSA W. AMOS, DEAN OF WOMEN , UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH, PITTS- BURGH, PENNSYLVANIA Should deans of women foster creeds ? Yes, if they are not formal nor meaningless . Every dean has, consciously or unconsciously, a creed to symbolize her finest conceptions of the ideals of her own work, and nowhere does it need more conscious expression than in the theory and practice of DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 441 student government. Have these separate creeds on student government any common elements ? As a venture of our corporate faith, how many of us can unite in saying : I believe that a college is a democratic community with three classes of citizens administration, faculty, and students-whose interests are mutual and inseparable. I believe that the name of a government should embody the democratic ideal . I believe that the government machinery of a democratic community should be set in motion by the combined effort of all classes to insure the richest community living. I believe that students should know the art of government as well as the other arts and sciences, and that they should learn this art by actual practice in it. I believe that the faculty and students should know the value of mutual coun- selling together in the practice of government, as well as in formal studies. What type of government would such a creed establish ? Would it recognize as an entity a student body, independent in its governmental functions and relationships to faculty or administration ? Or would it foster government by faculty and administration ? It would do neither. This creed holds that a college is a democratic community and that it should be governed as such-a community the inhabitants of which differ from one another only in experience and responsibility. If these then are the funda- mentals in college government as set forth in our common faith, to what extent do the student government associations approach this ideal ? To ascertain this let us look at their constitutions. If constitutions do not reveal something of the ideals to be attained and give some notion of how these ideals should be realized through the machinery of government, what are they for ? Are they not the embodiment of the ancient saying, "As a man desires, so he thinks; as he thinks, so he acts; and as he acts, so he at- tains" ? With this assumption let us see what a study of some fifty con- stitutions reveals, these constitutions being so selected as to give representa- tion to various types of institutions all over the country. The most important thing in the creed just recited is the statement that the college is a democratic community. Do these fifty student government associations recognize this in their membership provisions ? Thirty-seven of them grant membership only to undergraduates, most of whom are ipso facto members by registration. Some state that students become members only upon payment of dues ; others, that membership is limited to those who live in dormitories or in student houses. Ten of these constitutions extend membership to faculty women; one includes the alumnæ; four have honorary members which include the president, the dean of women, and the members of the faculty. Four specifically say that the faculty, alumiæ, and graduate students may be associate members. Only one of these fifty constitutions studied makes everyone connected with the institution mem- bers of the association. But this does not tell the whole truth of the relationships. Twenty-three of the thirty-seven associations having only students as members do not +42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mention in their constitutions that they make use of faculty advisers in any capacity. Fourteen specifically mention advisers as a rule the dean of women. Of the ten organizations having faculty or alumnæ members, only seven actually state the place the faculty have in the government machinery. So much may be said for the personnel of the student government asso- ciations studied. Another phrase of the creed states that the name of a government is significant and that it should embody the democratic ideal. Of these fifty organizations nineteen use Women's Self-Government Association; seven , Woman's League; six, Student Association; five, College Student Govern- ment Association ; five, Associated Women Students; four, Student Gov- ernment Association ; and four employ the following names : College Community, Council of Administration, Women's Association, and Gov- ernment Association. It is unwise to quibble over a name, but isn't the one most commonly used a bit self-assertive ? Of what import to an individual or to a society is a statement of au- thority to act? When an individual is delegated to perform a service, he is given credentials which not only empower him to act, but also entitle him to credit and influence. Such authority dignifies the individual and gives him self-confidence. In the assumption of power by a group, does it not need, even more than an individual, a statement of its source of au- thority? If such procedure is of acknowledged worth in the work-a-day world, should it be followed any less in the colleges? And yet of these fifty student government constitutions, only fifteen state how they are authorized. Their authority comes either in the form of an agreement be- tween the administration and students, in which each is to perform a certain function, or more frequently, as a grant of power to the students of certain rights for their own government. In the thirty-five constitu- tions which make no mention of source of power, this omission may be due to thoughtlessness in drawing up the constitution. In any case is not the omission a weakness since it reveals possibly a loss of opportunity to express group relationships within an institution? While less than a third of the constitutions state formally the source of their authority, all but one state their purposes. It is interesting to see how these purposes are expressed, how the ideals of the government are definitely set forth. Of these fifty associations one fifth simply express their purpose to be that of self-government or of an agency to enact and en- force laws for the conduct of students. In other words, they suggest un- pleasantly an ideal to control the rebellious and the erring. Four fifths of the constitutions have purposes that indicate larger con- ceptions of government. A few wish to give community training; some aim to coördinate student activities; eight specifically say, to coöperate with the faculty; a very large number wish to encourage high standards of scholarship and social life; more than one fifth speak specifically of de- veloping unity and a sense of responsibility among the students; occasion- ally-two or three times loyalty to the institution, welfare of the institu DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN ++3 tion or the development of a spirit of honor is mentioned. These indicate a desire to reach the great mass of the community which never needs policing. Much praise should be given to those student government asso- ciations which have sensed a broader and truer conception of government . But purpose or aim is not the whole measure of a government. Many noble purposes of government have been formulated, but have failed be- cause the machinery set up was inadequate for their realization. Since machinery is so essential, let us see what sort has been devised by student government associations. A majority of the fifty studied have the usual executive, legislative, and judicial departments. A large minority do not provide for all three of these. All provide the executive; some provide the executive and legislative with no judiciary; some provide the executive and judiciary, but do not mention the legislative power. In several in- stances the legislative power is restricted to action taken in annual meet- ings of the entire student body. Most organizations, however, have a rep resentative legislature . The disappointment is in the conception of the judiciary. Since so many of these constitutions seem to look upon government only as a punitive force, it is not surprising to find that many judiciaries appear to be police courts, though called by the more pleasant title of Honor Courts. Ap- parently these courts deal with only one offense-cheating. One cannot refrain from asking at this point why a premium is thus set upon cheating, why it is so much worse than any other sin that it has to have a special court. Honor courts may make the cheat conform, but at what a price ? The honor of the institution, student body, and faculty. Are institutions making a point of admitting liars and cheats ? Is every teacher weak in personality and unable to command respect either for himself or his sub- jects? Are honor courts or the so-called honor systems honorable when every student has to pledge not to cheat nor require watching, and at the same time to watch everyone else and to be willing to be watched ? How absurd for government associations to foster self-government on the one hand and on the other permit such a paradox as the honor system. The very combining of the words "system" and "honor" is incongruous. Honor is a principle and it never can be a system. What a degradation of honor, what an exaltation of dishonor to permit the man or woman of the lowest ideals to set the standards of the institution and protect him by placing every student in his class! Does the so-called honor system give a true picture of what the judiciary ought to be? Does not such a narrow view of a judiciary effect the general attitude of students themselves toward student government ? But now let us note other devices provided in the constitutions to secure the qualities set forth in the purpose-unity, coöperation, higher standards of scholarship, etc. All use the same committees or bureaus. A tabula- tion of student committees discloses twenty-seven different names. There is no doubt that there are many committees functioning for the general welfare of the student body that are not named as standing committees 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and given a place in the by-laws. Of those named, however, the most common are : Social, point scale, vocational information, and fire. The following are named two or three times: Library, dramatic, music, curric- ulum, scholarship, calendar, off-campus, city, community chest, student loan, intercollegiate, banquet, and safety. The highest number of commit- tees indicated by any one institution is seven; the average number is two or three. Many of the committees named are the usual committees found in any organization; others indicate a duplication of work belonging to specific organization. Why, for instance, is there a dramatic committee if there are dramatic societies ? Point scale, vocational, community, chest, and similar committees do seem to belong to an all-inclusive organization. Now, since such a definite program for an all-inclusive organization is pos- sible, just how moral is it to have authority to make every girl an ipso facto member or to build up a large membership by payment of dues and then offer so limited a scope of work ? Some constitutions sense their obligation here and attempt to meet it through the units and assembly systems . The unit system is a device em- ployed in large institutions, each unit being composed of twenty-five to thirty girls . Each organized house constitutes a unit, and students not living in houses are grouped geographically. So far, so good. The thing that these constitutions do not indicate is how they accomplish the purpose for which they are organized and how a system that is inherently so com- plex can be operated. While two or three are venturing to experiment with units, some fifty per cent of the institutions make use of assemblies to reach the mass. For the most part the student government assemblies occur two or three times a year, especially in large institutions. But no matter how inspiring each assembly may be, the conclusion is forced upon us that they cannot make every girl feel that she is a component part of the organization or a factor in its control. Indeed, so far as the constitu- tions show, the only place, aside from the assemblies and units, where the individual girl can take part in the government is in elections. In ten institutions she has an opportunity for voting twice since in these institu- tions candidates are chosen by the direct primaries. So much for what is set down in the formal constitutions. Let us in- quire a little into student and faculty opinion on the practices of student government associations. Possibly the working of the associations is far more perfect and satisfactory than constitutions or by-laws indicate and more in keeping with the spirit of our creed. In the first place, all agree that the practice of government needs great improvement. Briefly, the faculty says that the student government associations are ineffective be- cause of immaturity, pressure of time, hasty judgments, overconfidence and an aversion to guidance, but most of all because of an irresponsibility due to ignorance of the real services of government. But faculties may be meticulous. How do students feel ? Student leaders frankly say that their own government organizations are problems to them. They point out that all too frequently the executives of the associations receive the DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 445 benefits, and the vast majority of students get few, if any. They deprecate the lack of civic pride. They regret programs of work that duplicate those of other organizations and feel keenly the jealousies that grow out of them. The mass of students insist that student government is a kind ofPaul-Pry organization that enjoys meddling; and as a consequence they do not wish to be connected with it. Much sincere effort has been made by students to meet these criticisms. The most notable and valuable attempt has been the organization of the Intercollegiate Student Government Conferences, the definite purpose of which is to promote more effective student government associations. These conferences give the students valuable experience; but here, too, after the first enthusiasm of attending the conference has passed, students feel that there is a definite lack. They are often keenly disappointed because they realize that they bring back few really constructive ideas a result, per- haps of the limited preparation made by students who appear on the pro- gram. Too frequently there is no wider view of their subjects presented than the perspective given by practices in their own institutions. The dis- cussions which follow are haphazard and lead to the introduction of ex- traneous ideas and a recital of incidents which should never be revealed. Thus incidents are substituted for the principles which should be discussed. Critical and brilliant students declare they miss the inspiration that comes from a convention that gives a forward look and that lays great emphasis upon broad and vital issues. If it takes the wisest counsel to safeguard these very tendencies among the most mature, how much more is counsel needed among youth ? And now if students have made a united effort and have achieved some progress, is it not timely to inquire what has been the united effort of Deans ofWomen to improve student government? Is tacitly agreeing to the fore- going creed sufficient, or does it now need embodiment ? Yes, imperatively, if the embodiment faces these facts which from our study seem to be con- tributing factors in the dissatisfaction with student government : first, faculty and students are not working together adequately to advance stu- dent government ; second, youth is ignorant of the value of counsel, and the faculty is criminally negligent when it permits such ignorance to pre- vail; third, neither faculty nor students have a definite enough concept of the ideal toward which they may work and from which they may proceed . With these facts in mind, where then shall we look for an ideal ? In fancy let us journey to Utopia and to that lovely, shadowy city of Amau- rote, to visit the perfect college. There we find students working side by side in all the activities of the college with the faculty and administration. That no age is independent of guidance or counsel is emphasized not only in the theory of the academic instruction, but in the actual practices of social activities. Again and again it is shown that without counsel purposes are disappointed, and that where no counsel is, the people fall. This spirit is nowhere expressed more definitely than in the Amaurote College Government Association. Shall we read a little of its constitution ? 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Authorized by the administrative officials of this institution, we, the faculty and students of Amaurote College, realizing that coöperation and fellowship one with another promote the noblest social spirit, do provide this constitution. ARTICLE I. Name. The name of this organization shall be the Government As sociation of Amaurote College. ART. II. Purpose. The purpose of this organization shall be to prove our belief that men exist each for the other ; to show how participation by all classes in a common project promotes the general welfare ; to train students in the fundamental theories and practices of government by giving them the responsibility for the performances of government and by entrusting to the faculty advisory duties ; to inspire devotion to the social ideals and scholastic standards already established in Amaurote College and to create a desire to enrich them. ART. III. Membership. There shall be two classes of members-active and associate . The active members shall be all students registered at Amaurote Col- lege and all members of the faculty and administration. The associate members shall be alumnae. Associate members shall have a voice and representation, but no vote in the proceedings of the Association. But one cannot read the entire constitution. Let us summarize its out- standing features. It provides for three departments of government. The executive department in Amaurote College is made up of the elected officers, all of whom are students . The legislature is composed of representatives chosen by the students from the student body. In addition there are two alumnae and two rep- resentatives from the faculty. The legislature sits in regular session once a month to receive reports from the executive on the general welfare, to see what laws it may abolish, and to receive requests from the students for new experiments in government. The judiciary of Amaurote College is called the Interpreters' Council and is composed of junior, senior, and faculty representatives. This council is organized with a presiding officer and clerk; when it must function as an ordinary court, it follows in its procedure adaptations of the forms used in the Utopian courts. The Interpreter's Council sits regularly once a month and in special sessions called by the presiding officer. When trying a case the Council appears in cap and gown. But it seldom sits as a prose- cuting court. Amaurote College Government Association holds that a suspected offender is innocent until he is proved guilty of wilful offense. Such assumption calls for a friendly study of each case, and the Inter- preters' Council is charged to make such studies with the purpose of ascer- taining the spirit in which the alleged offense was committed. If there was no intention to show disregard for the ideals of the college, the offender of his own accord usually requests an opportunity to prove the new under- standing which the Council has made clear. Here then is no case for trial. If, however, the student is a wilful offender, he is given a formal trial, but only after all legal papers are served and a jury impanelled. Another duty of the Interpreters' Council is to study the advisability of the enactment of laws to carry out proposed new ventures of government. The Amaurote Interpreters' council calls for the finest minds, and so invaluable is the training that students consider it the highest privilege and honor to sit in this council. Its influence in moulding public opinion is remarkable. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 447 The constitution also provides, through numerous committees, a broad program of work. No committee is designated as a standing committee whose scope of work is not general in its appeal. All these committees are composed chiefly of students and all have faculty representation. Here are some of the noteworthy committees with a brief statement of their duties: Community chest-Conducts the one and only campaign for funds from students to meet their voluntary contributions to student projects. Student loan-Educates the college public in the values and needs of lending money to students; administers its quota from the Community Chest. Traditions-Helps every student to become familiar with the history, insignia and traditions of his college and stimulates a desire to enrich these. Occupational study-Creates an interest in vocations and assists in di- recting periodic vocational conferences. Scholarship-Fosters scholarship by comparative studies of group ac- complishment, establishes rewards and stimulates a desire for knowledge. Scholastic honors-Compiles data to show the student interest in in- structors, in courses, and in new methods, and the student desire for changes in curriculum. Publications-Oversees regular student publications and bulletins. Publicity-Features the work of each committee by special devices and keeps the work constantly before the whole association; keeps in touch with other government associations in the island. Social- Fosters social spirit among students; studies the social needs of varying types, and actually provides for these. Public welfare-Provides room where students may use free of charge ordinary conveniences; such as, typewriters, ink fountains, pencil sharpen- ers, etc. Rest rooms-Supervises rest rooms in various buildings and senses stu- dent opinion for needed improvement, reporting same to administration. Point scale-Safeguards by a system of points the over-ambitious student and inspires every student to participate in some student activities. Inter-activity relations-Conducts two conferences annually-one, for a discussion of purposes and programs and advancement of work of each individual student activity; the other, for a discussion of advance needed in all work among students. Has as its supreme object the prevention of overlapping of work. House government- Controls government of dormitories and student houses; provides rules only in houses where they are needed. Notice that in this program there is no infringement upon the program of work of dramatic, athletic, musical, departmental, religious, debating and fraternity organizations. Indeed at Amaurote the government asso- ciation takes pride in fostering the widest number of activities, and the only question it ever raises concerning any activity is whether or not that activity is realizing its purpose. While most of the committees function 448 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION throughout the year, some confine their activities to different months which are given over to their especial programs. For instance, the Com- munity Chest Committee puts on its campaign in October ; the Occupa- tional Study Committee holds its vocational conference in March. Naturally such a program of work calls for a good deal of money, but the Amaurote Association has sufficient funds for this. It receives annually from the administration appropriations for its budget. With this hurried glance at Amaurote College let us leave the shadowy city and return each to her own institution. Is it possible to approach the Utopian organization ? Is there any hope of realizing some such Utopian embodiment of the creed ? There is every hope if deans of women and faculty face squarely the fact that student participation in government must remain because it is right, and that there can be no return to the old order of faculty autocracy. There is every hope if each dean of women has some such conscious objective for an improved government and is master of its technique. There is every hope if each Dean of Women in the finest social spirit assumes the leadership that is hers. She above everyone else should lead both faculty and students in democratic ideals . There is every hope, for the student of today as never before is afire for ac- complishment and is hungry for leadership. Students are natural born hero worshippers, and will follow a real leader anywhere. And a real leader, whether a Dean of Women or a member of the faculty, must show in word and deed that she honors, that she enjoys, and that she feels thoroughly at home in student projects and student activities. If she honors them, how shall she show it? Do all deans of women have weekly conferences with their student government presidents ? Do all have conferences at stated times with the individual committees of the government ? Do all make a special study of student government and have ready suggestions for improvement ? Some deans conduct annually officers' training schools in which officials of organizations are taught parliamentary procedure and form. Others have an Officers' Night Ban- quet or conference in which the student officials themselves set forth their ideals for accomplishment in the coming year. There are many such ways to show the student the value of coöperation. If closer relationships are established between the students and faculties of each college will not this naturally open the way for a richer contact with their intercollegiate projects and lead students to seek for counsel in the planning of them ? And isn't it time that the Department of Deans of Women shows that it honors the efforts of the students in their inter- collegiate government movements ? Would it not be a good thing to work for a meeting of the Intercollegiate Government Associations at the same time and place as the Deans' Conference with a joint meeting or two? Such joint conferences have been held with success in the western states. Could not the two groups work together to enlist a few colleges of every type to experiment with certain aspects of government and report results to each association ? Could they not also publish annually a digest DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 449 of findings and opinions on student government that would be far richer than those now published independently ? These are but suggestions of that to which joint relationships might aspire. Naturally leadership of deans cannot be forced in the intercollegiate group any more than in the local associations. It must come through the power of persuasive personality and through the irresistible influence of genuine interest and devotion. And now may we add a final article to the creed? I believe that Deans of Women, more than other members of the faculty or administration, should have such a sympathetic knowledge of the needs and aspira- tions of students that they shall be the eagerly sought leaders in the establishment of democratic ideals . Department of Elementary School Principals SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-JESSIE M. FINK ..... Grand Rapids, Michigan Secretary-IDE G. SARGEANT ... ... Paterson , New Jersey Treasurer-COURTLAND V. DAVIS. .....Norfolk, Virginia Historical Note-The Department of Elementary School Principals, temporarily organized as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in February, 1921, became a department of the National Education Association at Des Moines, in July, 1921. This department meets twice each year-in February and in June. CINCINNATI MEETING There were three programs, Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday afternoons, besides numerous committee meetings. The Monday afternoon meeting centered around two general topics: First: Specific accomplishments of principals who are relieved of clerical details. Case studies were given by E. Ruth Pyrtle, of Lincoln, Nebraska, and by Gertrude Carrigan, of Chicago. The clerkship in the elementary school is coming, but there are many large cities where it has not arrived as yet. Second: The principal and the special supervisor. Fred C. Ayer, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Doctor Ayers devotes one half of his time to the university and the other half to investigations in the Seattle public schools. He bases his conclusions on studies and conferences with principals and supervisors. The principal is the one who is responsible for his school, and hence all special supervision should be done under his general directions. It is one of the principal's duties to know how to use supervisors to advantage. There is much that should be said about the Tuesday afternoon program, but space will not allow more than a statement of the program. The Relation of the Salary Schedule to the Educational Program-Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado, and President of the National Education Association. How the Single Salary Schedule Worked Out in Ann Arbor, Michigan- Leslie A. Butler, Superintendent of Schools . The Effect of a Daily Schedule on the Distribution of an Elementary School Principal's Activities-Menlo S. Kuehny, Principal, Rowan Avenue School, Los Angeles, California . The program Wednesday afternoon was a fitting climax to the three programs. The known ability of the speaker on this occasion was such as would attract the attention of educators in all lines of work, and it seems to me that their subjects could not have been better selected. By 2:15 o'clock, Music Hall, where all the large meetings were held, was well filled. At the close of the program it was conceded that many things that were worth while had been said. The general subject was: The Elementary School Principalship and Its Sources of Inspiration. Supervision: A Science and an Art-Alfred Hall-Quest, Teachers College, New York City. It is both and should be so accepted and practiced by the principal . [450] DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 451 The Principal and the Course of Study-James F. Hosic, Teachers College, New York City. The making of a course of study is a great piece of coöperative work and it can- not be done by just a few people sitting around the table. It must be administered by the principal. Supervisory Problems in Silent-Reading-C. R. Stone, San Diego, California. Mr. Stone is first a teacher, and, second, an author of silent reading books. He is dynamic and practical. The audience listened with interest to his every word . This seems to be a much-discussed question but one that is understood by very few. We need a "Moses to lead us out of the wilderness." Mr. Stone knows the tech- nique of teaching silent-reading and gave several practical examples. However, these great programs planned by our president are but one of the paramount features of the Cincinnati meeting. The enthusiasm, the fellowship , and the friendship that come from meeting and conferences with your fellow- workers from Maine to California, from the Lakes to the Gulf, are influences and inspirations that cannot be estimated. It is one great brotherhood. No statement of the meeting would be acceptable to any one that attended it that did not include some tribute to the Cincinnati Elementary School Principals under the leadership of their President, Mr. Porter, principal of the Washington School. His com- mittees were on hand in goodly numbers to meet us. They had spent much time preparing for our coming and had anticipated our every want. RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED AT CINCINNATI, FEBRUARY 25, 1925 1. The Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association, believing that the social, educational, and industrial demands of this country require a further elevation in the importance of the status of education, do hereby resolve to reaffirm its most hearty support of the National Education Bill, and that we pledge ourseves to place before our teachers and our school patrons an intelligent analysis of this bill, thereby enlisting their active support. 2. Be it further Resolved, That we, as educational leaders, believing that the rights of childhood should be protected for future citizenship in our great Democracy, do hereby pledge our active support of all local and National legis- lative enactments which will advance the welfare of future generations. MARY MCSKIMMON , ARTHUR S. GIST, W. T. LONGSHORE, Committee. SECRETARY'S MINUTES INDIANAPOLIS MEETING Monday morning, June 29, 1925, the official breakfast of the Department was held in the Claypool Hotel, President Fink in charge. Policies and the general situation of the Department were discussed. Tuesday morning at the Claypool Hotel the Committee on Training for the Elementary School Principalship held a breakfast and valuable work was done ; W. T. Longshore presiding. Tuesday afternoon, in the assembly room of Claypool Hotel, the following pro- gram was given: WHERE TO BRING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LIBRARY DEVELOPMENT- C. C. Certain. A JOB ANALYSIS OF THE PRINCIPALSHIP AS A BASIS FOR PREPARATtion of ElemENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS-J . Cayce Morrison. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ORGANIZATIONS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS- L. S. Chase. 452 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PUPIL ADMINISTRATION AS A CHARACTER DEVELOPER-Harry O. Gillett. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS-J. D. Williams. Wednesday evening, in the Riley Room of Claypool Hotel, the annual dinner was given. A large number was present. The annual dinner is always a banner event at the convention meetings. Nell V. Green, of Indianapolis, was in charge of arrangements. Thursday morning, at Claypool Hotel, the presidents of principals' clubs held a breakfast. Special work being done in various cities was reported by the rep- resentatives, followed by live discussions. George A. Beers presided. Thursday afternoon, July 2, in the assembly room of Claypool Hotel, the pro- fessional numbers were as follows : PRESENTING THE SCHOOL TO THE PUBLIC IN CHICAGO-George A. Beers. MODERN EDUCATIONAL DYNAMICS VERSUS PETRIFIED STATICS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALSHIP George W. Frasier. CHARACTER EDUCATION AND THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL-Mary McSkimmon. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS-Clifford Woody. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IN TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS- W. T. Longshore, chairman. Report received, committee thanked and continued. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SALARIES FOR PRINCIPALS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS -Ide G. Sargeant, chairman. Report received, committee thanked and continued. BUSINESS MEETING Report of Treasurer, Courtland V. Davis . FINANCIAL STATEMENT June 1, 1924-May 31, 1925 Balance June 1, 1924 ... $907.61 2745 members at $2.00 each . $5,490.00 Yearbooks sold 900.16 Appropriation, N. E. A., 1923-24 . 2,500.00 Appropriation, N. E. A., 1924-25 . 2,000.00 Income for the year .. 10,890.16 Total income and balance . $11,797.77 EXPENDITURES Printing-Third Yearbook ... $2,779.06 Printing-Fourth Yearbook .. 2,044.81 299.61 Printing-Bulletin, April 1924 . Printing-Bulletin, October, 1924 . 359.50 314.25 Printing-Bulletin, January, 1925 .. 429.10 Printing-Bulletin, April, 1925 . Printing-"Tocsin" and remittance blanks . 160.50 Extra Clerical service 1,403.13 790.34 Postage and stationery ... Travel-Washington Convention : Jessie M. Fink . 165.44 W. T. Longshore ..... 252.50 Arthur S. Gist ...... 306.50 Travel-Cincinnati Convention : Jessie M. Fink ...... 264.50 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 453 Arthur S. Gist .. 415.76 Ide G. Sargeant . 105.22 Other items 790.45 Total expense . $10,880.67 Balance May 31, 1925 . 917.10 $11,797.77 Anna Laura Force, chairman of the nominating committee, presented the report and moved its adoption : President, Ide G. Sargeant, Paterson, N. J. First Vice-President, Helen V. Shove, Minneapolis, Minn. Second Vice-President, J. S. Nants, St. Louis, Mo. Third Vice-President, J. D. Williams, Birmingham, Ala . Secretary, E. Ruth Pyrtle, Lincoln, Nebr. Treasurer, Courtland V. Davis, Norfolk, Va. Member of the Executive Committee, Jessie M. Fink, Grand Rapids, Mich. A motion was made that the Secretary cast the ballot for the nominees as read . Carried. A motion was made that a vote of thanks be given our retiring President for her able and efficient services . Carried. Similar motions were made thanking Mr. Sargeant, editor of the Bulletin, and Mr. Gist, editor of the Yearbook, for their valuable services . Retiring President Fink thanked the officers and members who had done so much to make her administration a success . The meeting then adjourned to assemble for the mid-winter meeting in Wash- ington the last week of February, 1926. AN ANALYSIS OF THE PRINCIPALSHIP AS A BASIS FOR THE PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS J. CAYCE MORRISON, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS , OHIO An examination of the catalogs of the leading universities of the United States for the years 1912-15 failed to disclose a single course offered spe- cifically for the benefit of elementary school principals ; and only 5 schools offered courses in the administration and supervision of elementary schools. An examination of the latest available catalogs for 30 of the leading uni- versities for the years 1922-25 discloses that 14 of these schools offered one or more courses designed especially for school principals and that 11 of these 14 schools offered courses devoted particularly to the problems of elementary school principals and supervisors . A number of schools offer a varied range of courses covering the ele- mentary field. These courses fall into three general groups so far as the interest of elementary school principals is concerned: first, those courses that deal directly with the work of management, organization, administra- tion, and supervision; second, those courses which deal more particularly +5+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with the improvement of instruction; third, those courses in the content or subject-matter of the elementary field. As an example of the develop- ment that is taking place, Teachers College, Columbia University catalog for 1924-25 offered: four major courses that deal strictly with the work of administering the elementary school building; twenty-one courses that deal with the theory and supervision of elementary schools; and nineteen courses devoted to a critical study of the subject-matter of the elementary school. A study of catalog offerings of other colleges of education sug- gests that they are making a real effort to meet the needs and the wants of workers in the elementary school field. That our colleges have suc- ceeded in developing the most useful courses for the preparation of school principals is not so apparent from a study of college catalogs. In read- ing them one is invariably confronted with the question as to whether or not the subject-matter offered in such courses squares in any sense with the problems that the principal must meet in bis daily work. This paper proposes to report some of the essential facts obtained through an investigation that was undertaken more than a year ago in order that we might secure information that would enable us to adapt our courses more specifically to the needs of the elementary school principals of the State who are coming to Ohio State University to secure further prepara- tion for their work. The investigation aimed to get as thorough a picture as possible of the present status of the school principal in Ohio. The study was limited to the principalships in cities and exempted villages that is, to municipalties with three thousand or more population. Returns were received from 383 or 46 per cent of the 837 elementary school principals of these municipalities. These represented 63 of the 93 cities and nearly half of the exempted villages. The inquiries attempted to secure data concern- ing the type of school administered, the educational preparation of the principal, his experience, personal data, clerical asisstance, office facilities and equipment, distribution of his time, his supervisory duties, and his ad- ministrative relationship to the superintendent. It was realized, of course, that the questionnaire method had its serious limitations, that the prob- lems on which data were secured, are in no sense inclusive of all the re- sponsibilities that rest upon the school principal, and that present status may lose sight of needed improvement. On the other hand, when one examined the records of nearly 50 per cent of the principals of the State one could not avoid the conclusion that the present status represents the cumulative evidence and experience of Ohio cities during a hundred years, and that certain tendencies which have de- veloped during the past decade most assuredly point the way to the future. Further, the limitations of the questionnaire method were safeguarded by checking against other studies that have been made of certain phases of the main problem within the State. In addition, we would characterize what we have done as merely the initial step in securing data that will en- able us to give instruction to present and prospective principals in terms DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 455 of the problems with which they are confronted in administering ele- mentary schools . Our first problem was to determine what an elementary school is. Of the first 490 replies received, 181 principals administered grades one to six or some combination thereof; 32 grades one to seven; 159, grades one to eight; 12, grades one to nine; 5, grades one to twelve, and 11 others, some miscellaneous grouping involving supervision of ele- mentary grades below the seventh. In Ohio there are more principalships involving grades one to seven or one to eight than there are of grades one to six or less. Obviously, the swing toward the junior high school organi- zation may change this situation within the next decade, but at the present time a course designed to meet the needs of an elementary school principal must consider both types of school-that is, grades one to six and one to eight. Furthermore, as will be pointed out a little later, there is evidence to believe that the elementary school principal ought to be cognizant of the problems of the junior high school or even of the full twelve grades, for it is evident that in the larger cities the junior high school will often be combined with the elementary school, and in the smaller cities the twelve grades in one building willnot be altogether uncommon. Our study showed that elementary school principals supervised from two teachers and 25 pupils to 52 teachers and 1649 pupils. The median schools have 12 teachers and 415 pupils. The middle 50 per cent range from seven teachers and 270 pupils to 19 teachers and 643 pupils. The in- structor who would offer an effective course to elementary school principals must understand the different problems and difficulties involved in a school of five teachers and 150 pupils, as compared with a school of 20 teachers and 700 pupils. In this one question alone is involved much of the prob- lem confronting this department in its effort to professionalize the posi- tion of the elementary school principal. It may be that one of the biggest problems to be met by elementary school principals is to give impetus to a nation-wide movement looking toward the consolidation of elementary schools to such an extent that the unit will be large enough to challenge the best effort of the men and women who would make elementary school administration a life work. We were interested to know whether or not the type of elementary school had anything to do with the chances of women in securing the prin- cipalship. We have not yet completed the investigation as to the effect of the size of city or size of building upon the selection of women as prin- cipals. We did find, however, that 58 per cent of all the principals in schools with grades one to six were women, whereas, only 49 per cent of the schools with grades one to eight had women principals. This dif- ference suggested a tendency that will likely become more significant within the next few years. The clerical assistance that is provided for school principals, the office space and the office equipment furnished them all are indices of the re- gard in which an elementary school principal is held by the board, the 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION superintendent, and the public. They indicate problems of which the pros- pective principal should be cognizant and they furnish a challenge to the men and women already in the work. Of 383 elementary school principals reporting only 35, or less than 10 per cent, reported that they had clerical help, only 24 of these had a full- time clerical worker. Eleven depended upon part-time clerical help, which averaged a little less than three hours a day. Thirty-four of the 383 con- sidered their help adequate, 114 considered it inadequate, and 235 ex- pressed no opinion. It scarcely seems credible that the cities of one of our largest States should consider it worthwhile to permit more than 90 per cent of its ele- mentary school principals to perform all the clerical work devolving upon that office. Yet, such is the case. It seems even more incredible that 60 per cent of the elementary school principals should have no opinion whatsoever concerning their need for clerical help. It raises the question as to whether or not the rank and file of elementary school principals at the present time would know what to do with clerical help if it were pro- vided them. Obviously, this question is a most important one for the con- sideration of those people who are offering courses to elementary school principals and it is surely a problem to be aggressively met by this De- partment. The principals who had clerical help listed those duties performed by their clerical assistants. The duties most frequently mentioned were : Preparation of reports, distribution of supplies, correspondence and typing of form letters, answering the telephone, filing, mimeographing, and keep- ing records. It would be possible to make an exhaustive study through the coöperation of the more efficient principals of this organization that would determine the financial value to the school system of competent clerical assistance in the office of the elementary school principal. Such a study should show definitely the amount of clerical help needed for dif- ferent types of schools and could be carried to the point where no principal could ever be justly accused of not profitably employing the assistance as- signed to him. Of the 383 principals 302 had an office, but with 248 it consisted of one room only and only 53 of the total number had an office where they might hold private interviews. It may be seriously questioned whether any principal can be an effective leader of his own school or a respected leader of his community if he has no office where he may hold, with some degree of privacy, interviews with his pupils, teachers, and patrons; but it is evi- dent that the young principals in the State of Ohio must learn how to do this thing with the limitation of one room or no room, and it is just as evident that the older principals must set about to convince their superior officials of the need for an office suite that will permit privacy of interview. The office equipment provided suggests something of the efficiency of the school principal. More than one third of the principals reporting had no bookcases, no city telephone communication, nor no duplicating machine DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 457 in their office. More than two thirds had no typewriter. Less than one fifth had filing cases. Less than 5 per cent had equipment needed for carrying on effectively and profitably research investigations in their own school system. A principal without a bookcase in his office very likely does not have a professional library of his own. A principal without a type- writer or a filing case can be little more than a head teacher. These facts are merely suggestive of an innumerable group of problems which must be solved before we can say with any assurance that the elementary school principal is a thoroughly trained, professional workman. During the past decade, current literature has sparkled with enthusiastic outbursts concerning the amount of time that principals should give to class- room supervision. More recently, considerable stress has been placed upon the need for making the elementary school principal a community leader. All assertions as to how the principal should expend his time, need to be tempered by the actual conditions confronting the men and women who are doing the work. Elementary school principals of Ohio report that their median member expends an even eight hours a day at school, exclu sive of his lunch period, five days a week. In addition to this time, he averages nine hours a week or an average of one and one half hours a day, six days a week, to professional study and school tasks. Further, he gives approximately four hours a week to community affairs closely related to his work as school principal. Personally, I think it will be a good thing for the public to know that the elementary school principal spends ten hours a day, five days a week, plus a half day on Saturday at the job for which the community pays him a salary. This same median elementary school principal devotes more than one half of his time to classroom teaching. He divides one third of his time that is, his eight-hour working day about evenly between his administra- tive and organizing duties on the one hand and classroom supervision on the other. About one eighth of his entire day or one hour each day is devoted to clerical work. If he could arrange his eight-hour day as he would like to arrange it, he would cut his teaching time to one fifth of the entire day and his clerical load to approximately one half hour per day. He would increase slightly the amount of time that he gives to administrative and organizing duties and would double the amount of time that he now gives to classroom supervision. Whether this is the best division of his time that could be made, we do not know, but it is apparent that the elementary school prin- cipal of Ohio has some ideas concerning the redistribution of his time that are worth considering. Principals were asked to list the administrative duties that required most of their time. On the basis of the frequency mentioned, discipline came first, and the next five in order were : playground supervision, con- ferences with teachers, conferences with parents, supervision of attendance, and preparation of reports. One good principal listed corporal punish- ment, which suggests that perhaps after all the barbaric age of school ad 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ministration has not entirely disappeared. Neither can one help wonder- ing what is wrong with the elementary school when discipline is the most time-consuming administrative duty confronting the elementary school principal. Our study of principals' supervisory duties in reality was directed only toward the administrative aspects of supervision. The average elementary school principal, judging from data received, makes only three or four class- room visits a week. In this respect it should be noted, however, that in those schools of cities above 100,000 population the average number of visits per week is 13.5, whereas in the exempted villages, towns 3000 to 5000 in population, the average is 2.8. These extremes suggest that in the smaller cities principals are either giving their time to teaching and clerical duties or have not yet learned the value of supervisory work. The median principal expends approximately fifteen minutes per visit in class- room supervision. Less than half of the classroom visits are followed by personal interview with the teacher concerned. Only 24 per cent file any written record of their visits and only a little more than 20 per cent feel that their ratings are used in determining the promotion or tenure of teach- ers. It should be noted that the items just discussed serve as a check on the principals' statements concerning the distribution of their time. In other words, the median elementary school principal who feels that he spends nearly one fifth of his time in classroom supervision actually visits on the average less than four classes a week and expends approximately fifteen minutes in each visit. Only one fourth of the principals keep any written record of their supervisory observations and only about one fifth make these records available to teachers, supervisors, or the superintendent . Apparently, at the present time in Ohio the principal is not giving as much time as he thinks he is giving to classroom supervision. He is not taking the trouble to make his judgment of his teachers' work known to the teachers, and his superintendent does not consider his judgment of the teachers' work worthy of consideration in forming his own evaluation of the teachers' usefulness in the school system. There are, of course, notable exceptions, but if these conclusions as stated above are true, and I believe they are approximately so, there is a tremendous gain needed before we can look upon the elementary school principalship as a truly professional position. In other supervisory responsibility, the work of the principal is more satisfactory. Fifty-two per cent of the elementary school principals re- porting felt that they had a general responsibility for the supervision of the work of special supervisors that is, supervisors of music, drawing, physical education, etc. Forty-six per cent of those reporting had a gen- ilite eral grade supervisor coming to their building. Only 4 per cent of those reporting suggested that there was any conflict of effort between the grade Respons supervisor and their own office. If the report be true, the situation in this respect is most encouraging. If the elementary school principalship is to be a position of thoroughly DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 459 professional leadership, then it is necessary that the principal himself be capable of and be permitted to carry certain administrative responsibility. In order to find what the present tendencies are in this respect we under- took to find out something of the principal's share of responsibility for five important administrative functions : ( 1 ) Selection and assignment of teachers to schools; (2) Supervision of janitorial service ; (3) Mak- ing the daily program; (4) The formulation of rules and regulations gov- erning routine matters ; and (5) Selection of textbooks and instructional supplies. The relationships most commonly found in the exercise of each of these five functions follow. In the selection and assignment of teachers, the superintendent advises with the principal as to the most of the assign- ments to his building. However, 105 principals claimed that they had no voice whatever in the assignment of teachers to their building, and 99 stated that they were sometimes privileged to nominate teachers for their own building. In the supervision of janitorial service in the principal's building, the most common relation was that the principal advised and requested, but had no authority to direct, the janitorial service. However, 156 stated that they had full supervision of the janitorial service as compared with seven who felt that they had no authority whatsoever. In making the daily program, 36 of the 383 principals believed they had power to determine the time to be devoted to each subject in the curriculum; 132 determined the arrangement of classes on the daily sche- dule, and 171 had full control of the assignment of pupils to class groups. In the formulation of rules and regulations, the most common relation- ship, in fact the one held almost universally was that the principal may make any rule or regulation that does not conflict with rules adopted by the superintendent and the board. The majority of principals in the selection of textbooks and instructional supplies have been instructed to order only such supplies or books as have been adopted for the system at large, although 171 felt that within certain limitations they might order books and supplies not adopted for the system as a whole, and 113 had some voice in determining what adoption should be made for the entire system. The foregoing discussion has disclosed the type of school that elementary school principals administer, has given a fair idea of the limitations im- posed upon them through the lack of clerical assistance, private office space, and meager equipment, has suggested the amount of time they devote to their work and some of the defects in the distribution of that time, has pointed out the futility of much of their supervisory work, and has indi- cated something of the administrative relationships that are developing between the superintendent's office and the school principal's . Surely we are confronted with the question as to what sort of prepara- tion and experience is needed by a man or woman who expects to ad- minister an elementary school . 460 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The average elementary school principal in Ohio has 6.2 years of edu- cational preparation beyond the elementary school. The average for men is considerably higher than that for women. Sixty per cent of the women. e n t a ry ol ipals and 56 per cent of the men have attended normal school, but only 11 per t e d ctly m cent of the women and 31 per cent of the men are graduates of a college o m Fro of the ele m o n c e n m sch pri hav bee pro dire fro an or university. A study of previous experience shows that more than half elementary school teaching position. The foregoing facts combined sug- gest that for a great many years past the acceptable standard of prepara- tion for elementary school teaching was two years of normal school work and that since elementary school principals were largely recruited from the ranks of elementary school teachers the old standard for an elementary school teacher has really controlled the educational preparation of the pres- ent generation of elementary school principals. The limited preparation of the elementary school principal in Ohio becomes all the more vivid when compared with that of the median high school principal of the same State, who is a college graduate and has had more than one half year of graduate study. In this day when most of us are committed to the ideal of a single salary schedule for teachers, and when we automatically accept the theory that four years of academic and professional preparation for the elementary school teacher is quite as useful as for the high school teacher, it behooves the profession to set up a new standard of educational preparation for the elementary school principal, and to advocate that standard with all the ability and persuasion that can be mustered. I am assuming that the Department of Elementary School Principals will be satisfied with nothing less than one year of graduate study, with a major in the supervision and administration of elementary schools, as prerequisite for admission to the profession of elementary school principals . If this department is on record or goes on record for such a standard then there is a challenging program ahead for those school principals now in service who have less than two years of preparation beyond the high school equivalent. Investigation showed that the elementary school principal has spent a very much longer time in attaining his present position than has the high school principal of the State. Median figures for the two groups were respectively 17.3 and 8.6 years. This again bears out the fact that the elementary school principal has depended much more than has the high school principal upon length of experience to secure his present work. In advocating college graduation and one year of graduate study as essential preparation for the work of the elementary school principal, one is immediately confronted with the question as to whether or not the posi- tion will pay enough to justify the expenditure of time and money re- quired to secure such preparation. For the last current year the median salary for elementary school principals was $1850. The median salary DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 461 for men was considerably higher than that for women, and for both sexes the salaries were directly proportional to the size of cities. Studies not yet completed indicate that before the elementary school principalship can be put upon the same plane as the high school prin- cipalship it will be necessary to institute a nation-wide movement for consolidating elementary schools so as to make more economic units for administration. As an illustration, in one city of 22,000 people there were nine elementary schools. In one section of the city there were three build- ings employing respectively 12, 7, and 3 teachers. All three buildings were ready for the discard. The three schools were consolidated in a new building on a lot large enough to allow a reasonable future expansion and yet no child in the building had to walk more than a mile and fully 75 per cent were within three eighths of a mile of the new building. In- stead of having one poorly paid supervising principal and two teaching prin- cipals, the new building could employ one well prepared, well paid super- vising principal . In Ohio, the median high school principal is a college graduate with six tenths year of graduate credit and an annual salary of $2750 or $900 more than the median salary of elementary school principals. With a larger and therefore more economical elementary school unit, it is rea- sonable to believe that society would be willing to pay elementary school principals the same reward it now grants to high school principals and to give both groups the small increase necessary to lift the level of graduate study from the present median of six tenths year for high school principals to aminimum of one year for all principals. Such a proposal is based, of course, on the assumption that the increased preparation will result in increased service rendered. Any analysis of the principals' work should look toward an improvement of the service to be given. It should involve both careful analysis of the present status and an interpretation of future needs in terms of the best theory that can be evolved. It will include not only an analysis of problems present and future but analysis of the skills and ideals needed for the solution of those problems. It rests upon us who presume to teach men and women how to ad- minister elementary schools, to make the most careful analysis possible of the actual situations which school principals must face and with the co- operation of principals now in service to devise ways and means of remedy- ing situations that are now detrimental to the welfare of children and public schools. It rests with the Department of Elementary School Prin- cipals to challenge our thinking to help formulate the problems which need our assistance for further investigation and to help us establish standards that will be acceptable to the public which we both serve. The theory and the practice of the administration of elementary schools must establish its foundations in the problems with which elementary school principals are actually confronted. 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PUPIL ADMINISTRATION AND CHARACTER TRAINING HARRY O. GILLET, PRINCIPAL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS What a change a few years have brought in our conception of the ele- mentary school principal. Yesterday he was the eighth grade teacher who for the dignity of the title and a few extra dollars did the routine office work of the school. Today in the progressive school system he is the profes- sional expert of the building and the local representative of the superin- tendent. As the person in active responsibility for the efficiency of a large and complicated organization, he has been relieved of all or most of his teaching and has been given a clerk to carry the burden of petty details. He has had his job analyzed for him by efficiency experts. He has re- ceived specialized training. He is intimately acquainted with the course of study as a means of education. He has studied the psychology of learn- ing and teaching the common branches. He knows the elements of effec- tive classroom management. He has learned to test and measure, to group his children economically for instruction, and to organize his class time- tables intelligently. He can recognize and diagnose inefficiency in any school activity and he knows how to eradicate it. He is a specialist. His is a busy day. He has to plan carefully to give a due proportion of his time to supervision of classroom activities and the improvement of instruction, the study of test and measurement data, the organization of classes, pupil accounting and school bookkeeping, conferences with parents, and community activities. He has insufficient time to do anything as well as he would like to do it. But, busy as he is, there is another major ac- tivity which he must develop and organize. It is pupil personnel work. He is conscious of the problem and is giving it some attention, but the re- sults are meager and ineffective because he has not organized the work on a sufficiently broad basis. We Americans seem to have a genius for organization. We like to analyze a task and plan it so that we can perform it with a minimum expenditure of time and energy. In industry we standardize and mecha- nize and organize so that we may produce more at cheaper unit cost. We realize this is what makes it possible for all of us to have automobiles and many other articles which yesterday were luxuries, with the leisure to enjoy them. We are proud of the improvements we have made in our schools through analyzing and organizing their activities. Through our study of the com- munity and its problems we have made over our courses of study as means of education for citizenship. We have eliminated obsolete prac- tices from our arithmetics and rarely used words from our spelling books. We train children to read silently for understanding rather than orally for expression. We teach hygiene and health conservation instead of anatomy. We have organized teaching methods to harmonize with what we have found about how children learn. We employ trained people to DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 463 interpret the course to teachers and to guide them in using it. We have greatly improved our textbooks. We have begun to devise means of testing intelligence and the products of teaching. We promote ability grouping, platoon schools, junior high schools, individualized instruction inthe fundamental school arts, and departmental teaching to give the pupil the utmost in education in return for his time and the community's money. Only pupil personnel work has been left on the old unorganized basis. In fact it is deteriorating, because we have become so engrossed in operating the units of our system that we are not taking time to become acquainted with our individual pupils. We are organizing, teaching, and testing groups with economy and dispatch, but while our expressed purpose is to give each child as great a measure of intellectual, moral, physical, manual, and æsthetic training as his capacity and limitations and our time and strength will permit, we realize we do not know enough about him to work very intelligently. Our old means of becoming personally acquainted with him are breaking down, and we are not organizing new ways of meeting the changed conditions. In some way we must make teachers keenly conscious again of the pupil as an individual, a personality, whom they can understand only as they know and appreciate the conditions which affect him. Greatly improved as our schools undoubtedly are, the output does not please us altogether. We cannot quiet our doubts by repeating that we have to work with very refractory material, that some children are born dull, that our percentage of failures is becoming smaller. We are becom- ing conscious of the fact that so far in our organizing for efficiency we have failed to take some important factors into account. We know that many bright pupils fail to meet our hopes. The pupils in the lowest quartile in intelligence quotients or mental ages may advance into any of the other quartiles in accomplishment. The overlapping in achieve- ment in ability groups is large. Pupils encounter many individual diffi- culties. The quick child in arithmetic may be slow in learning to spell. The mechanics of reading may be the one high hurdle. It is rather rare to find a bright person who learned in the elementary school how to use all his school time to advantage. We give our children good books to read in school, but many turn to cheap and unworthy books outside. We teach them to read fast and with understanding, but we do not always arouse lasting intellectual interests. Unsocial conduct and personality and moral defects persist to discouraging degrees. Even in the school subjects our present organization does not seem to provide adequately for the welfare of the individual in the group if he varies much from the so-called norm, by which we vaguely mean average. Periodically we conscientiously give standardized tests in the school arts, and we compute the class medians and make our reports. We know we ought to do something about the cases of children in the upper ranges and lower ranges, but the scheme of things does not provide for doing much in a personal, individual sense. Besides, a little knowledge of in 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION telligence quotients and the normal distribution curve makes many an un- thinking person fatalistic in his attitude toward the deviant. He vaguely believes he is working with nature merely when he passes him with high marks or fails him and then neglects him. Our ability grouping makes the problem of the superior child or the slow child less acute, but it by no means solves the problem. In general the range is decreased, and the upper class studies a richer course while the lower class plods along without much hope, but the individual proceeds on his wasteful way, because nobody has time or the facilities to study his case and show him how to make the most of his abundant or his meager talent. We still try too much to make the child fit the course. What we need to know about a problem case is only what we need to know about every child in our classes if we are to understand him and to make our teaching personal and individual. We should know the significant facts about his parentage, his home and neighborhood environ- ment, his physical condition and handicaps, his school history, his capacities, interests, inhibitions, and accomplishments, and the ways in which he uses his time-all this in addition to academic marks and test scores and in- telligence quotient and attendance record. Some of it is hard to secure if we wait until a problem has developed. A little of it public opinion in some communities would not permit us at present to put on record in school files. Much of it is the sort of information which the teachers gathered informally before schools were so large and so well organized. But then we did not know how to use it so well. Remedial measures have been the subject of much study in laboratory schools in recent years, and we have made much progress in selecting and using data. Now that we are learning how to use such data, the problem in our larger schools lies in collecting and recording as well as using them. We need full but concise cumulative records to which parents, teachers, principal, and school physicians and nurses contribute. Marks and scores and attendance records are not enough. They do not tell the story, and because when the pupil is promoted the new teacher does not know the story, and the present organization does not provide her with means of learning it, her teaching is bound to be less personal, less vital, more academic, and in terms of education for living, less effective. What we seem to need first of all is a cumulative master card for each pupil and a folder for supplementary information about him. The cards that we are using experimentally in the University of Chicago elementary and high schools probably are larger and more elaborate than we shall find we need. They provide for recording all the data we can get about a pupil's inheritance, his pre-school training in home and neighborhood, his physical history with special reference to nutrition, illnesses, operations, vitality and growth, his physical condition in detail as revealed by examina- tions made annually by the school physician, his home and neighborhood environment, his interests and out of school activities, and his school his- tory with regard to tests and measurements, teachers' judgments of his DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 465 work and accomplishment, attendance, and reports in the several subjects ofstudy. When one sets about it, one does not find it difficult to get most of the data. Parents are solicitous for the welfare of their children, and if they believe the principal and the teachers are capable and honest, they will cheerfully answer questions about home and neighborhood life and pre- school physical and social history. Of course, the interrogator must use judgment in questioning and recording and must omit the doubtful and irrelevant. She must be guided by a standard questionnaire but she must be quick to follow additional significant leads. The interview with the parent may do much to cement the good will which most parents enter- tain both toward their children's school and its teachers. The reports of the physical examiner, with interpretations of the findings, belong on the cards. Test scores and academic reports are transferred automatically, with such additional data as make the reports significant. Together with the pupil's weight record should be noted the average weight for children of the same sex, age, and height. If, in consideration of height, the parents' stature or nationality is significant, it should be noted. Together with the scores in the standardized tests should be noted the norms for the grade. Teachers' reports other than scores and marks may be sent in periodically or whenever there is anything significant to report. They should be filed in the pupils' folders. Our own practice is to use small cards, which have come to be known as "yellow yards," and on which the teacher sends reports of special success or failure, with explanatory comments. Such cards have a wonderfully stimulating effect when they are sent to parents, especially if the reports are commendatory. Into the pupils' folders go also reports of remedial work, special interests, supplementary work, out- side reading, and behavior which may have special significance. Makers of filing devices have responded intelligently to the demands of schools for adequate cards and cabinets. They have devised cards and symbols for recording data in unbelievably small compass. The newer cabinets permit the filing of cards for one thousand pupils in a few shallow drawers at the principal's elbow. The principal's first duty in personnel administration is to organize the collection and recording of significant physical, environmental, social, men- tal, and intellectual data about each child. His second duty is equally important to train his teachers in the use of the data and to acquire the habit of using the data. Probably the most effective way is through the study of problem cases. He must master the procedure for himself through actual performance before he tries to instruct the teachers. To read about procedure is not enough. He must actually diagnose some problem cases scientifically and thoroughly and use remedial measures successfully before he can know enough to tell others. It is the unusual teacher who will spurn the principal's offer of help in diagnosing a problem case if she be- lieves he is qualified to give it. Problem cases in school usually attract attention through failure or partial 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION failure in some subject, or through unsocial conduct, or manifestations of warping motives. They usually can be traced to low or poor mentality, bad physical history, present physical handicaps, unfortunate home and neighborhood environment, poor or insufficient teaching, absence from school, or neglect. Most of the cases are not difficult to diagnose and many can be remedied, if not cured, by simple measures. The skillful teacher often can employ the necessary remedial measures in class if she knows specifically where the trouble lies. Sometimes, of course, the causes are obscure or obstinate, and even when discovered, cannot be modified appreciably. The University of Chicago Elementary School has been at work for several years on personnel procedure. The school has its due proportion of certain kinds of problem cases. We admit pupils to the kindergarten and the first grade without testing them in advance. Among these chil- dren the usual difficulties develop. But since there is an automatic selec- tion because of the tuition charge, and since the community itself is superior, we follow the policy of admitting to the second, third, fourth, and fifth grades some maladjusted pupils from other schools. We are not equipped to care properly for subnormal, blind, deaf, or tuberculous children, but we have misfits of other kinds. We test every child in the school early in his course for mentality and periodically for achievement in the school arts. We give him a rather thorough physical examination annually, which includes tests of sight and hearing. We get his pre-school physical and social history. We learn something of his parents and his home. All this we record, together with report from teachers about his attitudes, his power and habits of applica- tion, the amount and quality of his outside reading, his attendance, his health, his interests, any items of significant behavior, and his degree of success in doing each kind of school work. These records are accumu- lated and organized as explained above, so that they are available for in- spection by any teacher in the study of any or all of her pupils, or for the study of a problem case when it develops. From time to time such cases do develop. The teachers report them to the principal, together with tentative diagnoses and supporting evidence. It is a help in thinking to classify them as mental, intellectual, physical, psycho-physical, volitional, or psychopathic cases. The principal discusses each with the reporting teacher in the light of the evidence and the history. Usually the class teacher with the help of the departmental teachers who are concerned is able to do all that is necessary without interfering with class routine. Individual instruction may be necessary, but usually an acquaint- ance with the nature of the difficulty enables the teacher to give the needed individual help while she is working with the group. Some cases do not yield to the measures which the class teacher em- ploys. They become known as remedial cases, and for the present, while we are making a special study of means of diagnosis and treatment, they are referred to a special teacher, known as the remedial teacher. In con DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 467 ference with the reporting teacher she investigates the difficulties, and or- ganizes remedial treatment, which she herself may carry on experimentally or which the class teacher may give. The remedial teacher, however, keeps closely in touch with each of these cases for a number of months, even though the pupils may not be reporting to her for instruction. It goes without saying that a child of mentality somewhat below the average must have a modified course and must be given more time to learn. Poor nutrition, the specific infections, heart, nose, throat, mouth, and thyroid disorders, and poor sight and hearing are frequent causes of slow- ness in learning. Until these physical handicaps are removed, it is almost useless to attempt classroom remedial measures. The country over, reading is the subject in which there are most failures in the lower grades, and arithmetic is the subject in which there are most failures in the middle grades. For difficulties in reading and in per- forming the fundamental operations in arithmetic there are now rather comprehensive diagnostic tests. The trouble usually is specific, not general , and when it is recognized, appropriate remedial measures can be employed successfully. While the standardized tests in problem solving in arithmetic have less diagnostic value, there is a good deal of evidence to support the view that ability to recognize the appropriate process or processes to use in solving an arithmetic problem can be cultivated in any intelligent child with proper teaching and sufficient practice. In this connection, it ought to be said that intelligent reading of arithmetic problems is a specialized art which is not often cultivated in the classes of reading. Study of prob- lem cases in spelling reveals some specific difficulties which training can overcome. Inability to read intelligently and intensively is responsible for many of the failures in history and geography. Repeated academic or social failure is a prolific cause of further and more extended failure. A taste of success is a wonderful stimulus to greater endeavor. Sometimes an adjustment in grading or the removal of a specific difficulty provides the only means necessary to transform the lazy, unsocial, sensitive, disorderly failure into an active, coöperative, happy learner. What has this study of individuals in our classes to do with training of character ? The answer is obvious. The teacher can impart much of her instruction in the school arts to properly graded groups quite as well as to individuals, but to train in character, she must be conscious of each child as a personality, a complex of habits, attitudes, and desires all his own. She must know how he came to be what he is, what influences dominate him, and the effects they are having on him. She must under- stand him by being able to put herself in his place. Such understanding is the outcome of experience and much study. She is busy, very busy doing the next thing as it crowds upon her through the day, and unless the basic records are available for her to use in her study of an individual she is likely not to go out to get them. Along with the present greatly improved organization of our schools for the teaching of the arts, we 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION need improved organization for the study and understanding of indiviuals. Only as we understand a child can we train him in the fundamentals of character. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUES DERIVED FROM THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN GRADES I TO VI IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CLIFFORD L. WOODY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN The agitation for the teaching of science in Grades I to VI in the ele- mentary school may be traced to a number of influences. A century and a half or two centuries ago the enthusiasm of Rousseau for sense training and for education according to nature, the emphasis of Pestalozzi upon sense training and upon object training, and the insistence of Froebel that association with nature brought about moral improvement, religious up- lift, and spiritual insight, all had a tendency to turn the attention of teachers upon the value of studying nature and natural phenomena. Her- bert Spencer's defense of the sciences, approximately three quarters of a century ago, undoubtedly added great momentum to the movement for the teaching of science not only in institutions of higher education but also in the elementary school. The exposition of Dewey's philosophy of educa- tion and the publication of the program of science work offered in the experimental school which he established in connection with his work at the University of Chicago did much to crystallize the thinking about the values of the teaching of science and to suggest the type of subject-matter which should be emphasized under the term "science." Professor and Mrs. Comstock with their contributions under the caption of Nature Study have done much to determine the proper content of a course in that subject or series of subjects. Other individuals-for example, Elliot, Hodge, Downing, and McMurry had their influence, but the limit of this paper precludes discussing them. Undoubtedly the movement for general science in the high school or junior high school, the movement for an en- riched curriculum, the demand for a certain type of fact material in con- nection with the teaching of reading, and the utilization of the child's interest through the project have contributed to our present-day interest in science in the elementary school. TIME DEVOTED TO SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL A recent study of the amounts of time devoted to the teaching of the different studies in the curriculum of the elementary school showed that the amount of time devoted to the teaching of what was termed "science"- that is, nature study, elementary science, physiology and hygiene-in 10 to 50 cities of the United States was 424 minutes in 1904, 406 minutes in 1914, and 354 minutes in 1924. The amount of time which was de- voted to the teaching of geography, which is often included under the DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 469 caption of science, was 762 minutes in 1904, 735 minutes in 1914, and 760 minutes in 1924. If the amounts of time devoted to the teaching of "science" and those devoted to the teaching of geography are combined, the percentages of the total time devoted to the teaching of these two subjects are : 10.46 per cent in 1904; 10.5 per cent in 1914; and 9.34 per cent in 1924. These facts suggest that slightly less time was devoted to the teaching of science in 1924 than in 1914 or in 1904, but this con- clusion does not necessarily follow since there was difference in the num- ber of cities reporting and difference in the particular cities reporting. The facts do make it clear that approximately 10 per cent of the total school day is definitely set aside for the teaching of science. Undoubtedly considerably more time is devoted to the teaching of science through the emphasis which is given incidentally in the teaching of such subjects as industrial arts, language, and reading. Since there is widespread interest in the teaching of science in the ele- mentary school and since 10 per cent of the total school day is set aside for the formal teaching of science, it is well to make inquiry concerning the particular value to be obtained from such instruction. The values to be obtained from the teaching of this subject must be scrutinized just the same as the values obtained from the teaching of all other subjects . The purpose of the present paper represents an attempt to set forth cer- tain educational values which can be derived directly or incidentally from the teaching of science. This presentation is made from the point of view of one interested in the educational process as a whole and not from the point of view of the specialist in science or in a particular field of science. Furthermore, this presentation is made without any definite attempt to give the exact connotation of the term "science." Throughout the dis- cussion " science" will be assumed to include the natural things and proc- esses as they directly concern the daily lives of the children. It may well be thought of as including the study of flowers, leaves, weeds, trees, insects, birds, pet animals, soils, rocks, land formations, erosion, transpiration, weather, rainfall, snow, heat, light, clouds-in fact anything which savors of what is usually spoken of as science especially adapted to the pupils in the different grades of the elementary school. In presenting the different values it should be pointed out that they are momentarily closely inter- woven and that isolating them is merely for the sake of emphasis and to guarantee that no one value is overlooked. ENUMERATION OF VALUES After thorough consideration of the values to be obtained from the teaching of science in Grades I to VI, the following list is suggested for your consideration : 1. The teaching of science in these grades equips the child with a varied and extensive vocabulary. If this value were to be stated as an objective it would be as follows : "To give meaning and significance to those scientific terms and processes which are encountered in the common ex 470 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION periences of everyday life." However it is immaterial for the purposes of this discussion whether the values are stated in terms of aims or outcomes. That there is need for a vocabulary which emphasizes words and proc- esses encountered in science is evident. The writer¹ in the analysis of the contents of fifteen readers for Grade II found that on the average 15.3 per cent of the subject-matter in the books dealt with real nature stories. In a similar tabulation of ten readers for Grades I to VIII, inclusive, Starch found in the first four grades the following percentages of the total content of the books dealt with science, i. e., animals, plants, wind. water: Grade I, 37.0 per cent; Grade II, 26.8 per cent; Grade III , 21.8 per cent; Grade IV, 9.5 per cent. Hilliards found that of all factors influencing the ability to read knowledge of vocabulary contributed more than any other factor save general intelligence. Curtis found in investi- gating the scientific terms employed in 630 miscellaneous articles that 614 of the 962 scientific terms occurring are not included in the Thorndike list of "The Ten Thousand Most Commonly Used Words." Such books as Caldwell and Slosson's Science Remaking the World are typical of the scientific books which may be expected in the future. Robinson's pleas for the humanization of scientific knowledge will have its influence not only in the writing for the public at large, but also in the books for use in schools. The publication of readers containing informational materials, such as Horn and McBroom, is indicative of the type of material which the children in the elementary schools must read in the future. As this type of material increases the need for a knowledge of the terms of science will be greatly increased. An excellent illustration of how the teaching of science equips the child with a varied and extensive vocabulary is given in the article by Miss Stine in the current yearbook of this department. A brief quotation from her discussion of the method of treatment of the topic, "Cultivated Flowers" in Grade I will make clear the process : "(a) Take the children on a walk to a flower garden which is near to identify a few of the common flowers, as nasturtiums, four-o-clocks, balsam, pansies, dahlias, etc. Teach name and chief color. Look for seeds of nasturtiums and other seed- bearing plants and collect for spring planting. (b) Make envelopes for seeds collected, recalling the names of each plant represented. 1Woody, Clifford. The overlapping in the content of fifteen second readers. Journal of Educational Research, Vol. II, P. 465, June, 1920. Starch, Daniel. The content of readers. Twentieth Yearbook National Society, Part II, pp. 145-151 . *Hilliard, G. H. Probable types of difficulties underlying low scores on comprehension tests. University of Iowa Studies in Education, Vol. II, No. 6, 1924. Curtis Francis Day. Some values derived from extensive reading of general science. Teachers College Contribution to Education. No. 163. Caldwell, O. W. , and Slossen, B. E. Science remaking the world. Doubleday, Page and Co. , 1923 . Robinson, James Harvey. The humanizing of knowledge. George H. Doran Co. , 1923 . Stine, Perna M. "The study of local flora." Fourth Yearbook of the Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association . DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 471 (c) Learn to identify each flower brought in by the children. Teach the name and color. Show colored pictures of the flowers and see if the children can name them. (d) Draw and color the more simple flowers shown. (e) Mount pictures of flowers cut from seed catalogs. ( f ) Use every opportunity to review names of flowers, as, when children bring in fresh flowers ask one child to see if there are any asters in the bouquet, and if so, to take them out and put them in a separate vase. This may continue until all of the flowers are named. After all flowers are placed, other children may give the names of each kind." Note the emphasis in this quotation placed upon getting the names of the flowers, the names of the colors, and the names of the seeds. In the study of trees and leaves the children are drilled in the names for the parts of the tree, the words that describe the bark, the adjectives that describe the leaves, or the adjectives that describe the fruit. When this same emphasis is applied to all the different aspects of science, think what a wide and varied vocabulary the children will have acquired. This method of emphasizing vocabulary in science is exactly the method utilized in many of the progressive schools in teaching the children to recognize a few words needed in beginning reading. Oftentimes the teacher has labels for the different objects in the room and drills the children in applying the proper names and labels to the different objects. In the earliest acquisition of vocabulary there is almost always association of the word with the object, and it is the contention of the writer that throughout the lower grades there is a distinct advantage in the presenta- tion of new and difficult words in presenting them in a situation in which the word naturally arises. In what better way can one teach the word " ridged" or "net-veined" or "serrate" than in connection with the pres- entation of ridged bark or a net-veined leaf or a leaf with a serrate edge. Every phase of science is replete with opportunities for teaching new words and new adjectives. It should be recalled that the child is in an environ- ment which is permeated with all phases of science and that he will acquire the vocabulary of science just as naturally as he will acquire the vocabulary of the artificial situations created for him in the teaching of reading. Thus the acquisition of a wide and varied vocabulary is one of the values accruing from the teaching of science. 2. The teaching of science in these grades provides opportunity for giving the children meaningful experiences in connection with the life with which they are surrounded and about which they are going to read. This value is closely associated with the value designated as "equipping the child with varied and extensive vocabulary", but the two values need not neces- sarily coincide. In fact much of the time they do not coincide. Often we as adults encounter words and expressions, retain them in our passive vocabulary for the time being and later ascertain their exact shades of meaning and decipher the exact situations in which they should be used. In child life this tendency is apt to be more prevalent than in adult lite. In fact this very tendency to learn words without meaningful experiences 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in connection with them is one of the serious criticisms of much of our educational practice. We teach children to call the words of the selection to be read, but they do not understand its real meaning because their expe- riences in no way correspond to the ideas expressed in the selection. Teach- ers of the primary grades are conscious of this necessity of meaningful experience and often advocate that the first task in teaching primary children to read is to give them meaningful experiences embodying the ideas which will be contained in the selection to be read eventually. One authority on primary reading advocated that no definite instruction in reading should be attempted during the first six weeks of Grade I and that this time should be utilized for taking the children into the parks, into the gardens, into the museums, to the zoo-in fact for anything which will give the children experience to understand the words and to interpret what they are later going to read. A teacher in commenting on the difference in the methods of teaching reading to dull and brilliant groups of pupils in a class expressed this same thought when she said the main difference lies in the fact that most of her time with the dull pupils was utilized in building up meaningful experiences. She said that the dull pupils bring almost nothing to their school work, that they have almost no experience with which to interpret, and that attempts to instruct without interpretative experience were largely fruitless. A few sentences selected from an article by Otis W. Caldwell,¹ "What Now and What Next in Theory and Practice" expresses in vivid fashion what the term "meaningful experience" signifies: If you read to me from almost any casually-opened page of Emerson, Haw- thorne, Lowell, or other well-known author, I soon find myself picturing the author's references in terms of my own experiences. The description of woodlands, shops, village scenes, and people's actions bring to me not what the author sees, but what my own recorded experiences call forth in terms of what the author says But understanding or interpretation of printed materials depends much more largely upon experiences-first-hand experiences-than our modern educational practice recognizes . Some outstanding teachers have advocated that books be discarded, which is an unreasonable and impossible proposition, since in books are stored the records of the world's accomplishments. In school we need more, not fewer, books. The greater need, however, is for a better planned use of the experiences which provide the foundations for proper and more extended use of books. Not only are these basic experiences necessary to an understanding of books, but they provide several approaches to the mind, each of which is of a different nature and from a different angle, thus providing a multiplication of the view for the understanding of any question The possibilities of educa- tion by the use of subjects of study must be re-examined for the purpose of finding how better to relate these studies to the foundational experiences. As a basis for providing these foundational experiences, no subject in the elementary school curriculum has greater possibilities than science. The first-hand experience of the children in dealing with growing flowering 1 Caldwell, Otis W. What now and what next in theory and practice. Teachers College Record, XXVI, No. 7, pp. 547-8, March, 1925 . DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 473 plants, with roots, leaves, fruits, and seeds, with birds, butterflies, insects, silkworms, fish, and pond life with the wind, rain, and snow, with the hills, islands, rivers, lakes, soils, rocks, fire, foods, etc. may prove a veritable educational gold mine if properly utilized. There is no doubt in the mind of the writer that if meaningful experience could be provided for much of the subject-matter constituting the regular course of study, it could be more thoroughly mastered in much less time and that it would be retained much longer. The difficulty with much of our learning is that it is leaning on the nonsense level. It may represent sense to the teacher, but it certainly represents nonsense to the pupils and will be forgotten in the same proportion as nonsense syllables are forgotten. The only protection against this type of learning is to give the children a wealth of meaningful experiences. No other subject in the curriculum of the elementary school offers the same possibilities of giving these experiences as the subject of science. 3. The teaching of science in these grades provides opportunity for the training of the children in the methods of thinking and in the development of scientific attitudes . One of the finest compliments which a pupil can give concerning a particular course is the statement that in this course the instructor made him think or taught him how to think. At the same time it should be added that the most common criticism of our educational procedure for the elementary school through the university is that it does not teach the method of thinking. The ability to think thus seems to be one of the most prized of human achievements and any subject which lends itself easily to the development of this ability is a most valuable subject. There are numerous statements of the mental processes involved in thinking, but the Dewey analysis of an act of thought will suffice as an illustration of the mental procedure involved in thinking. According to Dewey the different steps in the analysis of an act of thought are : locating a problem, redefining the problem, suggested solution, elaboration of the suggested solution and conclusions, or generalizations. Needless to say in the enumeration of these steps there is adequate provision for the collection of data, its organization and evaluation, for analysis, comparison and contrast, for seeing likenesses and differences in the relation of cause and effect, and for setting up hypotheses. The very nature of the subject-matter of science lends itself to the different mental processes mentioned. Almost every phase of science teach- ing is filled with illustrations, but one will make clear how the subject is especially adapted to training the children in the methods of thinking. Suppose a child finds a little maple tree growing in an old stump in a field beside the playground, and out of curiosity asks the teacher how it came to be there. Assuming the teacher is a wise teacher and is interested in connecting this incident with facts concerning seed dispersal, she does not tell the child but asks that the question be raised in the class in the afternoon. In the afternoon various explanations are offered concerning the presence of the tree in the stump, but the trend of the discussion turns to 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION how various seeds are scattered. Many suggestions are offered and a con- siderable number of doubts are expressed. The children assume the responsibility of finding out how many different kinds of seeds are dis- tributed and of reporting to the other members of the class. They get their information by actual observation of different seeds, by asking their parents, and by reading different books. When their reports are presented the information is organized, elaborated, evaluated, and general conclusions are reached. Each child prepares a table classifying the different seeds distributed by each of the different methods. In the meantime the child who raised the question concerning the presence of the maple tree in the stump has found a satisfactory answer to his question. This is exactly the type of procedure obtaining in the Decroly experi- mental school in which three words are much emphasized: "observation, association, and expression." Dr. Decroly says the lessons in observation are planned with the following ends in view : Habituating the child to take note of the phenomena about him, by requiring him to seek the causes of facts he observes and to ascertain their consequences . presenting to him the complex ideas of life outlined (in as concrete a form as possible ) , acquainting him with typical forms of life that he may be led gradually to a realization of the facts of evolution in relation to plants and to animals, and finally in relation to himself. In bringing about this type of training Dr. Decroly provides what he terms two types of observations, incidental observations and observations related to the centers of interest. Among the incidental observations¹ he lists the following : (a) Noting each morning any events that may have occurred in the class room since the day before, as the growth of a plant, the birth or death of an animal, the sprouting of seeds, development of buds. (b) Noting the changes that result from meteorological conditions, as time of day, seasonal changes, rain, wind, tempests, temperature. (c) Classifying objects collected by the children brought from home or gathered on walks or excursions . (d) Observation of the life and habits of animals raised at school, as tadpoles , silkworms, caterpillars, mealworms, rabbits, guinea pigs, mice, chickens, finches. These incidental observations are used as the basis of generalizations. In this process the children must report what they have seen, they must make comparisons and state differences and, through their own observations supplemented by the information given by the teachers or obtained in their reading, arrive at their own general conclusions. Provision is made for making practical application of these generalizations in everyday life or life in the school group. Without further elaboration it seems evident that teaching children in this manner is teaching them in the methods of thinking, teaching them to base conclusions on evidence or data, teaching them not to generalize Hamaide, Amelie. The Decroly class. E. P. Dutton and Company, pp. 29-30 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 475 on insufficient data or to make a generalization before the sufficient evi- dence is available. It is furthermore evident that such teaching will develop a scientific attitude in the children and will give them an appreciation of what constitutes scientific methods and of the great contributions which science has made to our civilization. 4. The teaching of science in these grades offers opportunity for utilizing the natural interests of boys and girls as centers around which much of their other school work may be unified. That boys and girls are interested in the phenomena of science seems axiomatic, yet not less than five years ago a supervisor of elementary education in one of the large cities of the United States in a discussion of the need for having real nature stories, reported on the basis of her observations and those of her teachers that the children in the elementary school have no interest in real nature stories or in stories embodying facts about plants or animals. She reported that the children were much more interested in nature myths or in make-believe stories-stories in which there is ample room for the exercising of the imagination-than in stories embodying accurate information. The writer is convinced that this belief that children are more interested in make-believe nature stories than in real nature stories is rather wide- spread, but at the same time he is convinced that it is fallacious. It is probably based upon experimentalization with an inferior type of real nature stories or on the unhappy experiences of attempting to teach real facts about nature without sufficient knowledge of the facts concerned. In teaching make-believe nature stories, highly colored by the imagination, mastery of facts is of little consequence, but in teaching real nature stories mastery of facts is of high importance. It is ventured that when the proper type of nature stories is available and when teachers are properly trained for teaching elementary science there need be no fear about the interest of the boys and girls in the subject. Recent investigation substantiates the contention that boys and girls have a natural interest in science. Misses Grant and White,¹ in investi- gating the types of stories best liked by children in Grades I, II, and III , found that 23.9 per cent of the 600 responses received indicated that stories about real animals were preferred. This percentage is considerably higher than that for any other type of material chosen. In commenting upon their material they say, "Nature material needs to be improved by being based upon real nature facts-children do not care for make-believe nature stories." Miss Dunn² in making a critical analysis of the factors of interest in primary reading found that the most important factors are surprise and plot and that animalness is as important a factor for the boys as the factor of surprise; that narrativeness, moralness, fancifulness, and verse forms in themselves have no interest value. According to this 1Grant, Emma B. and White, Margaret L. A study of children's choices of reading ma- terials. Teachers College Record, XXVI , No. 8, pp. 671-9, April, 1925 . Dunn, Fannie Wyche. Interest factors in primary reading. Teachers College Contribu ions, No. 113, Columbia University, p67. 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION investigation, interest in animals is one of the real interests of children, especially of the boys. In discussing the problems of beginning reading Gates says: The primers as a group include very small amounts of purely informational material concerning boats, machines, trees, coal, the stars, factories, animals, foods , and everyday affairs. In a study now under way it appears that young children on the whole prefer well told accounts of real affairs to stories of the traditional sort selected by teachers as among the best they know. A number of studies quoted by Downing in Chapter IX on Elementary science in the Third Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence pre- suppose the children's interest in elementary science, but they indicate that the order of the children's interest is as follows: animal life, plant life, and facts about physical science. These studies justify to a certain extent at least the assertion that children have natural interests in science. The presence of these natural interests in science suggests that they should be used as the centers around which much of their other school work should be correlated. In previous sections it was contended that the teaching of science in the elementary grades offers much opportunity to gain meaningful experience and presents many situations demanding real thinking. These elements coupled with the real interests which the chil- dren have in science constitute the essence of the so-called problem or project, and as such, readily become the core around which other instruc- tion may be built. The natural interest of the children in science easily initiates the problem. Seeking the solutions naturally results in activity or doing and in meaningful experiences which may be utilized in other phases of school work. The work in language may be closely correlated with the work in science. Much of the work in reading may be con- ditioned by the work in science. Many of the problems of science may correlate directly with the work in industrial arts and home economics. In the preparation of this paper the writer was struck anew by the arti- ficiality of divisions of subject-matter into distinct subjects. The teachers of industrial arts advocated using such ideas as food, clothing, and shelter as the basis of instruction in their field; the teachers in science advocated emphasizing these same three topics especially in Grades I, II, and III ; the teachers of geography and oftentimes teachers of other subjects stress these same ideas. No doubt each group of teachers utilizing these ideas advocate that they are the natural and logical centers around which to organize the instruction of the subjects, but it is the contention of this paper that science by its very nature provides the most natural and most direct incentives upon which to base this type of instruction. Why not utilize a child's natural interest and his natural environment as the starting points for his instruction ? In conclusion, it may be well to state that science equips the child with 3Gates, Arthur I. "Problems in beginning reading." Teachers College Record, XXVI , No. 7. PP. 572-592, March, 1925. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 477 a varied and extensive vocabulary; that it provides opportunity for giving the child meaningful experiences in connection with the life with which he is surrounded and about which he is going to read; that it provides oppor- tunity for training the child in the methods of thinking and in the develop- ment of scientific attitudes; and that it offers opportunity for utilizing the natural interests of the child as centers around which much of the other school work may be unified. It is the contention of the writer that teachers fully realize these values and extend their use of science as a basis of instruction. Thus they will be making great strides in the improvement of instruction in these grades. Department of Kindergarten Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES Indianapolis Meeting OFFICERS President- EDNA DEAN BAKER, President of National Kindergarten and Elementary College Chicago, Illinois Vice-President -MARGARET C. HOLMES, Assistant Director of Kindergartens .. New York City Secretary- FANNIE A. SMITH, Principal of the Fannie A. Smith Training School Bridgeport, Connecticut Historical Note-The Department of Kindergarten Education grew out of a meeting of the Froebel Institute of North America, which met in con- nection with the Association's meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1884. See Proceedings of 1884, page 74. This department coöperates with the International Kindergarten Union, whose officers for 1925-26 are : Presi- dent, Miss Alice Temple ; Secretary, Miss May Murray, Washington , D. C. The Union publishes a monthly magazine, Childhood Education . This Department meets once each year, in June. The Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Educational As- sociation held two afternoon sessions in Central Christian Church, Indianapolis, Indiana, as scheduled in the official program. With the President, Miss Edna Dean Baker, of Chicago, Illinois, presiding. At both meetings, the Kindergartners of Indianapolis presented beautiful corsage bouquets to the officers and speakers, which was only another evidence of the gracious hospitality shown all through the meetings. At the first session held June 29th, both speakers listed in the official program were present. Miss Lucy Gage of Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn., told in story fashion of the progress made in Kindergarten in the last quarter century, and gave credit to the pioneer workers who blazed the trail which we are enjoy- ing as a well traveled road. Miss Netta Faris of the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., then spoke of the statistical work of the Bureau and said that the increase of enrolment in Kindergarten since 1918 is 144,215. Mrs. Minnetta Sammis Leonard of Madison, Wisconsin, told of the work in that city and of the effort to teach Kindergarten principles to the mothers in the homes, as well as its reaction on children in the grades . Mrs. Eliza Blaker of Teachers College, Indianapolis, most cordially invited all visiting Kindergartners to a luncheon at the college on Wednesday. Mrs. Blaker was greeted with splendid enthusiasm a tribute to her long and efficient educational work in this city. Miss Hanley, then invited the delegates to visit the Orchard School and see the possi- bilities of health work among the children. The second address of the afternoon was by Prof. Patty S. Hill of Teachers College, New York. Miss Hill reviewed the changes in curricula and method in kindergarten education in the past twenty-five years. She named six distinct steps or changes in kindergarten development. First, the influence of Dr. Francis Parker, in unifying kindergarten and first grade; second, the influence of G. Stanley Hall on the health movement in the kindergarten; third, the influence of Dr. Dewey who helped us to reconstruct a new order out of the old; fourth, the Montesorri Appeal for Liberty, as the condition for growth and self-government; fifth, the Nursery or Pre-school movement, giving to the very small child a nurtur- ing care that makes a better body and better mind for education ; sixth, the present [478] DEPARTMENT of Kindergarten EDUCATION 479 modern psychological objectives of measuring and intelligence tests, records and reports of body and mental health. Miss Hill's paper was a splendid presentation of the achievement of the last quarter century for Childhood Education. Miss Ella Boyce of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, president of the International Kindergarten Union, who was present, spoke of two important gains , which have come to that body during the past year. We are to have headquarters in Wash- ington, D. C., in the building of the National Educational Association, and second, the acquisition of our own official organ, the Childhood Education Magazine. Two committees were appointed by the chair, the nominating committee, Miss Alice Temple, Chicago, Illinois, chairman; Miss Alta Adkins, Hammond, Illinois, Miss Netta Faris, Washington, D. C., Miss Ruth Patterson, Miss Jane Joslin, Cleveland, Ohio. Committee on resolutions, Mrs. Minnetta Sammis Leonard, Madison, Wisconsin, chairman ; Miss E. Louise Hoy, Bridgeport, Connecticut, Miss M. Frances McElroy, Chicago, Illinois. Before adjournment, the President, Miss Baker, asked that these two committees report at the business meeting on Tuesday. On the following day in Central Christian Church, a large audience greeted Miss Baker as she opened the meeting. Several announcements were made by the local committee, and following this the report of the nominating committee was read by Miss Temple and accepted. The following officers were elected for 1926: President, Miss May Hill, head of Kindergarten Primary School, Cleveland, Ohio; Vice-President, Miss Clara Meisner, State Normal School, Ellensburg, Washington; Secretary-Treasurer, Miss Ruth Patterson, Indianapolis, Indiana. The following report of the committee on resolutions, read by Mrs. Minnetta Sammis Leonard, of Madison, Wisconsin, chairman, was accepted : RESOLVED: that the Kindergarten Department of the National Educational Association, meeting during its sixty-third Annual Convention, thank the school officials, teachers, city officials and citizens of Indianapolis for their hearty welcome and hospitality. We thank Mrs. Blake and Miss Patterson, as well as all the kindergarten teachers of Indianapolis for the gracious invitation for luncheon Wednesday, extended by them to the visiting kinder- gartners. RESOLVED: that as a body we will do all in our power through publicity and by every other means to strength n this department and bring about a still greater unity with the National Education Association that the Kindergarten may become an integral part of every public school system. RESOLVED: that each one make herself responsible to do all in her power to bring to the attention of other teachers the new International Kindergarten Union magazine Childhood Education and to ask all members and branches for their generous support in behalf of the new International Kindergarten Union offices situated in the National Education Associa- tion building in Washington. RESOLVED: furthermore, that each one make herself responsible for getting the new maga zine Childhood Education into the local libraries and to bring this magazine to the notice of Parent Teacher Associations and the parents of young children in order that the kinder- garten ideals may be carried into the home. RESOLVED: that each kindergarten teacher make herself indispensable in the community through giving assistance and encouragement to all efforts toward the establishment of Child Study Circles and Pre-school health examinations, which are a part of the new parent teacher programs. RESOLVED: that we extend to the Executive Board of the National Education Association our hearty thanks for the interesting and helpful program which it has provided. Signed, M. FRANCES MCELROY E. LOUISE HOYT (MRS.) MINNETTA SAMMIS LEONARD, Chairman . Miss Baker, president, recommended to the group assembled that we retain the present committee on research work with Miss Mary Dabney Davis as chairman, and the motion was made and carried that this recommendation be adopted, and the committee continue the valuable work presented to the kindergarten body at this meeting. Through the courtesy of the National Education Association and the splendid coöperation of Miss Winn and Mr. Morgan, the report was printed and put into shape for distribution at this convention. Miss Baker then introduced Miss Davis, who gave a very concise and clear survey of her year's work. We feel that this work will be of tremendous value to the kindergarten in stimulating interest among the kindergartners and superin 480 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tendents. This paper was a continuation of Miss Davis' report given last year on a "Typical Kindergarten Day," showing a result of the research work of this committee. Dr. George D. Strayer of Teachers College, New York, followed with a paper on "Appraisal of the Study." He commended Miss Davis' work and said, that before this he had not really known that we had such a thing as a curriculum nor distinction of methods in kindergarten and suggested that as we become better acquainted with research work in kindergarten, we may extend down farther still. He further said: "I believe this research will effect not only kindergarten but primary and grade work ." Miss Alice Temple opened the discussion on the "Value and Implications of the Study on Future Progress." She discussed the relative values of a one or two work period in a kindergarten, and also said: "If we could join forces with the International Kindergarten Union and the Primary-Council in our research we would have much to offer to the curriculum." Miss Margaret Holmes, of New York City, spoke from the supervisor's point of view as to how this report could be used. Miss Jane Joslin, of Cleveland, Ohio, spoke from the classroom teacher's point of view and said that the teacher needs encouragement and support, needs to be relieved from the habit of overwork; the handling of too many children a day, thus leaving time for more intelligent study. She believes that the crux of the whole matter is that there are no standards to determine the number of children under one teacher. She also needs liberation from the attitude of "pathological seriousness " which is characteristic of the average educator. She needs release from the domination of many opinions and more freedom to arrive at convictions for herself. Miss Cook, from Japan, extended greetings from our ninety-eight workers in Japan and appreciation of the wonderful assistance our country has offered. She said : "The best work we do over here is not too good for over there." The meeting was declared closed. The final gatherings of the kindergartners were purely social. On Wednesday, the kindergartners of Indianapolis whose welcome has been so genuine and generous, gave a delightful luncheon at Teachers College. On Thursday, many of the members attended the luncheon given by the National Council of Primary Education and Department of Kindergarten Education in the Riley Room at the Claypool Hotel. KINDERGARTEN PROGRESS DURING THE PAST TWENTY -FIVE YEARS LUCY GAGE, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION , GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE There are many in this audience, no doubt, who have lived the last quarter of a century of kindergarten progress and know just how wonder- ful it has been to be a part of it all. We are here today to take note of that progress and to pause long enough to realize a little more fully the contribution made by those who blazed the trail which we now so fully enjoy as a well-traveled road. Previous to 1900 the kindergarten was known largely as a philanthropic and charity venture to care for the unfortunate children of the congested districts of our larger cities. In many instances these free kindergartens, DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 481 as they were then called, were doing exceptional work educationally. The conscious endeavor of these early students of child life lifted the kinder- garten to a new level of recognition. About this time the world at large began to think of the kindergarten as something more than a place where children were tended and amused. They found the kindergarten teacher a trained worker, understanding her raw material and her processes much more clearly than the average ele- mentary teacher of that day. This daily conscious effort on the part of a trained woman with young children under six years of age began to show itself in child behavior- evidenced in better habits and attitudes ; yet at this time the kindergarten continued to be felt as essentially a moral force in the community. Gradu- ally, however, it was coming to be more widely respected educationally, by reason of the character of the teacher's intelligence and the results shown by her training in daily practice. The city of St. Louis stands out as the oldest center of the public school kindergartens in America due to the devotion and zeal of one of the best known pioneer leaders, Susan Blow, as well as Dr. W. T. Harris who was then superintendent of the St. Louis public schools. This was as early as 1873 . Massachusetts, together with other New England States, in the east, Wisconsin in the North Central, and California in the west stand out as favored spots where public money was being expended for education of children under six years of age, previous to 1900. Traditional kindergarten practice during the eighteen nineties were being questioned-on trial, so to speak, in the minds of some educators, due to the challenge of biologists and psychologists whose criticisms awakened in the minds of the most forward-looking thinkers and workers a ques- tioning attitude toward the then accepted kindergarten procedure. Among those in the late nineties who most earnestly and thoughtfully weighed these criticisms and profited by them was Anna E. Bryan of Louisville and Chicago. Closely associated with Miss Bryan were Patty Smith Hill of Louisville and Alice Temple of Chicago. Miss Bryan died in 1901 having exercised a remarkable influence by her integrity of mind and her fearless yet sweet spirit. The leadership of this reconstruction movement was then left to Patty Smith Hill and Alice Temple to carry on with other workers who had caught the vision. How well these two leaders have done this is shown by the fact that to each belongs today the most significant and outstanding educational training centers in America, namely : Teachers College, New York, and the School of Education, University of Chicago. To these women scientific criticism continues to be an open door to further progress for the kindergarten. There was a sharp rise in the early years of 1900 in the number of States and Territories legalizing the kindergarten as a part of their public school systems and, in many communities where State legislation failed, 482 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the city boards of education took over the entire or partial support of the kindergartens, thus giving the education of the young child a recognized place in the school system. The first decade of the new century will al- ways stand out as a flowering period for the kindergarten in our public schools as it reached a new level educationally and a new stability resulted, in marked contrast to the rather haphazard and often uncertain support of a mission board, a settlement house, a church society, a civic club or some local industry. This all reads rather glibly but to those who weathered the storm of ignorance and prejudice it seems necessary to stop at this point and ac- knowledge the support, both normal and financial, given the movement by "The Women's Federated Clubs" of this country and the "National Congress of Mothers." Without the assistance of these loyal women the cause of kindergarten could not be written so favorably at this period. Paralleling the remarkable growth of the kindergarten in public edu- cation has been the urgent need of more and better-trained teachers. The training centers, then located only in our larger, widely-separated cities, could supply only a limited number. Bills introduced in our State legisla- tures legalizing public school kindergartens, often included provision for training departments in the normal schools of the State and, rather rapidly, kindergarten training became much more available locally. As a consequence in most States where public kindergartens flourish we find well established training in both State and city normal schools for teachers of young children . Without the fine quality of work of such outstanding pioneer leaders in kindergarten education as Elizabeth Peabody, Madame Kraus-Boelte, Mrs. Carl Schurz, Susan Blow, Caroline Haven, Lucy Wheelock, Anna Laws, Elizabeth Harrison, the Hofer sisters, Mrs. Alice Putnam, Eva B. Whit- more, Anna E. Bryan, Mrs. James Hughes, Mary McCulloch, Mary Boomer Page and a host of others these later developments would have been impossible. To these fore-runners, the younger and coming gene- rations of teacher training owe an undying loyalty. Among these women are those who made possible the International Kindergarten Union or- ganized in 1892, and under whose program we are assembled today. The growth of training centers has been steadily away from those under private control and support toward those under city, State, or endowed institutional support giving a permanency and added security to this phase of education. Another strong tendency that is now prevalent is to lengthen the course from two to three and four years with added graduate study. During this period kindergarten education has taken its rightful place in the meetings of the National Education Association. This was brought about largely through the organized effort of the International Kinder- garten Union in general and the tact, insight, and wisdom of Lucy Wheelock of Boston in particular. Under the influence of ex-United States Commissioner of Education Claxton the kindergarten was given recognition on its own account in DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 483 the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., during his term of office. Myra Winchester, Julia Wade Abbott, and Nina E. Vanderwalker have each served as specialists upon whom we have come to depend for accurate information and statistics. Working in close accord with the Bureau of Education has been the National Kindergarten Association of New York represented by Miss Locke. These two agencies have extended the cause of kindergarten education to a remarkable degree. As the kindergarten came to have its recognized place in public educa- tion it was but natural that its influence would extend itself into the ele- mentary grades. Wherever the kindergarten and early grades have sub- scribed to modern educational principles and practice modification has taken place in both fields to the extent that they are more and more neces- sary to one another. Where we find the best primary work going for- ward there we find the best kindergarten work preceding it. During the past decade, since 1915, we have seen the most marked progress in this direction. In the more progressive public schools we find the kindergarten and early grades closely united by common purposes and ideals under one supervising head. In the more progressive training centers we find a parallel situation, with a common course of study being offered all early elementary teachers-the kindergarten recognized as the first step in the elementary school. While the influence of the kindergarten has been moving upward through the elementary grades, it has within the past five years begun to make itself felt in the life of the younger child moving into the field of nursery education. Patty Smith Hill is sponsoring this movement in America by introducing courses in Teachers College, New York. These courses interest kindergarten teachers in a constructive way, reaching back into the life of the child and conditioning it for better health, better habits, better atti- tudes than the hit-and-miss home conditions have usually done. Kindergarten education is extending itself far beyond its own immediate field as a cross-section of present-day conditions in education will reveal . It is in line with one of the most helpful signs upon the horizon-the general interest in the welfare of the "Pre-School Child." This study is being stimulated among college women through the "Association of Uni- versity Women." It is the most recent approach to our intelligent citizen- ship to become acquainted with child life. The south is only just awakening to this study of the "Pre-School Child. " It has been very slow in opening public kindergartens and now we find them confined almost wholly to our larger cities. Louisville, New Orleans, Mobile, Atlanta, Asheville, and Knoxville are the most conspicuous centers . The others are largely supported by cotton mills and other industries, settle- ment houses and mission boards. It is our belief that the public kinder- garten will come into its own in the south by a very different route than in other sections of our country due to the very different conditions and tra- ditions existent there. An intelligent comprehension on the part of parents of the needs of the pre-school child will bring a demand for the kinder 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION garten, together with school surveys that show the inadequacy of present- day provisions for early education, to school authorities. During the past twenty-five years there has been a steady growth of the kindergarten movement. A constantly increasing respect for childhood is evidenced in the business and industrial world, in the courts, in the play movement, in the health propaganda and in general literature. All of this bears testimony to the public's belief in the child as a great asset to human society. The kindergarten has played no small part in this changed atti- tude of the public mind. There is a growing intelligence on the part of patrons of our public schools through various agencies, chief of which has been the Parent-Teacher Association, an outgrowth in many instances of the one time "Kindergarten Mothers' Club." Courses in "Child Life" and "Child Education" are now available to school men and school women in our leading universities and colleges. This makes possible a finer intelli- gence and sympathy on the part of school administrators toward teachers of young children. The quarter of a century just closing has put the kindergarten upon a permanent educational basis with the next great step to be taken by the south, in her public schools. Public education has been weak at the foundation due to building from the top, down. With increased respect and intelligence for the young child's needs we shall soon reverse this order and build from the bottom up, which will result in a new type of structure, that shall function and fulfill the purposes for which our nation was founded: liberty, by re- specting law; equality, through opportunity to develop; and fraternity, by learning how to live and work together. CHANGES IN CURRICULA AND METHOD DURING THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS IN KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION PATTY S. HILL, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY American education in all its ramifications has made rapid changes in both curricula and method in the past twenty-five years, substituting as far as possible the method of experimentation and proof for tradition, authority and opinion. The kindergarten was slow in responding to this scientific movement of research for several reasons. In the first place, experts in research who entered whole-heartedly into the reconstruction of elementary and secondary education, had too little interest in or knowledge of the young child to enter this field with any hope or guarantee of success. The objectives in kindergarten education were too vague and ill-defined to inspire their effort in so unpromising a situation, even when kindergartners urged their cooperation. In the second DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 485 place kindergartners had to learn by experience that they could hope for no research in their work until they, themselves, were trained in methods of research, and could conduct the experiments or offer such intelligent coöperation to research workers as would guarantee some modicum of success for the effort expended by pioneers in an unworked situation. Notwithstanding these discouragements, no body of educators has sur- passed progressive kindergarten teachers in their continuous efforts to reconstruct both theory and practice in the light of present day science, psychology, hygiene, and pedagogical progress in other fields. They have utilized the knowledge contributed by every wave of progress influencing elementary and secondary education, and most of the time without the assistance offered by experts to the teachers in these fields. The situation is greatly improved now, but in the past not only research leaders but administrators were too indifferent to the welfare of the young child to initiate or encourage movements of reconstruction urged by kindergarten leaders manifesting eagerness to keep their work abreast of the times . In the present-day reconstructed kindergarten little remains of the teach- ings and practice of Froebel and those pioneers who introduced the kinder- garten into this country. Recently some kindergartners have urged a new name for the kindergarten, as an outward evidence of the evolution of the new out of the old. However, as the imported name had been accepted by the American people for more than a half century, efforts to substitute such terms as " Pre-Primary" or "Junior Primary" met with ill success . Science has been made and remade many times since Froebel's day. Psychology had made little more than a start in an existence of its own separated from philosophy and theology. Though Froebel was the best known educational exponent of a system of philosophy which did not adapt itself gracefully to the incoming data of science then and later, Froebel himself was deeply interested in science, going from one university to another in search of the scant knowledge available in his day. Though evolution was in its swaddling clothes, he eagerly grasped it as the only solution of creation. Darwin had not given the world his "Origin of Species", though Froebel's professor of Botany was one of those who were influenced by Goethe and Oken who paved the way for the more scientific presentations which came a decade and more after Froebel's death. The German school of Idealistic Philosophy was not only indifferent to, but antagonistic toward the rapidly developing scientific movement initiated by the leading scientists of the day. Many of the pioneers in kindergarten education in this country were closely affiliated with the Hegelian move- ment and were closely identified with the Transcendental School of Philosophy at Concord in the days of Emerson, Alcott and Hawthorne. Among these were Horace Mann, his wife and her two sisters-Mrs . Nathaniel Hawthorne and Miss Elizabeth Peabody, Dr. William T. Harris, Miss Susan Blow, Dr. Denton Snider, and others. These were deeply imbued with the Hegelian philosophy of the day, and those who lived to see the new day with scientific data difficult to square with their 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION "world views" and philosophical interpretations, found adaptation difficult and well-nigh impossible. A new generation of kindergartners had to grow up who could realize the fact that the data of science had to be faced. Though these were trained under the old Froebelian leaders, they found a break with the old order inevitable, if the kindergarten was to march abreast of the times. These so-called radicals found immediate encouragement offered by the leaders in the new psychology and child study immediately interested in their efforts to change kindergarten practice. As we give a retrospective glance over our past trying to locate the per- sonalities who ministered to our need in the reconstructive period, a wave of gratitude sweeps over us for their loyalty to our cause, the time and attention they bestowed upon our problems, the courteous and respectful but frank criticism they meted to our first crude efforts to improve upon traditional methods. In the early nineties Colonel Francis Parker, then principal of the justly famous Cook County Normal School, was one of the earliest students of Froebel and the kindergarten, accepting many of Froebel's principles while rejecting much of his practice which was to his critical mind a gross violation of Froebel's theories of creativity and freedom. These principles Colonel Parker had accepted as the basis for his reconstruction of primary education, introducing drawing, painting, modelling, singing, dancing, etc. , etc. as "modes of expression." As he utilized these in his methods of teaching the three R's as tools-as means to a higher end, he was impressed with the formalism that still remained in the kindergarten as compared with the freedom and self expression in his reconstructed grades. Το kindergartners he preached the gospel-" The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life," and gave his loyal support and encouragement to any bold spirits who had the courage to break with traditional practice, applying Froebel's principles in better forms. He was one of the pioneers in freeing both the kindergarten and the elementary school from their enslaving influences on both children and teacher and in so doing he was the first to unify the kindergarten and first grade in one continuous process, so that a child could pass from one into the other without any break or loss oftime. From 1890 to 1900 there swept over this country a great wave of child study, emphasizing the differences between adults and children in thought, feeling, and conduct. This movement also magnified the stages of develop- ment through which the child was supposed to pass. These stages, with their characteristic instincts and levels of development, were to be studied as the basis for new curricula, and methods adapted to the needs of the varying levels of maturity. Dr. G. Stanley Hall was the outstanding figure in this movement, assuming the presidency of the first graduate university of research devoted to the exclusive study of child-nature and its needs. This movement altered profoundly the theory and practice of the kindergartens, not only through the research work of Clarke University, but through the annual meeting of the Illinois Child Study Society, DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 487 usually meeting in the city of Chicago. At these gatherings the results of research were presented and the necessity for changes in educational practice presented by such leaders asG. Stanley Hall, John Dewey and Francis Parker. About 1893 to 1895 Dr. John Dewey, who was then in the University of Chicago, became interested in the kindergarten, and willingly gave his time and attention to any kindergarten leader who manifested a desire to coöperate with him in a study of the kindergarten problem. He found in Miss Anna E. Bryan, who had in 1893 returned to Chicago, after establishing the kindergartens and the normal school in Louisville, Ken- tucky, an able and most intelligent co-worker. Later he opened an experi- mental kindergarten in his experimental school, under her supervision . Hardly had this progressive work in the kindergartens of Louisville and Chicago started when Dr. G. Stanley Hall issued an appeal to the leading kindergartners of that day inviting them to join with him in a study of the kindergarten child and the prevailing practice of the day. This was to be accomplished through a course planned especially for them and offered in the summer session of 1895. While two kindergartners only responded to this call, they had been prepared for this study by previous training under Colonel Parker and Dr. Dewey. This was a wonderful opportunity for these two leaders and when through their enthusiasm a similar course was offered the following summer, thirty- five of the prominent kindergartners of this country met and studied under Dr. Hall and Dr. William Burnham. These were not the only results ofDr. Hall's deep interest in the kindergarten child, as he inspired many of his ablest graduate students to go on with the problem. Among them were Dr. Frederick Burk of California, Dr. Luther Gulick, Dr. Frederic Ely, and Dr. Arnold Gesell. Dr. Gesell's work in the scientific study of infants and young children in his Psycho-clinic at Yale University now exerts an increasing influence in education and clinical-welfare work. In the editorials called forth by Dr. Hall's recent death, slight credit was given to him for having initiated the health work in the schools of America, which has since then assumed such enormous proportions in stimulating new curricula and methods. The most oft repeated note of his teaching in those early days were : first, the sublime right of the kindergarten child to physical health, and the possibility of making the kindergarten of the future a " Para- dise of Health." Dr. Hall believed that the day would come when the young child could receive the ministrations of doctors, nurses, psychologists, psychiatrists and dentists together with a pedagogical guidance superior to that offered in even the most intelligent homes. As the kindergartens and primary schools of the day were under the severest criticism because of the effect of indoor life, small hand and eye work, for herding children under conditions which multiplied the dangers of contagious and infectious diseases, people smiled at his prophesy of a "Paradise of Health." This prophesy is being realized today in some half dozen or more nursery schools and kinder- gartens in our country and England affiliated with clinics which provide 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION just such care. We who were students of Dr. Hall in these pioneer days wish he might have lived to see his dream realized in such places as the Child Welfare Institutes in the Universities of Iowa, Columbia, and Ohio and in the excellent work being done in the nursery schools of Detroit, Cleveland, Boston and other places. Dr. Hall's emphasis on the primacy of the emotions in their relation to mental and physical health has developed into the psychiatry and mental hygiene of our day with their demands for health and happiness as the birthright of little children. His interest in the school as an environment of health, happiness and beauty, with proper ventilation, lighting and cleaning, are being realized in beautiful and sanitary school buildings all over America. Individual drinking cups, towels and soap, were instigated by his teaching. Plays and games, music, art, literature and industrial arts on a sufficiently large scale to appeal to the large muscles-these embodied in a new curriculum and set in an atmosphere of freedom and self-expres- sion, were being promulgated by Dr. Hall as far back as 1890 to 1895. The next great changes in kindergarten practice must be traced to the influence of Dr. John Dewey who came into the kindergartens to study our practice and help in the reconstruction. Dr. Hall's work was first destructive of the old, followed by a dreamer's prophesy of the new. But Dr. Dewey helped us to reconstruct a new order out of the old, with infinite patience in the study of details of the practice to be substituted. His pragmatic philosophy, embodying the best in the psychology and sociology of the day called for a careful study of the child, and a patient overhauling of every detail in curriculum and method. His emphasis upon interest in relation to effort, morality as involving choice, the principles of democ- racy in school organization, thinking as conditioned in problematic situa- tions when applied in kindergarten education, necessarily led to a new curriculum and new methods of teaching and social organization. In many instances the kindergarten preceded the grades in its reconstruction of practice in the light of Dr. Dewey's principles. The so-called "project method" with its emphasis upon the child's ability and right to plan as well as execute the plans of the teacher, the ability and the right of chil- dren to learn from and help each other, has given us the socialized kinder- garten of today. No one has contributed to the reconstruction of kinder- garten practice the impetus of Dr. Dewey, not only through his theories of life and education as a part of life, but through his interest in and coöperation with those seriously attempting its reconstruction. Between fifteen and twenty years later when Dr. Montessori issued her passionate appeal for the child's right to learn the discipline of life through liberty together with her criticism of the "lock step" procedure through the grade and class methods of instruction, the reconstructed kindergarten of America had been applying both principles with far more creative materials and under a freer class organization and social living for more than a decade. Nevertheless, Dr. Montessori's popular appeal for liberty as the condition for growth in self-government, and her insistence on freeing the child from DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 489 the slavery of group instruction must be acknowledged as one of the con- tributing factors in freeing the kindergarten from the formalism in mate- rials and social organization imported from Germany. This is true in spite of the fact that no one thoroughly versed in Dr. Dewey's funda- mental principles could accept Dr. Montessori's out-of-date faculty psy- chology, based upon the outworn doctrine of transfer of training, or her formal didactic material so limiting to the imaginative free expression of children's interests in social life. Her conception of the imagination and its rôle in child-life was another stumbling block to American teachers. While its is true that the modern kindergarten had taught children to serve their own luncheon, setting the table, washing the dishes, to care for their pets, to clean up their room after a work period, etc., for a decade a great impetus to the teaching of self help came to the kindergarten through Dr. Montessori's exposition of the exercises of practical life. The nursery school movement in England and America has been and will be more and more a stimulating influence in the continued reconstruc- tion of the kindergarten. Its great contribution is the nursing aspect of education. A grand-niece of Froebel-Frau Schräder-preceded the Eng- lish nursery movement by the establishment of the Pestalozzi Froebel Haus in Berlin, emphasizing the physical care of young children. She was a most remarkable woman and would have accomplished much more than she did if she had been in such countries as England or America. Won- derful as the work of the two great English pioneers in the nursery schools is, they need financing to develop their ideas fully, and because of our greater national wealth in this country, and our more widespread oppor- tunities for research, we have gone much further than they have in the science of nutrition and in psychological research. We should gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to both Miss Margaret McMillan and Miss Grace Owen, but with our research facilities financed by the wealth of America, if we do not lead the world in the knowledge and care of young children it will be to our everlasting shame. No nursery training schools in this country utilize hospital experience to the extent that England does, nor have any of us worked out such fresh air facilities. Nor, again, have American boards of education or superintendents of schools yet equaled the English in financing their nursery schools with funds from the public school treasury. The English standards of voice and speech and the calm reposeful temperament of their nursery workers will be difficult for our American teachers to attain, but the widespread application of psychology to the methods of teaching, with its laws of learning, its tests and measurements give opportunities for a superior ability in the art of instruction. Many traditional forms of kindergarten practice cast out in the reconstruction movement in this country still persist in many of the nursery schools of other countries. We Americans must work out an American institution, learning from the great work of England without repeating the error of the pioneer 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION kindergartners and Montessori teachers in an uncritical importation of foreign systems of education for American children. We have much to learn from the German kindergartens in the past, the Italian Houses of Childhood, and the English Nursery Schools, but we must not import them unadapted and uncriticized. We must learn from all, but must build a nursery school fitted to our own national and educational needs. Another contributing factor in the reconstructive work in the kinder- garten is the utilization of the health work with mothers and babies in maternity centres, baby welfare clinics, etc. Such organizations as the American Institute of Child Health need our coöperation as much as we need theirs. Such health organizations as this will be glad to contribute their help in the construction of health curricula. For more than a dozen years progressive kindergartens have been teaching health habits as a definite part of the curriculum, realizing that it may be more important to teach little children "the covered sneeze and cough," to keep fingers out of the mouth, to masticate food, or to wash the hands before eating, than to teach singing, literature, art or number. To the credit of the kinder- garten must it be said that large numbers of teachers have struggled for years to secure proper health conditions, but an educational campaign will have to be waged with educational administrators, boards of education and parents' organizations before such work can be universally conducted in our public school kindergartens. Modern psychology with its methods of research has been and still is a tremendous stimulus to reconstruction in the kindergarten. The demand for a more definite statement of our objectives, together with tests of progress made by kindergarten children has been of untold benefit in im- proving instruction. It has been a struggle to bring this movement into kindergartens for several reasons. Until we had psychologists who would specialize with young children, the needs of young children were invariably crowded out in research. Until kindergartners themselves were willing to take their higher degrees in psychological research, little along this line could be accomplished in the kindergarten. We now have in use tests of intelligence, both individual and group, which have been most effective both in their guidance of the teacher in better grouping in the kindergarten, and in promoting children from the kindergarten into the first grade. A goodly proportion of kindergarten children are being weighed and measured regularly and reports on growth sent regularly to parents. The problem of records of improvement introduced as far back as 1915 are being improved by being made more objective, and less the result of statements based on the untrained judgment of the teacher. The Inter- national Kindergarten Union has had national committees collecting and disseminating knowledge along these lines with the coöperation and criti- cism of psychologists. While much has been accomplished, much more is to be done before satisfactory scientific records of progress will be possible, DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION +91 except in kindergartens and nursery schools affiliated with psychological clinics. Fortunately the whole attitude toward the young child is rapidly chang- ing. We who are working with young children today have opportunities never dreamed of by our predecessors. Never before in the history of education has any educational movement had the opportunity to build new, scientific, curricula that we have at present. To build a new cur- riculum at a period when research is offering assistance in more than a half dozen universities is a great opportunity. Child welfare clinics are now associated with the work with young children in the universities of Iowa, Yale, Columbia, Chicago, Ohio, Cornell, Michigan, Minnesota and Temple, in addition to the splendid work being done in the nursery schools in the Bureau of Educational Experiments, the Merrill-Palmer School of Detroit and in Cleveland. Most of these have research clinics where definite knowledge regarding the nature and needs of young children is being discovered and disseminated for the benefit of kindergartners, nursery school workers, Montessori teachers, primary teachers and parents. The following are some of the lines of research under investigation : Nutrition and dietary, with definite knowledge regarding the effects of eggs, milk, cod liver oil, etc. on growth, and resistance to disease, growth curves in weight and height, the effects of sunlight and open air on physical and emotional conditions; the examination of the contents of the intestines and the kidneys to discover sources of individual difficulties ; examinations of posture, flat foot, the blood; heart; daily records of bowel habits and sleeping habits; colds, their causes, prevention and cure; the effects of exercise, and frequency of exercise on learning; the effects of approval and disapproval on improvement; the effects of emotional disturbances in at- titudes which in turn influence learning, for example, fear, anger, timidity, pleasure, sense of failure, self-depreciation, egocentric, tantrums and stub- bornness ; the effects of too much and too little affection on mental and emotional health; sex-disturbances, dreams, etc., etc., too numerous to record. While it is realized that children of the same chronological age and mental age vary too greatly to draw any hard and fast conclusions regard- ing standards of achievement, definite records are being made of possible achievements to expect from children two to three, three to four, four to five and five to six. Out of these daily records of achievements actually mastered by children of these different ages, we ought to be able to build curricula based upon trustworthy knowledge as to what to expect and demand of children of different intelligence levels in the nursery school and kindergarten. Last, but not least, we are being influenced by the behavioristic psy- chology leading us to set up definite objectives in technique, conduct or behaviour which should be the outgrowth of each school subject and period of the daily schedule. Our final objective whether in the realm of the social, health or moral situations, music, art, literature or number, 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is, and must be, the changed child, -the child whose habits and attitudes, whose thoughts and feelings, whose ideals and appreciations have been altered for the better, and made permanent in improved technique, con- duct or behavior. When education is viewed from this angle, the cur- riculum will include all the responses made by the child from the moment he enters until he leaves our care. Nay more, we will help parents to build a curriculum for the home, where the mother or father is responsible-the home reporting progress to the school, the school reporting progress to the home. The two learning situations in which the young child lives, moves, and has his being, are the home and the school. The teachers in these two situations are the kindergartner and the parents. Until these two teachers unite in making the learning process continuous in both situations, behavior and conduct cannot develop into habit, and habit into character, disposition, personality, and citizenship, which will make the world a happier place for self and society. GENERAL PRACTICE IN KINDERGARTENS OF THE UNITED STATES MARY DABNEY DAVIS, DARIEN, CONNECTICUT A resolution to publish a circular on "A Day's Work in Kindergarten" was passed three years ago by the Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association. During the following year the officers of the department under the chairmanship of Miss Alma Binzel , obtained the coöperation of the Executive Board of the Association and appointed a committee to carry on the necessary research. The committee, called the Research Committee of the Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association, repre- sents the main geographical divisions of the United States. Miss M. Madilene Veverka, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor of Los Angeles, California, represents the western division; Mrs. Ernest Horn of Iowa City, Iowa and Miss Olga Adams of the School of Education in the Uni- versity of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, represent the Great Plains and the Great Lakes divisions ; Miss Allene Seaton, Supervisor of Kindergartens in Louisville, Kentucky, represents the southern division; and the chairman represents the eastern division . The committee soon found a large number of possibilities for research within the topic. "A Day's Work in Kindergarten" could mean a study of habit formation, a study of objectives-general or specific, studies in methods of procedure or in efficient program construction. It could also include investigations of comparative values of the practices now found in kindergartens, or studies of the effect of kindergarten education upon children's growth in habit formation or ability to learn. The fact was recognized by the Research Committee that kinder- DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 493 gartens are still becoming a part of the school systems in many cities and that many school administrators know little or nothing of what ordinarily takes place during a kindergarten session. It was also recognized that there are several accepted practices in the manner of conducting kinder- gartens which need careful studies in evaluation. No presentation had been made of general practice in kindergarten education from which those uninformed could be enlightened, or upon which those experienced in kindergarten work could base future investigations. It was then decided to present facts which would depict kindergarten practice as it takes place today throughout the country. All studies in the evaluation and analysis of the practice portrayed were left for future in- vestigations. It was anticipated that the facts presented could furnish stimulation and foundational material for these investigations. To secure facts representative of general kindergarten practice, the fol- lowing procedure for gathering data was decided upon : 1. To secure at least four stenographic reports of full sessions of kin- dergartens from each State. These to represent two public schools, one teacher training institution and one private school, distributed, if possible, among cities of different sizes. 2. To request information to be sent with these reports from the per- son in supervisory charge of kindergartens and from the teacher regarding the "typicalness" of the day's work reported; the time program in use ; the attendance; the nationalities of the children; the reasons for selecting the kindergartens to be reported, etc. 3. To send an inquiry to kindergartners and superintendents of schools , to ask the teachers for the nomenclature they use for the kindergarten periods and for the activities which they include; for the distribution of time; and for the aims and methods used for each activity. From the superintendents to gather certain administrative details regarding en- rolments, attendance, length of kindergarten training provided and the supervision provided for kindergartners and primary teachers. In following this plan the Research Committee were dependent upon the generous coöperation of superintendents and supervisors, of directors of teacher training institutions and of the teachers in the kindergartens. For this coöperation may I express our warmest appreciation. Stenographic reports of 136 schools in 34 States were contributed. Replies to the inquiry were received from 535 teachers and 162 superintendents in time for analysis in the final report and many have arrived later and are being held for future investigations. After the Research Committee had formulated its plans and had gathered data, the chairman made the necessary analyses and wrote the report which is now presented for your use. For counsel and advice in making the analyses I am most grateful to members of the faculty of Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University. Throughout our study we have been most ably assisted by Miss Agnes S. Winn, Director of Classroom Service of the National Education Association . 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The report first shows the need for presenting facts about kindergarten education. It shows the growth in the number of kindergartens during the past fifty years; the improvement in State legislation for kindergartens ; evidence that kindergartens are being recognized as an integral part of many school systems; and evidence that many school administrators know little about kindergarten education. Evidence is then cited to show the variety of the school situations which the stenographic reports represent and also to show that the work reported is the normal, everyday procedure. Following these statements of the legal and educational status of the kindergarten and of the representativeness of the data which is used to depict kindergarten practice, there are analyses of the time schedules which accompanied the stenographic reports, of the content of the reports themselves and of the replies to the kindergarten inquiry. The first analysis is made of 131 time schedules. This includes dis- tributions of the names given to each period and of the activities included in the order of popularity with which they were used. The place in the day's time program commonly used for each period is shown graphically and an analysis of time for each subject or activity in terms of per cent and by geographical divisions of the country showing the time allotted for one subject in relation to all other subjects, the total time for one subject distributed among the geographical divisions, and the median length of time devoted to the several subjects or activities. From the composite distributions of time the kindergarten day devotes a little over a third of its time to physical activities such as games, rhythms. recess, luncheon and rest; devotes a third of its time to the general arts, the fine, industrial, domestic and dramatic arts ; and devotes the other third of its time to assembly periods such as the morning exercises and the discussion of work, and to literature and music in periods separated from the general assembly periods. There are wide variations in the use of time within each of the geo- graphical divisions of the country and among these divisions. Taken as a whole, the far western, the southern and eastern divisions spend more time for morning exercises and provide two short periods for the general arts rather than one long period. The middle western divisions provide more periods for a discussion of work and fewer periods for morning exercises ; more single work periods for the general arts ; and more periods for music and literature separated from the general assemblies. The nomenclature for the kindergarten activities is confusing to the average person because of the wide variety in use and because it often ex- presses method or tradition rather than the work of the period named. For example there were eighteen different names applied to the assembly period. These included such names as Conversational Period, Morning Circle, Circle, Opening Exercises, Discussion Period, Group Meeting, Music and Conversation, Greeting, Conference, Morning Talk, and Organization Period. There were preferences for these among the geographical di DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 495 visions of the country. Similar lists of names were given for the other activities of the kindergarten program. In general, practice is equally divided between starting the day with an assembly period or a work period for the General Arts. There are tendencies toward using particular times during the day for certain ac- tivities but there is no set program plan which is generally followed by the kindergartens of the United States. The Stenographic Reports-The analysis of the contents of the steno- graphic reports includes descriptions of the kindergarten rooms and gives accounts of the activities carried on, the positions taken by the groups of children and the methods of control used during the several periods of the program. Details are also given of the signals used by the teacher to gain the attention of the children; of the beginnings of number work and read- ing found within the day's work; and of coöperation between the kinder- gartens and the primary grades. Illustrations are quoted from the steno- graphic reports to show the kindergarten periods in action and to illus- trate the statements of method by which 449 lessons were scored. Since 90 per cent of the reports were taken during October and No- vember, the lists of songs, stories and games compiled indicate those which are more popularly used during the fall of the kindergarten year . The songs were chiefly nursery rhymes and nature songs and seem to be short and simple in structure. The literature included Mother Goose Rhymes, finger plays, folk tales and realistic stories of home life and of animals. The games fell largely under a heading of " activity" games which included social games, games leading to skill and competition, and rhythmic interpretation of music. Five statements of method on a scale of control ranging from teacher- control to child or self-control were made. The lessons scored by these statements show that generally in the fall of the year kindergartners use a method which incorporates the children's interests within the teachers' plans and that the teacher directs the children's work. The method used varies with the several kindergarten activities. For example, the single work period for the General Arts uses a method dependent upon the children's abilities to initiate and control their own work, while the morn- ing exercises or general assembly period uses a teacher-directed method. This variation continues among the other activities of the program. The traditional idea of the circle as a customary grouping of children in kindergartens is not true of present practice. The general assembly period uses the circle formation more than any of the other periods. Informal groupings about the teacher or careful arrangements according to abilities of the children to sing or to converse are quite general during the other activities of the day. There were constant evidences of the beginnings of the elementary school subjects within the several kindergarten activities. Number work was needed and used in practically all periods of the day and references to needs for reading were found particularly with groups of older children. 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Kindergarten Inquiry-The replies to the Kindergarten Inquiry substantiated the findings from the time schedules and the contents of the stenographic reports. The same wide range in nomenclature, similar allotments of time for the several activities of the program, and fairly similar lists of activities in the order of their popular use were found in this analysis. The scoring of methods used was corroborated by the teachers' statements of the methods which they use in the beginning of a term's work. In addition the replies showed that kindergartners tend to change the method of control used during a term. They start with teacher- directed work and move, in general, toward making greater demands upon the children's initiatives and independent control. The statements of aims which were made for each of the kindergarten periods were general and in a large measure were indefinite. No dominant objectives were deter- mined for the activities of the program because it was impossible to classify them as stated by the teachers. The responses to questions regarding the records and reports kept by kindergarten teachers show that there is more planning of work done by the teachers than keeping of records of the work accomplished or of the growth of individual children. Few kindergartens provide reports for the parents of the children's progress, though most of the kindergartners said that they made a point of talking with the parents informally about their children. Superintendents contributing administrative data regarding their kinder- gartens showed that the growth in average daily attendance keeps pace with the growth in the attendance for the elementary school. There is a fluctuation in the attendance month by month evidently influenced by the winter weather and by mid-year promotions. There is a wide variety in practice regarding entrance and promotion requirements, and there is no set custom in providing one or two years of kindergarten training. There are no standards for determining the number of children which may efficiently be enrolled with one or with two teachers or for determining when the enrolment of one kindergarten is sufficient to warrant starting a second kindergarten session or a second complete kindergarten room . In general there is little difference between the length of daily service required of kindergarten and primary teachers. Where there is but one session a day of kindergarten work the other half of the teacher's day is devoted largely to assisting in the grades, though there are many other plans made for the use of her time which assists the principal with his work or provides for visits in the children's homes. Two complete stenographic reports are reproduced at the conclusion of these analyses. These reports represent, as well as it is possible, the out- standing differences found in program construction, in activities carried on and materials used and in methods of control employed by the teacher. Summary and Recommendations-This brief survey of the report of gen DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 497 eral practice in kindergartens of the United States now being presented is an indication of the accumulated facts which are being laid before you. You can see in the report the tendencies in the use of time in kinder- gartens, the variety of nomenclature used for the several activities, the most popular activities, materials and kinds of songs, games and literature used in the early part of the kindergarten year. The indefinite quality of the statements of aims has been shown. The methods of control used commonly during the different periods of the kindergarten program have been described. It has been indicated that practice varies greatly within the geographical divisions of the country, and among these divisions. From these facts presented you may gain an idea of the variations in adminis- trative practices regarding kindergartens which occur throughout the country. Of what use are these facts ? These descriptions ? The Research Com- mittee trusts that they inform the uninitiated person as to what he may expect to find when he visits a kindergarten. For the persons experienced in kindergarten work we hope that there is sufficient stimulus and material for investigations in pre-kindergarten, kindergarten and primary education . Starting points for investigations are proposed throughout the study. They are further proposed by a suggested nomenclature, by the formulated state- ments of methods of control in teaching, by the attempted classifications of objectives, by the form of the analysis used for plays and games, and by the graphic representation of kindergarten attendance. Emphasis which some people may desire may be found to be lacking. Whatever is your response, the Research Committee offers this report through its parent organization, the National Education Association, for use in order that the education of young children will thereby be furthered and enriched. IMPORTANCE OF MISS DAVIS GENERAL SURVEY OF KINDERGARTEN PRACTICE IN THE UNITED STATES GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY We must know what current practice is in our schools if we are to improve them. Miss Davis, in her thorough-going survey of the work that is being done in the kindergartens, has given us this most important basis with the understanding of kindergarten education. Her report will prove most helpful, not only to specialists in this field of school work, but also to school administrators, and to other educators who have had little contact with the kindergarten, and who need to be informed con- cerning its curriculum, methods of teaching, and organization. Miss Davis has rendered a most important service in developing a terminology which describes the activities of the kindergarten non-technically. This 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION nomenclature, which it is safe to predict will grow in favor, indicates clearly the continuity of work as between the kindergarten and the primary school. It is quite a relief to one not versed in the peculiar terminology sometimes used by kindergartners to have presented for one's consideration as the curriculum of this part of the school system, the social studies, including geography, history and civics, nature study, including hygiene, the general arts, including the fine, industrial, domestic and dramatic arts ; physical education, music, literature and language. It may have been necessary in an earlier day when the elementary school was characterized by very rigid and formal procedures to indicate clearly the separateness of the kindergarten by a unique terminology. With the coming of the modern methods and reform curriculum of the lower grades , the need for any such distinctions has disappeared. Miss Davis' pioneer work in bringing about the reconciliation cannot fail to have a very im- portant effect both on the kindergarten and on the primary grades. An important contribution in the study has to do with the administrative problems of the kindergarten. Miss Davis proposes that we inquire con- cerning the load which kindergarten teachers are carrying and the assign- ment of these teachers to the first grade during the part of the year when the kindergarten enrolment is lowest. Her proposal that thorough-going inquiries be instituted with respect to the admission of children to kinder- garten, their classification and progress in this part of the school system should be carried out by every school system in the United States in which kindergartens are organized. The suggestion that supervision of kinder- garten and primary grades be undertaken by the same individual needs no support from one who believes in the necessary continuity in the edu- cative process. Taken all together, we have for the first time an adequate picture of the education which is being provided for children below the first grade of the elementary school. Without prejudice to any particular point of view, Miss Davis has faithfully reported the practice as it is. Her sug- gestions for evaluation of current practices and for improvement in the organization and administration of these schools are worthy of the careful consideration of all who would apply scientific method to the study of the problems of education. DISCUSSION OF THE VALUE AND IMPLICATION FOR SUPERVISORS OF THE REPORT ON THE STUDY OF KINDERGARTEN PRACTICE MARGARET C. HOLMES, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTENS NEW YORK CITY It is a pleasure to have this opportunity to congratulate the Research Committee on the completion of their valuable and, for the Kindergarten Department, unusual piece of work. Careful study of the report will DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 499 open up to all of us many avenues of use to which the information con- tained in this volume may contribute. I shall concern myself in this discussion not with the validity of the material presented in the report, but with its practical use to the super- visor. As I see it, there are two definite fields in which this report will be a practical aid to the supervisor; first, in its value to the supervisor in her work as an administrator. We have here a definite authoritative statement of kindergarten practices throughout the country, giving valu- able information for organization pleas with boards of education, boards of superintendents, etc., information concerning such problems as : 1. Growth in kindergarten service throughout the country and its present extent. 2. State kindergarten laws indicating the acceptance and responsibility for education of the four and five year old child. 3. Rules and regulations of boards of education concerning kindergarten age, courses of study, training school courses and other vital problems . 4. Present status of the kindergarten-primary supervisor. 5. The value of the inclusion of the kindergarten in a general survey of the school system. 6. How to organize to care for variation in attendance in kindergarten classes . 7. What shall be the determining factors for admission to kindergarten classes . In addition to this aspect of the report, we have its aid to the super- viser from the professional standpoint. There are two dangers which con- front the kindergarten supervisor; the danger of being lost in the routine of administration, and the danger which comes from the isolation of any supervisor of a department. The kindergarten supervisor needs most vitally to see local practices in relation to practices in other communities. This report will be of valuable aid in this regard. It should be the starting point for experimentation and investigation in the local community through comparison of practices in other communities. Take such a problem suggested in the report as the following analysis of time schedule : Is the division of time a matter of administrative policy, or is it a matter con- cerning philosophy of education or accepted principles of psychology. On what principle am I, as a supervisor basing the procedure in my community ? How does it compare with other communities ? Do I see here a fruitful field for experimen- tation within my group of teachers ? How can I arrange conditions whereby I can evaluate and compare local procedure with that of other communities ? In the same manner are suggested lines of investigation in many different activities of the kindergarten. Under music we find suggested material for investigating kindergarten objectives-time allotment-place in day's program, etc. Under language and literature such problems arise as what activities should be included- what place in day's program-what time allotment. Under work period for the general arts such problems arise as the following : 500 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. Do children of kindergarten age require supervised instruction with ma- terials, and is it better to provide a separate period for that purpose ? 2. Is the short span of interest which is characteristic of this age of child better cared for by two periods of work than by one which is longer ? 3. Does the one work period include opportunity for teachers-supervised and self-directed work which the two separate periods provide ? There is an interesting and informative analysis of physical activities in the kindergarten leading on to worthwhile investigations and evaluation of different forms of procedure. Investigation of possible outcomes develop- ing from the various forms of practice will surely be an inspiration and challenge to the supervisor to defend or to change the method of pro- cedure in her community. This report showing the many varying forms of kindergarten practice throughout the country is surely an indication of the strength and vitality of the kindergarten itself, with its picture of a dynamic growing kinder- garten and not a static method of teaching. This report will surely be an inspiration to the supervisor leading her on to more scientific experimentation and more creative leadership. Through the wise use of this material we will render to the Committee its just reward for their labors. DISCUSSION OF THE VALUE AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY FOR FUTURE PROGRESS JANE ELIZABETH JOSLIN, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTEN HATHAWAY BROWN SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO May I take this opportunity to congratulate the Research Committee and its chairman on the splendid piece of work which they have accom- plished ? The whole-hearted response and coöperation which they have received from thirty-four States is also cause for satisfaction, and indicates a widespread interest in the whole subject. This report is reassuring and forms a substantial basis for further study. May this analysis be like a beam of light to all those who are inter- ested in the education of little children, beckoning them on to investigate more fully present conditions in the educational field and to determine the possibilities of the future. We believe in education. We believe in the education of little chil- dren. We believe that the Progressive Education of the present time is the highest form of method which humanity has seen. The kindergarten teacher needs and desires to know this principle of development for she is daily brought face to face with the vital issues of life, and feels the challenge of the future progress of America. She realizes that out of the conflict of traditions the variations of historical setting, and the vast differences in talents and tastes there has come a period of reconstruction of curriculum and method of instruction in the DEPARTMENT OF Kindergarten EDUCATION 501 field of education and she knows that some kind of spiritual union must be evolved. She is trying to make this adjustment and she needs encouragement. She needs encouragement and help from the institution in which she received her training. She needs the intelligent support of her superior officers and of the public in the work that she is accomplishing. There is a clarion call for supervisors who can liberate her and help her to make adjustments along the following lines : (1) She needs to be relieved from the habit of over-work. Why must one teacher handle ninety-six children alone day after day, fifty in the morning and forty-six in the afternoon ? How can such a teacher have any time left in the day for study or for college extension work, after she has put away materials in her room, made a record of the activities of the individual children, and a tenta- tive outline of the work to be accomplished for the following day? I believe that the crux of the whole matter is to be found in the analysis itself, namely, that there are no standards to determine the number of children which may efficiently be enroled with one or two teachers, or to determine when the enrolment of one kindergarten is sufficient for starting a second kindergarten session or a second complete kindergarten room. (2) The teacher of young children needs relief from a heavy inflexible system in many cases, that makes it impossible year after year to secure necessities in room equipment and adequate housing conditions. (3) She needs liberation from the attitude of pathalogical seriousness which is characteristic of the average educator. The profession of teaching is one of in- spiration and should bring joy and growth to everyone who participates in it. There should be no drab or gloomy poets or school teachers . (4) She needs inspiration and vision, which come to her through the supervisor and through contact with great thinkers and leaders as well as professional clubs and magazines . (5) Lastly, the kindergarten teacher needs release from the domination of many opinions, and more freedom to arrive at convictions of pedagogical truths for . herself. How can she do her share in gathering together the raw materials for a new social order or study educational conditions scientifically when she has so little opportunity herself for independent thinking ? She needs to live and think and enjoy as a free individual. Then she will be enabled to make an adequate program for the children in her care. Then she will be prepared to understand their needs in terms of society, to be honest in her convictions, and fearless and strong of purpose in doing her part to formulate a curriculum and determine school policies. Her program will vary from that of another teacher and it will vary from year to year, because of the needs of the locality, of the children in her group, and because of her own growth. Such variation is desirable. We are glad that the analysis indicates no set procedure. The last thing that should be desired is a stereotyped program. It is interesting to note that in an investigation made by Miss Anne Moore¹ it was discovered that in a list of thirty-nine cities of New Eng- land and the Central Atlantic Coast, two only treat kindergartens as a 1 The Primary School, Houghton Mifflin Co. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION definite part of the school system, while twenty-eight do not mention them in their courses of study. In a list of twenty-eight cities in the middle west and west, five have a kindergarten course of study and fifteen do not. This is a better percentage and corroborates the findings of Miss Davis in regard to the status of different localities. It would be inter- esting to trace the history of the incorporation of the courses of study indicated by the analysis under discussion. By whom was each one made? How much freedom does the individual teacher have in following it? Does it hamper initiative and creative work or has it been successful? Has it united the kindergarten more closely to the school system ? Granting that a course of study is advisable, is it not timely to recom- mend that a skelton course of study be outlined by this department of the National Education Association and used as suggestive material for the different States ? Such a course of study should be brief. It should contain suggestions for giving children vital experiences and contacts with the best that life affords. It should contain outlines and descriptions of large units of work or projects. The committee that builds it should be composed of a deliberative body of men and women who are thinkers, who have a forward look, and who are determined that the teachers of little children, as well as the children themselves, shall have an oppor- tunity to grow. One of the points in the analysis which arrests our attention is the fact that there is in the schoolroom more planning of work done by the teachers than the keeping of records of the work accomplished or of the growth of the individual. Although many efforts have been made to formulate a satisfactory record blank I am frank to say that a final solution has not been found. It is good to know that a committee of the International Kindergarten Union is working upon this problem. It would also seem feasible for some of the committee to launch a survey of all the kinder- gartens in the United States, investigating administrative practice, scope of the supervisor, and dominant objectives in a year's work. The analysis indicates that teacher control is in use at the beginning of the year in the average kindergarten and that gradually the method is changed. It is my conviction that such a plan is faulty, for I have had proof that there should be much freedom for initiative and organization by the children themselves, at the beginning of the school year, as well as careful training on the part of the teacher in matters of habit formation and self control. I believe that in the method of control in use in the home and school is centered the whole matter of obedience and true self government, which is a crucial problem before our country today. It would seem that the proportion of social games used at the beginning of the kindergarten year is too high, although such a procedure may seem necessary with large groups . In conclusion, let me reiterate that I have faith in the kindergarten teacher to solve her educational problems if she is given an opportunity to think. DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 503 "A progressive society" says Professor Dewey, "counts individual varia- tions as precious since it finds in them the means of its own growth. Hence a democratic society must in consistency with its ideal, allow for intellectual freedom and the play of diverse gifts and interests in educational measures." That America is successful to some degree in true education is proven by the following story as given to the press : El Reno, Okla. Special Correspondence. A supervisor was giving an "intelligence" test to a group of sixth-grade stu- dents. One of the questions was : "If you heard the fire alarm in the school, what would you do ?" Most of the children wrote that they would file out in an orderly manner, just as they did in a fire drill. But one boy answered as follows : "I would get in line and march downstairs with the others. But instead of going outdoors, I would go into the room where the little lame girl sits, and I would carry her out." After that, whenever we had a fire drill, he followed this procedure, even when he knew the little girl was absent. When asked why he did this, he said he wanted not to break the habit. Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1925 . 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION definite part of the school system, while twenty-eight do not mention them in their courses of study. In a list of twenty-eight cities in the middle west and west, five have a kindergarten course of study and fifteen do not. This is a better percentage and corroborates the findings of Miss Davis in regard to the status of different localities. It would be inter- esting to trace the history of the incorporation of the courses of study indicated by the analysis under discussion. By whom was each one made ? How much freedom does the individual teacher have in following it? Does it hamper initiative and creative work or has it been successful ? Has it united the kindergarten more closely to the school system ? Granting that a course of study is advisable, is it not timely to recom- mend that a skelton course of study be outlined by this department of the National Education Association and used as suggestive material for the different States ? Such a course of study should be brief. It should contain suggestions for giving children vital experiences and contacts with the best that life affords. It should contain outlines and descriptions of large units of work or projects. The committee that builds it should be composed of a deliberative body of men and women who are thinkers, who have a forward look, and who are determined that the teachers of little children, as well as the children themselves, shall have an oppor- tunity to grow. One of the points in the analysis which arrests our attention is the fact that there is in the schoolroom more planning of work done by the teachers than the keeping of records of the work accomplished or of the growth of the individual. Although many efforts have been made to formulate a satisfactory record blank I am frank to say that a final solution has not been found. It is good to know that a committee of the International Kindergarten Union is working upon this problem. It would also seem feasible for some of the committee to launch a survey of all the kinder- gartens in the United States, investigating administrative practice, scope of the supervisor, and dominant objectives in a year's work. The analysis indicates that teacher control is in use at the beginning of the year in the average kindergarten and that gradually the method is changed. It is my conviction that such a plan is faulty, for I have had proof that there should be much freedom for initiative and organization by the children themselves, at the beginning of the school year, as well as careful training on the part of the teacher in matters of habit formation and self control. I believe that in the method of control in use in the home and school is centered the whole matter of obedience and true self government, which is a crucial problem before our country today. It would seem that the proportion of social games used at the beginning of the kindergarten year is too high, although such a procedure may seem necessary with large groups . In conclusion, let me reiterate that I have faith in the kindergarten teacher to solve her educational problems if she is given an opportunity to think. ここ 505 "A propose so dness of tions as preccos S2 I eriod of ademocrate == a right freedom and me That Are : - les itself the following storage 7 1s, busi- sic work A supervisor we pr d almost dents. One utca 2. ffspring. whatwood FDL DI hat does Most of the c ロリー ne music as they did in a freced. br "I would get nine at: : stion. I going outdoors WOLENIA KE per cent would carry ner part." The first After that, whenever we ra. -- heknew the VTE r singing egin was awem not to break the hann eautiful, Hand through to love isadded usic, and iven the unifying nd learn He may nsemble vill ever roadens. the ele- instru- chestra. lee club ion are educa- k; and gained youth. of the in his Let us , quite mani- 3 have Department of Music Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES Historical Note-The Department of Music Education was created by the Board of Directors at the Madison, Wisconsin, meeting in 1884. See Proceedings of 1884, page 23. This department coöperates with the Music Supervisors' National Con- ference. This department meets once each year, in June. The Department of Music Education of the National Education Association held their meetings as scheduled on Monday and Tuesday afternoons, June 29 and 30, in Caleb Mills Hall, at two o'clock. The programs were given as follows: Monday Afternoon, June 29, 1925, 2:00 o'clock MUSIC Arsenal Technical High School Choral Society-Elizabeth Kaltz, director- Winner of First Prize in 1925 State Music Contest. GREETINGS Ernest G. Hesser, director of music, Indianapolis, Indiana. THE FUNCTION OF MUSIC IN AMERICAN EDUCATION, John W. Withers, dean of School of Education, New York University, New York City. AN INTERPRETATION OF SCHOOL MUSIC EDUCATION TO THE PUBLIC, Miss Lorle Krull, Assistant Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Indianapolis, Indiana. Following the program there was held an informal reception. Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1925, 2:00 o'clock MUSIC Shortridge High School Orchestra-Claude E. Palmer, Director-Winner of First Prize in 1925 State Music Contest. HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC FROM AN ADMINISTRATIVE VIEWPOINT, Milo H. Stuart, Princi- pal, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Indiana. RURAL SCHOOL MUSIC AND COUNTY SUPERVISION, S. T. Burns, County Supervisor of Music, Medina County, Ohio . THE ORCHESTRA, G. R. Humberger, Director of Music, Public Schools, Springfield, Ohio. An informal sing marked the close of the meeting. AN INTERPRETATION OF SCHOOL MUSIC TO THE PUBLIC LORLE KRULL, ASSISTANT SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA To the taxpayer, cordial greetings ! And lest any of my colleagues should feel that the greeting lacks in courtesy in not being addressed to the immediate audience here present, I make haste to remind him, that since he is a school-man and has amassed a fortune in the pursuit of his ideals, he is of course a heavy taxpayer, and therefore included in the salu- tation. But to return to the beginning. It is fitting that we should address ourselves to the taxpayer, for to him we owe an accounting of what is done with the funds he provides ; a financial statement which must include [504] DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 505 something more than "all paid in and all paid out." The soundness of his investment and the returns which shall accrue through a period of years, these are the things which the man who pays the bills has a right to know. For the public school music director the tax-paying public divides itself into four overlapping and interlacing groups-parents, musicians, busi- ness men, citizens. Each class has its peculiar interest in the music work of the schools. Each makes its own demands. The taxpayer as parent is interested in the schools primarily and almost exclusively because of their contribution to the education of his offspring. He asks that his child may be made accomplished and happy. What does school music offer toward this end ? A little journey through the music world of a modern school system may suffice to answer this question. I believe I am not exaggerating when I say that no less than fifty per cent of the first graders cannot sing a tune when they enter school. The first work of the teacher, then, is to help these little people to find their singing voices. This done, the next step is to give them a repertoire of beautiful, childlike songs and a standard of tone-quality and interpretation. Hand in hand with this instruction goes the music appreciation lesson, through which the children become acquainted with and therefore learn to love good music. As the child advances in his school life, sight reading is added to his music activities; he learns to orient himself on a page of music, and to read his tunes intelligently, as he does his stories. He is also given the opportunity of chorus singing, that most vital, inspirational, and unifying phase of music work. Further, he may join an instrumental class and learn the rudiments of playing an orchestral instrument or the piano. He may also become a member of the school orchestra, thereby gaining ensemble practice and as fine a sense of coöperation and team work as he will ever acquire on the college gridiron. When he enters high school, the scope of his opportunities broadens . If he has not taken advantage of the instrumental instruction in the ele- mentary schools, he may do so now, and with a greater choice of instru- ments. If he already plays acceptably, he may join the band or orchestra. If he is interested in vocal music, he may become a member of the glee club or chorus. Instruction in harmony and advanced music appreciation are also at his disposal. Through all the ten or twelve years of his school life, his music educa- tion may go hand in hand with his academic and technical work; and whether he is a performer or an appreciative listener only, he has gained a social and civic asset, as valuable in his maturity as it was in his youth. As for his happiness in his study (which is likewise the concern of the parent) there is no question, if the superintendent has been wise in his choice of teachers; for music is in essence bouyant and inspiring. Let us address ourselves now to the taxpayer who is a musician. Recently, quite recently, the musician, who is not connected with the schools, has mani- fested a changed attitude toward school music. Several factors have 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION just such care. We who were students of Dr. Hall in these pioneer days wish he might have lived to see his dream realized in such places as the Child Welfare Institutes in the Universities of Iowa, Columbia, and Ohio and in the excellent work being done in the nursery schools of Detroit, Cleveland, Boston and other places. Dr. Hall's emphasis on the primacy of the emotions in their relation to mental and physical health has developed into the psychiatry and mental hygiene of our day with their demands for health and happiness as the birthright of little children. His interest in the school as an environment of health, happiness and beauty, with proper ventilation, lighting and cleaning, are being realized in beautiful and sanitary school buildings all over America. Individual drinking cups, towels and soap, were instigated by his teaching. Plays and games, music, art, literature and industrial arts on a sufficiently large scale to appeal to the large muscles-these embodied in a new curriculum and set in an atmosphere of freedom and self-expres- sion, were being promulgated by Dr. Hall as far back as 1890 to 1895. The next great changes in kindergarten practice must be traced to the influence of Dr. John Dewey who came into the kindergartens to study our practice and help in the reconstruction. Dr. Hall's work was first destructive of the old, followed by a dreamer's prophesy of the new. But Dr. Dewey helped us to reconstruct a new order out of the old, with infinite patience in the study of details of the practice to be substituted. His pragmatic philosophy, embodying the best in the psychology and sociology of the day called for a careful study of the child, and a patient overhauling of every detail in curriculum and method. His emphasis upon interest in relation to effort, morality as involving choice, the principles of democ- racy in school organization, thinking as conditioned in problematic situa- tions when applied in kindergarten education, necessarily led to a new curriculum and new methods of teaching and social organization. In many instances the kindergarten preceded the grades in its reconstruction of practice in the light of Dr. Dewey's principles. The so-called "project method" with its emphasis upon the child's ability and right to plan as well as execute the plans of the teacher, the ability and the right of chil- dren to learn from and help each other, has given us the socialized kinder- garten of today. No one has contributed to the reconstruction of kinder- garten practice the impetus of Dr. Dewey, not only through his theories of life and education as a part of life, but through his interest in and coöperation with those seriously attempting its reconstruction. Between fifteen and twenty years later when Dr. Montessori issued her passionate appeal for the child's right to learn the discipline of life through liberty together with her criticism of the "lock step" procedure through the grade and class methods of instruction, the reconstructed kindergarten of America had been applying both principles with far more creative materials and under a freer class organization and social living for more than a decade. Nevertheless, Dr. Montessori's popular appeal for liberty as the condition for growth in self-government, and her insistence on freeing the child from DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 489 the slavery of group instruction must be acknowledged as one of the con- tributing factors in freeing the kindergarten from the formalism in mate- rials and social organization imported from Germany. This is true in spite of the fact that no one thoroughly versed in Dr. Dewey's funda- mental principles could accept Dr. Montessori's out-of-date faculty psy- chology, based upon the outworn doctrine of transfer of training, or her formal didactic material so limiting to the imaginative free expression of children's interests in social life. Her conception of the imagination and its rôle in child-life was another stumbling block to American teachers. While its is true that the modern kindergarten had taught children to serve their own luncheon, setting the table, washing the dishes, to care for their pets, to clean up their room after a work period, etc., for a decade a great impetus to the teaching of self help came to the kindergarten through Dr. Montessori's exposition of the exercises of practical life. The nursery school movement in England and America has been and will be more and more a stimulating influence in the continued reconstruc- tion of the kindergarten. Its great contribution is the nursing aspect of education. A grand-niece of Froebel-Frau Schräder-preceded the Eng- lish nursery movement by the establishment of the Pestalozzi Froebel Haus in Berlin, emphasizing the physical care of young children. She was a most remarkable woman and would have accomplished much more than she did if she had been in such countries as England or America. Won- derful as the work of the two great English pioneers in the nursery schools is, they need financing to develop their ideas fully, and because of our greater national wealth in this country, and our more widespread oppor- tunities for research, we have gone much further than they have in the science of nutrition and in psychological research. We should gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to both Miss Margaret McMillan and Miss Grace Owen, but with our research facilities financed by the wealth of America, if we do not lead the world in the knowledge and care of young children it will be to our everlasting shame. No nursery training schools in this country utilize hospital experience to the extent that England does, nor have any of us worked out such fresh air facilities. Nor, again, have American boards of education or superintendents of schools yet equaled the English in financing their nursery schools with funds from the public school treasury. The English standards of voice and speech and the calm reposeful temperament of their nursery workers will be difficult for our American teachers to attain, but the widespread application of psychology to the methods of teaching, with its laws of learning, its tests and measurements give opportunities for a superior ability in the art of instruction. Many traditional forms of kindergarten practice cast out in the reconstruction movement in this country still persist in many of the nursery schools of other countries. We Americans must work out an American institution, learning from the great work of England without repeating the error of the pioneer 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION kindergartners and Montessori teachers in an uncritical importation of foreign systems of education for American children. We have much to learn from the German kindergartens in the past, the Italian Houses of Childhood, and the English Nursery Schools, but we must not import them unadapted and uncriticized. We must learn from all, but must build a nursery school fitted to our own national and educational needs. Another contributing factor in the reconstructive work in the kinder- garten is the utilization of the health work with mothers and babies in maternity centres, baby welfare clinics, etc. Such organizations as the American Institute of Child Health need our coöperation as much as we need theirs. Such health organizations as this will be glad to contribute their help in the construction of health curricula. For more than a dozen years progressive kindergartens have been teaching health habits as a definite part of the curriculum, realizing that it may be more important to teach little children "the covered sneeze and cough," to keep fingers out of the mouth, to masticate food, or to wash the hands before eating, than to teach singing, literature, art or number. To the credit of the kinder- garten must it be said that large numbers of teachers have struggled for years to secure proper health conditions, but an educational campaign will have to be waged with educational administrators, boards of education and parents' organizations before such work can be universally conducted in our public school kindergartens. Modern psychology with its methods of research has been and still is a tremendous stimulus to reconstruction in the kindergarten. The demand for a more definite statement of our objectives, together with tests of progress made by kindergarten children has been of untold benefit in im- proving instruction. It has been a struggle to bring this movement into kindergartens for several reasons. Until we had psychologists who would specialize with young children, the needs of young children were invariably crowded out in research. Until kindergartners themselves were willing to take their higher degrees in psychological research, little along this line could be accomplished in the kindergarten. We now have in use tests of intelligence, both individual and group, which have been most effective both in their guidance of the teacher in better grouping in the kindergarten, and in promoting children from the kindergarten into the first grade. A goodly proportion of kindergarten children are being weighed and measured regularly and reports on growth sent regularly to parents. The problem of records of improvement introduced as far back as 1915 are being improved by being made more objective, and less the result of statements based on the untrained judgment of the teacher. The Inter- national Kindergarten Union has had national committees collecting and disseminating knowledge along these lines with the coöperation and criti- cism of psychologists. While much has been accomplished, much more is to be done before satisfactory scientific records of progress will be possible, DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION +91 except in kindergartens and nursery schools affiliated with psychological clinics. Fortunately the whole attitude toward the young child is rapidly chang- ing. We who are working with young children today have opportunities never dreamed of by our predecessors. Never before in the history of education has any educational movement had the opportunity to build new, scientific, curricula that we have at present. To build a new cur- riculum at a period when research is offering assistance in more than a half dozen universities is a great opportunity. Child welfare clinics are now associated with the work with young children in the universities of Iowa, Yale, Columbia, Chicago, Ohio, Cornell, Michigan, Minnesota and Temple, in addition to the splendid work being done in the nursery schools in the Bureau of Educational Experiments, the Merrill-Palmer School of Detroit and in Cleveland. Most of these have research clinics where definite knowledge regarding the nature and needs of young children is being discovered and disseminated for the benefit of kindergartners, nursery school workers, Montessori teachers, primary teachers and parents. The following are some of the lines of research under investigation : Nutrition and dietary, with definite knowledge regarding the effects of eggs, milk, cod liver oil, etc. on growth, and resistance to disease, growth curves in weight and height, the effects of sunlight and open air on physical and emotional conditions ; the examination of the contents of the intestines and the kidneys to discover sources of individual difficulties ; examinations of posture, flat foot, the blood; heart; daily records of bowel habits and sleeping habits; colds, their causes, prevention and cure; the effects of exercise, and frequency of exercise on learning; the effects of approval and disapproval on improvement; the effects of emotional disturbances in at- titudes which in turn influence learning, for example, fear, anger, timidity, pleasure, sense of failure, self-depreciation, egocentric, tantrums and stub- bornness; the effects of too much and too little affection on mental and emotional health; sex-disturbances, dreams, etc., etc., too numerous to record. While it is realized that children of the same chronological age and mental age vary too greatly to draw any hard and fast conclusions regard- ing standards of achievement, definite records are being made of possible achievements to expect from children two to three, three to four, four to five and five to six. Out of these daily records of achievements actually mastered by children of these different ages, we ought to be able to build curricula based upon trustworthy knowledge as to what to expect and demand of children of different intelligence levels in the nursery school and kindergarten . Last, but not least, we are being influenced by the behavioristic psy- chology leading us to set up definite objectives in technique, conduct or behaviour which should be the outgrowth of each school subject and period of the daily schedule. Our final objective whether in the realm of the social, health or moral situations, music, art, literature or number, 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is, and must be, the changed child, the child whose habits and attitudes, whose thoughts and feelings, whose ideals and appreciations have been altered for the better, and made permanent in improved technique, con- duct or behavior. When education is viewed from this angle, the cur- riculum will include all the responses made by the child from the moment he enters until he leaves our care. Nay more, we will help parents to build a curriculum for the home, where the mother or father is responsible-the home reporting progress to the school, the school reporting progress to the home. The two learning situations in which the young child lives, moves, and has his being, are the home and the school. The teachers in these two situations are the kindergartner and the parents. Until these two teachers unite in making the learning process continuous in both situations, behavior and conduct cannot develop into habit, and habit into character, disposition, personality, and citizenship, which will make the world a happier place for self and society. GENERAL PRACTICE IN KINDERGARTENS OF THE UNITED STATES MARY DABNEY DAVIS, DARIEN, CONNECTICUT A resolution to publish a circular on "A Day's Work in Kindergarten" was passed three years ago by the Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association. During the following year the officers of the department under the chairmanship of Miss Alma Binzel, obtained the coöperation of the Executive Board of the Association and appointed a committee to carry on the necessary research. The committee, called the Research Committee of the Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association, repre- sents the main geographical divisions of the United States. Miss M. Madilene Veverka, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor of Los Angeles, California, represents the western division ; Mrs. Ernest Horn of Iowa City, Iowa and Miss Olga Adams of the School of Education in the Uni- versity of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, represent the Great Plains and the Great Lakes divisions ; Miss Allene Seaton, Supervisor of Kindergartens in Louisville, Kentucky, represents the southern division; and the chairman represents the eastern division. The committee soon found a large number of possibilities for research within the topic. "A Day's Work in Kindergarten" could mean a study of habit formation, a study of objectives-general or specific, studies in methods of procedure or in efficient program construction. It could also include investigations of comparative values of the practices now found in kindergartens, or studies of the effect of kindergarten education upon children's growth in habit formation or ability to learn. The fact was recognized by the Research Committee that kinder- DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 493 gartens are still becoming a part of the school systems in many cities and that many school administrators know little or nothing of what ordinarily takes place during a kindergarten session. It was also recognized that there are several accepted practices in the manner of conducting kinder- gartens which need careful studies in evaluation. No presentation had been made of general practice in kindergarten education from which those uninformed could be enlightened, or upon which those experienced in kindergarten work could base future investigations. It was then decided to present facts which would depict kindergarten practice as it takes place today throughout the country. All studies in the evaluation and analysis of the practice portrayed were left for future in- vestigations. It was anticipated that the facts presented could furnish stimulation and foundational material for these investigations . To secure facts representative of general kindergarten practice, the fol- lowing procedure for gathering data was decided upon : 1. To secure at least four stenographic reports of full sessions of kin- dergartens from each State. These to represent two public schools, one teacher training institution and one private school, distributed, if possible, among cities of different sizes. 2. To request information to be sent with these reports from the per- son in supervisory charge of kindergartens and from the teacher regarding the "typicalness" of the day's work reported; the time program in use ; the attendance; the nationalities of the children; the reasons for selecting the kindergartens to be reported, etc. 3. To send an inquiry to kindergartners and superintendents of schools, to ask the teachers for the nomenclature they use for the kindergarten periods and for the activities which they include; for the distribution of time; and for the aims and methods used for each activity. From the superintendents to gather certain administrative details regarding en- rolments, attendance, length of kindergarten training provided and the supervision provided for kindergartners and primary teachers . In following this plan the Research Committee were dependent upon the generous coöperation of superintendents and supervisors, of directors of teacher training institutions and of the teachers in the kindergartens. For this coöperation may I express our warmest appreciation. Stenographic reports of 136 schools in 34 States were contributed. Replies to the inquiry were received from 535 teachers and 162 superintendents in time for analysis in the final report and many have arrived later and are being held for future investigations. After the Research Committee had formulated its plans and had gathered data, the chairman made the necessary analyses and wrote the report which is now presented for your use. For counsel and advice in making the analyses I am most grateful to members of the faculty of Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University. Throughout our study we have been most ably assisted by Miss Agnes S. Winn, Director of Classroom Service of the National Education Association . 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The report first shows the need for presenting facts about kindergarten education. It shows the growth in the number of kindergartens during the past fifty years; the improvement in State legislation for kindergartens ; evidence that kindergartens are being recognized as an integral part of many school systems; and evidence that many school administrators know little about kindergarten education . Evidence is then cited to show the variety of the school situations which the stenographic reports represent and also to show that the work reported is the normal, everyday procedure. Following these statements of the legal and educational status of the kindergarten and of the representativeness of the data which is used to depict kindergarten practice, there are analyses of the time schedules which accompanied the stenographic reports, of the content of the reports themselves and of the replies to the kindergarten inquiry. The first analysis is made of 131 time schedules. This includes dis- tributions of the names given to each period and of the activities included in the order of popularity with which they were used. The place in the day's time program commonly used for each period is shown graphically and an analysis of time for each subject or activity in terms of per cent and by geographical divisions of the country showing the time allotted for one subject in relation to all other subjects, the total time for one subject distributed among the geographical divisions, and the median length of time devoted to the several subjects or activities. From the composite distributions of time the kindergarten day devotes a little over a third of its time to physical activities such as games, rhythms, recess, luncheon and rest ; devotes a third of its time to the general arts, the fine, industrial, domestic and dramatic arts; and devotes the other third of its time to assembly periods such as the morning exercises and the discussion of work, and to literature and music in periods separated from the general assembly periods. There are wide variations in the use of time within each of the geo- graphical divisions of the country and among these divisions. Taken as a whole, the far western, the southern and eastern divisions spend more time for morning exercises and provide two short periods for the general arts rather than one long period. The middle western divisions provide more periods for a discussion of work and fewer periods for morning exercises ; more single work periods for the general arts ; and more periods for music and literature separated from the general assemblies . The nomenclature for the kindergarten activities is confusing to the average person because of the wide variety in use and because it often ex- presses method or tradition rather than the work of the period named. For example there were eighteen different names applied to the assembly period. These included such names as Conversational Period, Morning Circle, Circle, Opening Exercises, Discussion Period, Group Meeting, Music and Conversation, Greeting, Conference, Morning Talk, and Organization Period. There were preferences for these among the geographical di DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 495 visions of the country. Similar lists of names were given for the other activities of the kindergarten program. In general, practice is equally divided between starting the day with an assembly period or a work period for the General Arts. There are tendencies toward using particular times during the day for certain ac- tivities but there is no set program plan which is generally followed by the kindergartens of the United States. The Stenographic Reports-The analysis of the contents of the steno- graphic reports includes descriptions of the kindergarten rooms and gives accounts of the activities carried on, the positions taken by the groups of children and the methods of control used during the several periods of the program. Details are also given of the signals used by the teacher to gain the attention of the children; of the beginnings of number work and read- ing found within the day's work; and of coöperation between the kinder- gartens and the primary grades. Illustrations are quoted from the steno- graphic reports to show the kindergarten periods in action and to illus- trate the statements of method by which 449 lessons were scored. Since 90 per cent of the reports were taken during October and No- vember, the lists of songs, stories and games compiled indicate those which are more popularly used during the fall of the kindergarten year. The songs were chiefly nursery rhymes and nature songs and seem to be short and simple in structure. The literature included Mother Goose Rhymes, finger plays, folk tales and realistic stories of home life and of animals. The games fell largely under a heading of "activity" games which included social games, games leading to skill and competition, and rhythmic interpretation of music. Five statements of method on a scale of control ranging from teacher- control to child or self-control were made. The lessons scored by these statements show that generally in the fall of the year kindergartners use a method which incorporates the children's interests within the teachers' plans and that the teacher directs the children's work. The method used varies with the several kindergarten activities. For example, the single work period for the General Arts uses a method dependent upon the children's abilities to initiate and control their own work, while the morn- ing exercises or general assembly period uses a teacher-directed method. This variation continues among the other activities of the program. The traditional idea of the circle as a customary grouping of children in kindergartens is not true of present practice. The general assembly period uses the circle formation more than any of the other periods. Informal groupings about the teacher or careful arrangements according to abilities of the children to sing or to converse are quite general during the other activities of the day. There were constant evidences of the beginnings of the elementary school subjects within the several kindergarten activities. Number work was needed and used in practically all periods of the day and references to needs for reading were found particularly with groups of older children. 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Kindergarten Inquiry-The replies to the Kindergarten Inquiry substantiated the findings from the time schedules and the contents of the stenographic reports. The same wide range in nomenclature, similar allotments of time for the several activities of the program, and fairly similar lists of activities in the order of their popular use were found in this analysis. The scoring of methods used was corroborated by the teachers' statements of the methods which they use in the beginning of a term's work. In addition the replies showed that kindergartners tend to change the method of control used during a term. They start with teacher- directed work and move, in general, toward making greater demands upon the children's initiatives and independent control. The statements of aims which were made for each of the kindergarten periods were general and in a large measure were indefinite. No dominant objectives were deter- mined for the activities of the program because it was impossible to classify them as stated by the teachers. The responses to questions regarding the records and reports kept by kindergarten teachers show that there is more planning of work done by the teachers than keeping of records of the work accomplished or of the growth of individual children. Few kindergartens provide reports for the parents of the children's progress, though most of the kindergartners said that they made a point of talking with the parents informally about their children. Superintendents contributing administrative data regarding their kinder- gartens showed that the growth in average daily attendance keeps pace with the growth in the attendance for the elementary school. There is a fluctuation in the attendance month by month evidently influenced by the winter weather and by mid-year promotions . There is a wide variety in practice regarding entrance and promotion requirements, and there is no set custom in providing one or two years of kindergarten training. There are no standards for determining the number of children which may efficiently be enrolled with one or with two teachers or for determining when the enrolment of one kindergarten is sufficient to warrant starting a second kindergarten session or a second complete kindergarten room. In general there is little difference between the length of daily service required of kindergarten and primary teachers. Where there is but one session a day of kindergarten work the other half of the teacher's day is devoted largely to assisting in the grades, though there are many other plans made for the use of her time which assists the principal with his work or provides for visits in the children's homes. Two complete stenographic reports are reproduced at the conclusion of these analyses. These reports represent, as well as it is possible, the out- standing differences found in program construction, in activities carried on and materials used and in methods of control employed by the teacher. Summary and Recommendations-This brief survey of the report of gen DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 497 eral practice in kindergartens of the United States now being presented is an indication of the accumulated facts which are being laid before you. You can see in the report the tendencies in the use of time in kinder- gartens, the variety of nomenclature used for the several activities, the most popular activities, materials and kinds of songs, games and literature used in the early part of the kindergarten year. The indefinite quality of the statements of aims has been shown. The methods of control used commonly during the different periods of the kindergarten program have been described. It has been indicated that practice varies greatly within the geographical divisions of the country, and among these divisions. From these facts presented you may gain an idea of the variations in adminis- trative practices regarding kindergartens which occur throughout the country. Of what use are these facts ? These descriptions ? The Research Com- mittee trusts that they inform the uninitiated person as to what he may expect to find when he visits a kindergarten. For the persons experienced in kindergarten work we hope that there is sufficient stimulus and material for investigations in pre-kindergarten, kindergarten and primary education. Starting points for investigations are proposed throughout the study. They are further proposed by a suggested nomenclature, by the formulated state- ments of methods of control in teaching, by the attempted classifications of objectives, by the form of the analysis used for plays and games, and by the graphic representation of kindergarten attendance. Emphasis which some people may desire may be found to be lacking. Whatever is your response, the Research Committee offers this report through its parent organization, the National Education Association, for use in order that the education of young children will thereby be furthered and enriched. IMPORTANCE OF MISS DAVIS GENERAL SURVEY OF KINDERGARTEN PRACTICE IN THE UNITED STATES GEORGE D. STRAYER , PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY We must know what current practice is in our schools if we are to improve them. Miss Davis, in her thorough-going survey of the work that is being done in the kindergartens, has given us this most important basis with the understanding of kindergarten education. Her report will prove most helpful, not only to specialists in this field of school work, but also to school administrators, and to other educators who have had little contact with the kindergarten, and who need to be informed con- cerning its curriculum, methods of teaching, and organization. Miss Davis has rendered a most important service in developing a terminology which describes the activities of the kindergarten non-technically. This 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION nomenclature, which it is safe to predict will grow in favor, indicates clearly the continuity of work as between the kindergarten and the primary school. It is quite a relief to one not versed in the peculiar terminology sometimes used by kindergartners to have presented for one's consideration as the curriculum of this part of the school system, the social studies, including geography, history and civics, nature study, including hygiene, the general arts, including the fine, industrial, domestic and dramatic arts; physical education, music, literature and language. It may have been necessary in an earlier day when the elementary school was characterized by very rigid and formal procedures to indicate clearly the separateness of the kindergarten by a unique terminology. With the coming of the modern methods and reform curriculum of the lower grades , the need for any such distinctions has disappeared. Miss Davis' pioneer work in bringing about the reconciliation cannot fail to have a very im- portant effect both on the kindergarten and on the primary grades. An important contribution in the study has to do with the administrative problems of the kindergarten. Miss Davis proposes that we inquire con- cerning the load which kindergarten teachers are carrying and the assign- ment of these teachers to the first grade during the part of the year when the kindergarten enrolment is lowest. Her proposal that thorough-going inquiries be instituted with respect to the admission of children to kinder- garten, their classification and progress in this part of the school system should be carried out by every school system in the United States in which kindergartens are organized. The suggestion that supervision of kinder- garten and primary grades be undertaken by the same individual needs no support from one who believes in the necessary continuity in the edu- cative process. Taken all together, we have for the first time an adequate picture of the education which is being provided for children below the first grade of the elementary school. Without prejudice to any particular point of view, Miss Davis has faithfully reported the practice as it is. Her sug- gestions for evaluation of current practices and for improvement in the organization and administration of these schools are worthy of the careful consideration of all who would apply scientific method to the study of the problems of education. DISCUSSION OF THE VALUE AND IMPLICATION FOR SUPERVISORS OF THE REPORT ON THE STUDY OF KINDERGARTEN PRACTICE MARGARET C. HOLMES, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTENS NEW YORK CITY It is a pleasure to have this opportunity to congratulate the Research Committee on the completion of their valuable and, for the Kindergarten Department, unusual piece of work. Careful study of the report will DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 499 open up to all of us many avenues of use to which the information con- tained in this volume may contribute. I shall concern myself in this discussion not with the validity of the material presented in the report, but with its practical use to the super- visor. As I see it, there are two definite fields in which this report will be a practical aid to the supervisor; first, in its value to the supervisor in her work as an administrator. We have here a definite authoritative statement of kindergarten practices throughout the country, giving valu- able information for organization pleas with boards of education, boards of superintendents, etc., information concerning such problems as : 1 1. Growth in kindergarten service throughout the country and its present extent. 2. State kindergarten laws indicating the acceptance and responsibility for education of the four and five year old child. 3. Rules and regulations of boards of education concerning kindergarten age, courses of study, training school courses and other vital problems . 4. Present status of the kindergarten-primary supervisor. 5. The value of the inclusion of the kindergarten in a general survey of the school system. 6. How to organize to care for variation in attendance in kindergarten classes. 7. What shall be the determining factors for admission to kindergarten classes . In addition to this aspect of the report, we have its aid to the super- viser from the professional standpoint. There are two dangers which con- front the kindergarten supervisor; the danger of being lost in the routine of administration, and the danger which comes from the isolation of any supervisor of a department. The kindergarten supervisor needs most vitally to see local practices in relation to practices in other communities. This report will be of valuable aid in this regard. It should be the starting point for experimentation and investigation in the local community through comparison of practices in other communities. Take such a problem suggested in the report as the following analysis of time schedule : Is the division of time a matter of administrative policy, or is it a matter con- cerning philosophy of education or accepted principles of psychology. On what principle am I, as a supervisor basing the procedure in my community? How does it compare with other communities ? Do I see here a fruitful field for experimen- tation within my group of teachers ? How can I arrange conditions whereby I can evaluate and compare local procedure with that of other communities ? In the same manner are suggested lines of investigation in many different activities of the kindergarten. Under music we find suggested material for investigating kindergarten objectives-time allotment-place in day's program, etc. Under language and literature such problems arise as what activities should be included- what place in day's program-what time allotment. Under work period for the general arts such problems arise as the following : 500 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. Do children of kindergarten age require supervised instruction with ma- terials, and is it better to provide a separate period for that purpose ? 2. Is the short span of interest which is characteristic of this age of child better cared for by two periods of work than by one which is longer ? 3. Does the one work period include opportunity for teachers-supervised and self-directed work which the two separate periods provide ? There is an interesting and informative analysis of physical activities in the kindergarten leading on to worthwhile investigations and evaluation of different forms of procedure. Investigation of possible outcomes develop- ing from the various forms of practice will surely be an inspiration and challenge to the supervisor to defend or to change the method of pro- cedure in her community. This report showing the many varying forms of kindergarten practice throughout the country is surely an indication of the strength and vitality of the kindergarten itself, with its picture of a dynamic growing kinder- garten and not a static method of teaching. This report will surely be an inspiration to the supervisor leading her on to more scientific experimentation and more creative leadership. Through the wise use of this material we will render to the Committee its just reward for their labors. DISCUSSION OF THE VALUE AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY FOR FUTURE PROGRESS JANE ELIZABETH JOSLIN, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTEN HATHAWAY BROWN SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO May I take this opportunity to congratulate the Research Committee and its chairman on the splendid piece of work which they have accom- plished ? The whole-hearted response and coöperation which they have received from thirty-four States is also cause for satisfaction, and indicates a widespread interest in the whole subject. This report is reassuring and forms a substantial basis for further study. May this analysis be like a beam of light to all those who are inter- ested in the education of little children, beckoning them on to investigate more fully present conditions in the educational field and to determine the possibilities of the future. We believe in education. We believe in the education of little chil- dren. We believe that the Progressive Education of the present time is the highest form of method which humanity has seen. The kindergarten teacher needs and desires to know this principle of development for she is daily brought face to face with the vital issues of life, and feels the challenge of the future progress of America. She realizes that out of the conflict of traditions the variations of historical setting, and the vast differences in talents and tastes there has come a period of reconstruction of curriculum and method of instruction in the DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 501 field of education and she knows that some kind of spiritual union must be evolved. She is trying to make this adjustment and she needs encouragement. She needs encouragement and help from the institution in which she received her training. She needs the intelligent support of her superior officers and of the public in the work that she is accomplishing. There is a clarion call for supervisors who can liberate her and help her to make adjustments along the following lines : (1) She needs to be relieved from the habit of over-work. Why must one teacher handle ninety-six children alone day after day, fifty in the morning and forty-six in the afternoon ? How can such a teacher have any time left in the day for study or for college extension work, after she has put away materials in her room, made a record of the activities of the individual children, and a tenta- tive outline of the work to be accomplished for the following day? I believe that the crux of the whole matter is to be found in the analysis itself, namely, that there are no standards to determine the number of children which may efficiently be enroled with one or two teachers, or to determine when the enrolment of one kindergarten is sufficient for starting a second kindergarten session or a second complete kindergarten room. (2) The teacher of young children needs relief from a heavy inflexible system in many cases, that makes it impossible year after year to secure necessities in room equipment and adequate housing conditions. (3) She needs liberation from the attitude of pathalogical seriousness which is characteristic of the average educator. The profession of teaching is one of in- spiration and should bring joy and growth to everyone who participates in it. There should be no drab or gloomy poets or school teachers . (4) She needs inspiration and vision, which come to her through the supervisor and through contact with great thinkers and leaders as well as professional clubs and magazines . (5) Lastly, the kindergarten teacher needs release from the domination of many opinions, and more freedom to arrive at convictions of pedagogical truths for . herself. How can she do her share in gathering together the raw materials for a new social order or study educational conditions scientifically when she has so little opportunity herself for independent thinking ? She needs to live and think and enjoy as a free individual. Then she will be enabled to make an adequate program for the children in her care. Then she will be prepared to understand their needs in terms of society, to be honest in her convictions, and fearless and strong of purpose in doing her part to formulate a curriculum and determine school policies. Her program will vary from that of another teacher and it will vary from year to year, because of the needs of the locality, of the children in her group, and because of her own growth. Such variation is desirable. We are glad that the analysis indicates no set procedure. The last thing that should be desired is a stereotyped program. It is interesting to note that in an investigation made by Miss Anne Moore¹ it was discovered that in a list of thirty-nine cities of New Eng- land and the Central Atlantic Coast, two only treat kindergartens as a 1 The Primary School, Houghton Mifflin Co. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION definite part of the school system, while twenty-eight do not mention them in their courses of study. In a list of twenty-eight cities in the middle west and west, five have a kindergarten course of study and fifteen do not. This is a better percentage and corroborates the findings of Miss Davis in regard to the status of different localities. It would be inter- esting to trace the history of the incorporation of the courses of study indicated by the analysis under discussion. By whom was each one made ? How much freedom does the individual teacher have in following it ? Does it hamper initiative and creative work or has it been successful ? Has it united the kindergarten more closely to the school system ? Granting that a course of study is advisable, is it not timely to recom- mend that a skelton course of study be outlined by this department of the National Education Association and used as suggestive material for the different States ? Such a course of study should be brief. It should contain suggestions for giving children vital experiences and contacts with the best that life affords. It should contain outlines and descriptions of large units of work or projects. The committee that builds it should be composed of a deliberative body of men and women who are thinkers, who have a forward look, and who are determined that the teachers of little children, as well as the children themselves, shall have an oppor- tunity to grow. One of the points in the analysis which arrests our attention is the fact that there is in the schoolroom more planning of work done by the teachers than the keeping of records of the work accomplished or of the growth of the individual. Although many efforts have been made to formulate a satisfactory record blank I am frank to say that a final solution has not been found. It is good to know that a committee of the International Kindergarten Union is working upon this problem. It would also seem feasible for some of the committee to launch a survey of all the kinder- gartens in the United States, investigating administrative practice, scope of the supervisor, and dominant objectives in a year's work. The analysis indicates that teacher control is in use at the beginning of the year in the average kindergarten and that gradually the method is changed. It is my conviction that such a plan is faulty, for I have had proof that there should be much freedom for initiative and organization by the children themselves, at the beginning of the school year, as well as careful training on the part of the teacher in matters of habit formation and self control. I believe that in the method of control in use in the home and school is centered the whole matter of obedience and true self government, which is a crucial problem before our country today. It would seem that the proportion of social games used at the beginning of the kindergarten year is too high, although such a procedure may seem necessary with large groups. In conclusion, let me reiterate that I have faith in the kindergarten teacher to solve her educational problems if she is given an opportunity to think. DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 503 "A progressive society" says Professor Dewey, "counts individual varia- tions as precious since it finds in them the means of its own growth. Hence a democratic society must in consistency with its ideal, allow for intellectual freedom and the play of diverse gifts and interests in educational measures." That America is successful to some degree in true education is proven by the following story as given to the press : El Reno, Okla. Special Correspondence. A supervisor was giving an "intelligence" test to a group of sixth-grade stu- dents. One of the questions was : "If you heard the fire alarm in the school, what would you do ?" Most of the children wrote that they would file out in an orderly manner, just as they did in a fire drill. But one boy answered as follows : "I would get in line and march downstairs with the others. But instead of going outdoors, I would go into the room where the little lame girl sits, and I would carry her out." After that, whenever we had a fire drill, he followed this procedure, even when he knew the little girl was absent. When asked why he did this, he said he wanted not to break the habit. Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1925. Department of Music Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES Historical Note-The Department of Music Education was created by the Board of Directors at the Madison, Wisconsin, meeting in 1884. See Proceedings of 1884, page 23. This department coöperates with the Music Supervisors' National Con- ference. This department meets once each year, in June. The Department of Music Education of the National Education Association held their meetings as scheduled on Monday and Tuesday afternoons, June 29 and 30, in Caleb Mills Hall, at two o'clock. The programs were given as follows : Monday Afternoon, June 29, 1925, 2:00 o'clock MUSIC Arsenal Technical High School Choral Society-Elizabeth Kaltz, director Winner of First Prize in 1925 State Music Contest. GREETINGS Ernest G. Hesser, director of music, Indianapolis, Indiana. THE FUNCTION OF MUSIC IN AMERICAN EDUCATION, John W. Withers, dean of School of Education, New York University, New York City. AN INTERPRETATION OF SCHOOL MUSIC EDUCATION TO THE PUBLIC, Miss Lorle Krull, Assistant Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Indianapolis, Indiana. Following the program there was held an informal reception. Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1925, 2:00 o'clock MUSIC Shortridge High School Orchestra-Claude E. Palmer, Director-Winner of First Prize in 1925 State Music Contest. HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC FROM AN ADMINISTRATIVE VIEWPOINT, Milo H. Stuart, Princi- pal, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Indiana. RURAL SCHOOL MUSIC AND COUNTY SUPERVISION, S. T. Burns, County Supervisor of Music, Medina County, Ohio. THE ORCHESTRA, G. R. Humberger, Director of Music, Public Schools, Springfield, Ohio. An informal sing marked the close of the meeting. AN INTERPRETATION OF SCHOOL MUSIC TO THE PUBLIC LORLE KRULL, ASSISTANT SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA To the taxpayer, cordial greetings ! And lest any of my colleagues should feel that the greeting lacks in courtesy in not being addressed to the immediate audience here present, I make haste to remind him, that since he is a school-man and has amassed a fortune in the pursuit of his ideals, he is of course a heavy taxpayer, and therefore included in the salu- tation. But to return to the beginning. It is fitting that we should address ourselves to the taxpayer, for to him we owe an accounting of what is done with the funds he provides; a financial statement which must include [504] DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 505 something more than "all paid in and all paid out." The soundness of his investment and the returns which shall accrue through a period of years, these are the things which the man who pays the bills has a right to know. For the public school music director the tax-paying public divides itself into four overlapping and interlacing groups-parents, musicians, busi- ness men, citizens. Each class has its peculiar interest in the music work of the schools. Each makes its own demands . The taxpayer as parent is interested in the schools primarily and almost exclusively because of their contribution to the education of his offspring. He asks that his child may be made accomplished and happy. What does school music offer toward this end? A little journey through the music world of a modern school system may suffice to answer this question. I believe I am not exaggerating when I say that no less than fifty per cent of the first graders cannot sing a tune when they enter school. The first work of the teacher, then, is to help these little people to find their singing voices. This done, the next step is to give them a repertoire of beautiful, childlike songs and a standard of tone-quality and interpretation. Hand in hand with this instruction goes the music appreciation lesson, through which the children become acquainted with and therefore learn to love good music. As the child advances in his school life, sight reading is added to his music activities; he learns to orient himself on a page of music, and to read his tunes intelligently, as he does his stories. He is also given the opportunity of chorus singing, that most vital, inspirational, and unifying phase of music work. Further, he may join an instrumental class and learn the rudiments of playing an orchestral instrument or the piano. He may also become a member of the school orchestra, thereby gaining ensemble practice and as fine a sense of coöperation and team work as he will ever acquire on the college gridiron. When he enters high school, the scope of his opportunities broadens . If he has not taken advantage of the instrumental instruction in the ele- mentary schools, he may do so now, and with a greater choice of instru- ments. If he already plays acceptably, he may join the band or orchestra. If he is interested in vocal music, he may become a member of the glee club or chorus. Instruction in harmony and advanced music appreciation are also at his disposal. Through all the ten or twelve years of his school life, his music educa- tion may go hand in hand with his academic and technical work; and whether he is a performer or an appreciative listener only, he has gained a social and civic asset, as valuable in his maturity as it was in his youth. As for his happiness in his study (which is likewise the concern of the parent) there is no question, if the superintendent has been wise in his choice of teachers; for music is in essence bouyant and inspiring. Let us address ourselves now to the taxpayer who is a musician. Recently, quite recently, the musician, who is not connected with the schools, has mani- fested a changed attitude toward school music. Several factors have 506 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION operated to bring about this change. With the post-war advance in sal- aries, musicians of better training have entered the public school music field. This has meant higher standards of school music attainment. At the same time the wave of publicity for education in general, has brought school music to the attention of the musician. Through State and National music memory, band, orchestra and choral contests, he has be- come acquainted with the musicianly achievement of the schools and has extended his hand in hearty commendation. There has been in the past, also a lack of understanding on the part of the musician, as to the aims of school music. I believe he forgot in his musician's zeal, that the teaching of music in the schools of a democracy, must always be democratic-suited to the present and future needs of the mass, not of the talented individual. Its purpose is not to train musi- cians not to create artists, any more than the teaching of reading and com- position and literature is designed to produce authors and playwrights and actors. The purpose of all public school education is likewise the purpose of music education; namely, to provide useful, wholesome, happy means of growth for the child, in order that the adult may be a useful, whole- some, happy member of society. True, the schools do not produce men and women equipped by virtue of their school music study, to pursue the teaching or performance of music as a means of livelihood. They do more. They produce men and women equipped with a love for the highest of the arts ; with a standard of what is good in that art; with a desire for that art with a means of further culture and of wise employment of their leisure; with a social asset and a legacy for their children, 'which thieves cannot break in and steal nor moths corrupt.' Public school music can never enter the field occupied so long and to such good purpose by the private teacher. Their work is related, yet never conflicts. The schools influence the many; their work is extensive and by touching the lives of the masses, it raises the standard of living and thinking. The private teacher develops the individual. His work is in- tensive. He is concerned with those chosen by nature to bear the mes- sage of music to their fellow-men in the field of vocal, or instrumental performance and composition. Our friend the business man, is quoted as saying: "If you school men would just get rid of some of the frills and get down to business and teach the students how to earn a living, we'd have enough money to go around without raising the taxes." This, of course, in face of the fact that only 1.48 per cent of the total national tax is turned into the tills of the public schools. This also in face of the fact that vocational education, desirable as it may seem, demands a greater per capita cost and a more frequent turn- over of equipment, than any other phase of instruction. Under " frills" this type of business man always includes music. We are thankful that his number is growing less. And since the business man of tomorrow is the student of today, who is being benefited by his DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 507 music opportunities in the public schools, opposition to the teaching of music from the business man will lessen from year to year. In an article by John G. Cook in the Music Bulletin of April 1925, is found this state- ment : "There can be no doubt that the appreciation for music in America has grown to such proportions, that it has become a National need." And one among the factors and by no means the least potent, which have created this need, is the teaching of music in the public schools. I should like to invite every "frill"-thinking man and woman to attend just once a children's symphony concert, such as are given in Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Kansas City, Indianapolis and many other places. Could he witness the relish with which the ten thousand or more boys and girls listen to what he would term a "highbrow" concert, he would realize that music is not only a National need, it is a basic emotional and spiritual necessity for the development and growth of our children. He might learn to say with Dr. Winship: "Music is a thrill in education and not a frill in education ." Of all the groups civic-minded men and women evince perhaps the greatest appreciation of school music. Business men's and women's clubs, commercial and industrial associations, and the like, not only call on the public schools to furnish music for their club meetings, their conventions, their expositions, but invite the members of the music department to ap- pear before their organizations and explain the music program in the schools. The Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce printed last year in its monthly magazine Activities, three articles about the work of the music department in our city schools; through its fine arts committee, it has also for the past two years conducted the State band, orchestra, and choral contests and sponsored music week. A noteworthy example of civic interest in school music was afforded by the mayor of Gary, Indiana, who last year accompanied in person the Gary High School bands to Indianapolis for the State contest. Music is a civic asset ; and since the public schools are training citizens as well as human beings, homemakers, and business men, they must offer their stu- dents the culture of the fine arts, of which arts music has the most uni- versal appeal. I should like to make mention at this point of another division of our public, not included in the classification given at the beginning of this talk, because it pays no taxes. I mean the boys and girls themselves, the little citizens of tomorrow. Music must be interpreted or taught to them in such away that they experience it not only as a joy and a skill, but as a very important part of their daily life. Further, as an immediate link between school-life and community-life; between school-life and home-life; a bond of unity and understanding between themselves and their fellow-creatures. Music courses in the schools should therefore include much classroom and chorus singing of beautiful and standard songs; repertoires of the best com- munity songs to be memorized and carried home ; sight-reading and har- mony; instrumental, orchestra, and band instruction; music appreciation, 508 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION including correlation with history, geography and English; and concert- attendance, wherever possible. A high school class in one of our larger cities took for its appreciation work one year a study of the numbers which were played by the symphony orchestras appearing in their city that season, and as a part of their classwork, attended the concerts in a body. Just a word now among ourselves as school men and women. In terms of our profession, what does school music mean in addition to the points we have already considered. Is it not a clean emotional outlet, a means of self-expression and inspiration for the individual. Is it not a means of esthetic development, a balance to the purely intellectual and practical train- ing? Is it not a means of developing team-play, coöperation, mutual respect and helpfulness, so fundamental in a democracy ? Is it not a social agency, creating good will and community spirit for the school? Is it not one of the best channels for bringing the schools to the public and into the home ? Is it not, as a publicity feature, second to none, not even athletics ? Your answer is, of course, yes, to every question. No modern school system would think of omitting music from its curriculum. Even the colleges, who for many years retarded the cause of public school music by dictating the policy of the entire educational machine from the primary grades up to suit their dogmatic entrance requirements, even the colleges are accepting music credits toward entrance and toward certain types of degrees. The more advanced institutions are also granting the degree of bachelor of music or bachelor of science in music. Educators have awak- ened to the trumpet call of music, and its soul is marching on. In conclusion I would leave with you and with the larger public outside the ranks of the teaching profession, the principle for which the Music Supervisors' National Conference has stood for many years. It is a little reversable sentence of four words, but nation-wide in its scope. It is revolutionary. It is democratic. It reads : "Music for every child. Every child for music." HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC FROM AN ADMINISTRATIVE VIEWPOINT MILO H. STUART, PRINCIPAL, ARSENAL TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA Your talks thus far have been on music. Now you are going to hear a talk about music because I make no profession of having any music any- where about me except that of general interest in the subject. Fifteen years ago as a high school principal in this city I used to look about me for some member of the faculty who knew enough music to come to the plat- form and relieve the principal of the embarrassment of having to lead "America" and other songs all should know. No music teacher at that time had joined the faculty. Now, after fifteen years of development, we have in Indianapolis at least 2,000 students pursuing regular courses DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 509 in music all the time. Since this development is not peculiar to our city, it deserves some analysis and study. It would seem strange that a subject like music should have been so handicapped prior to the last decade and a half. But I dare say no subject in the public school curriculum has had so many obstacles to overcome as has music. The academy was the forerunner of the present high school. Since it came into existence for the purpose of preparing for the liberal arts college, which in turn prepared for the ministry, law, medicine, and the like, we were pinning our faith to languages, mathematics, the ethical aspects of literature, and later to English, history, and science. So the academy presented absolutely closed doors to music as well as to other subjects the community had need for. Only a few years ago a State superintendent in one of our Atlantic seaboard States called a conference of all the repre- sentatives of the colleges in that vicinity for the purpose of considering the development of a plan of college entrance requirements whereby the local community might have four units of free electives-four units out of the sixteen required. That was his proposition. One of the time-honored colleges sent word that they were not sending a representative because they were not interested in the proposal. While other higher institutions were more friendly, they have only quite recently granted sufficient free- elective lee-way to give a place for music. At the same time a keen com- petition has developed for this place with agriculture, home economics, and other practical subjects. Now, on the other hand, the common schools of our country had a very different origin but were equally adverse to music. In a democracy all felt that everyone should be able to read, write, and cipher. The common schools should be in session just so long as it was necessary to accomplish the three R's. Consequently, music had no place. In what we now call the public schools of this country, twelve years in length, representing the evolution of the district school and the academy combined, music was cast out in the cold through economic need on the one hand and through religious, ethical, and professional bias on the other. But the clouds are beginning to clear away. We now see a place for this important subject. The last fifteen years is proof of the proposition. It is the first time in the history of American education that music comes before an unbiased jury. That being the case, we are now ready to consider what the rightful place of music is in a public school program. One American city having 8000 pupils enroled in the high schools reports that 2500 of the boys and girls thus enroled are receiving private instruction in music. To get the proper force of this fact, suppose Latin were taken out of the high school and one third of the homes were hiring private Latin teachers to instruct the children in this important subject. How large and how frequent would be the delegations calling on the school board ? Suppose we compare again-here's a subject that occupies a large part of the time on every religious program, on every social program, and now that women have the ballot, on many political programs. Sup 510 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION pose there were some other subject of such importance that it would have a place on every program of the community; every church meeting had a speaker on the subject, every noon luncheon had a place for it, and every club meeting discussed it. It would not be long until the public schools would include it in the program of studies. Let us look again, this time to the business world. One of the com- mercial artists in Indiana-and Indiana claims to have many artists- told me the other day that when he had to do a downtown street scene with all the mechanical detail of skyscrapers to sketch he turned on the phonograph and completed the job with musical regularity. Our steno- graphic teachers could not get along without some music these days to do the same thing for them. One hundred years ago we had two hundred occupations. At the present time we have ten thousand. Now we are not doing so many more things than we were at that time. We have such complicated machines now that each operator has only a few little things to do. In one of the manufacturing concerns of this city the work done by the machine is so automatic and complicated that they must have a girl watch and throw it out of gear when something goes wrong . But the girl would go to sleep; so they broke the operation at one place so that the girl, at a certain time, had to move a bar only a few inches. In a few moments she would raise another bar, the operation having no other pur- pose than to keep her awake. Such tasks dull the intellect and soon become irksome. Music is now coming to occupy a great part in relieving this stress in industry. Music for relaxation at the noon hour, music to take up the slack in the evening, music to fill in and bring these people back to normal. We had a meeting the other day of our student placement committee and do you know those teachers said, "We located this girl because she was a good singer; this boy because he could play in the factory orchestra. " There were at least a half dozen cases where the firms took the pupils primarily to fill the vacancy but also because they had music as an accomplishment. Yes, in the late war music was uppermost all the time. I notice that one of the great warriors said, "Four things are needed for the army-food, clothing, military equipment, and music." Since the community prizes music so highly, let us as pedagogues look at it a little closer. There is a feeling that when a pedagogue has a subject turned over to him he well nigh distorts it out of shape. In applying the microscopic test let us for once make a true sketch of the specimen as it is. I saw a statement some place that "Music rightly taught is the best mind trainer on the list." Think that over. For accuracy and speed you will have a hard time to beat it. Compare it with your drill in algebra, or your drill in Latin forms. In such subjects error asserts itself to the extent that it almost vitiates the value of the drill! But when it comes to music, discord is quickly noted, even though but one pupil in a large group is concerned. We are becoming an intellectual people at the expense of the emotional. We think about the hard cold facts of life. One is figuring on interest, another man on profits, still another on the banks he is planning DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 511 to rob. We must have something in our educational life that will bring us back to the emotional and the appreciative side of life. Music, as nothing else, can do this for us. Think about the physical. We have one of the five senses that almost ceases to function. Its great value in these days of auto intoxication is to tell us when to jump. The ear is a delicate organ and yet we can scarcely hear the birds sing because we are not trained to it. And when we come to study foreign language we do it with the eye instead of the ear. If we are to bring back to the human race that priceless auditory organ, music will prove the great restorer. Awoman said to me the other day, "After dinner in the evening when my husband takes his cigar and seats himself for what he terms 'a good smoke' , there seems to come over him such a feeling of satisfaction that I can not say a word against it, because it brings real relaxation to him. " Wouldn't itbe a great gain if music could come into the home after the dinner hour and bring the same relaxation without the addition of nicotine ? The doctors tell us to get out and breathe fresh air. The development of the lungs from the standpoint of physical education is by no means to be overlooked. This a musician must develop before he can sustain the proper tones on a wind instrument. A friend of mine is a good singer. He sings for the fun of it. But he knows the value of health to the voice. He watches to see that he does not have a cold, that his digestion is all right, and that he drinks regularly from that fountain of youth called sleep. Love of music becomes the incentive for the formation of proper health habits. Last of all, there is the unselfish by-product. The public schools are too often thought of as a place where a father may train his son so that he can beat the other boys out in the race of life. It is too often an indi- vidual race for advancement. Here we have a subject where the boys and girls meet together for common advancement. Three weeks after school is out the high school orchestra come here, at considerable sacrifice on the part of many of them, to do, not individually but as a group, a piece of work which to them seems worthwhile. How much music means to a great student body to get them all to think, feel, and work together. If you can get an atmosphere about the school of friendship, of loyalty, of unity, your work is done. The music teacher with her group of young people can do much to solve that problem . Now in conclusion let me get a little closer to this subject. What should the administrative people do with and for music? We have four teachers of music in our school, but I would be much better satisfied if we had ten. Such development may be looked for quite generally. Music has a big place in the school and in society, and must be given a real chance. Don't anybody surmise that I would make musicians of all. We can't all sing or play. Somebody has to appreciate, somebody has to sit in the audience and enjoy what's being given. But I know of no way to train the rooter except by teaching him the game. I dare say if you go over to the ball park and observe on the bleachers those fellows who are always 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION there you will find this one has a finger-joint bent one way, this one the other way, and so on. They all show they've played ball and know the sport. About the only way we can train our boys and girls to appreciate music is to enlist them in our high school music organizations where they try their hands at the undertaking. Some will evolve as music possibilities, but all will develop appreciative interests. We should encourage our boys and girls to participate in all music enterprises of the community. Here is a subject that will carry over into the home, the church, and society in general . As administrative people we should recommend this subject be- cause of the contribution it brings to the school. The public weighs the school by the worthwhile evidences which come to their notice. How much easier to reach the community with music than with academic sub- ject-matter! Yes, we should study our boys and girls and give them a chance to try themselves. Some of them will in the end be professional musicians, a vocational objective worthwhile. We should coöperate with the music teachers of the community because they can help us and we can help them. They are doing an important part of our common work. We are not wanting to take it away from them because "the harvest is great and the laborers are few. " They are doing a part that we cannot do and we are doing a part they cannot do. We should get together and work together. Many schools are now giving credit for outside music work. There is difficulty in trying to evaluate such work, but there should be no reason- able limit to such credit except that inherent in the problems of the local situation. Why not get together and establish agreeable and acceptable standards to the interest of all? It is but a problem of coöperation be- tween the local school authorities and the local private music teachers. May I conclude by referring to that old Bible setting of Saul and David. You remember that Saul would get restless, impatient, and almost insanely jealous at times. They would send to the fields for the boy, David, who would play before the king and drive the insanity from his mind. So we, in the public schools, have the boys and girls of every home and these are the little Davids who come to us. Let us teach them to play the harp so that when the father and mother are ground down by the hard struggles and jealousies of life they can play them back to sanity. Let us carry the whole community through our music to a higher level of coöperative ac- tivity and a finer realm of spiritual education. RURAL SCHOOL MUSIC AND COUNTY SUPERVISION S. T. BURNS, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT AND DIRECTOR OF MUSIC IN MEDINA COUNTY, MEDINA, OHIO On hearing the title of my address, " Rural School Music," I suppose many of you had a reaction similar to that of my five year old daughter to a tale I was telling. The story was about a strange breed of serpent DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 513 which, in time of danger, would take its tail into its mouth and swallow itself completely, passing entirely out of view. In this condition it would remain until the danger was passed, after which it would regurgitate itself and go on as before. After a few pointed questions as to where the snake's mouth and stomach went in this progress of self-engulfment, the child asked doubtingly "But there really isn't any snake like that is there, father ?" Many of you, if you expressed freely what is in your mind would probably ask me, "But there really isn't any such thing as rural school music is there ?" The answer of any individual to this question depends largely upon his own experience and observation. Those of you to whom the words rural school mean the common one-room school, would probably answer an unqualified "No !" and with good reason for in the bulk of such schools there is no music. Music supervisors for such schools are not common, the regular teachers have neither the ability nor the time to carry on a course of music, and the usual small number of pupils makes the production of good music difficult even with the best of instruction. The music, if it exists at all, usually consists of the rhythmic shouting of the words of some of the old tunes in connection with the opening exercises, or the similar rendition of a few musical monstrosities as part of a Christmas play or a program on the last day. But to some of you the words "rural school," may conjure up an entirely different picture. Instead of the little dilapidated red brick or wooden one-room building, sitting dejectedly in an open field, surrounded by a slough of mud, you see a modern consolidated or centralized school house, large, spacious, and new, standing proudly in its well kept grounds by the side of a hard-surfaced road-a tangible expression of the inner idealistic spirit of the twentieth century. These schools are created by joining together several of the districts each of which formerly supported a one- room school . The course of instruction extends from the first grade through the high school, and the pupils are transported to and from school in horse-drawn vans or motor busses. The status of music in such a rural school depends largely on whether or not the school employs a special supervisor or teacher of music. Where a supervisor is employed, the larger number of pupils makes possible fairly satisfactory results in vocal music. But the comparative smallness of the unit and consequent shortage of funds, necessitates the hiring of a music teacher who is a sort of fifty-seven varities in ability-combining a knowl- edge of music with domestic science, or art, grade subjects, or some high school courses. Under such an arrangement music usually has a very minor place in the teacher's schedule with the result that little is accom- plished. Occasionally such a school is fortunate in having a superintendent who considers music of educational value, and in securing a teacher of unusual ability. Under these conditions excellent work is done. Is there such a thing as rural school music? An observer of this 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION centralized or consolidated type of rural school, would probably answer, "Perhaps." Yet the problems of rural school music are so great that the best of teachers and supervisors are frequently in a quandary as to what to do. Let me present a few of these problems, and some attempted solutions. To those of you who are rural supervisors, this discussion may be of some value, suggesting a way out of some of your own difficulties; to those of you who are city supervisors the discussion will perhaps be of passing interest, presenting a phase of school music strange and unfamiliar a sort of Chinese puzzle, the solution of which may satisfy a normal curiosity. Consider first the one-room school. The situation which I shall describe is not exaggerated. I have taught in one-room schools which were a little better than this one; I have also taught in many that were vastly worse. What I here portray is average-typical of at least nine schools out of seventeen in three counties which are among the wealthiest in the State, and rank among the highest in their expenditures for school purposes. This typical school has sixteen pupils, graded and classed musically as follows : Grade I -Two pupils, one a monotone. Grade II -One pupil, a monotone. Grade III -No pupils . Grade IV -Five pupils of whom two are monotones, or at least have very un- certain and inaccurate co-ordination between the sound receiving and sound producing apparatus of their anatomies. Grade V -Three pupils, all singers. Grade VI -Three pupils, one boy's voice is changing so that he cannot match tones easily. Grade VII -No pupils . Grade VIII-Two pupils. One of them, a boy, has a changed voice, but can sing fairly well in a limited range-about c to c'. To summarize : Of sixteen pupils, four cannot sing at all; two have changing voices and need special attention ; ten are singers ranging in age from six to fourteen years. One period of forty-five minutes weekly is given to the school by a trained supervisor ; ten minutes daily is allowed on the schedule for drill by the grade teacher who cannot sing, and knows no theory of music. What should be done in such a situation ? Or, perhaps I should say, "What can be done ?" Of what should the course consist ? All songs and no theory ? If so, what songs ? For with so small a number, and such limited time for music, it will be almost necessary to have all the pupils sing together. And having decided on songs suitable for the entire group, how shall they be taught, considering that the teacher cannot sing and can do very little alone ? A supervisor in such a situation is probably in the same mental state as a spinster of forty-five who by some rare good fortune had received two offers of marriage: one from a well-to-do man twenty-five years her senior ; the other from an infatuated youth twenty-seven years her junior. If she married the older, folks would say she married him for his money; if DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 515 the younger, that she was taking a child to raise. As she couldn't decide which she wound up by taking neither and remained a spinster. Similarly, a supervisor confronted by these one-room school music problems does not know whether to do this, or to do that or to ditch the whole business and secure an easy job as a hod carrier. The solutions which I suggest to these problems are not to be con- sidered as ideal or final. I present them as methods which I have tried myself with partial success. These attempts may serve as points of de- parture for your own thought which, traveling in a different direction, will arrive at much better solutions. With regard to the course, the correct singing of good songs should be . considered most important. The development of a love for good music and a desire to particiapte in its rendition is the fundamental objective of all school-music instruction; and to develop this, in the rural school as well as in the city, much stress should be laid on song-singing. But the songs ? Yes, that is the question. What songs for so diverse a group? I have had my best success with the old standard and folk songs such as are found in Birchard's two Twice -55 Song Books, in Hall and McCreary's Golden and Gray Books, and in The Song Hour, an excellent little volume published by Theodore Presser. These books (and there are doubtlessly many others) furnish a wealth of good songs, suitable for unison singing and more songs in two parts than the school in question will ever learn. In addition to these standard songs, the list should also include some special songs for the little children in the primary grades. The learning of a few such songs is a privilege which every child has a right to enjoy, including the child of the one-room, rural school. In some of the larger one-room schools, I have had special classes for the learning of these songs; but usually, the whole room learns and sings them with genuine pleasure. The next problem is, How shall we teach our songs in a school where the teacher cannot sing ? I recall one such school where during my weekly visit I presented Old Black Joe as the new song. The children could sing it fairly well by the end of the period and I instructed the teacher to give them further drill on it during my absence. On my return, I found evi- dence that my instructions had been faithfully observed-every child knew all the words from memory. They also knew the music of all the phrases -but the words were not connected to the musical phrases where they belonged-and the phrases were not in their proper sequence. Itwas almost impossible to correct the error after the week's diligent practice the wrong way, so after a few attempts, Old Black Joe had to be put up on the top shelf and left there. Thereafter, my procedure was different. Three or four songs were presented at one time and drill was given during the music supervisor's period only for several weeks. After four to six weeks, the children knew those songs correctly and well. When they were so thoroughly learned that they could be not sung incorrectly I released them for use under the 516 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION teacher's direction. This procedure was of course slow; the children in that room completed only about half the number of songs learned by other schools with musical teachers. But half a loaf is better than none, and the important thing to notice here is that the few songs attempted were cor- rectly learned. This incident represents an extreme case-perhaps one of the worst. In another similar school, an eighth grade girl who had had some piano lessons was able to play the melody of the songs on the reed organ, and she conducted the music during my absence with a fair degree of success. Recently the phonograph companies have been issuing records for use in just such schools as I have been describing. These records reproduce the words and music at proper pitch of a great many songs suitable for one- room schools, and are an invaluable aid to the music supervisor in schools where the teacher lacks musical ability. They are of value even where the teacher knows some music, for they make available at all times a ren- dition of the songs studied, correct as to rhythm, and phrasing. But if the supervisor encounters rough going in the teaching of songs in one-room schools, in the teaching of musical theory and sight singing he will probably think he is not going at all, and usually he isn't. For even with competent teachers, the crowded schedule of the one-room school does not allow sufficient time for the teaching of theory. After the first year, at least two classes would be necessary; after the second year, three. Whether or not enough time could be found for the carrying on of two or three music periods, I don't know. I have never been able to secure so much time. The most practicable solution is perhaps to make the upper four or five grades the basis of instruction-presenting the symbols of music writing, the use of the syllables, and the reading at sight of as many melodies as possible. Such a course will give the pupils at least a speaking acquaintance with the elements of musical theory, will enable them to receive some help from the printed page in their singing, and will give a foundation from which the more musical and more interested pupils can later develop real sight-singing ability. The centralized or consolidated schools are organized on what is known as the six-six plan, that is, the first six grades form the elementary school, while the last six grades from the seventh to the twelfth grades make up the high school. The division of the elementary school into grades of fair size, makes possible very satisfactory vocal work. The biggest problem in the consolidated school is what to do with the high school chorus. As I said the seventh, eighth and ninth grades are included with the tenth, eleventh and twelfth in the high school organiza- tion and are administered as a part of it. Because of the crowded sched- ule it is usually necessary to join these grades together for chorus work. A typical situation is this : Number of pupils grade seven to twelve, inclusive, is eighty-five, voice classi- fication as follows : DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 517 Boys: Altos fifteen, sopranos eleven, changed voices twelve-nine of these are in the bass register, but quite immature, what Hollis Dann calls a boy-bass ; three are what might be called boy-tenors, i. e., a tenor range, but very light in quality. The girls classify: Sopranos twenty-seven, altos five. Of the entire number of boys and girls, fifteen are non- singers. A summary gives : Sopranos thirty-eight, altos twenty, boy bass nine, boy tenor three, non-singers fifteen. What disposition can be made of such a chorus ? The ordinary four- part material is not usable because of the almost entire lack of tenors. Some of the altos might sing the tenor, but they are all needed for their own part. Good two-part singing is possible and much of it is done. This leaves out the changed voices, however, and since the entire chorus re- hearses together it is necessary to provide all of them with something to do most of the time. In such high schools I use a great many unison songs ; songs from such books as the Brown and Green Twice 55, and the Golden and Gray Books previously mentioned ; also The Lake High School Songs, The Laurel Song Book, The School Song Book, NeCollins Glee and Chorus Book, Dann's Junior Songs and perhaps some others. All of these contain many part-songs which may be used, but most of their songs can be sung in unison as well. In addition to unison material, we use as many songs of the countrapuntal type as can be found. Such songs as the two short ones in the Green Twice 55-Lady Moon and The Village Dance-where two melodies move along together agreeably. As additional part-music we use many SAB choruses. The alto and soprano parts of this material are usually within easy range of the voices. The bass or baritone part likewise is limited in its compass and nearly all of the changed voices can sing it without strain. There is an increasing amount of this material being published, and it offers, I believe, the best solution of the problem of part singing in these rural high schools. All of these suggestions with regard to rural school music have assumed the presence of a trained supervisor to direct the work and do at least part of the teaching. But this very matter of securing supervisors consti- tutes a problem in itself and a very important and serious one at that. For no great advance can be made in rural school music until trained school music supervisors are put into the schools to do the work. It is obviously impossible for each one-room school to have a music supervisor. It is also unlikely that all consolidated schools can afford their own supervisors. In most of them there are not enough pupils to keep a full time music teacher busy. And the problem of finance is another obstacle to each consolidated school having its own music teacher. It is almost necessary as before stated to combine the music instruction with that of other subjects. Such an arrangement while better than nothing, is not ideal, however, for the teacher's main interest is apt to be in the other subjects which carry credit and which are more easily checked-up 518 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION by the superintendent. I know whereof I speak, for I at one time accepted such a position-and I remember how many, many times the music class was passed-by for classes in other subjects where any shortcomings would be readily noticed. Moreover, a supervisor in a rural school system must possess qualities and abilities which are rare enough to put his salary beyond the financial resources of any single consolidated school. Such a supervisor must of course be able to do the usual vocal teaching throughout the grades and high school; he must also have the ability to direct orchestras and bands. In addition he should be able to teach one or two orchestral instruments well, and be able to give elementary instruction in all of the common ones. For instrumental teachers in rural communities are about as numer- ous as the proverbial hens' teeth, and if a rural supervisor wishes to have an orchestra or band, he will have to develop the players himself. The com- mon city procedures of relying on pupils of private teachers or of having private teachers conduct school classes will not work in most consolidated schools. For there are no private teachers. You will of course admit that the rural child has the same right to enjoy the privilege of instrumental instruction as the city child. Yet a glance at the salaries paid in consolidated schools, will convince you that it is next to impossible for the individual units to supply such ability. What then can be done ? The solution is to combine the several units into a circuit. This may be done in one of two ways. The simplest is to employ one supervisor in five townships, in each one of which he spends one day per week, visiting the one-room schools, if there are any, and giving as much time to each as the length of the teaching day will permit; or spend- ing the entire day at the township consolidated school. You can readily see that $500 to $600 from each township under such an arrangement will make a net salary of from $2500 to $3000-figures at which fairly well- trained teachers are available, even with the necessary auto or livery expense which most rural teaching requires. Schools organized on this basis are to be found in Marion and Portage Counties, Ohio. The other way of combining rural schools is to join nine or ten or even more schools together and to employ two or more supervisors to do the work. This is the plan followed in Medina County, Ohio, and I believe also in one county of Indiana. In these counties, each consolidated school is visited by two supervisors. One supervisor does all the instrumental work and another all the vocal ; or each may do part of the vocal work and part of the instrumental. With this arrangement one teacher super- vises the grade vocal music and teaches the violin classes in ten schools, visiting each one half day per week; another directs the high school choruses and orchestras and teaches the wind instrument classes in the same schools . The number of teachers who can do all of these things is not large. But there are many who combine the ability to supervise vocal music with proficiency on one or two instruments; and by proper combination of DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 519 abilities in the teachers employed, as suggested above, the rural school demand for both instrumental and vocal instruction is fairly well met. The cost, too, under this second arrangement is no more than under the first where one teacher does all the work in each of five schools. Every school receives and pays for only one day of instruction as before, but it receives this instruction from two teachers each giving one-half day weekly. The successful working of such a plan demands close coöperation between the supervisors, and necessitates that one of them be recognized as the authoritative director. If each teacher works independently there is danger of a lack of system and unity with all of the consequent inefficiency and waste of time. If you will extend this idea of combining ten schools under two super- visors and include all the schools of a large unit such as the county employ- ing a county director of music and a corps of teachers, you will have a concept of what I believe to be the ideal organization for the carrying on of rural school music. It is in fact not much different in its operation from a city organization. The greatest difference is that instead of the music director's having to deal with o ne school board, he has to deal with several, often as many as eighteen or twenty. The advantages of the county organization are numerous. The pres- ence of several teachers in a number of schools of the same type, makes available a large amount of experience in the solution of problems as they arise. Such an organization makes possible too the assembling of large numbers of children for impressive musical demonstration. One such demonstration in Medina County featured a union orchestra of 130 play- ers; another a like number of first year violin pupils. These demonstra- tions are of great inspirational value to the children who participate, and a source of great satisfaction to their parents who see in them very tangible results for the money spent in music instruction. A county music organization likewise does much to develop a spirit of unity in the county. One of the greatest hindrances to the advance of education in rural schools has been and still is, though in a lesser degree, the extreme individualism and local pride of the various units. Although this local feeling is valuable in promoting competition, it becomes a serious obstacle at times when two or three factions refuse to agree on some project for the common good, out of fear that one will secure some ad- vantage. I know of one township in Ohio which is supporting three schools of mediocre standard, rather than one good township school. Whenever consolidation is suggested, each one of the three communities insists that the new school house be located within its boundaries. No faction will compromise so they go on year after year with inadequate and out-of-date facilities, and the children suffer because of the wooden pates of their elders. A county music organization does much to disintegrate this stupid local- ism. The parents see their children enjoying excellent advantages in musical instruction. They knew too that they are able to have instruction, only because some of the neighboring townships also have it. The com 520 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION munities realize their interdependence and see more clearly the advantages of coöperation. To return to the question asked at the beginning of my paper, " Is there such a thing as rural school music ?" my answer is "Yes, in a few places- very good rural school music." But only in a few places. The field is almost untouched. The old time, itinerant teacher with his singing school is gone, and his place has not been filled. Modern circuit riders, traveling by auto, horseback, or on foot must take his place and carry a gospel of beauty through music to rural communities near and remote. The work is not easy. It means long hours of teaching, much public work, thousands of miles of travel over all kinds of roads in all kinds of weather. But it carries rewards commensurate with the difficulties. From a pecuniary standpoint, I have found the rural communities very willing to make large expenditures for music when they are given genuinely good instruction which functions both in the school and community. From the standpoint of experience no supervisor could ask for better. The varied demands made upon the rural music supervisor both by the schools and communities, gives him wonderful opportunities for the exercise of all his powers, uninhibited by critical observation. As great or greater than these rewards of money and experience is the reward of appreciation. Nowhere is a music supervisor more highly regarded than in rural communities. Children and parents alike love him for he is frequently the only person who brings any conscious beauty into their lives. And above all rewards, either of money, experience, or appreciation, is that of a sense of confidence in the lasting value of the work being done. The rural supervisor of music realizes that by bringing beauty and a love of the beautiful to hundreds of children, he is enriching their lives, making discontent with country life less acute and developing better citizenship. THE ORCHESTRA IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ABSTRACT GAYLORD R. HUMBERGER, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC , PUBLIC SCHOOLS SPRINGFIELD, OHIO The orchestra in the public schools, is one of the newer educational projects. The orchestra conforms to the educational policies of the public schools when it is directly the outgrowth of the instrumental classes, con- ducted wholly within the school curriculum and under direct control of the board of education. Great strides have been made along these lines in a great number of cities. No one thing has met with such remarkable de- velopment as has the instrumental work in the public schools . When the orchestra and instrumental work in the public schools is conducted along the same lines as the other educational subjects, then there DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 521 will be a relative attainment and the educator will realize the real value of that phase of the music program in the schools. Now then there is this other way of handling the orchestra and instru- mental project in the school, either grades or high school. Understand, I do not in any way wish to humiliate or criticise the school that does not put over an orchestral program as stated above, but the living from hand to mouth idea or "take 'em as they come" is not a public school idea or satisfactory, to say the least. Statistics show that the schools with well organized instrumental pro- grams produce orchestras which meet the approval of educators, and boards of education are convinced that having an orchestra is necessary in a complete school system, and should be given an adequate amount of time on the school curriculum. We do not presume that every child who takes up this work will follow it as a vocation, but we do contend that the intellectual, spiritual, and physical will be greatly benefited. Can the educator afford to brush aside or trifle with a subject so im- portant as the orchestra ? I do not believe they can or will . Department of Rural Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES CINCINNATI, 1924 OFFICERS President-MACY CAMPBELL, State Teachers College..... .... Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President-N. SEARLE LIGHT, Department of Education . ...... Ha tford, Connecticut Secretary-MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College... Columbia University, New York Treasurer- MARY E. HOWE , Detroit Teachers College .... ...... Detroit, Michigan Historical note-In 1907 the creation of a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education was authorized by the Board of Directors. See Proceedings of 1907, pages 44-45. At the Chicago meeting in 1919, the department was reorganized with the three organized rural groups then existing-the National Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools, the County Superintendent's section of the National Education Association, and the National Association of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers under the name of the Department of Rural Education. See Proceedings of 1920, page 279 . The department meets twice each year, in February and in June. This department sponsors the publication of the Journal of Rural Education, first issue, September, 1921, published monthly except July and August; Fannie W. Dunn Editor-in-chief Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. See this Journal for additional material covering department meetings and activities . MONDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 23, 1925 The Economic Background of Rural Education INEQUALITIES IN TAXATION, REVENUES AND EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES, REMEDIAL LEGISLATION-F. H. Swift, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. COOPERATIVE MARKETING AND THE SUPPORT OF RURAL EDUCATION-Aaron Sapiro, Attorney for Farmers Co-operative Associations, Chicago, Illinois . OPEN DICCUSSION OF THE ABOVE TOPICS FROM THE FLOOR. PRELIMINARY BUSINESS MEETING, APPOINTMENT OF COMMITTFES, ETC. TUESDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 24 Some Outstanding Achievements of Consolidated Schools THE MAKING OF A CITIZEN AT THE WHITMELL FARM LIFE SCHOOL- Mrs . F. C. Beverley, Principal, Consolidated School, Whitmell, Va . GIVING THE RURAL COMMUNITY A GOOD SCHOOL AT TIPTON-W . H. Ray, Principal, Tipton Consolidated School, Tipton, Iowa. WHAT THE SPARTANBURG CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL IS DOING TO EDUCATE A RURAL COMMUNITY-Will W. Moore, Principal, Spartanburg Consolidated School, Lynn, Ind. HIGH POINTS IN THE SERVICE RENDERED BY THE JORDAN CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS- D. C. Jensen, Superintendent of Schools , Sandy, Utah. THE CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY-Lee L. Driver, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. [522] DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 523 WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 25 Developing the Consolidated School REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RURAL SCHOOL ATTENDANCE-Adelaide M. Ayer, New York City. PROBABLE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CONSOLIDATED AND ONE- TEACHER RURAL SCHOOLS-Mrs. Katherine Cook, Specialist in Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. THE COUNTY UNIT AND THE CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL-E. S. Richardson, Superin- tendent of Webster Parish Schools, Minden, Louisiana. CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL STANDARDS-George A. Selke, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. THE PREPARATION OF THE PRINCIPAL FOR THE CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL-H. A. Tape, Director of Rural Consolidated Training School, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan. THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 26 Section I. -County Superintendents Chairman, E. S. Richardson, Superintendent of Webster Parish Schools, Minden, Louisiana. THE STATE'S FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOL-T. H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. THE COUNTY UNIT AND COUNTY BUDGETING-A. G. Yawberg, Superintendent of Cuyahoga County Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. CREATING PUBLIC SENTIMENT FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS-Homer W. Nichols, Superintendent of Caldwell County Schools, Princeton, Kentucky. CHILD LABOR AND RURAL SCHOOL ATTENDANCE-Walter F. Boyes, Superintendent of Knox County Schools, Galesburg, Illinois . NEGRO EDUCATION-P. F. Williams, Superintendent of Coahoma County Schools , Friars Point, Mississippi. BUSINESS MEETING Section II. -State Rural School Inspectors Chairman, George A. Selke, Specialist in Rural Education, University of Min- nesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Training of Rural School Teachers THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS IN HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENTS-H. E. Flynn, Inspector of Teacher-training Departments for Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota . THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES- Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. A STATE PROGRAM FOR THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS-J . E. Hillman, State Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina. BUSINESS MEETING AND COMMITTEE WORK The first business transacted by the Department this year related to the Journal of Rural Education and looked toward the general improvement and extension of the magazine. The Executive Committee, meeting on Tuesday morning, was in session for over two hours deliberating on the research work of the Department and considering ways and means of raising money for this important purpose. Two studies, one on comparative results of instruction in consolidated and one- teacher school under the chairmanship of Mr. Foote, and another on rural school attendance under the chairmanship of Miss Adelaide Ayer, have already been com- pleted; and a third on principles and background of rural education under the 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION direction of Dr. O. G. Brim is now in progress. In addition to these, Dr. Norman Frost, chairman of the Departmental Committee on Constructive Studies, recom- mended the inauguration of three additional studies as soon as resources and workers could be found-namely, on the local school unit in rural education; on rural school finance ; and on observation and practice teaching in normal schools and teachers colleges . At the general business meeting of the Department on Thursday morning the reports of the secretary and treasurer were first received, followed by the report on the Journal of Rural Education from Dr. Ernest Burnham, chairman of the board of directors. Resolutions were then presented and accepted and officers for 1925-26 were elected as follows : President: A. F. Harman, superintendent of schools, Montgomery County, Montgomery, Alabama. Vice-President: Florence M. Hale, State agent for rural education, Augusta, Maine. Secretary: Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Treasurer: Mary E. Howe, Detroit Teachers College, Detroit, Michigan. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE To Serve One Year John M. Foote, department of education, Baton Rouge, Louisiana . Chloe Baldridge, Normal School, Peru, Nebraska. Cora Pearson, county supervisor of elementary schools, Montgomery, Alabama. Richard J. Libby, department of education, Augusta, Maine. J. S. Hoffman, county superintendent, Hunterdon County, Flemington, New Jersey. To Serve Two Years M. S. Pittman, Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan. May Trumper, State superintendent of education, Helena, Montana. Julian E. Butterworth, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Norman Frost, Peabody College, Nashville, Tennessee. C. G. Sargent, College of Agriculture, Fort Collins, Colorado. To Serve Three Years Macy Campbell, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Mrs. A. F. Beverley, Farm Life School, Whitmell, Virginia . N. Searle Light, State director of rural education, Hartford, Connecticut. Sue Powers, superintendent of schools, Shelby County, Memphis, Tennessee. D. C. Jensen, Jordan Consolidated School, Sandy, Utah. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Mr. Chairman and Members of the Department: Your Committee on Resolutions offers the following report : (1) That the Department of Rural Education express renewed faith and belief in service to rural education in the United States and takes this opportunity to voice its commendation of the splendid efforts of the large and constantly growing group of professionally trained educationists in this field through which rural education is being placed on the same professional plane which urban education has attained. (2) We especially express appreciation of progress made in scientific research and experimentation in the fields of rural education, particularly rural supervision, rural teacher training, improvement of one-teacher schools, rural secondary educa- tion, and professional administration of rural schools. (3) We are committed to the principle of the equalization of educational op- portunity for all children regardless of their living place and to an equitable DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 525 distribution of tax burdens for all citizens. We pledge our earnest support to promote in all ways at our command scientific plans of raising and distributing school moneys, and we publicly appeal to legislative and budgetary authorities and to those who have opportunity to influence and inform public opinion to resort to all just measures to promote such plans. We believe that the State as such should assume responsibility for a type of administrative organization which insures to all school systems within its borders adequate support on an equitable basis and professional management. (4) One of the most important movements in education is that concerned with a new organization of materials of instruction to more nearly meet the needs of rural schools of the different types. We desire to commend those States, counties, and school systems which are providing for scientific reorganization of their courses of study to meet such needs. (5) We endorse the principles involved in the coöperative farm marketing pro- gram. We recommend the study of this subject as a means of promoting a better understanding and appreciation of farm merchandising problems on the part of both producer and consumer. (6) We fully realize the serious problems of the rural school. Experience has demonstrated the efficiency of the consolidated school as a solution to these prob- lems. We further appreciate the fact that there are many one-teacher schools which it is not feasible to consolidate ; therefore, we again endorse and advise the consolidation of rural schools wherever feasible and insist that those schools which can not be consolidated be given equal study and consideration. (7) We rejoice at the progress made by a number of States in movements which will ultimately result in raising the qualifications of the rural teaching force and express the hope that all States will pursue similar programs. We believe there are three phases of this question which are of utmost importance : ( a ) Increased facilities for training rural teachers in standard teacher-preparing institutions ; (b) salaries commensurate with the importance of the work ; and ( c) certification laws and regulations which require, as a minimum, qualifications equivalent to graduation from a standard normal school. We believe that the standard for rural teachers should be as high as that for urban teachers and that the examination method of certification should gradually be replaced by credentials from standard teacher-preparing institutions. We call upon friends and leaders of rural education, especially State officers and teacher- preparing institutions, to assist in the realization of these ideals. In particular, we request that the State higher institutions of learning assume more responsibility in this respect in the future than they have in the past. (8) Since the efficiency of a school system depends largely upon competent administration and supervision, we favor setting up legal certification provisions making the minimum requirement in scholarship for superintendents and super- visors the baccalaureate degree or its equivalent with a major in education and school administration including rural sociology, and supplemented by such practical experience as will show superior teaching ability and forward-looking leadership. (9) We express our appreciation of those educational organizations and institu- tions which are now promoting in theory and in practice a higher degree of special- ization and professionalization in the field of rural education. We depreciate the idea that such specialization is any less necessary in this than in other fields of education. We wish particularly to emphasize the necessity of specialization in such lines as administration, supervision, consolidation, secondary education, rural teacher training, the rural school curriculum, and the like. We urge upon all organizations and institutions entering the field of rural education for research, for professional preparation of teachers, supervisors and administrative officers, or for other types of service, recognition of these and other special lines as offering problems worthy of the highest possible degree of application, study, and research.- KATHERINE M. Cook, Chairman. The report was adopted unanimously. 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A STUDY OF RURAL SCHOOL ATTENDANCE ADELAIDE M. AYER, NEW YORK CITY Your committee appointed to study and report on Rural School attend- ance, begs to submit herewith a report of its labors. We request that the report be received and the committee discharged. Respectfully Submitted, ADELAIDE M. AYER, chairman, New York City. N. R. BAKER, superintendent, Jefferson County Schools, Birmingham, Ala. KATHARINE M. Cook, chief of rural division, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. С. C. E. GIBBONS, National Child Labor Com- mittee, New York City. O. H. GREIST, superintendent, Randolph County Schools, Winchester, Ind. C. J. STRAHAN, assistant state superintendent of education, Trenton, N. J. At the February, 1922, meeting of the Department of Rural Education, a committee was appointed to study rural school attendance. Unrestricted as to scope, the committee decided to confine the study to three phases- namely: 1. What the attendance in rural schools of the United States actually is ; how attendance differs in one-teacher, two-teacher, and consolidated schools; and a comparison of attendance in long and short term schools. 2. The effect of attendance on school work and the amount of loss in actual school achievement, if any, a given amount of absence causes. 3. The effect of rural child labor on school attendance . The committee has spent over two years collecting and compiling data. As no funds were provided for this study, the committee was obliged to depend upon the generous coöperation of state departments, county superin- tendents, and other rural school leaders who were in a position to make data available. In order that there be uniformity in collecting data, a rural school was arbitrarily defined as a one- or two-teacher school, a consolidated school in the open country, or a school in a hamlet of not more than two hundred population.¹ PART ONE The object of the first part of this study was: (a) To determine the actual attendance of children in rural schools of the United States; ( b ) to compare attendance in one-teacher and larger rural schools, and (c) to compare attendance in long and short-term rural schools. 1 It is possible that the figures from a few of the consolidated schools reported in Part One of this study are located in communities of more than two hundred population. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 527 The Bureau of Education is authority for the statement that no figures on rural school attendance for any large area of the United States are, or ever have been, available. Federal and practically all State reports com- bine city and rural attendance data. This study is, therefore, the first attempt to determine the length of time rural children representing the country as a whole attend school. As methods of figuring attendance vary greatly among the different school systems, state or county summaries of attendance were too mislead- ing to use in this study. State and county educational authorities were, therefore, solicited to turn over to the committee their school registers, in order that a uniform method of compiling data might be employed. Through the generous aid of the Rural Division of the Bureau of Educa- tion, it was possible to secure accurate compilations. Attendance records, largely for the school year 1922-23, of 72,120 children (practically all white) of 70 counties of 10 states have been com- piled. The states represent three Atlantic coast States, north and south ; one Gulf State; four middle-western States; and two north-western States. As far as the committee can judge this sampling is fairly representative of the country as a whole. There may be fewer eight-month schools repre- sented in proportion to the national total, than six, seven, nine, and ten- month schools, as the committee, in order to make comparison in attendance between long and short term-schools, aimed especially to secure wherever possible data from counties that had both terms of 139 days or less and terms of 170 days or longer. There are included a small number of schools with less than six months terms and rather a large number with over 180 day terms. The latter can be defended as representing a common practice in the group of States extending from Maryland north and into parts of New England. The pupils included in the study are distributed according to size of school as follows : 1- teacher schools (7 States ) 40,493 2-teacher schools ( 5 States ) 18,777 3 and 4-teacher schools ( 3 States ) 781 Consolidated or other rural schools of more than 1-teacher (9 States) 27,408 Strictly consolidated schools ( 3 counties of 2 States) 7,828 The first question considered was : What is the actual attendance of rural children of the United States? The median number of days of actual attendance of these 72,120 country children was 141.7 days. If the sample is representative of the United States as a whole it means that half of the children in rural communities attended school less than seven and a half months, over a fourth of the children were in school considerably less than five months, and thirteen per cent less than three months. 528 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The following table shows the number and per cent of the various attendance intervals. NUMBER AND PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF 72,120 PUPILS ATTENDING RURAL SCHOOLS OF TEN STATES-42 Counties Per Cent Number Attendance Intervals Each Group of Pupils is of Total 180 days or more . 4,943 6.8 160-179 days .. 16,287 22.6 140-159 days . 15,755 21.7 120-139 days . 9,028 12.5 100-119 days . 6,817 9.5 80-99 days . 5,385 7.5 60-79 days . 4,442 6.2 40-59 days . 4,239 5.9 1-39 days . 5,224 7.3 Total. 72,120 100. Q. 2.13 163.9 da. Med. 141.7 da. 21, 25.3 da. The next question to be answered was : Is the attendance in the two- teacher, in the consolidated, or other larger rural school, better than in the one-teacher school? It will be seen from the table below that the median attendance of chil- dren in one-teacher schools was 139.6 days, in two-teacher schools 148.8 days, in three and four-teacher schools 135.3 days, and in consolidated schools 144.9 days. Children in two-teacher and consolidated schools receive on an average from four to nine days more schooling than children of one-teacher schools, not as great a difference as many of us have thought. As the median days attendance in three and four-teacher schools is even less than in one-teacher schools it is quite possible that our sampling is not representative of small village schools. Or do the village schools neglect the children even more than other rural schools. Further study is neces- sary before any conclusion can be drawn. Further study is also needed to determine whether or not the consolidated school has greater holding power than the one-teacher school and whether that possible holding power may bring down its attendance record by the older children's staying out of school during rush periods on the farm. The large S. D. (standard deviation or sigma) of each of these types of . school indicate the wide spread of the curve, the cases being more closely bunched in the consolidated schools than in the other types. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 529 ATTENDANCE IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF RURAL SCHOOLS I teacher 2teacher Strictly consolidated 3and4teacher schools Attendance (8 States) ( 5 States) (3 States) (3 Counties-2 States) Interval Per Per Per Per Number cent Number cent Number cent Number cent 180 da. or more . 2727 6.7 2162 11.5 160-179 da .... 9226 22.8 5260 28.0 200 25.6 1439 18.4 " 140-159 8199 20.3 3500 18.6 173 22.2 3298 42.1 " 120-139 5167 12.8 2127 11.3 72 9.2 1103 14.1 " 100-119 ... 4229 10.4 1423 7.6 57 7.3 542 6.9 " 80-99 .. 3112 7.7 1240 6.6 49 6.2 383 4.9 60-79 2467 6.1 915 4.9 52 6.7 389 4.9 " 40-59 2449 6.0 965 5.2 70 8.9 323 4.1 “ 20-39 1919 4.7 788 4.2 56 7.2 215 2.8 “ 1-19 998 2.5 397 2.1 52 6.7 136 1.8 Total..... 40.493 100 18,777 900 781 100 7,828 100 23 = 163.9 Q3 = 170.3 Q = 160.5 Q3 = 156.8 Med. 139.6 da. Med. 148.8 Med. 135.3 Med. 144.9 Q1 = 94.7 Q1 = 105.4 Q1 = 64.7 Q1 = 118.9 S. D. = 47.8 S. D. = 47.8 S. D. = 53.2 S. D. = 39.2 Again attention should be called to the large number of children attend- ing school for only a short time. 19 per cent for less than 4 months in one-teacher schools. 16 per cent for less than 4 months in two-teacher schools. 30 per cent for less than 4 months in three and four-teacher schools. 14 per cent for less than 4 months in consolidated schools. These data discussed above include attendance in terms of different lengths. For example, there are many schools in the one-teacher school and two-teacher school groups with terms considerably over 180 days in length while the consolidated and village school groups had no schools with a term of 179 days or over. The consolidated schools of one county sampled (2110 pupils of ten schools) had a uniform term of 160 days. The question arises whether or not the long and short term schools should be considered together when figuring attendance. This brings us to the third problem of our study of actual attendance : How does attendance compare in long and short-term rural schools? The data collected for one-teacher schools included 11 counties of 2 States which had average terms ranging from 185-194 days, while 9 coun- ties of 5 States include schools with average terms of 179 days and in the same counties average terms of 139 days. 530 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In the 185-194 day terms the median attendance was 147.9 days, in the 179 day terms the median is 141.8 days, and in the 139 day terms the median was 83.9 days. The comparison of the last two groups is especially signifi- cant as the data are from the same counties. Presumably the laws govern- ing such attendance are uniform yet children in the six-months schools do not make good use of the school that is furnished them. COMPARISON OF ATTENDANCE IN ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS with (1) 185-194 day-terms (2)179 day-terms and (3) 139 day-terms. (11 counties of (9 counties of Attendance 2 States) 5 States) (9 counties of 5 States) Intervals Attend. in 185-194 Attend. in 179 139 day terms day terms day terms Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Over 180 days . 1329 9.4 160-179 days .. 3911 27.6 727 17.5 140-159 days . 3050 21.6 1481 35.7 120-139 days ... 1718 12.1 593 14.3 232 16.7 100-119 days .. 1227 8.7 348 8.4 273 19.8 80-99 days . 943 6.7 224 5.4 236 16.9 60-79 days . 668 4.7 198 4.8 208 15.0 40-59 days .. 651 4.6 236 5.7 163 11.8 46.6 20-39 days .. 421 2.9 219 5.3 195 14.0 1-19 days ..... 243 1.7 124 2.9 80 5.8 Total. 14,161 100 . 4150 100. 1387 100. Q₃ = 168.7 da. Qs 155.6 da. Q 105.6 da. 66 " " Med. 147.9 Med. 141.8 Med . 83.9 " « " Q1= 110 Q1 = 102.1 Q1 = 45.7 14 per cent of the children in 185-194 da. terms attend less than 4months. 19 per cent of the children in 179 da. terms attend less than 4 months. 47 per cent of the children in 139 da. terms attend less than 4 months. In the longest terms 59 per cent of the children are in school longer than the schools are kept open in the short-term schools. Comparisons could not be made of atttendance in rural and urban schools as the data available for most city schools have been compiled by percentages rather than by individual records, and are therefore misleading. SUMMARY 1. The study includes attendance records of 72,120 children of 70 coun- ties of 10 States representing all parts of the country except the south-west. The sampling probably does not include data from a sufficient number of eight-months terms to be wholly representative. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 531 2. Including all types of rural schools the median attendance was 141.7 days, the lower fourth of the children attending 95.3 days and the upper fourth 163.9 days. 3. The attendance in two-room schools was slightly better than in con- solidated schools. The attendance in these two types of schools was con- siderably better than the attendance in one-teacher or three and four-teacher schools. 4. Comparing the attendance in very long, fairly long, and very short terms it was found that it pays decidedly in good attendance to provide long terms for country children. QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Further study is needed to determine : 1. The attendance of children and length of term in a larger number of village schools. 2. The attendance of children in a larger number of consolidated schools. 3. The length of term in consolidated schools in comparison to one and two-teacher schools . PART TWO The second phase of the study was to determine the effect of attendance upon school work . If the school is doing the work that it should, every day of attendance should increase the educational achievement of children. School authorities have assumed that this was true, but as far as your committee has been able to find out no data have ever been collected to prove this. If good attend- ance results in better school work how much better work should be ex- pected of a pupil with 170 days in school, for example, than of a pupil with 150 days of actual attendance ? It was decided to measure the effect of attendance on school work by means of educational tests. The following tests and scales were selected : Thorndike- McCall Reading Scale, Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals, and Buckingham Extension of the Ayers' Spelling Scale, Column O. State commissioners and superintendents of education and State super- visors of rural schools of fifteen representative States were asked to name a few county superintendents who had had successful experience in giving educational tests. These superintendents were in turn asked to coöperate in the study but for various reasons, principally because of lack of funds with which to purchase the tests, only eleven counties of seven widely scattered northern States were finally represented in the study. It is un- fortunate that the data do not contain figures from Southern States as well. County superintendents were asked to give the tests during the last of 1 Since this report was prepared the Texas Survey has been published with some study of this point. See Journal of Rural Education, April, 1925 , pp. 355-356. It will be recalled that the committee making this study had no funds with which to finance the undertaking so tests could not be furnished to county superintendents. 532 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION October or month of November in rural schools in which there were the previous year pupils with good attendance, if possible those with 170 days or over, and also pupils with poor attendance, if possble those with 120 days or less. Uniform directions for giving the tests and a form on which to record and report individual scores were sent to those assisting in this study. Scores were received for 804 pupils distributed as follows : Days Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Total Attendance III IV V VI VII . VIII 170 days or over.... 6 52 44 73 51 67 293 150-169 days ....... 5 21 38 55 72 72 263 130-149 days ....... 5 19 24 18 28 23 117 129 days or less ..... 8 19 33 16 27 28 131 24 119 139 162 178 190 804 Though the number of individual scores is too small for any conclusive proof, yet the data received certainly show that absence from school has an adverse effect on school achievement. Because of the small number of children of each attendance interval in any one grade it seemed desirable to use in place of the score a term common to all grades in order that there might be a large enough group of children of each attendance interval to make the comparison more significant. The individual pupils' scores were, therefore, each transmuted to a Ce which equals the grade classification according to educational achievement. T and C tables compiled by Dr. William McCall on the three tests given were the basis for this transmuta- tion. By adding the proper statistical correction the Ce for an individual or grade can be compared with the norm for that grade. A sample will illustrate the method of comparison : SAMPLE RECORD OF SEVEN PUPILS Ce for Grade VIII Days Pupil attended Spelling Arithmetic Reading No. 1 170 8.9 7.4 7.6 2 174 5.8 7.8 6.8 3 176 8.0 7.4 8.8 4 183 8.8 8.5 9.4 5 170 4.2 8.5 9.4 6 184 7.4 6.7 6.4 7 181 8.2 7.8 9.4 As 8.5 is the eighth grade Ce norm for any subject at any time of the year (7.5 the norm for 7th grade, 6.5 for 6th grade, 5.5 for 5th grade, and DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 533 so on) the above table shows that the first child was .4 above grade in arithmetic, 1.1 below grade in reading, and .9 below grade in spe'ling. In other words, that child was .4 of a year ( based on a 10 months' term) above grade in arithmetic, 1.1 of a year below grade in reading, and 9 of a year below grade in spelling. The following table shows the average grade acceleration or retardation for each attendance interval of the 804 children reported : AVERAGE GRADE ACCELERATION OR RETARDATION Days Arithmetic Reading Spelling Attended Ce months Ce months Ce months 170 da. or over . +.06 .6 mo. .27 2.7 mo. .85 8.5 mo. accelerated retarded retarded 150-169 da .... 12 1.2 mo. .47 4.7 mo. .40 4.0mo. retarded retarded retarded 130-149 da...... 13 1.3 mo. .55 5.5 mo. .84 8.4 mo. retarded retarded retarded 129 da. or less .... 43 4.3 mo. -1.55 1.55 yr. -1.69 1.69 yr. retarded retarded retarded Thus it willbe seen that only in arithmetic were the children up to grade even with an attendance of 170 days or over. It will also be seen that the quality of work steadily deteriorated as the attendance dropped off, the only exception being from the highest to the second and third attendance inter- vals in spelling. Reading seems to be the most affected by poor attend- 1 ance. The average pupil with less than 130 days of schooling is apparently over a year and a half behind his grade in reading and spelling, while the child with but 130 to 149 days of school is from over a half to .8 of a year below what he should be in reading and spelling. Using another grouping for attendance ( 150-186 days and 149 days or less) a comparison of grade retardation and acceleration was made for each of the four upper grades. (Data for third and fourth grades were in- sufficient to make the comparison worth while.) AVERAGE GRADE RETARDATION OR ACCELERATION FOR FOUR UPPER GRADES Grade VIII Grade VII Attendance Arithmetic Reading Spelling Arithmetic Reading Spelling 150-186 days ... .87 98 -.99 +.11 +.06 +.07 149 davs or less .. -1.14 -2.72 -2.99 .48 -1.11 -1.04 Cf. Texas Survey, which found that length of term made very little difference in achieve- ment in reading but had marked influence on achievement in arithmetic and spelling. -Ed. 534 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Grade VI Grade V Attendance Arithmetic Reading Spelling Arithmetic Reading Spelling 150-186 days ... +.44 .48 .42 .57 +.02 23 149 days or less .. .33 .98 -1.57 +.37 65 23 Thus an average eighth-grade pupil with an attendance of 150-186 days was .87 of a year below the grade norm in arithmetic, and 1.14 years below grade if he attended 129 days or less. This table shows that there is a decided difference in the amount of grade retardation between children who attended 150 days or more and children who attended 149 days or less. The only exception to this is in fifth grade arithmetic, the average child with poor attendance having an actual grade acceleration, and in fifth grade spelling, the average child with poor attendance having the same grade retardation as the child with good attendance. There is also the possibility that these factors, poor attendance and poor quality of school work, have the opposite effect on each other from that suggested above. It may be that poor school work may result in indifference and therefore in poor attendance. The question has arisen as to whether poor attendance is not closely correlated with low intelligence, due to lack of appreciation of school ad- vantages, lack of proper clothing, and more illness among those of inferior mentality. We have data on this problem for 106 rural children, which though far from conclusive, tend to show that there is a positive correlation between school attendance and intelligence. As most county superintend- ents are not yet prepared to give intelligence tests it was not practicable to call for such data for the entire study. The following table suggests the need of further investigation along this line : RELATION BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 106 Rural School Children in New Hampshire¹ Attendance Number of Pupils Median I. 2. 167-170 days 55 103.5 12-150 days . 51 91.4 SUMMARY 1. Attendance records and scores in reading, arithmetic, and spelling tests were received for 804 rural children from eleven counties of seven Northern States . Data furnished by Supt. S. S. Brooks , of Winchester, N. H. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 535 2. Though the study covers an insufficient number of cases to give any- where near conclusive evidence, yet the results show a strong tendency as to the effect of attendance on school work. 3. By combining grades it was found that pupils of each attendance interval were below the grade norm in reading and spelling and below the grade norm in arithmetic, except those pupils who attended school at least 170 days during the school year previous to the time the tests were given. 4. With one exception, in spelling, the school work deteriorated as the attendance fell off. 5. Arithmetic is less affected by poor attendance than is reading or spelling. 6. Pupils with less than 130 days of schooling are on an average over a year and a half below grade in reading and spelling. 7. In a study of a small number of rural children (106) it was found that there was a definite relation between attendance and intelligence. QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Further study is needed to determine : 1. The effect of attendance on school work of a large number of rural pupils. 2. The effect of attendance on school work by comparing achievement at different attendance intervals with the age norm. 3. The correlation between intelligence and rural school attendance of a large number of pupils . PART THREE The third phase of this study is designed to show how school attendance is affected by child labor. A wealth of information was secured from the very comprehensive studies made by the National Child Labor Committee and by the Children's Bureau of the Federal Department of Labor. A few examples taken from the reports of these two organizations should bring home to educators the need of giving more attention to adequate school attendance laws or the better enforcement of such laws in rural communities where rural industries interfere with the child's education . Of 535 children of one truck farming county in Maryland between 6 and 16 years of age recently reported by the Children's Bureau, approxi- mately 11 per cent in spite of compulsory attendance laws, were not enrolled in any school. Of three other counties of the same State, 20 per cent of 306 white children studied stayed out of school 6 weeks or more for farm labor and 74.2 per cent were absent for some farm work. Six Michigan counties where beets were raised in great quantities were reported in 1922 by the National Child Labor Committee. 52.9 per cent of the rural children missed some school for farm work, the average time lost by these children being 36 per cent of the school term. 72 per cent of the children of beet workers of this State were found to be retarded. It 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is stated that the children of migratory beet workers are in some sections purposely excluded from the school census. In a study of 4800 beet workers' children in Colorado absences ranged from 6 to 16 weeks of the school term or an average of 92 weeks. Of these child laborers from 80 to 90 per cent were under 14 years of age. In 1915 it was found that of 5895 Kentucky children studied during the fall months, nearly 24 per cent were farm work absentees. Several hundred children of the Kentucky mountains migrate to Ohio with their families every spring to work in the onion fields. In Ohio in the spring they say, to the school authorities, "Our school is out in Kentucky." In Kentucky in the fall their excuse is, "We shall soon be going back to Ohio and it's no use to start in here." In 1917 of 6389 rural white children of school age in Oklahoma 51 per cent stayed out of school to work. Each farm working tenant's boy missed on an average 42.2 days of school of the 136 days that school was in session, while the farm working owner's boy lost on the average 35.6 days. Girls who stayed out to work in the home lost only slightly less time. About half of the rural children in Oklahoma received only about 100 days of schooling. In West Virginia 25 per cent of the country children studied stayed out of school to work. 60 per cent were found to be retarded and retardation was found to be directly proportional to the amount of absence. In an article published in 1920 ironically titled "California the Golden" the State Immigration and Housing Commission of California was authority for the statement that between 2500 and 3000 children under 16 years of age in the Imperial Valley alone were kept out of school to pick cotton. Wandering tribes of children with their families follow the fruit season throughout the year from county to county, often with only a few weeks of school in a place, sometimes with no school. There are 5000 such nomad child laborers in California. This procession of homeless illiterates in the making can be found in almost any State where seasonal fruit and truck crops are grown. There are some who feel that only among the migrant workers is rural child labor serious . All data go to prove that this is far from true. One authority says, "At least 20,000 farm children stay out of school each year for a period of 60 days to help in raising wheat and other small grain products." In a study of 2674 child laborers on North Dakota wheat ranches published by the Children's Bureau, 48 per cent of children were absent from school some time during the year for work. 41 per cent of the boys and 17 per cent of the girls ten years of age or over lost one month or more of school for this cause. In the South, it is said, the boll weevil in spite of its train of ills has given many of the country children of the cotton States a month more of school. The question arises as to whether a more flexible school term, the vaca- tions coinciding with the rural industries, would not reduce non-attendance. Such compromises have been made in rural America and your committee DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 537 has yet to hear of a single place where changes in the school term have not been at the sacrifice of the children. Nampa County, California, begins its fall term August 1 and continues for five weeks until prunes are ready to pick. In counties farther south other adjustments are made to accommo- date the crops, not the children's education. But what of the 5000 mi- gratory children? Because of the very nature of their work and that of their parents, they run into vacations as they move from crop to crop so that compulsory school enforcement is impossible. In many districts of Kentucky and Oklahoma schools are closed from February to July that children may work on the farms. Can anyone imagine that the two following summer months are desirable for school ? During the most favorable periods of the year, the early part of October, beet vacations ranging from two weeks to one month are often declared by Michigan school boards. A still different type of compromise is arranged in certain cotton sections of the South. The school day opens at 7:00 or 7:30 A. M. and lasts until noon in order that the children may spend the afternoon in picking cotton. Thus these little child laborers can put in two days of work in one. Such compromises cannot be condemned in too strong terms. (1) Compromises work an injustice to the child who does not need to stay out to work and in practically every child labor community there are a few families who consider their children's education of greater im- portance than their labor. (2) They work an even greater injustice to the transient children who cannot be protected by law if schools are not in session during their brief residence in a community. (3) They work an injustice to the resident child laborer who in order to get in a full term is forced to go to school during the hot months of late spring and early fall. In severe climates such as is found in the beet sec- tions of Montana and Michigan there is bound to be a great deal of ab- sence during the winter months, but an adjustment of school term cannot be made to both climate and industry. (4) Good teachers are difficult to secure when school terms are broken into by long vacations or when schools run into the summer so that the term conflicts with the teacher's summer school attendance. (5) The most damaging result of compromising the child's education with rural industries is public recognition that the work of the child is more important than his education. Miss Grace Abbott, chief of the Children's Bureau, states that in 27 of the 48 States the employment of children in any gainful occupation is definitely forbidden during school hours. As the age of compulsory school attendance and the minimum compulsory period for that attendance varies, the results are anything but uniform. In 9 of these 27 States modifica- tions are made in the child labor acts so that, in their application to agri- culture, the employment of children at farm labor is wholly or partially exempted from the prohibition. 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION That there is more concern about the interference of agriculture with the rural child's education in other civilized countries than in the United States is rather evident from a stand taken by the League of Nations. "A draft convention concerning the admission of children to employment in agriculture was adopted in Geneva in November, 1921, by the General Conference of the International Labor Organization of the League of Na- tions at its third annual session. The convention prohibits the employ- ment of children under 14, during the hours fixed for school attendance, in any private or public agricultural undertaking, and specifies that if they are employed outside school hours, the employment shall not be such as to cause prejudice to their attendance at school." The members who ratify it agreed to bring its provisions into operation not later than January 1 , 1924, and to take such action as was necessary to make them effective. In January, 1925, "the convention had actually been ratified by Austria, Czechoslovakia, Esthonia, Italy, Japan, Poland, and Sweden, though rati- fication had been authorized by Bulgaria and Latria and recommended by the government to the legislative body in Chili, Germany, Hungary, and Spain." RECOMMENDATIONS Your committee makes the following recommendations regarding rural school attendance : 1. That the National Education Association, the Bureau of Education, State departments of public instruction, and other institutions or organiza- tions dealing with rural schools, adopt a uniform definition for a rural school that is more in harmony with the term as generally used through- out the United States. The definition used in this study is only suggested- that is, a one or two-teacher rural school, a consolidated school in the open country, or a school in a hamlet with a population of not more than 200. 2. That State departments of public instruction adopt a better method of keeping attendance records in all public schools in order that comparable data may be secured. We especially urge that instead of averages and percentages all attendance reports to county and State superintendents be in terms of actual days present and be distributed in ten or twenty day inter- vals such as the number of children present 180 days or over, 160-179 days, 140-159 days, etc. 3. That the Department of Rural Education of the National Educa- tion Association condemn the practice of using children of elementary school age in rural occupations other than in chores around the farm. 4. That the Department of Rural Education of the National Educa- tion Association also condemn any change in the time of school day or school year and vacations for the purpose of putting children to work if by so doing the education of children is directly or indirectly sacrificed. 5. That the members of the Department of Rural Education of the Na- tional Education Association work in their own states (a) to create among rural educators and prospective rural teachers a prejudice against the sacri DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 539 ficing of the country child's education directly or indirectly for the sake of rural occupation; (b) to secure a clause in their school attendance laws providing for adequate enforcement of school attendance in rural com- munities. DISTRIBUTION OF CONSOLIDATED AND ONE- TEACHER RURAL SCHOOLS KATHERINE M. COOK, CHIEF , DIVISION OF RURAL EDUCATION , BUREAU OF EDUCATION , WASHINGTON, D. C. In a recent address before the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, the subject of which was "Education and the New Social Order," Dean Holmes of Harvard, began by saying that a friend of his to whom he told his subject remarked of it that it was "interesting but dan- gerous." He added that he proceeded with the address because he believed that it was better to be accused of superficial thinking than of being middle- aged in thinking. In accepting the assignment of the President of the De- partment of Rural Education-to give some forecast of the probable future of school consolidation in the United States, I am reminded of these remarks. President Campbell asks me to present a survey of the field of rural educa- tion in the United States, indicating the number of consolidated and one- teacher schools now in operation, the proportion of the rural population served by each type, the number of teachers in each group, an estimate of the proportion of the rural population which lives in communities that can never be served by consolidated schools because of natural conditions, and some idea of the chief geographical areas where conditions described prevail. Accurate, definite, and complete data covering the questions indicated are not available. I shall therefore set forth such facts as we have, together with estimates based on them and a brief account of the means used in arriving at them. WHO AND WHERE ARE THE RURAL CHILDREN AND HOW MANY ARE THERE ? In any discussion concerned with the education of rural children it is desirable to know as nearly as possible what children we have inmind and about how many. Unfortunately there is no satisfactory and universally understood definition of the meaning of a rural school or of rural children. We are all familiar with the census differentiation between urban and rural on the 2,500 population basis, and with the fact that for the purpose of showing actual conditions as they exist in the small schools of the open coun- try information collected on this basis is unsatisfactory. We know too that practically all States have established through their statutes or regulations ofthe State departments or through custom, certain terms which are used to distinguish among the different types of schools. Oklahoma may be cited as an example. Officially there are five types: rural ungraded, union graded, 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION consolidated, village, and independent district schools, and data in that State are collected on the basis of this classification. A few States collect statistics using a classification based on the number of teachers in the school, but there is no uniform practice. It is obviously difficult to express accurately the size of the rural educa- tion problem in terms of the number of children to educate. However, the Census Bureau in 1920 made a new departure which helps materially by enumerating the total farm population and the farm population from 7 to 20 years of age. While the school enrolment for the farm population is not given, school enrolment for the rural population, that is, that in places of 2,500 and under, is given. In 1920 this enrolment was 68 per cent of the population from 7 to 20 years of age. Assuming that this 68 per cent applies also to the farm population from 7 to 20 years of age (10,265,500 ) , we may estimate a little over 7 million as the approximate enrolment of the farm population between 7 and 20 years of age in 1920. In order to estimate the number of children under 7 and over 21 years of age enrolled in school, we must again consult the census enumeration where we find the enrolment under 7 and over 21 for the total population in 1920 was slightly over 2 million. The farm population in 1920 was 30 per cent of the total popula- tion of the United States. It seems safe therefore to assign 30 per cent of this 2 million to the farm school enrolment. The 30 per cent amounts to practically 700,000. Adding this to the former figure of slightly over 7 millions, the estimate of enrolment of farm children reaches 7,715,000 in round numbers for 1920. The increase in school enrolment from 1920 to 1922 was 7.7 per cent. The probable increase from 1922 to 1924 was slightly less according to figures so far received in the Bureau of Education. If we apply these in- creases to the farm school enrolment as estimated for 1922 we have the fol- lowing estimates : Enrolment for the farm population for 1922, 8,298,050 ; for 1924, 8,879,014. In round numbers, we estimate in the Bureau of Edu- cation the enrolment of children from farm homes in 1924 as about 9 millions. This estimate, however, is too restricted for a complete consideration of the education of rural children. A large number of people living in small villages help to make up the real rural population. Rural children, includ- ing those from farm homes, attend school in centers of population larger than villages, namely, towns up to a thousand, even over a thousand. Schools, wherever located, if attendance is 50 per cent or more from farm homes are rural, in the sense at least that they have some problems that are characteristically rural school problems. It is well known that census figures show that a higher percentage of the total rural population is of school age than of urban population. In 1920 it was estimated that about 24 per cent of the total farm population was enrolled in school. Based on the 1920 census figures, the Bureau of Education estimated the population served by rural schools in two ways : ( 1 ) by adding to the farm popula- tion those living in places of 1,000 and under; (2) by adding to the farm DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 541 population those living in places of 500 and under. The percentages of total population resulting were 44 and 42 respectively. I will use for our purpose the former percentage figure. The Census Bureau has estimated the total population for 1924 ds 112 millions. Applying to this the percentage indicated to secure the total farm population and assuming the school enrolment to be 24 per cent of this total, we estimate that there are in 1924 a little less than 12 million children enrolled in rural schools in the open country and in villages and towns of 1,000 population and under. Of these, 9 million are from farm homes; 3 million living in surroundings and attending schools which we believe may properly be called rural. THE EXTENT OF RURAL SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION Complete and accurate information on the number of one-teacher and consolidated schools in the United States is not available. Insurmountable difficulties arise in any effort to give exact statistical information concern- ing enrolment, attendance, and the like, country-wide in extent. Consolidation is one of those terms which apparently means all things to all men. In Utah a consolidation is the county district; in Michigan the term is used to designate the township unit, even though the schools of that township may all be one-teacher schools. In Mississippi, a school is "con- solidated" only when children are transported to it. Consolidation may mean a union of different administrative units. It may mean a union of schools within one administrative unit. It may mean the uniting of two small groups of children who might otherwise be served by two schools but who together constitute a school of not more than ten or twelve. Several States report as " consolidated" a large number of two and three-teacher schools, even one-teacher schools, because, strictly speaking, they represent some form of centralization. Other States, in reporting the number of con- solidated schools, report only those representing uniting of several districts and having a large enrolment including high school grades, or a specified number of square miles, or in excess of a specified tax valuation. It is ob- vious that the term consolidation as used is far from satisfactory as a basis of comparing statistics among States and that available data on the number of consolidated schools do not accurately measure the progress we are mak- ing in bringing children together in large groups or in giving them efficient schools. We must estimate the progress and extent of this type of centralization by resorting to several expedients. Among the means used in the Bureau of Education are the following : ( 1 ) Compilation of the number of one- teacher schools reported on regular State forms annually to the Bureau of Education, and ( 2) Compilation of the number of consolidated schools reported in the same way-without any effort to define terms but expect- ing each State department to use the definition legally or by custom estab- lished. (3) Totals represented by summaries for all States of 1 and 2 com- pleted and corrected in such ways as experience and available information 5 +2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION warrant. (4) The percentage of the total school enrolment enrolled in each of the two types of schools estimated by applying to all States percent- ages found in those States which report such enrolment. (5) Enro ment determined by multiplying the number of schools of each type (a point on which we have fairly reliable information secured as above) by the average enrolment in each type of school as determined by those States from which this information is available. (6) Same secured by multiplying the number of teachers employed in each type of school (as determined by methods herein set forth) by the estimated enrolment per teacher based on averages in those States which report on this item. Estimates given in this paper are compared and checked : ( 1 ) through regular annual reports to the Bureau of Education sent by State depart- ments of education; (2) through biennial reports issued in printed form by State departments in the different States; (3) by reports coming to us in response to special questionnaires. Among the latter we have used most freely replies from 70 per cent of the county superintendents in the United States to our special questionnaire sent out for the past four years asking for the number and salaries of teachers employed in rural schools, classified as one- teacher, two-teacher, three and four-teacher schools in the open country ; consolidated schools ; and village schools. We may consider these in the fol- lowing order : The number of one-teacher and consolidated schools-In 1917 a definite effort was made in the Bureau of Education to secure from all States statis- tics concerning the number of one-teacher and consolidated schools. Re- ports were obtained from approximately 30 States which enabled us to estimate with what seemed to be a fair degree of accuracy that there were in the United States in that year in round numbers 195,000 one-teacher schools and 7,500 consolidated schools. By 1920 the States had become accustomed to distinguishing among schools on this basis with greater ac curacy. A large number had issued pamphlets giving information of the kind indicated. Fairly complete reports were received from 40 States in that year. Estimates made for the other 8 States made it possible to say with some degree of confidence that there were at the close of that year 188,- 000 one-teacher schools and 12,500 consolidated schools. For 1922 some few additional and different States reported. The reports gave evidence of being more accurate. There were actually reported for that year about 400 fewer consolidated schools than in 1920. This is believed to be ac- counted for by the fact that there was a better understanding of what a consolidated school meant and that more careful data on the items were collected than for the preceding biennium. Incomplete data were checked up from preceding reports. A few States which did not report in 1922 had reported in 1920, in which case the 1920 figures were used. It was believed a conservative estimate for 1922 to say that there were at the close of that year 175,000 one-teacher schools and 13,000 consolidated schools. So much for the actual number of schools. It is apparent that these figures extending over a five-year period indicate a decrease of about 10 per DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 543 cent in the total number of one-teacher schools during that period ; that over 20,000 one-teacher schools were abandoned during the period or an average of approximately 4,000 per year; and that there was an increase of over 5,000 or about an average of 1,000 a year in consolidated schools formed during the period. Naturally the estimate is not absolutely true, and prog- ress was not exactly uniform during the period. If we assumed that the statistics are approximately correct and that progress since 1922 has been about the same as that made in the five-year period preceding, we would estimate that at the close of 1924 there were approximately 167,000 one- teacher schools and approximately 15,000 consolidated schools. In both cases, however, it is believed that these estimates are too liberal-for the following reasons : Preliminary reports on progress during the biennium ending 1924 have been received in the Bureau of Education from a num- ber of States. A few report fewer consolidations than were reported in 1922. A few report a larger number of one-teacher schools. Several re- port (some among those formerly making considerable progress in this direction) that consolidation is at a standstill owing to the financial situa- tion. In view of these facts and the probable effect of the present financial depression on school building in rural communities, it is my belief that we should estimate that there are in the United States at the present time not less than 167,000, probably 168,000 one-teacher schools and about 14,000 consolidated schools. It may be added that we are gradually acquiring a different understanding of the term consolidation and applying it to fewer small schools. It is also true that in the field of secondary education partic- ularly, the high cost of instruction is leading to the greater centralization of schools already consolidated. A few States are engaged in definite cam- paigns to further centralize their partially consolidated rural secondary schools. Thus consolidation may be growing in principle faster than in numbers. Probable enrolment in consolidated and one-teacher schools. The prob- able enrolment in the two types of schools under consideration has been estimated in the Bureau in several ways with results which we believe to be relatively accurate. Ten States reported in 1922 the number of children enrolled in consolidated schools. Adding the number reported in these 10 States and comparing it to the total enrolment for the same 10 States, we find that the enrolment in consolidated schools represents approximately 8 per cent of the total enrolment. If we may assume that this percentage applies to the total enrolment for the United States in 1922, which was something over 23 millions of children, it follows that there were in 1922 approximately 2 million children enrolled in consolidated schools. According to a recent study made in the Bureau of Education of 260 consolidated schools (information for 1922) the enrolment in the median consolidated school was approximately 280 children. The tendency since 1922 has been toward larger consolidations. It is probable that 1,500 cen- From a recent study now in process of publication as a Bureau of Education bulletin, Recent Data on Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tralizations were formed or enlarged from 1922 to 1924, inclusive. In view of the above it seems safe to estimate that there were at the close of the year 1924, 500,000 additional children enrolled in consolidated schools formed during the two-year period, and that there were therefore approximately 234 million children enrolled in consolidated schools at the close of 1924. Estimates based on the total number of consolidated schools multiplied by enrolment in the median consolidated school indicates a much larger enrol- ment. This is believed too high because the tendency to consolidate in large numbers is a recent development. Counting all, not newly formed ones only, we know there are a large number of small consolidated schools. It is, however, believed reasonable (in the light of experience and study of reports ) to check up the 234 million estimate in another way, i. e., accord- ing to the number of teachers judged by the median of 260 consolidated schools. It was found in the study referred to that there are 11 teachers in the median or type school. If the number holds good as an average for the 14,000 consolidated schools estimated for 1924, the teaching staff in consolidated schools approximates 150,000. The same median school enrolls about 25 pupils per teacher. It is be- lieved, however, that this does not represent fairly the average number of pupils per teacher enrolled in consolidated schools. The median school in the study referred to represents the median by actual count without rela- tion to equivalency of intervals. The schools are selected successful con- solidations. Any one familiar with rural schools realizes the prevalence of small classes in the upper elementary and junior high school grades. Recent studies made in the Bureau of Education of rural secondary schools in the United States representing wide distribution of territory and conditions and a large number of school children, show that the median size of classes for two groups studied in 7 and 11 respectively. An arbitrary compromise of 18 as average enrolment per teacher indicates a total enrolment in con- solidated schools of about 23/4 million. Considering all conditions, it seems to me conservative to estimate that there are between 22 and 23/4 million children enrolled in consolidated schools. Probable enrolment in one-teacher schools-Information coming into the Bureau of Education from a number of different sources enables us to esti- mate that the average number of children in one-teacher schools in the United States is not less than 25. If this is true and there are approximately 168,000 such schools in the United States, the total enrolment in one- teacher schools is about 44 million children. In 1922, 13 States reported the number of children enrolled in one-teacher schools as well as the num- ber of one-teacher schools Comparing the enrolment in one- teacher schools with the total enrolment for the States and assuming that this percentage, namely, 18 per cent of all children enrolled in the States reporting, holds good for the United States as a whole, there were a little over 4,750,000 children in one-teacher schools in that year, a larger number than most of us have previously estimated. Ibid. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 545 The distribution of the school population served by the different types of schools-We may go back now to our original estimate of 12 million children, the probable total enrolment from farm homes and from pre- dominantly rural communities. If our estimates are reasonably reliable, we now have enroled in consolidated schools between 2½ and 24 million children, and from 4½ to 44 million (a little less than 40 per cent) in one- teacher schools. We have only one means of securing information on the number of children enroled in the two, three, and four teacher schools in the open country and in villages not classified as consolidated. Reports from 70 per cent of the county superintendents in the United States to our teachers' salary questionnaire came to the Bureau in 1924. On the basis of these returns we estimate the total number of teachers employed in small village schools, mostly villages with a population of less than 500, at 77,500 teachers. It seems safe to allow for 30 children per teacher in these schools, making approximately 21/4 million of our 12 million children en- roled in the small village schools. The same questionnaire indicates that there are about 70 per cent as many teachers in the two, three, and four room schools in the open coun- try as there are in the villages. Admitting that there are also approxi- mately 70 per cent as many children in these schools as in the villages, the enrolment in these schools may be estimated at 11 million. We have left, then, of a million children unaccounted for. In our opinion this is a reasonable estimate of children who come from farm homes or rural com- munities but are enroled in such county and union high schools as do not fall in our classification and in the larger villages or small towns over 1,000 in population. These estimates must be taken for what they are worth. I can only say that they have been made with reasonable care and on the basis of information which we have reason to consider as authentic as it is possible to secure. WHERE THE NUMBER OF ONE- TEACHER SCHOOLS IS GREATEST If one should wish to travel through the part of the country in which one-teacher schools are most abundant, he should begin somewhere in the center of the State of Minnesota, travel south through Minnesota and Iowa, west into and through Nebraska, south to and through Kansas, east through Missouri into Illinois, north through Illinois and to and through Wisconsin, across the Lake into Michigan, south again through Ohio , Kentucky, and West Virginia, then northeast through Pennsylvania and New York. On this route he would have covered 13 States in all of which there are more than 5,000 one-teacher schools and in six of which there are more than 7,500.¹ Together these States contain approximately 40 per cent of our total rural population of school age and nearly 58 per cent of all our one-teacher schools. They are not necessarily those doing the least to promote consolidation ; Data 1922 and partial data for 1924. 2Ibid. 546 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in them the problem is largest. Those States which have the lowest per- centage of their total number of children enroled in one-teacher schools seem to be Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Utah. Among those in which apparently the greatest progress is being made (judged by the number of consolidations formed and the reduction in the total number of one- teacher schools) are Texas where almost a third of the one-teacher schools were closed during the five-year period from 1915-22, and Alabama, Indiana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio, Mississippi, and Louisi- ana. Louisiana reports that nearly 50 per cent of her one-teacher schools were closed between the years 1915 and 1924. Mississippi now has 1,000 consolidated schools-one- fourteenth of the estimated total number. Ala- bama discontinued over 2,000 one-teacher schools in 1921-22. It should be remembered that in giving the above figures no allowance is made for the size or quality of the schools called consolidated. It is indeed possible that in some States in which a large number of one-teacher schools are reported abandoned, replacement has been made by a poor type of consolidated school, whereas in some of those States in which less progress has been made, if we judge by these same statistics, excellent progress has been made in the quality of the consolidated schools formed and in the care and farsightedness with which consolidation units have been worked out. PROBABLE PROMISE OF THE FUTURE In order to estimate with some degree of accuracy the possible future of the consolidation movement in the United States, a number of States were selected in which official, definite, or concerted efforts of some sort had been and were being made to promote consolidation and in which persons could be reached who were particularly capable to make author- itative estimates on this subject. The States selected were those with a large number or relatively large number of one-teacher schools. The questions put to each of these authorities, all of whom know their par- ticular States definitely and minutely, know also the temper and ideals of the people and the difficulties and possibilities of school consolidation , were about as follows : What, in your opinion, is the probable future of the school consolidation movement in your State ? About what per- centage of the one-teacher schools can be consolidated without hardship in taxation or undue difficulties because of natural conditions ? What do you consider the greatest obstacle to consolidation at present, (1 ) natural obstacles such as topography, scattered population, and the like; (2) con- servatism of the people; (3) financial limitations ; (4) administrative organization? Replies to these questions came from 9 States and were to the effect that from 50 to 90 per cent of the one-teacher schools now in operation can be abandoned without hardship. Replies from two States indicate that 90 per cent can be eliminated. From one State the reply came that the number of one-teacher schools had been reduced 50 per cent since 1915; from another the reply that the number had been reduced 70 per cent since 1900. It is, of course, obvious that in such States consolidation cannot go on as rapidly in the future as in the past. On the other hand, some States in the group are among those now having more than 7,500 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 547 one-teacher schools. With the above conditions in view and the general situation in the United States in mind, it seems to me conservative to estimate that for the country as a whole we may look forward to an eventual reduction of the number of one-teacher schools of about 50 per cent. If this is a reasonable estimate, we may expect that, within the next 10 years, one-teacher schools may be reduced until we have remaining about 80,000 in or near the locations in which there are now one-teacher schools. It need not necessarily follow that on these 80,000 sites one-teacher schools will remain. Apparently it was the belief of those who were responsible for the estimates referred to that these particular schools can not be eliminated. It is, however, possible that the number of grades in the small school may be reduced as one means of adding to its effectiveness. Massachusetts, for example, has already few one-teacher schools and in many of them the number of grades has been reduced to three. In those small schools in which 7, 8, or 9 grades must be retained it may not, with effective administrative organization, be impossible to work out a plan by which the services of two teachers may be retained. In this connection, it seems to me that some such plan as the Winnetka or Dalton plan has possibilities. Itinerant teachers might be secured who could spend one week in each month, for example, in each community assisting the chil- dren in the upper elementary and junior high school grades on some sort of contract basis. To estimate the percentage of the rural population which will continue to be served by small schools seems to me the most difficult among the estimates requested. If consolidation is carried on intelligently the small schools will probably remain in sparsely settled communities, therefore the number of schools is not a decisive measure of the people served. As an example of this I should like to quote from one of the letters referred to above in which the writer says that while not more than 50 per cent of the one-teacher schools in that State can be abandoned, 75 per cent of the country children live under conditions favorable to con- solidation and can be served by consolidated schools. Similar situations exist in other States. We are now spending over a billion dollars annually for the improve- ment of roads. Reports coming into the Bureau of Education indicate that recent improvements in roads make consolidation practicable where before it was utterly impossible even on a small scale. The continued improvement of roads, the rise of the motor truck in popularity as a means of transportation, the improvement of motor vehicles and possible develop- ment of means of transportation of which we now know nothing may open up prospects which we can only imagine. So far as the replies to the other inquiries made of the consolidation experts in the States referred to are concerned, they indicate that topo- graphical difficulties are probably of less importance than some of us have thought. Of the obstacles mentioned, problems of school finance, un- favorable administrative organization, and conservatism of the people all seem more often the obstacles to overcome than contour and topography. In at least two of the nine States replying the financial difficulty seems 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the only obstacle. The people apparently are converted to the idea. In two States the present administrative organization, the district unit, is the greatest obstacle. Considering the general geography of the country, it is quite common and would seem natural and logical to believe that the western States, where distances are great and population sparse, are those in which the greatest difficulties so far as distance and topography are concerned would be found. Yet we find Utah with a distribution of population of 5.5 per square mile with fewer and lower percentage of one-teacher schools than any of the States except Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. In the States of Connecticut which most westerners think of as so highly concentrated in population as to be practically urban in char- acter, the State board of education expresses the following opinion: "This Board is confidently of the opinion that many of the one-teacher schools should never be abandoned even though good roads can be provided." On the other hand, reports coming to the Bureau of Education indicate that several States are now working on a program which will mean the practical elimination of one-teacher schools except in a few isolated com- munities where because of natural conditions consolidation is impossible. We all know that there are certain isolated communities in practically every State which will not admit of consolidation so far as we are able to look forward at the present time. They are not confined to any section, but they do represent a relatively small percentage of the total rural population. This paper, which has attempted to cover so much ground, scarcely admits of intelligent summary. I may perhaps be permitted a few con- clusions which seem to me to result from any consideration of this move- ment : ( 1 ) We are particularly in need of careful, scientific research in every field of rural education. The relative efficiency of the different types of schools, methods and organization adapted to each, more careful study of different types of administrative organization, are among a few of the almost limitless number of topics that occur at once. In the field of research we have so far made little progress. In its further advance- ment we are in need of more uniformity in terminology in order that we may all avail ourselves of the results of study, experimentation, and research as these are made available. (2) There are two marked move- ments in education today which seem to me to be of moment in the field of rural school administration. One is that toward the bringing together of children in larger numbers in the hope of securing greater efficiency and economy in administration as represented by the platoon or work- study-play plan. The other is that toward greater emphasis on individual development as represented by the Winnetka or Dalton plan. Rural educationists will watch experimentation in these fields with special care. (3) Consolidation at present in many States is more in need of direction than of promotion. While its primary purpose is that of the equalization of educational opportunity, it may be and in some cases is promoted in such ways as emphasize inequalities instead of equalizing opportunities . Intelligent planning for consolidation over a larger extent of territory than has hitherto been common is essential to the future success of the DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 549 whole movement. One or two States are now taking steps to postpone consoldiation of small groups until surveys at least county-wide in scope can be made in order that future consolidations fit into the larger plan. (5) The mounting cost of education, particularly of secondary education, as shown by recent studies in New York, Virginia, and California seem to indicate that the only way by which a broad curriculum can be furnished for rural children in the field of secondary education is through even more centralization than has hitherto been practiced. (6) The advocacy of consolidation does not and should not mean the abandonment of the welfare of the small schools. An unfortunate impression has gone abroad that it is necessary for one to line up for or against the consolidated school or for or against the small school. Friends of rural education realize that the consolidated school offers educational opportunities and has educational possibilities that the one-teacher school does not and can not be developed to offer. Wherever feasible, consolidation should be effected. Indications are that, speaking for time and not eternity, the small school is like the poor, we shall have it always with us. We shall materially reduce the number of children now enroled in one-teacher schools, but so far as we can foresee at the present time, there will probably be a million chil- dren enroled in one-teacher schools ten years from now. They must be brought to the highest possible state of effectiveness. (7) Equalizing educational opportunities within States challenges our best thought but there is no evidence to prove that it is impossible. The State as such owes to all of its children, rural and urban, at least an equitable system of school support and an administrative organization that insures profes- sional management. THE STATE'S FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS T. H. HARRIS , STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION BATON ROUGE , LOUISIANA I interpret this subject to raise the question of the proportion of public school expense that should be borne by the State government and the proportion that should be borne locally. Before entering into a discussion of the question, it would obviously be well to know what the State govern- ments are now doing in the matter of public school support, and whether or not the contribution is sufficiently large. CONTRIBUTION TO THE SUPPORT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND HIGH SCHOOLS BY STATE GOVERNMENTS The 1924 report of the Educational Finance Inquiry Commission, using statistics of 1920, gives State support of public education throughout the United States as 15.7 per cent, local support as 76 per cent, and funds from other sources as 8.3 per cent. The report does not indicate from what sources the 8.3 per cent was realized. These figures have reference to the support of elementary schools and high schools only. 550 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Journal of Rural Education of December, 1921, publishes a state- ment by O. N. Fauber and myself, which gives State support of ele- mentary schools and high schools throughout the country as 14 plus per cent, and local support as 85 minus per cent. The figures were based upon the statistics of the session of 1919-1920. The State's contribution ranged between 1 per cent for Iowa and 48 per cent for Kentucky, the average for the whole country being a little more than 14 per cent. Local support ranged between 99 per cent for Iowa and 52 per cent for Kentucky, the average for the country being a little less than 85 per cent. Conditions have probably changed but little since the publication of the reports mentioned, and such changes as have taken place have prob- ably been in the direction of a smaller State contribution to the funds required to support elementary and high schools. I think we may safely assume that the State governments of the Nation are contributing approximately 15 per cent of the funds needed to support elementary and secondary education, and that the cities, counties, and districts are raising approximately 85 per cent of such funds. IS THE CONTRIBUTION OF STATE GOVERNMENTS ADEQUATE ? It is perfectly safe to assume that in all States wealth is unequally distributed . Certain centers of a State are rich with the result that assessments are high, while other portions of the same State are poor, with the result that the assessments are low. In the rich centers a low tax rate yields ample funds for school purposes, while in the poor centers even a high tax rate yields insufficient funds for the proper support of the schools. In such cases the rich communities maintain good schools without feeling the pinch of high taxation, while the poor centers, if they maintain schools measuring up to proper standards, labor under a burdensome tax load. These conditions can best be shown by illustrations, and I desire to say that in giving illustrations, I shall not select either imaginary or extreme cases . Facts outlining conditions in a particular State will be used, and no attempt will be made to select conditions showing the extremes of wealth and poverty. Illustration one-A town constituting a school district is required to provide for the education of 500 children. Twenty teachers, measuring up to excellent standards of scholarship and teaching ability, are employed at an annual cost of $26,000. The assessment of this town or district is $2,000,000. If the district were required to raise all of the money needed to pay teachers' salaries, an assessment of 13 mills, or $1.30 per hundred on the assessment would be necessary. A country school district supports a consolidated school of 300 children and it is required to furnish transportation for 200 of its enrolment at a cost of $5,500. The school employs 12 teachers at a cost of $14,000, or a total cost of $ 19,500 for teachers' salaries and transportation. The assessment of the district is $300,000. If the district were required to raise all of the funds needed for transportation and teachers' salaries, it would have to levy a tax rate of 65 mills, or $6.50 per hundred of assessment. The town under discussion has a school building that cost approximately $200,000. If we give the community twenty years in DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 551 which to pay for the building and make no charge for interest, the annual building tax would be $10,000, or 5 mills on the assessment. The total millage assessed against the town for the maintenance of the school and for the building would be 18 mills, or $1.80 on each $100 of assessment. The country district under discussion has a school building that cost approximately $100,000. If we divide this into twenty equal annual payments and make no charge for interest, the district would have to raise $5,000 a year, or 163 mills to discharge its building obligation. The country district's annual school tax for maintenance and building would be 81 mills, or $8.16 on each $100 of assessment. The town district pays an annual school tax for buildings and maintenance of $1.80 per hundred dollars of assessment, while the country district pays an annual school tax of $8.163 for each hundred dollars of assessment. The country district employs very good teachers, but they are not so well qualified, nor are they paid as high salaries as those in the town district. It also has a good building, but the town building is much more nearly fire-proof, is superior in all other respects, and is much better than the country school building. Illustration two-A certain county has an assessment of $90,000,000. It employs 204 teachers. Allowing an annual salary of $1,500, and assuming that the county is required to raise all funds necessary to pay the salaries of its 204 teachers, the tax levy would be 34-10 mills, or $ .34 per hundred dollars of assessment. Another county in the same State employs 70 teachers and has an assessment of $6,000,000. Assuming that the annual salary in this county is $1,500, the tax levy required to pay the salaries of teachers would be 171/2 mills, or $1.75 per hundred dollars of assessment. In the rich county, teachers' salaries can be paid with a levy of 34c, while in the poor county a levy of $1.75 is required, or five times as much. ABILITY TO PAY TAXES An examination of the conditions in the rich and poor communities used in the two illustrations will disclose the fact that it is much easier for the people in the rich centers to pay taxes than for those in the poor centers. In the two wealthier communities used in the illustratoins, there are numerous industries, banks, large mercantile establishments and other financial institutions annually making money and employing labor at good wages, while the people living in the poor district and in the poor county are practically all small farmers who find it extremely diffi- cult to make a livelihood for their families. Taxes in any amount in communities of this kind are extremely hard to pay, and when the tax rates are as high as those indicated in the illustrations, they reach the point of being burdensome. In considering the question of local funds for school support, we are apt to lose sight of the truth that it is as difficult and burdensome for a poor man to pay a certain tax rate on a small assessment as it is for the rich man to pay the same tax rate on a large assessment. Each pays in proportion to his ability to pay, and while the rich man pays into the 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION school treasury a large amount of money on his large assessment, he does so as easily as the poor man pays in a small amount on his small assess- ment. As a matter of fact, the burden is greater on the poor man for the reason that he probably does not use good business methods, has little or no income, provides a scant living for his family with the greatest difficulty, and is hard pressed to raise actual cash in any amount for taxes or other purposes . WHAT SHOULD BE THE STATE'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE SUPPORT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ? The phrase "equal educational opportunity" is very frequently used in this country. We are fond of saying that "all American" children, irre- spective of the conditions under which they live, should be provided with equally good schools. An examination of the facts cited can leave no doubt that the phrase has no meaning under present conditions in this country. We are requiring 85 per cent of the public school funds to be raised locally, and on account of the unequal distribution of wealth in the various States, the communities with low assessments are required to levy tax rates five and ten times higher than the rates required in the wealthier communities, but this they rarely do. The result is that the poor sections of the State fail to tax themselves sufficiently to provide adequately for their schools. Frequently the houses are not up to standard, their terms are short, and their teachers are improperly educated and trained. The tax rate may be and usually is higher than that paid in a nearby rich community, but the schools are less efficiently provided for. There is but one solution-namely : the State government must aid the poor communities in the support of their schools. It is impossible to name a definite figure which should represent the State government's contribution to public education in a given State, but is not difficult to state the principle which should guide the State in its support of public education, and that principle is: equally good schools for equally long sessions and at approximately equal local taxation in all subdivisions of the State. A realization of this principle will require the State to set up certain standards as a basis for the distribution of State funds . To illustrate : The State should see that all subdivisions are required to operate the public schools for a minimum number of days, to pay a minimum annual salary to superintendents, teachers, and supervisors of given qualifications and to set aside for the support of the public schools a minimum tax rate on the local assessment. With these standards in view, each subdivision would prepare its budget of income and expenditures and submit the same to the State for approval. When approved, the State would make the necessary contribution required for the income to balance the expenditures. Under such a budget scheme of distribution, some counties would get nothing from the State government, for it is conceivable that the extremely rich centers could support their schools adequately with a tax levy below any standard that would be set up by the State. The poor subdivisions DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 553 with small assessments would receive large contributions from the State for the reason that any reasonable local tax rate required by the State would yield but small returns and large additions from the State would be essential to meet the necessary expenditures. The realization of the principle enunciated would result approximately at least in equal local taxation and in equal educational opportunities. The plan under discussion contemplates, as a matter of course, that communities desiring to go beyond the standards set up by the State would be left free to do so, but such additional funds would have to be raised locally and beyond the limits required by the State (in the plan of State) distribution of school funds. SOURCES OF STATE SCHOOL FUNDS This country has been developing very rapidly in recent years along many lines, and in most States, public funds have been raised on real property, with the result that the tax rate on visible property has multi- plied year after year, and rebellion against taxation has kept pace with the ever increasing tax rate on real property. Since a large proportion of the taxes is used to support the public schools, the schools naturally suffer from the rebellious attitude toward high taxation. We are finding it more and more necessary to wage vigorous campaigns in the interest of additional school funds, and the battles for needed school funds will become more and more vigorous as real property taxes increase. I am inclined to the opinion that we should find new sources of State school funds and that we should abandon the plan of taxation on real property. As to what the new courses should be, the conditions in the different States should probably determine that question. In one State perhaps an income tax would be the proper source, while in another, a tax on natural re- sources, and in another, a tax on so-called luxuries. In any given State, a source should be found that will result in a minimum of hardship upon the people of the State, and that will yield large returns. WHEREIN THE STATE GOVERNMENTS ARE FALLING SHORT IN THEIR DUTY IN THE MATTER OF PUBLIC SCHOOL SUPPORT Almost all of the State governments are failing in two important respects to do their duty by the public schools. In the first place, they are requiring the local subdivisions to carry the major portion of the burden of public school support, and in the second place, such State support as is provided is distributed in most States in a manner violative of the fundamental principles upon which the State school funds should be distributed- namely: the ability of the people locally to raise school funds. As has been previously stated, when Mr. Fauber and I made our study in 1921, we found that the State governments were bearing only 15 per cent of the expenses of the public elementary schools and high schools, and we found further that in the distribution of State school funds, little or no consideration was given to the question of the ability of the sub- divisions of the State to raise money by taxation. At the time the study 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in question was made-namely: in 1921, twenty of the States were dis- tributing State school funds on the basis of the school population, six on the basis of attendance, five on the basis of the school population and the number of teachers employed, two on the basis of attendance and the number of teachers employed, and one on the basis of the number of teachers employed. There may be room for argument as to which of these bases is superior to the others, but it cannot be successfully main- tained, I think, that any of them possesses merit, for none of them takes into account the question of the local community's wealth and, therefore, its ability to raise school funds by taxation. As I view it, there are but two factors involved in a system of public school support, namely: all citizens of a State should pay the same rate of school taxes and the school funds should be so used as to provide equally good schools throughout the State, whether the schools are located in rich or poor communities. In 1921 fourteen States were distributing their State school funds to the local subdivisions on bases other than those I have mentioned, and at least some of these were attempting to use State funds in a manner to lighten the burden of local taxation in poor communities. I believe I am safe in saying, however, that there are few, if any, State governments in the Nation that appreciate fully their duty in the matter of public school support when judged by State contributions sufficiently large to relieve the local communities of excessive taxation and by a plan of distributing State school funds that guarantees uniformly excellent schools at approximately the same local tax rates throughout the State. It is admitted that there are serious obstacles in the way of increasing State school funds to an adequate figure and even greater diffculties in devising a scheme of distribution on the budget plan, but the two problems can be solved and they should be in justice to the tax-payers and the children living in communities with little wealth and low assessments. A STATE PROGRAM OF TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS JAMES E. HILLMAN, DIRECTOR OF TEACHER- TRAINING RALEIGH , NORTH CAROLINA This subject deals but little with the theoretical or philosophical. Whenever possible, contentions or hypotheses are substantiated by concrete data. These data have been gleaned from the nation at large or from individual States. All references to North Carolina are to give concrete- ness to the discussion, or to give an example of what a State should or should not do. These concrete examples should form a working basis for present and future action. It should not be a reflection upon a teacher-training institution to assert that the State may not see the business of teaching just as the institution sees it. State institutions must have financial support. For this support, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 555 they are at the mercy of the State Legislature. Legislative appropriations depend upon several factors, of course; among them is the size of the student body in the institution, consequently, the institution must make its appeal to the prospective student. That appeal may not be necessarily the appeal of the State. At best, an institution can only see clearly and serve effectively a local unit; while the State, through its system of supervision, is in position to know what the needs are at large. The State then is a machine for making effective and efficient, in matters of education, the various agencies within the State. A STATE PROGRAM OF TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS What is a State program of training rural teachers ? What should it be ? What is a rural teacher ? Although this paper will not deal solely with that teacher, nevertheless we should understand the term. The United States Bureau of Education defines rural schools as those that serve com- munities of fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. This, of course, follows the federal government's distinction between rural and urban. If we take the federal government's definition of a rural school, then there are clearly two subdivisions of that school-the " open country school" and the "village school." It is the "open country school" that I am accepting at this time as rural. In that school, the teacher may work in a one, two, or three- teacher school or a larger consolidated one. Her problems are not identical with those of the village teacher. The problem of teacher-training there- fore would vary in the two types. That fundamental conception is neces- sary in a State program of teacher-training. A State program of training rural teachers must be prefaced upon its policies with reference to consolidation, rural supervision, and teachers' salaries. May I briefly discuss each of these problems. 1. Consolidation. Consolidation is a term of long standing in an edu- cational parlance. It has been a theme for discussion lo these many years ! But even now agreement as to definition of the term is by no means univer- sal, to say nothing of the significance of the organization. It is, therefore, difficult to determine a State's policy with reference to that term; however, the best approach might be through ascertaining the policy with reference to one-teacher schools. Accordingly, the following questions were ad- dressed to State Departments of Education in all the States : (a) How many one-teacher schools in your State? (A one-teacher school is defined as a school in which all grades are taught by a single teacher.) (b) Based upon your present knowledge of conditions, approximately how much reduction could be made in your present number of one-teacher schools? To these questions replies were received from 27 States. The data secured were very interesting indeed. Roughly 20 per cent of the public school teachers are teaching in one-teacher schools. The range is from .3 of one per cent in Rhode Island to 43.9 per cent in Nebraska or 35.3 per 556 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cent in Minnesota. In the whole State of Rhode Island with a teaching force of 3200 there are only 10 one-teacher schools. In Nebraska with a teaching force of 14,284 there are 6276 one-teacher schools. Clearly, Rhode Island's problem of training rural teachers is not Nebraska's prob- lem. It is not sufficient to stop with this comparison. Let us see what the present status is with reference to the one-teacher school. How much reduction could be made in the present number ? The answer to that question varied from "no further reduction" (white) in Louisiana, or "very little" in Illinois to 90 per cent in Florida or "practically all" in South Carolina. In those States where practically no further reduction can be made in the number of one-teacher schools, the harvest is now ripe for training definitely for that work. However, the significant fact is that in the states as a whole very material reduction can be made in the number of one-teacher schools. This reduction could be at least 60 per cent in the present number. What is the situation for your individual State ? What is North Carolina's attitude toward this problem ? What progress has that State made ? Looking toward the maximum consolidation, the school law of 1923 has this to say : The county board of education shall create no new district nor shall it divide or abolish a district, nor shall it consolidate districts or parts of districts, except in accordance with a county-wide plan of organization as follows. The county board of education shall present a diagram or map of the county showing the present location of each district, the position of each, the location of roads, streams, and other natural barriers, the number of children in each dis- trict, the size and condition of each school building in each district. The county board of education shall then prepare a county-wide plan for the organization of all the schools of the county. This plan shall indicate the proposed changes to be made and how districts or parts of districts are proposed to be consolidated so as to work out a more advantageous school system for the entire county. May I illustrate what this county-side organization may mean ? In one county, outside of two incorporated cities or towns, there were 42 separate districts according to the old district plan. Of these 42 schools, 15 were one-teacher schools, 19 were two-teacher, 6 were three-teacher, one was a four-teacher and one was a ten-teacher school. Under the county-wide organization there will be seven separate school plants-three standard high schools, one certified high school and three standard elementary schools . In Wake County now, outside of the city of Raleigh, there are 69 separate districts with 71 schools. Under the county-wide organization which is now being proposed, this number would be reduced to 19. Seventeen of these will be standard elementary schools (not fewer than seven teachers to a school ) . The other two schools would start with five teachers and sooner or later grow into standard elementary schools. In this provision there would be eight standard high schools. These illustrations could be multiplied but enough has been said to show what this means in a con- solidation program. For some time the State of North Carolina has been making some DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 557 progress in consolidation. This may be evidenced by the gradual reduc- tion, during the past decade, in the number of one-teacher schools. Per cent Total Number Number One- Teacher Schools One- Teacher Schools Year Public School Teachers of Total White Colored Total Teaching Force 1905-06 9,687 4,298 2,075 6,373 65.8 1910-11 11,216 3,908 2,056 5,964 53.1 1920-21 16,854 2,131 1,567 3,698 21.3 1923-24 21,434 1,633 1,356 2,989 13.9 However, the really definite and fundamentally sound policy of con- solidation began with the school legislation of 1923, establishing the county- wide system of organization and school support. This consolidation will continue, I feel, despite the motto of North Carolina's great educational governor-"A schoolhouse within walking distance of every country child." 2. Rural supervision-Turn now to the State's attitude toward rural supervision as a factor in, if not a prerequisite to the real problem of train- ing rural teachers. This question was asked of the State Department of Education in all the States : "How many counties in your State? How many rural supervisors do you have?" The object here was to determine the minimum number of local supervi- sory units with the number of supervisers for those units. In those States where the county was not the unit, the departments very kindly gave the number of units. The data are quite homogeneous therefore and the gen- eral conclusions quite reliable. It was found that the percentage of super- visors per supervisory unit ranged from 387.5 per cent in Connecticut to no per cent in several States. In Connecticut there are practically four supervisors for each supervisory unit, while in many States there is not a single supervisor in all of the rural schools. In Maryland a supervisor is required for every 40 elementary white teachers. In North Carolina there are 23 rural supervisors in a total of 100 counties. What is the standing of your State ? What bearing does this problem have upon the training of rural teachers ? I am not attempting to say; but surely it has a very definite place. 3. Teacher's salaries-Little is gained in having our institutions train teachers for the rural school if, after being trained, those teachers do not teach in those schools. The State then should have a policy looking toward bringing into the rural school the trained teacher. To that end, North Carolina has adopted a minimum uniform salary schedule. The salary is conditioned upon the experience of the teacher and the grade of certificate held. On the State's rating the teacher who holds a primary certificate receives the same salary as the holder of a high school certificate of the same class. But this does not solve the problem of salary discrimination between rural and city teachers. In the city the school term is longer. 558 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In 1923-24 in the white schools of North Carolina the average length of school term in days was 136.2 in the country and 176.9 in the city. Moreover, this difference is still more augmented when it is understood that the cities and other special chartered schools quite generally sup- plement the State schedule. As long as this discrimination exists, the poorly trained teacher will be found in the country, and it will exist even under the most favorable provision of a uniform minimum salary schedule. But the tragedy is that so few States have even gone so far as to provide a minimum uniform salary schedule for all the teachers. The State must assume a larger responsibility in financing the rural school teacher. Perhaps this aid should be carried even to the extent of material support in the training of the prospective teacher. Dr. Coffman found that the family supplying the typical (median) woman teacher in the elementary schools had an annual income of $862 and that the typical family numbered six persons. If that represents the economic condition from which these teachers come, may it not be necessary for the State to assume a larger burden in the education of its teachers? But be that as it may, it seems to me that the minimum aid, in order to equalize the salary discrimination in favor of the city teacher, and thereby enable the rural school to compete with the city for trained teachers, is a substantial bonus for the teacher in the one- and two-teacher schools. This, I understand, Maryland is now doing. However, I think this should be done only after the maximum consolidation has been effected. The State should deter- mine whether or not the one- or two-teacher school is necessary. For example, the State of Louisiana says there can be no further reduction in the number of one-teacher white schools. Should not that State now say to the normal school graduate, we shall pay you a bonus of $100 beyond what you could get in a graded school if you will teach a one-teacher school? Of course, with that additional pay should go the State's right definitely to stipulate what the teacher's training-qualitatively as well as quantitatively should be. In a State program of teacher training, after a State has determined its policies with reference to the matters of consolidation, rural supervision, and its salary schedule, it should then make an analysis of the teaching positions. The law of supply and demand should operate in the training of teachers. Teacher training institutions should know the State's needs with reference to any particular type of teaching service. With that in mind, during the year 1923-24 the State Department of Education in North Carolina analyzed the teaching positions in the elementary schools ofthe State. This information has been put into the hands of the teacher- training institutions. Those institutions can now attack the job of train- ing for a specific service with some degree of assurance as to what the demands and needs are. Such information is necessary if teacher-training agencies are to work with the highest degree of intelligence. In North Carolina the program of teacher-training is predicated largely upon these two hypotheses : ( 1 ) each specific type of teaching service DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 559 requires definite and specific training: (2) the present low standard of teacher qualifications makes it necessary to resort to many temporary expedients. Of the two the latter is perhaps more operative in determining the present practice in that State. It is quite generally understood and accepted that the teachers's par- ticular job should be the criterion of her training. The job, of course, varies with the different types of teaching service, as: kindergarten, first grade, third grade, the one-teacher school, subject teaching in high school, etc. There are in those types of teaching service specifics which are peculiar to each type. An ideal teacher-training program would take cognizance of all those types. However, in North Carolina there has not yet been definitely determined a curriculum designed solely for the training of rural teachers. But may there not be some justification for this? Are not these principles fundamentally sound ? 1. The purpose of elementary school education is general, the same for all, urban and rural. 2. The content of the course of study, rural and city, is essentially the same. The content would vary some, of course, depending upon the pre-school influences and the environment during the school years ; but the chief difference would lie in the approach to the content. Perhaps too much emphasis need not be put upon a definite curriculum for training a teacher of the one or two-teacher schools until the elementary school curriculum is so organized that such schools could teach it with some degree of satisfaction. The outline grade by grade, year by year, can never be successfully executed in the one or two-teacher school. When a State has determined the indispensable number of such schools, it should then prepare an elementary course of study for them. At present then in North Carolina the chief concern is to raise the general level of teacher qualifications. That minimum acceptable level is two years' special training beyond high school graduation. In 1923-24 the scholarship index for the white teachers was 533.6. This index was arrived at through the certificates which the teachers held. Interpreted it means that the average training of the white teachers in the State was 1.33 years beyond high school. While that represents the State average, the average for the rural schools was 474.6 or about seven months beyond high school graduation. That is not all. The scholarship for the one teacher school white teachers is 363.5 or 3.63 years of high school training. Clearly then the big job in North Carolina is to raise the scholarship level of its teachers. The task is to approximate that acceptable minimum -namely, two years beyond high school graduation. In an effort to attain that, the following agencies are being utilized more or less fully : Institutions of higher learning (State, private, and endowed ) . Comprehensive approved summer school program. Teacher-training departments in high school. Extension work. County summer schools. 560 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. Institutions of higher learning-In 1922-23, 1,306 students gradu- . ated from the institutions of higher learning. Of that number 907 came from standard four year colleges, and 180 from standard two year normal schools . Of those who graduated in 1922-23, 738 taught during the school year 1923-24. Since the State needs at least 2,000 teachers trained annually, there is very manifestly a need for additional teacher-training facilities. However, the situation is improving constantly. The State Department of Education is the administrative agency of the North Caro- lina College Conference. Through this coöperation standards are con- tinually moving upward. Moreover, since the certification of teachers rests entirely with the State Department of Education, there is a constant improvement in all the institutions of higher learning with reference to the specific job of training teachers. This friendly coöperation and super- vision is making more favorable the pre-service training of the teachers in the State. 2. Approved summer school program-For a few years yet it will be necessary to make in-service training a very essential part of the State's teacher-training program. Economic conditions compel many teachers to resort to summer school attendance as a means of raising their certificates and increasing their scholarship. Moreover, the present low academic qualifications of the teachers make it expedient and wise to provide every possible opportunity for raising that standard. Accordingly the summer school program is a very large factor in the training of teachers in North Carolina. In 1924 there were 5,680 white and 1,867 colored teachers in the approved summer schools of the State. This does not take into consideration the great number of teachers who attended summer schools in other States. Since so many of the teachers come from other States, the number who attend summer school in other States is quite large. With reference to the summer school program in this State a very sig- nificant piece of work was done during the year 1923-24. The State Department of Education, in conjunction with a committee of summer school directors, prepared two uniform curricula covering two full years' college work each one curriculum leading to teaching in the Primary grades and the other to teaching in the Grammar grades. These curricula are given in all the approved summer schools of the State. The work is broken into units, each unit covering a period of six weeks. The comple- tion of two units gives to the high school graduate a standard State cer- tificate with a definite salary rating. The completion of five units gives a higher grade with another salary level. The completion of nine units or the whole curriculum gives a better certificate with a higher salary rating. Among the advantages of these uniform curricula, the following may be mentioned : (a) A definite plan of in-service training has been provided. The original aim of this work was that it should be given in the summer schools only. (b) The work is distributed with the view of rendering the most immediate DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 561 service to the inexperienced, poorly trained teacher. The course sequence has that in mind. (c) Definite training is provided for two types of teaching service-the primary and grammar grades. (d) A large per cent of this work carries full college credit. If the student wishes to continue her study in college, she will be given credit for this work. (e) Much of the work is being given through the Extension Division of the State University and other institutions. This makes it possible for the teacher to con- tinue the work during the school year while she is teaching. 3. Teacher-training departments in high school-These are only tem- porary expedients. With the average training of the one-teacher school white teacher only 3.6 years of high school work, there is a very distinct need for this very definite training. The value of a year's concentrated specific preparation for teaching in the elementary schools needs no defense. Practically all the teachers who take this work enter the one or two teacher schools. These teacher-training departments, therefore, serve the needs of the counties in which they are located. This year, 1924-25, there are 13 departments with 153 students enroled.. Of that number, 140 are high school graduates-89 from accredited high schools and 51 from non-standard schools. Next year, it is hoped that the State will have 20 such departments with 250 students in attendance. It should be clearly understood, of course, that as soon as the level of training justifies it, these departments will be discontinued. 4. Extension work-This work is beginning to play a large part in the training of the teachers. The University of North Carolina and the North Carolina College for Women have rather comprehensive programs . These two institutions have a great number of extension class teaching groups organized in many cities and towns throughout the State. In other institutions teachers go to the institution for class work. This is not limited alone to those teachers who work in the city in which the institution is located, but a great many rural teachers avail themselves of this study. This is particularly true now that a well developed system of highways makes it easy for teachers to drive in for distances of ten to twenty miles. In addition to this extension class teaching given in many of our institutions, the University of North Carolina has a well developed correspondence instruction program. Hundreds of students are availing themselves of an opportunity to raise the standards of their certificates upon the basis of credits secured in that way. Even though the extension phase of our teacher training work is only in its infancy, nevertheless there are now approximately 4,000 white teachers and 714 colored teachers taking this work. When one realizes that a year's standard college credit entitles a teacher to a higher grade certificate with a higher salary rating, one can readily see the significance of this work in the teacher training program . 5. County summer schools-In North Carolina 1923-24 there were 4,639 non-standard teachers that is, teachers who were not graduates of accredited high schools. Practically all of these teachers "serve their 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION time" in the rural schools. They cannot enter the approved summer schools. For them the State has what is called "County Summer Schools." These schools run for a six-weeks' period. The curriculum is outlined to cover a period of twenty-four weeks. Since it is very seldom that a teacher can attend more than one six-weeks' summer school during one summer, the work virtually covers a four-year period for any one teacher. There are three classes of non-standard certificates. Credits for one of these units may raise a certificate one class. The higher certificate carries with it an increase on the salary rating. After one has secured the highest grade of non-standard certificate, which can be done with a maximum of three six-weeks' units, this summer school work can only serve to renew that certificate. Manifestly the county summer schools is a temporary measure. Each year the number is materially decreased. Last year there were 33 such schools for white; this year the number will not exceed 15. SUMMARY AND RECAPITULATION 1. Consolidation-In 27 States studied the per cent of teachers on one- teacher schools to the total number of public school teachers ranged from .3 of one per cent in Connecticut to 43.9 per cent in Nebraska. The range in possible reduction of one-teacher schools was from "no further reduc- tion" (white) Louisiana to "practically all" in South Carolina. The average possible reduction for all the States is about 60 per cent. 2. Rural Supervision-The variation in State practice here ranged from practically four supervisors to the local supervisory unit (county or town- ship) to no supervisor for a whole State. 3. Teachers' Salaries-Only five States reported they had a minimum uniform salary schedule. Little effort is being made to equalize the present salary discrimination between rural and city teachers . After a State has determined its policy with reference to ( 1 ) consoli- dation, ( 2) rural supervision, and (3) teachers' salaries, its specific pro- gram of teacher-training would then be conditioned upon: The types of teaching service within the State and upon the present level of teacher scholarship. North Carolina is attempting to solve its problem of teacher-training through : 1. Institutions of higher learning-The total graduates from those institutions in 1922-23 number 907. Of that number 738 taught during the school year 1923-24. Since the State needs at least 2,000 teachers trained annually, there is an urgent need for more facilities here. 2. Approved summer schools-This is a distinct part of the teacher- training program in North Carolina. 5,680 white and 1,867 colored teachers attended approved summer schools in the State in 1924. There were 11 schools for white and 9 schools for colored. 3. Teacher-training departments in high schools-This is temporary. This year there are 13 departments with an enrolment of 153 students . DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 563 140 of these students are high school graduates-89 from accredited high schools and 51 from non-standard schools. The value of this work will be appreciated when it is understood that the average training of the teacher in the one-teacher white schools is only 3.6 years' high school . 4. Extension work-Even though this work is just beginning, there are approximately 4,000 white teachers and exactly 714 colored teachers now registered for this work in our institutions of higher learning. 5. County summer schools-These schools operate for those teachers who hold non-standard certificates. There were 4,639 such teachers in 1923-24. 3,952 of these teachers attended the county summer schools in 1924. This school is only temporary and will be discontinued within five years. SECRETARY'S MINUTES Indianapolis Meeting 'The official program prepared by President Macy Campbell was as follows: Monday Afternoon, June 29, 1925 Interpreting the Schools to the People A STUDY OF RURAL SCHOOL ATTENDANCE BY THE COMMITTEE ON RURAL SCHOOL ATTENDANCE-Mrs . Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. DISCUSSION-George S. Dick, Supervisor of Rural Schools, Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. IMPROVED SCHOOL PRIVILEGES IN MASSACHUSETTS THROUGH CONSOLIDATION - Paul Dillingham, Superintendent of Schools, Falmouth, Mass. THE MESSAGE OF THE FARM BUREAU TO THE RURAL EDUCATORS OF AMERICA-Frank Evans, General Marketing Counsel and Secretary, American Farm Bureau Federation, Chicago, Ill. Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1925 Progress in Rural School Supervision CONCERT BY THE LAGRANGE COUNTY SCHOOL BAND, LAGRANGE, IND. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS UNDER THE COUNTY UNIT SYSTEM IN OHIO-O. E. Pore, Superintendent of Portage County Schools, Ra- venna, Ohio. THE HELPING TEACHER PLAN IN MAINE-Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Education, Augusta, Maine. LESSONS IN THE SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS FROM THE INDIANA EXPERIMENT- Hilda Hughes, Superintendent of Lagrange County Schools, Lagrange, Ind. Business-The business transacted consisted only of the ratification of the officers elected in February as provided for in the Constitution and of the appoint- ment of a special Committee on Coöperative Marketing. This committee expects to make a careful study of the whole question of coöperative marketing and to suggest the phases of the subject to be taught in public schools, both rural and urban. Its membership is divided into two groups, the first consisting of farm and marketing specialists and the second of rural school specialists, as follows : 564 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Group I-Frank O. Lowden, chairman, Sinissippi Farm, Oregon, Ill.; Aaron Sapiro, attorney coöperative marketing organizations, Straus Building, Chicago : Chris . L. Christensen, expert on cooperative marketing, U. S. Department of Agri- culture; Pres. Kenyon L. Butterfield, State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich.; Dr. E. W. Kilgore, president American Cotton Growers Exchange, Raleigh, N. C.; B. Y. Landis, Federal Council of Churches, New York City; Carl Williams, Okla- homa City, Okla.; Dr. E. G. Nourse, chief agricultural division, Institutes of Eco- nomics, Washington, D. C.; Chas. E. Hearst, president Iowa Farm Bureau Federa- tion, Des Moines, Ia.; Miss Verna Elsinger, director community organization, Burley Tobacco Growers, Lexington, Ky.; Frank Swett, president California Pear Growers Association, San Francisco, Calif.; Frank Evans, general marketing coun- sel and secretary, American Farm Bureau Federation, Chicago ; E. C. Branson, professor rural social economics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill ; L. F. McKay, field service and public relations, American Cotton Growers Exchange, Memphis , Tenn.; Dr. Theodore Macklin, marketing expert, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wis . Group II-Mabel Carney, rural education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, N. Y.; Mrs. F. C. Beverley, principal Whitmell Farm Life School, Whit- mell, Va.; Lee L. Driver, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; C. G. Sargent, rural and vocational education, State Agricultural College, Ft. Collins, Colo.; Will C. Wood, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Calif.; Mrs. Kathryn Cook, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.; Supt. A. L. Winterquist, Consolidated Schools, Cloquet, Minn.; Gilbert Willey, graduate student, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis .; Dr. C. E. Myers, State Agricultural College, State College, Pa.; Prof. J. L. Hypes, State Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn.; Chas J. Booth, expert in coöperative marketing, Chaffey Junior College, Ontario, Calif.; Macy Campbell, head of Department of Rural Education, Iowa State Teachers College , Cedar Falls, Iowa. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS UNDER THE COUNTY UNIT PLAN IN OHIO O. E. PORE , SUPERINTENDENT OF PORTAGE COUNTY SCHOOLS RAVENNA, OHIO During the last decade the county schools of America have been passing through a period of rapid evolution. In the not very remote past, rural education invariably meant a little red schoolhouse, poorly heated and lighted, with benches for seats and painted wood for black boards. Its floors were dirty, its yards unkempt, its toilets unscreened, often without doors. There were common drinking cups and unjacketed stoves. The teacher, usually young and poorly trained, was absolute mistress of her realm. County supervision has brought trained leadership to many benighted rural communities. Modern consolidated buildings have supplanted the out-of-date, one-teacher schools. Practical subjects have been added to the curriculum. Programs of inter-school activities have been introduced. Trained teachers have replaced mere wielders of the birch. A new day has truly dawned for the farmer and his family. This discussion will deal with the administrative and supervisory duties of an Ohio county superintendent by presenting a few of his biggest problems. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 565 1. THE PROBLEM OF BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT Educators everywhere have accepted centralization as the one practical solution of the rural school question. It eliminates truancy, secures better teaching, enriches the course of study, makes recitations more interesting, provides suitable recreation, increases the holding power of the school, raises the moral standard of pupils and develops community spirit. It seems logical, therefore, that the first objective of a county superintendent should be a program of consolidation, which usually means a long series of better building and equipment campaigns. There are such precious memories attached to the old home school, so many honest doubts as to the possibilities of improving that time-tested institution, such habitual objections to any- thing necessitating an increase in taxes, that the champion of centralization must move cautiously, if he would succeed. His first step is to sell the idea to the local board, for that body must pass a resolution authorizing a vote before the proposition can be submitted to the people of the district. When once the board is ready to back the proposed program, a carefully thought out publicity campaign should be set in motion. II. THE PROBLEM OF DEMOCRATIŻATION We hear much these days about democracy in education, and yet the average school administrator is inclined to stretch his authority to the limit to make sure that his own ideas will prevail. The dictatorial method may put a program across with admirable dispatch, but it is apt not to stay put . Subordinates in the ranks appreciate the opportunity of expressing them- selves on the questions of administrative policy. Board members and pa- trons like to exercise the prerogative of home rule. Even the child in the classroom is not satisfied to be a nonentity with every thing prescribed and ready-made by some expert over-lord. A county school head has very little actual authority. He may nominate teachers, but the local boards need not accept them. He may select textbooks, without any power to force uniformity. He may write a course of study, but every school has the right to reject it. He may draw up a scheme of county-wide extra curricular activities, but the participation of the principals is entirely volun- tary. Practically every dictum issued by his office is a mere scrap of paper if the local districts choose to make it so. If the county superintendent so formulates his administrative policies that every teacher in the ranks will have a chance to express herself and will feel an obligation to help solve some particular problem for the common good and if he takes the boards and the public into his full confidence, suddenly, as if by the irony of fate, he will find himself possessed of almost absolute authority. IL THE PROBLEM OF COUNTY CONSCIOUSNESS Acity is fairly homogeneous in ideals and interests. The people habitually think in terms of the common good. They have a spirit of loyalty and enthusiasm for their home town that gives every movement for civic better- ment a decided initial impetus. On the other hand, a county is made up 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of township and village units, whose purposes are comprehended by their own narrow boundary lines. Each one of these small political subdivisions has its own court and its own police force. Its board of trustees builds its roads and its board of education runs its schools. So the county superin- tendent who would organize his schools into an efficient, cooperative, ani- mated system must discover some means of welding these communities to- gether and making them boosters of the common good. A plan of inter school contacts through athletic meets and literary contests works wonders in socialization. The wise county superintendent will take pains to develop an esprit de corps among his teachers. If he is a good psychologist he will humor in his patrons the instinct of self-esteem. IV. PROBLEM OF INSTRUCTIONAL STANDARDS What constitutes a school ? Not the building, furniture and books; not the board, superintendent and pupils. All these are necessary trappings, but they are materialistic and mechanical at best. The teacher is the soul of the school. She is the vitalizing force that gives color and expression to the whole business of education. She raises the curtain of ignorance, that self-satisfied children may peep at the alluring scenes beyond. She puts into popular practice the approved theories of righteousness, justice, and truth. She fires listless youth with a desire to climb high and a con- fidence of success. Hats off to this savior of our institution, this molder of our destiny. How important it is, therefore, that only high-grade teachers be selected and every possible means be afforded them to improve in service. Salary schedules based upon training and experience and teach- ing skill should reward those deserving of promotion and keep them in the system. A comprehensive standard test program should be given each year for the purpose of locating weaknesses in classroom procedure. V. THE PROBLEM OF A MODERN CURRICULUM The educative process is not a static thing. It constantly changes and grows to meet the needs of the generation it serves. The evolution of society with its sudden demands for skill in unexpected directions is cue enough for the school to modify its program. The educator, who puts out a product-standard a score of years ago-to fit the requirements of today, shows about as poor judgment as the modiste who would dress the 1925 society girl in hoop skirt and bustle. Those responsible for the administration of the Portage County schools believe that the pupil whose training is confined to the customary classroom routine is only half educated; that he needs to make social contacts and have actual experience in order to grasp the real meaning of the printed page; that he should enrich and clarify his own meager concepts by reading good books and meeting great men. They consider the memorization of a scientific theory less important than its verification in the laboratory. They believe that the rural child is entitled to the same symmetrical education as his city cousin, and the day is not far distant when he will come into his complete inheritance. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 567 THE HELPING TEACHER PLAN IN MAINE FLORENCE M. HALE, STATE AGENT FOR RURAL EDUCATION AUGUSTA, MAINE The State of Maine recognizes its responsibility in bettering rural school conditions in those small places that cannot adequately meet their own rural school needs. Therefore, the State annually appropriates money to carry on a special "helping teacher training school" each summer at Castine, Maine. Each superintendent of schools may nominate a rural teacher as "helping teacher" and send her to this school. She must be a normal graduate (or the equivalent), and have had from two to five years of successful teaching in rural schools. She must be of good personality. Her expenses to and from the school ( from her home town) and while in at- tendance are met by the State. At the end of the next school year, if she has performed her work as helping teacher satisfactorily, she receives, in on check, a bonus from the State equal to 25 per cent of her regular salary for the year. The duties of the helping teacher briefly stated are: To make her own school a standard school; to arrange her school week so as to have her school in session on Saturday instead of Monday. On this Saturday, the superintendent of schools may direct his young and untrained teachers to visit the helping teacher's school for observation and advice; on Mondays the helping teacher, upon request of the superintendent of schools, visits the schools of teachers who are needing help and does all she can to advise and help them both in method work and in discipline; she keeps a careful record of the visits to her school and assistance given and of her visits to the other teachers' schools. These are submitted to the superintendent and to the State Department when requested. Th plan has surpassed the expectations of State Commissioner Thomas, who originated it, in five ways : ( 1) an increase in the number of trained teachers willing to take up rural work; (2) introduction of better methods and ways of discipline into the small, poorly paid schools; (3) more com- munity activities carried out; (4) a greater understanding and respect for rural education throughout the State; (5) many helping teachers them- selves have become ambitious for more education for themselves, spreading the idea of the necessity for summer school work of an advanced type. An interesting feature of the helping teacher school itself is that no outside study is required, but all of the work of the day is carried out along the plan of the socialized recitation, round table discussion, and as super- ised study. 568 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LESSONS IN SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS FROM THE INDIANA EXPERIMENT HILDA HUGHES, SUPERINTENDENT OF LAGRANGE COUNTY SCHOOLS LAGRANGE , INDIANA The Indiana Legislature of 1921 provided for an Education Survey Com- mission to make a study of our public school system. The Commission sought the coöperation of the General Education Board of New York City. The report of the Commission revealed that the rural schools of Indiana are not succeeding in the instruction of the fundamental tools of knowledge. But this report did not result in awakening the people to the end that they provide for the rural children, schools which would give the children mastery of fundamentals. The Education Survey Com- mission proposed the County Unit Bill, which provided not only for a more economical and efficient business administration of our schools but for supervision of classroom instruction. The bill failed. State Super- intendent Burris asked the General Education Board to help us by pro- viding additional information to the people through a demonstration of supervision. The General Education Board placed in the hands of our State super- intendent, funds for two demonstrations to cover the school years 1923- 1924 and 1924-1925. Indiana University released Doctor Smith, dean of its school of Education, to direct the demonstration. A contract was entered into by Superintendent Burris with the township trustees of John- son and Lagrange counties. The demonstration purposed to show what some of the features of a county organization could do to improve our schools. The agreements entered into with the trustees covered the business side as well as the educational side of school work, but because they refused to coöperate on the business side, this part of the demonstra- tion was dropped. Two supervisers were placed in each county. In Johnson County Mina Longvick and Rachel Anne Fuller have carried on the work during the two years; unfortunately, in Lagrange County we have had four supervisers, Ina Barnes and Earna Hildebrand began the work. In January of the first year, Miss Barnes died; Jonine Amind- sen succeeded her. Due to the illness and death of Miss Barnes, her schools were three months without supervision. In the spring of 1924, Miss Hildebrand married one of our trustees . Alice Krackowizer took Miss Hildebrand's place. Miss Krackowizer was not employed last fall until after we had had our week of institute and schools had been in session a week. In a conference of supervisors and officials, it was agreed that the efforts of the supervisors should be restricted to reading, arithmetic, lan- guage, and spelling. Two control or compare counties were selected. The four counties, the two without supervision or the control counties and the two with supervision, were tested each spring and fall by the General Education Board. A preliminary report was published last fall. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 569 The per cent of progress in the supervised counties exceeded that in the control counties by 14.3. The children in the demonstration counties received 22.9 days of instruction more than the children of the control counties which at our current cost of instruction has a value of $38,539.48 . Grades 3 and 4 made little gain. They were three months without super- vision. Our large schools made greater gains than our small schools . Little gain was made in spelling and arithmetic reasoning. In Lagrange County neither was stressed last year. In every grade the demonstration counties had the greater per cent of retarded pupils. No results except those published in the preliminary report were given to either county from these tests. That my discussion today might include Johnson County I gave my manuscript to County Superintendent Yount, Miss Longvick, and Miss Fuller and requested that they check all statements which are true of Johnson as well as Lagrange. Superintendent Yount says : "I was greatly impressed with the thought that had I written a similar paper, I would have had about the same material and emphasized almost the same things. About everything you say applies to Johnson. In a few places, I have marked for special emphasis but generally all points apply." I will mention the points he marked. We speak of this venture as a demonstration of supervision because we know that the supervision is no longer an experiment. It has been an experiment only in the sense of whether supervision will solve our problems. It was an experiment to attempt to do anything by way of improvement with Indiana rural schools. The Survey Commission Report told us that our rural children were two years retarded. We believed it, because we felt sure something was wrong. Since the work of supervision has brought part of our schools up to standard, I now know that we neither knew it nor actually believed it. Our imaginations did not tell us what a difference there would be in our pupils if they were not two years retarded. Those of us who have watched the demonstration have seen mentally starved children given food and life. The facts disclosed by the Survey have become realities. The biggest general lesson it has taught is the value of demonstrating that which you wish to get across to the public. Not only has it educated the public, but the educators who have been associated with it. We are all convinced of the needs and convinced that supervision can remedy them. I had visited our county schools three years before we had supervision, but I saw more the first year of supervision than I had seen in the other three years. The two years' work has revealed the serious weakness of our Indiana school system. In Indiana we have a township trustee system. The trustee is all powerful. The day after our contract was signed the trustees were notified that coöperation with the demonstration would be loked upon by the State Trustees Association as an act of disloyalty. During these two years an intense fight has been waged 570 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION against the demonstration, a fight against county unit. In our own county, four trustees have made themselves living arguments for county unit. The trustees have advanced the argument: "Keep the schools in the hands of the people." In LaGrange County three thousand patrons pe- titioned for the demonstration. One of the four opposing trustees comes from a township where every patron signed the petition. Out of loyalty to the State Trustee Organization, he has placed every possible handicap upon the supervision. The demonstration should teach Indiana that she needs a school system in which the child cannot be exploited by outside interests. I mention this because of the lesson it holds for Indiana, because it is only fair to supervision that those of you who are from other States should read any report of this demonstration with the knowledge that the results obtained came in spite of opposition. From the first we have had the loyalty and support of some of the trustees, others gave their supoprt when they saw the benefit to their schools. Now we have the coöperation of all except four. If Indiana could always have trustees who are as open-minded and eager to serve the child's interests as our best trustees have been, our schools might be perfected with the trustee system. I am convinced that rural school supervision in Indiana will never suc- ceed until a larger school unit than the township is established. That you may better evaluate the results obtained in Johnson and Lagrange Counties, I will outline our conditions. In Johnson they had the first year eighteen one-room schools and ten consolidated schools while the second year they had only 13 one-room schools; but had twelve con- solidated schools. We had thirty-five one-room schools last year and now we have thirty-three. We have twelve consolidated under the county superintendent, and the LaGrange School, which has a superintendent of its own, was included in the demonstration. Prior to the demonstration we had had two years of unusually good health work done in our county. The same county nurse, Edith Kesler, remained during the demonstration. We have a county teacher of instru- mental music, a county art supervisor who, however, has only seven of our schools. We have a full-time attendance officer, a full-time assistant county superintendent and a county agent who conducts club work. The supervisors had a full-time stenographer. The greater part of the west half of the county is settled by Amish. It is against the religious belief of the Amish to send their children to high school, which according to our State Attendance law, they are compelled to do. The Amish situation has brought our schools into politics. I am reliably informed that our teachers were not so well trained as those in the control counties. In spite of almost impossible handicaps, supervision has succeeded. Supervision will sell itself to teachers within a year. The success of super- vision in LaGrange County is due to this fact. Opposition cannot keep DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 571 it from the children. Give the Supervisor a chance to reach the children and the child's mind eagerly grasps for the advantage. I do not feel that the report tells a true story. Various influences and powerful pressure were brought to bear upon many teachers, and some of them failed to coöperate rather than lose their jobs. These schools bring down the general results. If the report could be restricted to those schools where supervision was actually demonstrated, the gains shown would be far greater. It took some teachers a year to appreciate supervision. Be it said to the credit of the teaching force of LaGrange County that now every one of our best teachers is an advocate of supervision. These teachers have done all in their power to have it continued. It is certain that we will have one supervisor for next year. Supervision has freed our minds of blaming the child for poor progress . It has proved to us that our children are perfectly normal with a fair chance. Our rural children have responded with amazing quickness to proper stimulus and correct methods. One of the first things supervision did for us was to bring in over three thousand books. This was due the generosity and courtesy of the book companies that loaned these books for the demonstration. Our children who had been reading one book a year, now read books by the dozen. They have so completely shown us the necessity of books that now we do not feel that a school is a school without them. In the consolidated schools special methods were worked out to solve the problems. In several grade rooms the children were divided into groups according to their reading ability. Each group had a leader. The teacher always met with the leader prior to a recitation. Every one was expected to become a leader by doing superior work. It was also possible to go from one group to another. This plan worked so well that one room advanced 50 per cent in six months. Some teachers were especially suc- cessful in using the speed tests. For example, one boy increased his rate this year from forty words per minute to one hundred seventy-two. In one Amish school where the parents do not want their children to learn for fear they may be promoted into high school, the reading problem was so solved that the children lost themselves and read and read. Do- mestic Science girls made an ideal farm home and the boys made an ideal barn. The children sent for domestic science and agriculture bulletins all over the United States. In the lower grades we have been taught to change completely our former procedure. Our children have been given pre-primer work. We used to read just one primer, now we read eight or more. We used every device to get the child to read and think what he was reading. In the fall labe's were pasted on all objects. Directions and duties were writ- ten on the board. Calendars and weather charts used. The super- visors taught us many ways of giving word and phrase drills, especially by flash cards. The children read their own language stories. They illustrated their stories on the sand table. Educative seat work 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION has been developed until we now look upon it as invaluable. Puppet shows have added zest to reading. One of the major things supervision taught us is to correlate. Geography has been greatly improved and used to solve the reading problem. One of our outstanding successes has been the correlation of art. Mr. Bruce, our county art teacher, has coöperated with our supervisors to the end that when it came to our exhibit, it was impossible to tell which work belonged to Mr. Bruce and which to the supervisors. While we have had excellent results in art, the art work has enriched our other work. In arithmetic they taught us the values of the practice tests, of flash cards, and many special methods for teaching combinations. We have had a store in nearly every school. They showed us how to teach our children to reason. The results of the tests given by the general education board show that our greatest gain has come in language. This is true because the super- visors have so enriched the lives of the children we opened up a new world to them. Out of their experience has come expression. They have taught us to train our children in better language usage. In language as in other subjects, we have been administering doses mechanically. Now we give homeopathic doses and make sure that the child has acquired the correct habit before new habits are introduced. We teach until we estab- lish correct usage. Our first graders can now write a correct sentence. In pre-demonstra- tion days, I was concerned about the monosyllabic replies that our children gave to any attempt at conversation. Now our children have developed fair ability as conversationalists and even first graders can discuss and explain their accomplishments. A little first grader recently did this very successfully before a club of eighty women. The report indicates that progress made in the consolidated schools was greater than in our one-room schools. The teachers of a consolidated school are less directly open to the influence of a trustee. There is another factor for consideration. In Indiana we have been spending all our money on our consolidated schools. Nearly every consolidated school has a high school and the department has set up standards that must be attained before a commission is granted. Trustees have come to these standards and have let their one-room schools go. There has been a widespread belief that sooner or later consolidation would come and it would be a waste of money to perfect one-room schools. Many believe that neglect of the one-room schools is the way to bring consolidation. These factors have resulted in unfortunate conditions in one-room schools. Much had to be done for our one-room schools before it was possible to get results that are measurable. The unmeasurable results in our thirty- three one-room schools have been one of the real results of the two years. I visited a one-room school in a township where the trustee had used his power to prevent the teachers from coöperating. The teacher is a DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 573 beginning teacher and this school represented nearly pre-demonstration conditions. The teacher is the average in personality, intelligence, and ability. It could not be said that she had not benefited from supervision because she was associated with teachers who were developing because of it; she had had some bulletins and two visits from the supervisor. I could see evidence of a carry-over of benefit. I visited one hour. Five children did nothing. One little girl who sat next to the hot stove with her coat on, turned around in her seat and gazed at us. Except for dilatory spurts of study, eleven of the thirty-five pupils in that school were idle during the hour. The teacher was conducting review lessons. Questions were asked and answered by the teacher, but only five were correctly answered by the children. The results in the first and second grades were pathetic. When I came into office, we had about three or four unusually good one- room schools which even then made the general condition stand out in its alarming significance. All over the county children were idle. In many cases when they were occupied, it was with such useless activities as laying toothpicks or some other device for preventing idleness. Many times the teacher displayed her fund of knowledge by answering all the questions, but the children revealed alarming ignorance. The general physical con- dition was poor. Too often, was found the common tin cup, only one wash basin with little evidence that it had been used. Children were sitting in seats that did not fit them. Two years ago Dr. Shaw and I surveyed the conditions of the one-room schools in the county. We found over one hundred children whose feet couldn't touch the floor. The rooms were dirty and unattractive, either overheated, or too cold and poorly ventilated and lighted. The children had little pride in themselves, their work or their school. The schoolhouses had in them such old equipment as broken desks, dilapi- dated globes, maps that had served their day, torn dictionaries, books with their backs off and leaves gone, broken pieces of furniture, torn window shades, that wouldn't roll, broken steps, broken locks and a window pane out here and there. The school yards were full of weeds, sticks, stones, and rubbish. The toilets were unsightly, and only a few were screened. It is no wonder that in this setting we found children who didn't care. As long as I live, I shall be able to see those dirty unattractive one-room schools, to feel their stuffy heat, and to hear that awful monot- onous drone that was called reading, to see those stolid blank faces of little young old men and women ! Supervision has taught us that all this must be changed. I can today take you to all but three or four schools and show you first of all, live, interested, neat, courteous children who are directed by a teacher who stays in the background, guiding and directing, while the children meet you at the door and welcome you. The present home-like atmosphere in those schools presents the contrast with the past that there is between a real home and a jail. Teachers and children have coöperated to make those rooms neat and clean, ventilated and uniformly heated. Every room 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION has window boards and careful attention is paid to the lighting. In several schools where the walls were black with smoke they washed them. The hundred children whose feet were dangling now have foot stools, or some similar device. The yards have been carefully cleaned, raked, stones and rubbish removed and all weeds pulled, trees and shrubs have been planted on most lawns and in several the children have flowers. Long before you reach the buildings, you can see their flags waving. The work the children are doing inside represents greater departure from the dead routine of pre-demonstration days than these physical con- ditions do. I have seen children too eagerly interested in their lessons to keep their seats. Eighth-grade boys who used to slouch to class and mumble and stumble through a few paragraphs now look at you with a flash of pride in their eyes and astound you with their accomplishments. No statistical report can half tell you the true story of the results. Because it can't portray our biggest evidence of success-the looks on the faces of the children. I do not wish to overdraw my picture, because we have by no means reached perfection. The rural children need the touch of the outside world. Their isola- tion is stultifying. The rural child needs stimulation. The demonstration has proved for us that the only way for improvement in rural schools under present Indiana conditions is to reach the child. The present atti- tude of the farmer makes it hard for any one to get his confidence as his own child can do. Supervision has taught us the value of supplementary materials. They have taught us how to secure aids from the advertising world and how to draw upon our surroundings for valuable material. They have taught us the value of simple devices. They have taught us the absolute necessity ofmonthly visits. Of institutes or group meetings where they may instruct the teachers along the line of their needs. Each month, then each visit served two purposes. The supervisor was looking for the common needs that she might give remedial work at the next institute and was watching to see if the suggestions she had given had been successfully carried out. Our teachers were divided into five groups for institute. These group meetings rotated around the county. Inasmuch as the teachers attended institutes in a group of like interests under the direction of an expert, these school meetings became important agencies of teacher training. Mr. Ram- sey introduced the clinic. It is now one of the most popular forms of teachers' meetings. The supervisors have taught us the value of bulletins as supervisory aids, but they also taught us that even these need to be used advisedly and under direction. The ethics of the supervisor make it difficult for supervision to put itself across to the public; I understand that the best supervisory practice is to work through the teacher. We have learned that parents will little understand unless they are actually shown what improvements they can attribute to supervision. It has not been the policy of the demonstration to conduct a publicity campaign. In Lagrange County the teachers have so wanted supervision DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 575 continued that they have endeavored to have it better understood by the public. Our teachers believe and know the rural child is being deprived of his rights. They have been working with the local organizations which two of our powerful State organizations which touch rural communities, the Farmers' Federation and Club Women. Committees from these organizations have visited our schools. In each case the committees' reports showed their enthusiasm for the results of supervision. Children from various schools demonstrated to eighty club women what they could do. The program was made up of actual classroom work. Representative work was also exhibited to these women. Eight clubs passed resolutions pledging themselves to make the improvement of rural schools their job. I wish to quote to you some of the things those farmers saw in our schools : That supervision has increased the efficiency of our teachers from 10 to 100 per cent and permitted them to do more and better work according to their own statements. That generally there is no objection to the present plan of supervision. We, as a committee, having made certain investigations as to the conditions of the rural schools of La Grange County under rural supervision find the best of coöperation between teacher and pupil. We find the pupils always courteous and helpful to their teacher and practicing management in the way of cleanliness and sanitation; we find interest displayed by pupils in the school under supervision . The pupils not only acquire the fundamentals that we had or should have had when we went to school, but fifteen or twenty other things in the same time at the same expense and school work has become a pleasure, whreas it used to be a task for us. It has brought the shy children out so that they are free and easy with vi itors, pleased to talk with you and show you about their work done under supervision. We saw examples of self-government and coöperation. For example, in the Wortinger school a committee of self-delegated boys was raking and burn- ing the trash in the yard preparatory to leaving the school yard in a sanitary condition. Also, the girls were planting flowers in the different nooks and corners around the schoolbuilding, which surely looked their efforts. In every case we found the teacher in perfect sympathy with the supervisors. I have here letters from the educators who tested in our county, saying practically the same thing. Also letters from teachers and principals and patrons, expressing their appreciation for the results of supervision. Since the demonstration was planned for only two years, it was neces- sary to concentrate upon particular features of the work in order to get definite measurable results within a given time. Many of the more intangible results of supervision are of far greater life value to the children than is mere improvement in subject-matter, important as this is admitted to be. In a program of continued supervision these larger aims are of primary importance. They are unifying elements which determine the purpose for which the more measurable factors are introduced, and hence the place which each is to hold in the general scheme. Working in this demonstration from a different angle entirely, we have nevertheless brought about a realization in some measure of these larger values. I cite some of the most important as I see them. Superintendent Yount checked each of the following: Greater civic pride. 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Better observance of health habits. Greater courtesy and good manners in everyday behavior. Greater accuracy of thinking, developing habits of truthfulness and honesty. Greater originality and initiative, resourcefulness showing itself in more intelligent self expression, (underlined by Superintendent Yount) . Greater ability to reason. Greater ability to comprehend oral and written language. Greater ability to answer questions squarely. (This year I was able to raise the standard for eighth grade promotion and yet promote a greater per cent than ever before. Their improved ability to answer questions squarely was very marked.) Greater ability to follow directions intelligently. (Underlined by Superintendent Yount.) Greater interest in school work resulting in willingness to work harder and to see a task through to the end. Greater ability to attack independently new problems coming up. Greater desire and ability to engage in group activities. Better results in the fundamental school subject. These two years of supervision have proved the advisability of educa- tional demonstrations, because it has shown to everyone who has kept in touch with the demonstration, the needs of our schools and the solution more successfully than dozens of surveys could have done. It has been a very happy departure from our educational tendency to survey and survey and never solve. It has proved that the interest of the rural child can never be safe until the power is placed in the hands of professional educators, that supervision is so fundamentally right that it will succeed in spite of handicaps, that the teachers who are in the work because of their love for children cannot be kept from accepting it even though their jobs may go. It has taught us that scientific methods applied intelligently under the direction of a trained specialist can quickly solve the rural school problem. For LaGrange County these two years have done many remarkable things but for the rural children at large it is very unfair to close this demonstration at this time and call it an experiment in supervision. It is unfair because LaGrange County, is only now ready to give supervision a fair chance. This statement was underlined by Superintendent Yount with the comment that the last six months have been a revelation which ex- presses exactly what I have experienced in LaGrange County. Pupils, teachers, and patrons, are just coming to an appreciation of its real value. In short, it has taken these two years to lay a foundation. From the illustrations of what we have done you can well understand that up to date it has been necessary for the supervisors to confine their efforts to simple and generally accepted practices. One more year could demon- strate to the world what supervision can actually do. I have here copies of the preliminary report for distribution and samples of work which show the results I claim. Department of School Health and Physical Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-CHARLES H. KEENE, Director, Health Education, State Department of Public Instruction Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Vice-President-MELVILLE STEWART, State Supervisor of Physical Education Charleston, West Virginia Secretary-Treasurer-KATHARINE H. K. WOLFE, Director of School Health, Board of Education Lincoln, Nebraska Historical note-The Department of Child Hygiene was known as the Depart- ment of Child Study until July 13, 1911. See Proceedings of 1911, page 870. The Department of Child Study was created at the Asbury Park meetings, July 10, 1894. See Proceedings of 1894, page 40. In July, 1924, the department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See Proceedings of 1924, page 96. This Department meets once a year, in June. The first session of the Department of School Health and Physical Education was held on Monday afternoon, June 29, in the Spink Arms Hotel. The program was as follows : TWENTY YEARS OF MEDICAL INSPECTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE George P. Barth, Director of School Hygiene, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. EDUCATION FOR HEALTH IN RURAL SCHOOLS S. H. Replogle, Assistant Superintendent of Allegheny County Schools, Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania. HEALTH PROBLEMS IN TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS Ambrosie L. Suhrie, Professor of Normal School Education, School of Edu- cation, New York University, New York City. PREPARATION FOR SCHOOL LIFE H. M. Young, Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. On Tuesday afternoon, June 30, the following program was presented : MORAL TRAINING THROUGH PHYSICAL EDUCATION Fielding H. Yost, Director of Athletics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. IS SEX EDUCATION PROPERLY A PART OF OUR PROGRAM OF HEALTH EDUCATION ? E. F. Van Buskirk, Executive Secretary, Cincinnati Social Hygiene Society, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. THE MORAL OBLIGATION TO BE PHYSICALLY FIT J. Anna Norris, Director, Department of Physical Education for Women, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. THE SCHOOL HEALTH IN ITS RELATION TO MENTAL HYGIENE Thurman B. Rice, M. D., Associate Professor of Public Health and Sanitation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. The officers elected for 1925-26 are : president, Melville Stewart, State Super- visor of Physical Education, Charleston, West Virginia ; vice-president, J. Anna Norris, Director of Physical Education for Women, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis ; secretary- treasurer, Frederick W. Maroney, Director of Department of Health Instruction, Public Schools, Atlantic City, New Jersey. Miss Elma Rood, Director of Health Education, Child Health Demonstration, Mansfield, Ohio, was elected to the executive committee for four years to replace Dr. William A. Howe whose term expired. [577] 578 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TWENTY YEARS OF MEDICAL INSPECTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE GEORGE P. BARTH, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL HYGIENE MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN Health work in schools by those trained in medical science is of com- paratively recent origin. It was not until December, 1837 when a Royal ordinance of France charged the female supervisors of maternal schools with the special duty of watching over the health of their pupils, that health in schools received attention, though a dim awakening to the necessity for school sanitation is seen in the law passed in France in June, 1833, charging the school committees of the cities and towns with the care of keeping the school houses clean. 1842 and 1843 saw the advent of the school doctor for in that year decrees in France ordered that every public school for boys or girls should be visited by a physician who was to inspect the localities of the schools and the general health of the school children. Little was done after that to develop school health supervision for about thirty years. In 1874, Brussels, Belgium established the first complete system of medical inspection in the modern sense of the term. Physicians were required to visit schools three times per month. From that time on, the spread and growth of school inspection was rapid. In our own country probably the first medical inspector of schools was Dr. Morcan Morse of New York City. In November, 1894, Boston established an organized system of medical inspection with the appoint- ment of fifty school physicians. From this date, health work in schools by those specially qualified spread with great rapidity throughout the country. September, 1907, the President of the Milwaukee Medical Society appointed a committee to determine the advisability and need for school medical inspection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Three representative schools selected by the superintendent of schools were p'aced under the supervision of six members of the society for the period of one month. Daily examinations were made in these schools and the conditions found were tabulated. These were of such character that an urgent plea was sent to the school board December 1, 1908, for the immediate institution of medical supervision for all schools. The board acted favorably on this plea April 6, 1909, and, a medical inspector began his duties April 13, 1909, his jurisdiction extending to the public schools only, however. There were at that time fifty-four grammar schools with an enrol- ment of 36,990; four high schools with 2966 pupils and one trade school with 117 students. A preliminary survey was made, and an organization planned. On October 1909, five assistant medical inspectors were ap- pointed. This was increased to ten February, 1910. The school board of Milwaukee had a broad and liberal conception of DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 579 a department of medical inspection as is evidenced by the following rules which were adopted September, 1911 : Article 1. The Medical Inspector shall, under the direction of the board and the superintendent of schools have a general supervision of the hygiene and sani- tation of school grounds and school buildings and of the health and physical wel- fare of school children, teachers and janitors, in matters peculiar to the medical profession, and of the manner of conducting medical inspection of schools. He shall appoint, subject to confirmation by the board, assistant medical and dental inspectors and nurses, and such other assistants as may be authorized by the board. 2. The medical inspector of schools is the expert advisor of the board and of its committees on all questions of school hygiene, and as such shall be privileged to attend all meetings of committees and the board affecting such questions. 3. He shall perform such other duties as may be assigned to him by the rules of the board or by the superintendent of schools. The assistant medical and dental inspectors and nurses shall assist the medical inspector in the discharge of the duties devolving upon him. They shall be under his direction, and perform such duties as he may require. The principals and teachers shall see that the rules and directions of the medical inspector are properly carried out. Such liberal rules permit of a splendid development of a department , but do not present a cure for a chronic ailment of its creator, i.e., lack of funds. The general plan upon which the department was organized was the district plan-that is, the city was divided into approximately equal dis- tricts with respect to school population, and, a school doctor and school nurses being placed in charge of each district . The plan somewhat modified is in operation today, although changes are contemplated this fall, because the number of doctors and nurses available have not kept pace with the growth of the city, and, of its increased school population-again that seemingly incurable complaint of lack of money. With respect to the teachers, the rules of the school board September 7, 1909, were as follows: Section 13. Principals and teachers absent from school on account of personal illness shall be allowed half pay for not more than twenty days in any school year; for the absence beyond twenty days no allowance shall be made. except that teachers who have been in the service of the board for more than twelve years without leave of absence on half pay, may, upon recommendation of the committee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board leave of absence with half pay for a period not to exceed three months ; or those who have similarly served twenty years shall be given five months' absence with full pay, when such absence is caused by severe personal illness of an extreme nature-the report of two reputable physicians, selected by the board, in addition to the family physician, being required. These were modified April 2, 1912, and again on March 1, 1921 , as follows : ( a) Principals and teachers absent from school on account of personal illness shall be allowed half pay for not more than twenty days in any one school year ; 580 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for absence beyond twenty days no allowance shall be made except that teachers who have been in the service of the board for more than twelve years without leave of absence on half pay, may, on account of personal illness, upon a favorable report from the chief medical inspector as to such illness, and, upon recommenda- tion of the committee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board, leave of absence with half pay for a period not to exceed three months ; teachers who have been in the service of the board for more than twenty-four years with- out leave of absence on half pay, may on account of personal illness, upon a favorable report from the chief medical inspector as to such illness, and, upon recommendation of the committee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board leave of absence with full pay for a period not to exceed three months ; teachers who have been in the service of the board for twenty years or more without leave of absence on half pay may, on account of severe personal illness of an extreme nature, after an examination by the chief medical inspector to- gether with one of the assistant medical inspectors, and favorable report by them as to such illness being of an extreme nature, upon recommendation of the com- mittee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board leave of absence with full pay for a period not to exceed five months. The present rule passed January 3, 1924, reads, as follows : Principals or teachers on the permanent list who are absent from school on ac- count of personal illness for more than ten consecutive school days in the school year may request an examination by the Health Department, and, upon that De- partment's recommendation to the Superintendent and the Superintendent's recom- mendation to the Appointment Committee half pay sick leave may be allowed for the balance of the term, or of the school year ending in June as may be considered necessary. Any principal or teacher returning from sick leave must present to the Superintendent's office a health certificate from the Health Department before reassignment by the Superintendent. (2) No person hereafter appointed teacher or principal shall begin service without having secured a certificate of sound physical health from a physician selected by the board. Such certificate shall be secured and filed with the secretary some time between receiving notification of election and beginning of service. A similar certificate of sound physical health shall be secured and filed with the secretary by each teacher and principal during the first semester of the fourth year of the probationary period. Failure to secure and file such certificate as herein provided shall be cause for termination of service at the end of the said semester. Passed February, 5, 1924. Soon after the inauguration of medical inspection in the public schools requests for the extension of the service to their school began to come in from parochial schools. This would require special legislative action and the board was not ready to seek this. To meet this growing demand a department of medical inspection for the parochial schools modeled on that of the public schools was organized in the Health Department Jan- uary 1, 1917, with five school doctors and five school nurses. There were at that time sixty-five parochial schools with an enrollment of 24,760 children. After various conferences, it was finally decided to amalgamate the two departments doing school health work, and place all the health work in the schools under one control in the health department. Immediately DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 581 following this, health supervision was extended to all public, parochial and private schools, and, to the vocational school. This amalgamation took place October 7, 1919. There were then : Public High Schools . 6 Enrolment 6,684 " " Schools of Trade ..... 2 994 " Grammar Schools 65 49,032 " School for the Deaf ... 1 96 Parochial High Schools ... 1 125 " “ Grammar Schools ...... 65 26,009 " “ Private 1 291 " Continuation School .. 1 8,687 142 91,918 There are now 155 schools with an enrolment of 105,643 operating with the same staff of physicians, and an increase of thirteen nurses. The dental service was developed, but, to an inadequate degree. With the opening of schools in September, there will be 162 schools owing to annexation of territory to the city. Previous to the inauguration of medical inspection in the schools, the Visiting Nurses Association had assigned two nurses to work in the schools as part of their duties. With the appointment of a medical inspector of schools on April 13, 1909, these two nurses were assigned to do school work exclusively at the expense of the Association. With the increase of the number of school medical inspectors to ten, the number of nurses assigned to school work was increased to four. On January 3, 1911, the school board, included $2000 in its budget to partially re-imburse the Visiting Nurses Association for the expense in- volved. In 1913, five nurses were assigned to school work for ten months and one for two months. The school board then voted $5000 annually to the Visiting Nurses Association . This arrangement continued till January 1, 1916 when a department of school nurses was established by the school board consisting of one head nurse and ten assisting nurses. With the amalgamation of depart- ments, the number of nurses increased to forty-seven. This was increased to fifty-four in 1920 and to sixty in 1921, and, it has remained at that since. In 1920 specialized nursing was discontinued, and, the community form of nursing service was put into operation. Under this plan about one-half the time of nurses is devoted to school work, and, school cases. The Milwaukee Odontological Society appointed a committee to examine the mouths of school children in the intermediate grades of three schools, and, sent the result of such survey to the school board June 30, 1909, with the recommendation that school dentists be employed in addition to school doctors. Some of the dentists of the city incorporated themselves as the Milwaukee Public School Free Dental Clinic Association, and, agreed to fully equip and operate a dental clinic in the offices of the medical 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION inspection bureau provided the school board would appoint a dental in- spector. This was agreed to and, a part time dental inspector was op- pointed March 7, 1911 . The dental clinic was put in operation February 20, 1911, each member of the Association serving in the clinic alternately for one-half day. This arrangement was continued until September 1, 1913, when the school board took over the clinic and its operation, a full time dental operator being appointed at a salary of $1500 and a dental clinic attendant. On September 1, 1912, the part time dental inspector was made full time with a salary of $1500, her duties to be limited to examinations of mouths and instructional work in the schools. The health department also established a dental clinic January 1, 1917. When the departments joined forces in October 1919, the dental inspector was taken from the field and a third dental clinic opened. In September, 1922, a part-time dental supervisor was added to the staff, and, three oral hygienists. This was increased in 1925 to four. Cost of each sitting, $1795, cost of completed case, $2935, average cost of oral hygienists , $287 . The question as to the role which the School Hygiene Department should play in the selection of cases for specialized education is still debated at least in some of its particulars . Where the inability to get on in the ordinary classroom is due to a physical defect, I think that a selection of cases for admission to and the discharge from classes for the blind, the deaf, the open window, the crippled, the heart and the services of a visiting teacher should be the province of the School Hygiene Division alone. In the matter of mentality, there may be some question. Certainly no child should be admitted to one of these classes before it has received a thorough examination by a physician preferably a psychiatrist. The central nervous system is quickly and profoundly affected by other adverse and abnormal physical conditions. Toxemias, anemias, abnormali- ties in the ductless glands, defects in the organs of special sense, and, nervous diseases must each be carefully eliminated before a true picture of mental acuity can be obtained. To attempt to place an I. Q. on a child before a searching physical examination has been made is wrong, and, to place an I. Q. on a child as a result of a single examination is little short of criminal. Far better take the judgment of the teacher who has had this child under observation for a considerable period of time. Special Activities. A department of health supervision in schools has a wonderful opportunity to do special research work as to the prevalence of various conditions among the child population. Two cripple surveys were made in Milwaukee. One in 1914-1915, the other in 1921-1922. Goiter survey made and goiter tablets given to the pupils of several schools whose parents were willing that they should take them. On June 30, 1909, a sum of $500 was set aside by the school board DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 583 for the purchase of glasses for indigent children, and, this has continued to the present day. On December 19, 1912, a first aid cabinet was placed in each school containing all the material necessary for first aid treatment of injuries and emergencies. Each school is equipped with such cabinet, and, the supplies for it are kept up by the department. HEALTH PROBLEMS IN TEACHER TRAINING INSTITU- TIONS-ABSTRACT AMBROSE L. SUHRIE, PROFESSOR OF NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION , SCHOOL OF EDUCATION , NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Though I have long been interested in the development of a more inclu- sive and satisfactory program of health education in the institutions which concern themselves primarily with the professional preparation of teachers , I do not feel competent to discuss all the technical and scientific considera- tions that would enter into the making of such a program or into the effec- tive operation of it. If I have any contribution to make it must be the result of some years of practical experience in administering the whole teacher training program in a particular institution, typical in many respects of the teacher-training colleges of the United States as a whole. If I have understood the commission the chairman has given me it will be in order for me to set out in bold relief the essentials of the plan there developed. In the institution referred to, the Cleveland School of Education, we were able in the course of a few years to secure the necessary experts to con- stitute an efficient staff for the development of a many-sided and some- what comprehensive health education program in the college itself and in the associated laboratory schools which were used for demonstration and training purposes. This staff included one or more competent persons giv- ing full or part-time service in each of the following special fields : Medicine, dentistry, nursing, nutrition, physical education, hygiene, cor- rective gymnastics, recreation. In due time this staff of experts was organized into an effective work- ing group pursuing common aims and able to enlist the full and intelligent coöperation of the whole faculty and student body of the institution. The program as I shall describe it was set up primarily : (1) To promote normal growth ( 2) To decrease illness ( 3) To prevent accidents (4) To overcome physical defects (5) To increase participation in wholesome recreation (6) To insure an abundance of energy and vitality (7) To develop individual interest in right health habits and to secure group cooperation in the maintenance of conditions favorable to wholesome community life. 584 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Admission to the college was conditioned, among other things, upon the passing of a satisfactory health examination given by the head of the divi- sion of health education of the public school system. Remediable physical defects were clearly indicated to the candidate and her parents at the time of admission. Retention in the school was conditioned upon satisfactory progress in the removal of defects by corrective exercises and the practice of right health habits or by surgery when necessary. All the preparation which was of such a character as to admit of it was pursued on an " activities" basis as distinct from a "textbook-study" basis and most of the class work was conducted on the "problem-report-con- ference" plan as distinct from the "lecture" or "recitation" plan. The prospective teacher or the teacher in service learned the application of prin- ciples in practice by actual observation in the demonstration school or by actual try out in one of the training schools. These schools were typical neighborhood elementary and junior high public schools of the city. Since the whole program of studies and activities was set up to realize certain definite and attainable results in the health education of each and every individual in the college the widest conceivable differences in require- ments were made of the different members of any given groups of college students. Since health education is not primarily the result of knowledge, im- portant as that may be, but is principally the result of interests and atti- tudes and habits and since the development of life interests and funda- mental attitudes and the fixing of right habits are the results of long- con- tinued exercise and practice, we thought it well to make definite provision for health education as a part of the fixed requirement of all students from the date of entrance to the day of graduation. The specific courses given included personal hygiene, nutrition, child and school hygiene, home and community hygiene and sanitation, corrective gymnastics, and games and recreation . We also made provision for further courses in health educa- tion and for training in vocational hygiene for teachers in service. Several hundred of our teachers participated each year in such courses. The Cleveland School of Education and the city school system of which it is a part have set up a definite standard of attainment in physical and mental health for those who are to be admitted to the teaching staff of the school system. Only those candidates were admitted to the college who might reasonably hope to attain this standard. The examination given at the time of entrance by the school physician and the director of physical education was not merely to determine who might be admitted but also to indicate clearly and definitely to the person whose application was approved what was to be expected of her in coöperation with the instructors of the college in the improvement of her physical condition. The student entered her first course in health education (personal hygiene) with a problem atti- tude of mind. Her problem was to secure helpful information as to how to proceed to overcome all handicaps and achieve if possible abounding vitality and robust health. In the course in corrective gymnastics given DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 585 concurrently with personal hygiene in the first semester the problem was to find the proper corrective exercises to overcome defects not calling for surgical treatment. All group studies in personal hygiene were confined to such topics as were of common interest and all class discussions were focused on problems of special interest to some one or more of the mem- bers of the group. The general result was a common understanding and appreciation of the significance of health and some definite knowledge of its more important factors. In the laboratory course in corrective gym- nastics where the emphasis was placed upon correct posture, the prompt and natural elimination of the wastes of the body, the strengthening of the arches of the feet, etc., every student was encouraged "to beat her own best record" by thoughtful and persistent practice of the prescribed corrective exercise. Charts and graphs indicating the progress of individuals were used to encourage them and to stimulate wholesome rivalry. Students were encouraged to consult the school physician, the school nurse, the school dietitian or any other member of the school health staff for advice and direction on personal health problems. Students who needed surgical operations ( for the removal of tonsils, adenoids, nasal obstructions, or teeth) and students having unsatisfactory posture or weak arches, as well as those suffering from constipation, appendicitis or goitre, were given a grade of "incomplete" at the close of the first semester, no matter how com- pletely they had mastered the subject matter of the course, and this grade remained until such time as the correction had been made. Concurrently with these systematic courses in personal hygiene and corrective gymnastics during the first semester students were required in their course in the in- troduction to teaching to make specific observations in the general health education program of the elementary demonstration school. In the second semester systematic courses were given in nutrition and in games and recreation. The nutrition course was made intensely prac- tical by the specific study of "cases" in the elementary school of observa- tion as well as by the study of cases in the class itself. These cases were studied not only from the viewpoint of the amount and quality of food consumed or to be consumed but also from the viewpoint of the bearing of habits of eating upon perfect nutrition or mal-nutrition. The individual members of the class were given abundant practice in the selection of menus and frequent opportunities to consult a capable school dietitian on the amount and character of food to be eaten and on conditions favorable to proper assimilation. The course in Games and Recreation was purposely keyed to the highest measure of spontaneity to be found in each class section. Considerable emphasis was placed upon English folk dancing and English country dancing. During the third semester of the two year course our students spent four days each week in the training schools and were actually and personally engaged in classroom teaching for a considerable part of each day. During this period they were given and were required to make practical demonstra- tions in accident prevention in school, on the street and elsewhere. They 586 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION held frequent conferences with the school physician and the school nurse in the training school. They were trained in ventilation, schoolroom sanita- tion, etc. and once each week, in groups of thirty they held conferences with the director of the department of health education on such important aspects of educational hygiene as the following: The problem of health conserva- tion; the cost of preventable diseases ; the physical basis of education; laws of growth and factors influencing it; physiological differences between chil- dren and adults; educational significance of physiological age; disorders of growth; mal-nutrition ; tuberculosis ; physiology of ventilation; care of the teeth; hygiene of eye, ear, nose and throat; causes and prevention of head- aches in school children; nervous disorders, and speech defects. Throughout the third semester while the students are engaged in "prac- tice teaching" especial stress is placed upon the necessity of outdoor exer- cise and varied recreational activities. A number of recreation clubs meet weekly and endeavor to foster interest in outdoor life and to enlist active participation in a wide variety of invigorating games. The list of such organizations includes: folk dancing, swimming, tennis, horseback riding, hiking and nature clubs. During the fourth and last semester a systematic course in home and community hygiene and sanitation was given by the director of the depart- ment of health education. Among the topics considered were : the character of the available food supply, milk supply, water supply, sewage disposal, bacteria and the transfer of diseases, disinfection and quarantine, preven- tive medicine, infant welfare agencies, industrial and occupational diseases, with special reference to diseases common among teachers, mental hygiene and vital statistics . Throughout this final semester every effort was made to complete the removal of every physical handicap which might tend to interfere with the student's attainment of the health standard set for admission to the teach- ing staff of the city school system. It was well understood that this final health examination would be conducted by the head of the division of health education of the public school system and that it would be exacting . During the year following graduation and while these beginning teachers were on probation and under special or "helping teacher" supervision the health service of the school of education was available to them on request. And now a word about courses pitched to the senior college level and offered primarily for teachers in service. These included (1) folk dancing and recreation, (2) the health of the teacher (a course in vocational hy- giene) , ( 3) nutrition of school children, (4) school and community hygiene. These courses in part duplicated the content and activities of courses given on the junior college level in the pre-service group. They were intended, however, primarily for teachers who had not had the advantage of such types of work while preparing for teaching. All of these courses were offered (and some of them in several sections) during the regular school year and also during the summer term. They were made so intensely practical that the enrolments steadily increased from year to year. In the DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 587 judgment of our school authorities generally, the course in folk dancing accomplished more in the physical and mental rejuvenation of hundreds of our teachers than any other single agency in the school system. When the annual May festival was put on in the Municipal Auditorium, hundreds of teachers including many who were well on in middle life, joined with about 2000 public school children of junior and senior high school grade in an afternoon's program which was witnessed by six thousand or more adults and which was widely commended as heralding a new day in the development of a sane and wholesome type of recreation for our urban population. About two hundred children of grades five to eight inclusive, and representing thirty-two elementary and junior high schools, the "play leaders" of their several schools, met each Saturday morning in the school of education under the direction of the instructor in the senior college to put on demonstrations in the presence of teachers enroled in folk dancing classes and interested in promoting this type of exercise and recreation in their own classrooms. The course in the Health of the Teacher was con- ducted on a lecture-conference basis. During a period of five years, about eight hundred teachers had taken it. The general effect of this wide par- ticipation in the consideration of the vocational hygiene of the teacher as a professional worker resulted in the institution of many practical reforms in teaching schedules, in provisions for rest rooms, warm lunches, recrea- tion courses, etc. As a result the average number of days of sick leave each year was greatly reduced among those who had taken this course. The course in the Nutrition of School Children was so conducted as to make the classroom of each teacher enroled in the course a laboratory for the intensive study of problems of nutrition under the direction of the in- structor of the course. This has meant the accumulation of a vast amount of scientific data during the course of the years and has resulted in a wide- spread interest among parents in the problem of nutrition. Another prac- tical result has been the more adequate support of the nutrition clinic under the supervision of the Welfare Federation. The course in school and community hygiene was conducted on a lecture- conference basis and aimed (1) to define the problems of school hygiene as they were found in any given school and the problems of community hygiene as they were found in any given section of the city, or in the city as a whole, (2) to provide information concerning sources of help in the school supervisory staff in the division of health education and in the department of health of the city, and (3) to encourage teachers to make definite at- tempts to improve conditions in school, and, through the school as an agency, to attack the problems of community hygiene and sanitation. In conclusion, may I say that while I realize that the particular program of courses and activities and the scheme of their administration as here out- lined form no ready to hand model for the imitation of any other institu- tion, it is my hope that the definiteness and practicability of this program for the city in which it has been operated may be suggestive to normal school workers elsewhere. I regret exceedingly that circumstances have made it 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION has window boards and careful attention is paid to the lighting. In several schools where the walls were black with smoke they washed them. The hundred children whose feet were dangling now have foot stools, or some similar device. The yards have been carefully cleaned, raked, stones and rubbish removed and all weeds pulled, trees and shrubs have been planted on most lawns and in several the children have flowers. Long before you reach the buildings, you can see their flags waving. The work the children are doing inside represents greater departure from the dead routine of pre-demonstration days than these physical con- ditions do. I have seen children too eagerly interested in their lessons to keep their seats. Eighth-grade boys who used to slouch to class and mumble and stumble through a few paragraphs now look at you with a flash of pride in their eyes and astound you with their accomplishments. No statistical report can half tell you the true story of the results. Because it can't portray our biggest evidence of success-the looks on the faces of the children. I do not wish to overdraw my picture, because we have by no means reached perfection. The rural children need the touch of the outside world. Their isola- tion is stultifying. The rural child needs stimulation. The demonstration has proved for us that the only way for improvement in rural schools under presentent Indiana conditions is to reach the child. The present atti- tude of the farmer makes it hard for any one to get his confidence as his own child can do. Supervision has taught us the value of supplementary materials. They have taught us how to secure aids from the advertising world and how to draw upon our surroundings for valuable material. They have taught us the value of simple devices. They have taught us the absolute necessity ofmonthly visits. Of institutes or group meetings where they may instruct the teachers along the line of their needs. Each month, then each visit served two purposes. The supervisor was looking for the common needs that she might give remedial work at the next institute and was watching to see if the suggestions she had given had been successfully carried out. Our teachers were divided into five groups for institute. These group meetings rotated around the county. Inasmuch as the teachers attended institutes in a group of like interests under the direction of an expert, these school meetings became important agencies of teacher training. Mr. Ram- sey introduced the clinic. It is now one of the most popular forms of teachers' meetings. The supervisors have taught us the value of bulletins as supervisory aids, but they also taught us that even these need to be used advisedly and under direction. The ethics of the supervisor make it difficult for supervision to put itself across to the public; I understand that the best supervisory practice is to work through the teacher. We have learned that parents will little understand unless they are actually shown what improvements they can attribute to supervision. It has not been the policy of the demonstration to conduct a publicity campaign. In Lagrange County the teachers have so wanted supervision DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 575 continued that they have endeavored to have it better understood by the public. Our teachers believe and know the rural child is being deprived of his rights. They have been working with the local organizations which two of our powerful State organizations which touch rural communities, the Farmers' Federation and Club Women. Committees from these organizations have visited our schools. In each case the committees' reports showed their enthusiasm for the results of supervision. Children from various schools demonstrated to eighty club women what they could do. The program was made up of actual classroom work. Representative work was also exhibited to these women. Eight clubs passed resolutions pledging themselves to make the improvement of rural schools their job. I wish to quote to you some of the things those farmers saw in our schools : That supervision has increased the efficiency of our teachers from 10 to 100 per cent and permitted them to do more and better work according to their own statements. That generally there is no objection to the present plan of supervision. We, as a committee, having made certain investigations as to the conditions of the rural schools of La Grange County under rural supervision find the best of coöperation between teacher and pupil. We find the pupils always courteous and helpful to their teacher and practicing management in the way of cleanliness and sanitation; we find interest displayed by pupils in the school under supervision. The pupils not only acquire the fundamentals that we had or should have had when we went to school, but fifteen or twenty other things in the same time at the same expense and school work has become a pleasure, whreas it used to be a task for us. It has brought the shy children out so that they are free and easy with visitors, pleased to talk with you and show you about their work done under supervision. We saw examples of self-government and coöperation. For example, in the Wortinger school a committee of self-delegated boys was raking and burn- ing the trash in the yard preparatory to leaving the school yard in a sanitary condition. Also, the girls were planting flowers in the different nooks and corners around the schoolbuilding, which surely looked their efforts. In every case we found the teacher in perfect sympathy with the supervisors. I have here letters from the educators who tested in our county, saying practically the same thing. Also letters from teachers and principals and patrons, expressing their appreciation for the results of supervision. Since the demonstration was planned for only two years, it was neces- sary to concentrate upon particular features of the work in order to get definite measurable results within a given time. Many of the more intangible results of supervision are of far greater life value to the children than is mere improvement in subject-matter, important as this is admitted to be. In a program of continued supervision these larger aims are of primary importance. They are unifying elements which determine the purpose for which the more measurable factors are introduced, and hence the place which each is to hold in the general scheme. Working in this demonstration from a different angle entirely, we have nevertheless brought about a realization in some measure of these larger values. I cite some of the most important as I see them. Superintendent Yount checked each of the following : Greater civic pride. 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Better observance of health habits. Greater courtesy and good manners in everyday behavior. Greater accuracy of thinking, developing habits of truthfulness and honesty. Greater originality and initiative, resourcefulness showing itself in more intelligent self expression, (underlined by Superintendent Yount) . Greater ability to reason. Greater ability to comprehend oral and written language. Greater ability to answer questions squarely. (This year I was able to raise the standard for eighth grade promotion and yet promote a greater per cent than ever before. Their improved ability to answer questions squarely was very marked.) Greater ability to follow directions intelligently. ( Underlined by Superintendent Yount.) Greater interest in school work resulting in willingness to work harder and to see a task through to the end. Greater ability to attack independently new problems coming up. Greater desire and ability to engage in group activities. Better results in the fundamental school subject. These two years of supervision have proved the advisability of educa- tional demonstrations, because it has shown to everyone who has kept in touch with the demonstration, the needs of our schools and the solution more successfully than dozens of surveys could have done. It has been a very happy departure from our educational tendency to survey and survey and never solve. It has proved that the interest of the rural child can never be safe until the power is placed in the hands of professional educators, that supervision is so fundamentally right that it will succeed in spite of handicaps, that the teachers who are in the work because of their love for children cannot be kept from accepting it even though their jobs may go. It has taught us that scientific methods applied intelligently under the direction of a trained specialist can quickly solve the rural school problem. For LaGrange County these two years have done many remarkable things but for the rural children at large it is very unfair to close this demonstration at this time and call it an experiment in supervision. It is unfair because LaGrange County, is only now ready to give supervision a fair chance. This statement was underlined by Superintendent Yount with the comment that the last six months have been a revelation which ex- presses exactly what I have experienced in LaGrange County. Pupils, teachers, and patrons, are just coming to an appreciation of its real value. In short, it has taken these two years to lay a foundation. From the illustrations of what we have done you can well understand that up to date it has been necessary for the supervisors to confine their efforts to simple and generally accepted practices. One more year could demon- strate to the world what supervision can actually do. I have here copies of the preliminary report for distribution and samples of work which show the results I claim . Department of School Health and Physical Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-CHARLES H. KEENE, Director, Health Education, State Department of Public Instruction Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Vice -President-MELVILLE STEWART, State Supervisor of Physical Education Charleston, West Virginia Secretary-Treasurer-KATHARINE H. K. WOLFE, Director of School Health, Board of Education .Lincoln, Nebraska Historical note-The Department of Child Hygiene was known as the Depart- ment of Child Study until July 13, 1911. See Proceedings of 1911, page 870. The Department of Child Study was created at the Asbury Park meetings, July 10, 1894. See Proceedings of 1894, page 40. In July, 1924, the department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See Proceedings of 1924, page 96. This Department meets once a year, in June. The first session of the Department of School Health and Physical Education was held on Monday afternoon, June 29, in the Spink Arms Hotel. The program was as follows : TWENTY YEARS OF MEDICAL INSPECTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE George P. Barth, Director of School Hygiene, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. EDUCATION FOR HEALTH IN RURAL SCHOOLS S. H. Replogle, Assistant Superintendent of Allegheny County Schools, Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania. HEALTH PROBLEMS IN TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS Ambrosie L. Suhrie, Professor of Normal School Education, School of Edu- cation, New York University, New York City. PREPARATION FOR SCHOOL LIFE H. M. Young, Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. On Tuesday afternoon, June 30, the following program was presented : MORAL TRAINING THROUGH PHYSICAL EDUCATION Fielding H. Yost, Director of Athletics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. IS SEX EDUCATION PROPERLY A PART OF OUR PROGRAM OF HEALTH EDUCATION ? E. F. Van Buskirk, Executive Secretary, Cincinnati Social Hygiene Society, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. THE MORAL OBLIGATION TO BE PHYSICALLY FIT J. Anna Norris, Director, Department of Physical Education for Women, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. THE SCHOOL HEALTH IN ITS RELATION TO MENTAL HYGIENE Thurman B. Rice, M. D., Associate Professor of Public Health and Sanitation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. The officers elected for 1925-26 are: president, Melville Stewart, State Super- visor of Physical Education, Charleston, West Virginia ; vice-president, J. Anna Norris, Director of Physical Education for Women, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis ; secretary- treasurer, Frederick W. Maroney, Director of Department of Health Instruction, Public Schools, Atlantic City, New Jersey. Miss Elma Rood, Director of Health Education, Child Health Demonstration, Mansfield, Ohio, was elected to the executive committee for four years to replace Dr. William A. Howe whose term expired. [577] 578 ΝΑΤΙΟΝΑΣ EDUCATEN ASSOCIATION TWENTY YEARSOF MEDICAL INSPECTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE GEORGE P. BARTH, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL HYGIENE MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN Health work in schoo's by those trained in medical science is of com paratively recent origin. It was not until December, 1837 when a Royal romance of France charged the female supervisors of maternal schools with the special duty of watching over the health of their pupils, that health in schoous receive attention, through a dim awakening to the necessity for school sanitati is seen in the law passed in France in June, 1833, charging the school committees of the cities and towns with the care of keeping the school houses clean. 1842 and 1843 saw the advent of the school doctor for in that year decrees in France ordered that every public school ter bers or girls should be visited by a physician who was to inspect the localities of the schoo's and the general health of the school children. Little wis done after that to develop school health supervision for about thirty years. In 1874, Brussels, Belgium established the first complete system of medical inspection in the modern sense of the term. Physicians were required to visit schools three times per month. From that time on, the spread andgrowth of school inspection was rapid. In our own country probably the first medical inspector of schools w Dr. Morcan Morse of New York City. In November, 1894, Boston established an organized system of medical inspection with the appoint ment of fifty school physicians. From this date, health work in schools by those specially qualified spread with great rapidity throughout the country. September, 1907, the President of the MEwaukee Medical Society appointed a committee to determine the advisability and need for school medical inspection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Three representative schools selected by the superintendent of schocis were p'aced under the supervision of six members of the society for the periodofone month. Daily examinations were made in these schools and the conditions found were tabulated. These were of such character that anurgent plea was sent to the school board December 1, 1908, for the immediate institution of medical supervision for all schools. The board acted favorably on this plea April 6, 1909, and, a medica inspector began his duties April 13, 1909, his jurisdiction extending to the public schools only, however. There were at that time fifty-four grammar schools with an enrol- ment of 36.990; four high schools with 2966 pupils and one trade school with 117 students. A preliminary survey was made, and an organization planned. On October 1909, five assistant medical inspectors were ap- pointed. This was increased to ten February, 1910. The school board of Milwaukee had a broad and liberal conception of DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 579 a department of medical inspection as is evidenced by the following rules which were adopted September, 1911 : Article 1. The Medical Inspector shall , under the direction of the board and the superintendent of schools have a general supervision of the hygiene and sani- tation of school grounds and school buildings and of the health and physical wel- fare of school children, teachers and janitors, in matters peculiar to the medical profession, and of the manner of conducting medical inspection of schools. He shall appoint, subject to confirmation by the board, assistant medical and dental inspectors and nurses, and such other assistants as may be authorized by the board. 2. The medical inspector of schools is the expert advisor of the board and of its committees on all questions of school hygiene, and as such shall be privileged to attend all meetings of committees and the board affecting such questions. 3. He shall perform such other duties as may be assigned to him by the rules of the board or by the superintendent of schools. The assistant medical and dental inspectors and nurses shall assist the medical inspector in the discharge of the duties devolving upon him. They shall be under his direction, and perform such duties as he may require. The principals and teachers shall see that the rules and directions of the medical inspector are properly carried out. Such liberal rules permit of a splendid development of a department, but do not present a cure for a chronic ailment of its creator, i.e., lack of funds. The general plan upon which the department was organized was the district plan-that is, the city was divided into approximately equal dis- tricts with respect to school population, and, a school doctor and school nurses being placed in charge of each district. The plan somewhat modified is in operation today, although changes are contemplated this fall, because the number of doctors and nurses available have not kept pace with the growth of the city, and, of its increased school population-again that seemingly incurable complaint of lack of money. With respect to the teachers, the rules of the school board September 7, 1909, were as follows : Section 13. Principals and teachers absent from school on account of personal illness shall be allowed half pay for not more than twenty days in any school year; for the absence beyond twenty days no allowance shall be made. except that teachers who have been in the service of the board for more than twelve years without leave of absence on half pay, may, upon recommendation of the committee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board leave of absence with half pay for a period not to exceed three months; or those who have similarly served twenty years shall be given five months' absence with full pay, when such absence is caused by severe personal illness of an extreme nature-the report of two reputable physicians, selected by the board, in addition to the family physician, being required. These were modified April 2, 1912, and again on March 1, 1921 , as follows: ( a) Principals and teachers absent from school on account of personal illness shall be allowed half pay for not more than twenty days in any one school year ; 578 NATIONAL EDUCATION NATIONAL EDUCATO ST ‫לב‬ TWENTY YEARS OF MEDICA aravne tevad twenty davs no allowancez z PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF a the service of the board f ‫של מייבלאיש‬ accoun GEORGE P. BARTH, DIRECTOR n hait pas, may, on Tour deei chet medical inspector as to su MILWAUKEE, WI thecamere in examination and appe Health work in schools by those trai Art & de with hat pay for a period who have been inthe service of the board for paratively recent origin. ence on half pay, may on aut It was not until December, 1837 wl trom the chief medical inspettica charged the female supervisors of mate mmit tee on exami rd of the conc of watching over the health of their pus wang tMene ancave it abse e with full pay for ape attention, though a dim awakening to racters who have been in the service of the bas is seen in the law passed in France ir of absence on half pay mav, n esatare, after an examination b committees of the cities and towns wi get me at the assistant medical inspectors houses clean. 1842 and 1843 saw th tu re, in that year decrees in France ordered ‫א‬cts ‫דר‬s extr d apanpoin anof enet,nabe aliowet wit tmem or girls should be visited by a physicia aperiod not to exceed five mottts len ‫אאודי‬ of the schools and the general health done after that to develop school healt The prevent rule passed January 3, 1924,ra In 1874, Brussels, Belgium established Ivezas awach ers on the permanent list who P s inspection in the modern sense of t Ces re than tenconse isit oromon to visit schools three times per mon 271.2% star by the Health Pa and growth of school inspection was 74 дв ет е ресa mm en da ti on to the Superintendent In our own country probably the nestaven teArcement Committee half par 100 Dr. Morcan Morse of New York , year endosk paors atorthtee acschehorol returning V ww A e a s m pr ae established an organized system of 200724 th icatheal certif nu to the Sge ice a ment of fifty school physicians. F gment of the Superintendent. In by those specially qualified spread V persen hereafter appointed teacher of ial country. September, 1907, the without having secured a certificate of sound phase eared #d Society appointed a committee to some tiedmebybethtw ee n ar . d re ceSu ivch in gce nortciificicaattie onshalofl elebesction or school medical inspection in Milw e bo sisemilelactr cert care of sound physical health shall Three representative schools se secretary by each teacher and principal during the is were p'aced under the supervisio year of the probationary period. Failure to secuto10 period of one month. Daily exar herein provided shall be cause for termination of Du the conditions found were tabul: it an urgent plea was sent to the semester. Passed February, 5, 1924. immediate institution of medica Soon after the inauguration of medical inge The board acted favorably requests for the extension of the service tothe 92 inspector began his duties Ap from parochial schools. This wouldrequire st In the public schools only, howev There were at that time the board was not ready to seek this . To ne ment of 36,990 ; four high s department of medical inspection for thep with 117 students. A prelir that of the public schools was organized in th th planned. On October 190 atry 1, 1917, with five school doctors and five t pointed. This was increase chilthat time sixty-five parochial schools with d children. The school board of M dep various conferences, it was finally i in thdepartments doing school health work, th in the schools under one control in the healt DEPARTMENT OF SCHO SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 581 a departmentof medicalinspection supervision was extended to all public, parochial whichwere adoptedSeptember, d, to the vocational school. Article 1. TheMedicalInspectersing took place October 7, 1919. There were then : superintendent of schools have a go chools. 6 Enrolment 6,684 tation of school grounds andschon of Trade . 2 “ 994 fare of school children,teachers and har Schools 65 49,032 profession, and of the manner ofe Deaf... 1 96 shall appoint, subject to confirmato Schools .. 1 " 125 inspectors and nurses, and such mar Schools . 65 " 26,009 board. " “ 1 291 2. The medical inspector of w chool. 1 “ 8,687 its committees on all questions to attend all meetings of come 142 91,918 3. He shall perform such the board or by thesuperi schools with an enrolment of 105,643 operating pectors and nurses shal! physicians , and an increase of thirteen nurses. The ies devolving upon him ies as he may requir eloped, but, to an inadequate degree. directions of the me of schools in September, there will be 162 schools f territory to the city. chliberal rule uguration of medical inspection in the schools, the o not present ation had assigned two nurses to work in the schools With the appointment of a medical inspector of general 1909, these two nurses were assigned to do school plan- e expense of the Association. ith res of the number of school medical inspectors to ten, ing assigned to school work was increased to four. an 1, the school board, included $2000 in its budget to ne Visiting Nurses Association for the expense in- nurses were assigned to school work for ten months ths. The school board then voted $5000 annually Association. continued till January 1, 1916 when a department established by the school board consisting of one ssisting nurses. With the amalgamation of depart- nurses increased to forty-seven. This was increased and to sixty in 1921, and, it has remained at that nursing was discontinued, and, the community form put into operation. Under this plan about one-half devoted to school work, and, school cases . ontological Society appointed a committee to examine children in the intermediate grades of three schools, of such survey to the school board June 30, 1909, - ation that school dentists be employed in addition ne of the dentists of the city incorporated themselves ublic School Free Dental Clinic Association, and, and operate a dental clinic in the offices of the medical 580 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for absence beyond twenty days no allowance shall be made except that teachers who have been in the service of the board for more than twelve years without leave of absence on half pay, may, on account of personal illness, upon a favorable report from the chief medical inspector as to such illness, and, upon recommenda- tion of the committee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board, leave of absence with half pay for a period not to exceed three months ; teachers who have been in the service of the board for more than twenty-four years with- out leave of absence on half pay, may on account of personal illness, upon a favorable report from the chief medical inspector as to such illness, and, upon recommendation of the committee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board leave of absence with full pay for a period not to exceed three months; teachers who have been in the service of the board for twenty years or more without leave of absence on half pay may, on account of severe personal illness of an extreme nature, after an examination by the chief medical inspector to- gether with one of the assistant medical inspectors, and favorable report by them as to such illness being of an extreme nature, upon recommendation of the com- mittee on examination and appointment, be allowed by the board leave of absence with full pay for a period not to exceed five months. The present rule passed January 3, 1924, reads, as follows : Principals or teachers on the permanent list who are absent from school on ac- count of personal illness for more than ten consecutive school days in the school year may request an examination by the Health Department, and, upon that De- partment's recommendation to the Superintendent and the Superintendent's recom- mendation to the Appointment Committee half pay sick leave may be allowed for the balance of the term, or of the school year ending in June as may be considered necessary. Any principal or teacher returning from sick leave must present to the Superintendent's office a health certificate from the Health Department before reassignment by the Superintendent. (2) No person hereafter appointed teacher or principal shall begin service without having secured a certificate of sound physical health from a physician selected by the board. Such certificate shall be secured and filed with the secretary some time between receiving notification of election and beginning of service. A similar certificate of sound physical health shall be secured and filed with the secretary by each teacher and principal during the first semester of the fourth year of the probationary period. Failure to secure and file such certificate as herein provided shall be cause for termination of service at the end of the said semester. Passed February, 5, 1924. Soon after the inauguration of medical inspection in the public schools requests for the extension of the service to their school began to come in from parochial schools. This would require special legislative action and the board was not ready to seek this. To meet this growing demand a department of medical inspection for the parochial schools modeled on that of the public schools was organized in the Health Department Jan- uary 1 , 1917, with five school doctors and five school nurses. There were at that time sixty-five parochial schools with an enrollment of 24,760 children. After various conferences, it was finally decided to amalgamate the two departments doing school health work, and place all the health work in the schools under one control in the health department. Immediately DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 581 following this, health supervision was extended to all public, parochial and private schools, and, to the vocational school. This amalgamation took place October 7, 1919. There were then: Public High Schools .. 6 Enrolment 6,684 " Schools of Trade ... 2 994 " Grammar Schools 65 49,032 " School for the Deaf .. 1 96 " Parochial High Schools .... 1 125 “ Grammar Schools . 65 26,009 ،، Private 1 291 “ Continuation School. 1 8,687 " 142 91,918 There are now 155 schools with an enrolment of 105,643 operating with the same staff of physicians, and an increase of thirteen nurses. The dental service was developed, but, to an inadequate degree. With the opening of schools in September, there will be 162 schools owing to annexation of territory to the city. Previous to the inauguration of medical inspection in the schools, the Visiting Nurses Association had assigned two nurses to work in the schools as part of their duties. With the appointment of a medical inspector of schools on April 13, 1909, these two nurses were assigned to do school work exclusively at the expense of the Association . With the increase of the number of school medical inspectors to ten, the number of nurses assigned to school work was increased to four. On January 3, 1911 , the school board, included $2000 in its budget to partially re-imburse the Visiting Nurses Association for the expense in- volved. In 1913, five nurses were assigned to school work for ten months and one for two months. The school board then voted $5000 annually to the Visiting Nurses Association. This arrangement continued till January 1, 1916 when a department of school nurses was established by the school board consisting of one head nurse and ten assisting nurses. With the amalgamation of depart- ments, the number of nurses increased to forty-seven. This was increased to fifty-four in 1920 and to sixty in 1921, and, it has remained at that since. In 1920 specialized nursing was discontinued, and, the community form of nursing service was put into operation. Under this plan about one-half the time of nurses is devoted to school work, and, school cases . The Milwaukee Odontological Society appointed a committee to examine the mouths of school children in the intermediate grades of three schools, and, sent the result of such survey to the school board June 30, 1909, with the recommendation that school dentists be employed in addition to school doctors. Some of the dentists of the city incorporated themselves as the Milwaukee Public School Free Dental Clinic Association, and, agreed to fully equip and operate a dental clinic in the offices of the medical 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION inspection bureau provided the school board would appoint a dental in- spector. This was agreed to and, a part time dental inspector was op- pointed March 7, 1911 . The dental clinic was put in operation February 20, 1911, each member of the Association serving in the clinic alternately for one-half day. This arrangement was continued until September 1, 1913, when the school board took over the clinic and its operation, a full time dental operator being appointed at a salary of $1500 and a dental clinic attendant. On September 1, 1912, the part time dental inspector was made full time with a salary of $1500, her duties to be limited to examinations of mouths and instructional work in the schools. The health department also established a dental clinic January 1, 1917. When the departments joined forces in October 1919, the dental inspector was taken from the field and a third dental clinic opened. In September, 1922, a part-time dental supervisor was added to the staff, and, three oral hygienists. This was increased in 1925 to four. Cost of each sitting, $1795, cost of completed case, $2935, average cost of oral hygienists, $287 . The question as to the role which the School Hygiene Department should play in the selection of cases for specialized education is still debated at least in some of its particulars. Where the inability to get on in the ordinary classroom is due to a physical defect, I think that a selection of cases for admission to and the discharge from classes for the blind, the deaf, the open window, the crippled, the heart and the services of a visiting teacher should be the province of the School Hygiene Division alone. In the matter of mentality, there may be some question. Certainly no child should be admitted to one of these classes before it has received a thorough examination by a physician preferably a psychiatrist. The central nervous system is quickly and profoundly affected by other adverse and abnormal physical conditions. Toxemias, anemias, abnormali- ties in the ductless glands, defects in the organs of special sense, and, nervous diseases must each be carefully eliminated before a true picture of mental acuity can be obtained. To attempt to place an I. Q. on a child before a searching physical examination has been made is wrong, and, to place an I. Q. on a child as a result of a single examination is little short of criminal. Far better take the judgment of the teacher who has had this child under observation for a considerable period of time. Special Activities. A department of health supervision in schools has a wonderful opportunity to do special research work as to the prevalence of various conditions among the child population . Two cripple surveys were made in Milwaukee. One in 1914-1915, the other in 1921-1922. Goiter survey made and goiter tablets given to the pupils of several schools whose parents were willing that they should take them. On June 30, 1909, a sum of $500 was set aside by the school board DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 583 for the purchase of glasses for indigent children, and, this has continued to the present day. On December 19, 1912, a first aid cabinet was placed in each school containing all the material necessary for first aid treatment of injuries and emergencies. Each school is equipped with such cabinet, and, the supplies for it are kept up by the department. HEALTH PROBLEMS IN TEACHER TRAINING INSTITU- TIONS-ABSTRACT AMBROSE L. SUHRIE, PROFESSOR OF NORMAL SCHOOL EDUCATION , SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Though I have long been interested in the development of a more inclu- sive and satisfactory program of health education in the institutions which concern themselves primarily with the professional preparation of teachers , I do not feel competent to discuss all the technical and scientific considera- tions that would enter into the making of such a program or into the effec- tive operation of it. If I have any contribution to make it must be the result of some years of practical experience in administering the whole teacher training program in a particular institution, typical in many respects of the teacher-training colleges of the United States as a whole. If I have understood the commission the chairman has given me it will be in order for me to set out in bold relief the essentials of the plan there developed. In the institution referred to, the Cleveland School of Education, we were able in the course of a few years to secure the necessary experts to con- stitute an efficient staff for the development of a many-sided and some- what comprehensive health education program in the college itself and in the associated laboratory schools which were used for demonstration and training purposes. This staff included one or more competent persons giv- ing full or part-time service in each of the following special fields : Medicine, dentistry, nursing, nutrition, physical education, hygiene, cor- rective gymnastics, recreation. In due time this staff of experts was organized into an effective work- ing group pursuing common aims and able to enlist the full and intelligent coöperation of the whole faculty and student body of the institution. The program as I shall describe it was set up primarily : (1) To promote normal growth (2) To decrease illness (3) To prevent accidents (4) To overcome physical defects (5) To increase participation in wholesome recreation (6) To insure an abundance of energy and vitality (7) To develop individual interest in right health habits and to secure group coöperation in the maintenance of conditions favorable to wholesome community life. 584 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Admission to the college was conditioned, among other things, upon the passing of a satisfactory health examination given by the head of the divi- sion of health education of the public school system. Remediable physical defects were clearly indicated to the candidate and her parents at the time of admission. Retention in the school was conditioned upon satisfactory progress in the removal of defects by corrective exercises and the practice of right health habits or by surgery when necessary. All the preparation which was of such a character as to admit of it was pursued on an "activities" basis as distinct from a "textbook-study" basis and most of the class work was conducted on the "problem-report-con- ference" plan as distinct from the "lecture" or "recitation" plan. The prospective teacher or the teacher in service learned the application of prin- ciples in practice by actual observation in the demonstration school or by actual try out in one of the training schools. These schools were typical neighborhood elementary and junior high public schools of the city. Since the whole program of studies and activities was set up to realize certain definite and attainable results in the health education of each and every individual in the college the widest conceivable differences in require- ments were made of the different members of any given groups of college students. Since health education is not primarily the result of knowledge, im- portant as that may be, but is principally the result of interests and atti- tudes and habits and since the development of life interests and funda- mental attitudes and the fixing of right habits are the results of long- con- tinued exercise and practice, we thought it well to make definite provision for health education as a part of the fixed requirement of all students from the date of entrance to the day of graduation. The specific courses given included personal hygiene, nutrition, child and school hygiene, home and community hygiene and sanitation, corrective gymnastics, and games and recreation. We also made provision for further courses in health educa- tion and for training in vocational hygiene for teachers in service. Several hundred of our teachers participated each year in such courses. The Cleveland School of Education and the city school system of which it is a part have set up a definite standard of attainment in physical and mental health for those who are to be admitted to the teaching staff of the school system. Only those candidates were admitted to the college who might reasonably hope to attain this standard. The examination given at the time of entrance by the school physician and the director of physical education was not merely to determine who might be admitted but also to indicate clearly and definitely to the person whose application was approved what was to be expected of her in coöperation with the instructors of the college in the improvement of her physical condition. The student entered her first course in health education (personal hygiene) with a problem atti- tude of mind. Her problem was to secure helpful information as to how to proceed to overcome all handicaps and achieve if possible abounding vitality and robust health. In the course in corrective gymnastics given DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 585 concurrently with personal hygiene in the first semester the problem was to find the proper corrective exercises to overcome defects not calling for surgical treatment. All group studies in personal hygiene were confined to such topics as were of common interest and all class discussions were focused on problems of special interest to some one or more of the mem- bers of the group. The general result was a common understanding and appreciation of the significance of health and some definite knowledge of its more important factors. In the laboratory course in corrective gym- nastics where the emphasis was placed upon correct posture, the prompt and natural elimination of the wastes of the body, the strengthening of the arches of the feet, etc., every student was encouraged "to beat her own best record" by thoughtful and persistent practice of the prescribed corrective exercise. Charts and graphs indicating the progress of individuals were used to encourage them and to stimulate wholesome rivalry. Students were encouraged to consult the school physician, the school nurse, the school dietitian or any other member of the school health staff for advice and direction on personal health problems. Students who needed surgical operations ( for the removal of tonsils, adenoids, nasal obstructions, or teeth) and students having unsatisfactory posture or weak arches, as well as those suffering from constipation, appendicitis or goitre, were given a grade of " incomplete" at the close of the first semester, no matter how com- pletely they had mastered the subject matter of the course, and this grade remained until such time as the correction had been made. Concurrently with these systematic courses in personal hygiene and corrective gymnastics during the first semester students were required in their course in the in- troduction to teaching to make specific observations in the general health education program of the elementary demonstration school. In the second semester systematic courses were given in nutrition and in games and recreation. The nutrition course was made intensely prac- tical by the specific study of "cases" in the elementary school of observa- tion as well as by the study of cases in the class itself. These cases were studied not only from the viewpoint of the amount and quality of food consumed or to be consumed but also from the viewpoint of the bearing of habits of eating upon perfect nutrition or mal-nutrition. The individual members of the class were given abundant practice in the selection of menus and frequent opportunities to consult a capable school dietitian on the amount and character of food to be eaten and on conditions favorable to proper assimilation. The course in Games and Recreation was purposely keyed to the highest measure of spontaneity to be found in each class section. Considerable emphasis was placed upon English folk dancing and English country dancing. During the third semester of the two year course our students spent four days each week in the training schools and were actually and personally engaged in classroom teaching for a considerable part of each day. During this period they were given and were required to make practical demonstra- tions in accident prevention in school, on the street and elsewhere. They 586 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION held frequent conferences with the school physician and the school nurse in the training school. They were trained in ventilation, schoolroom sanita- tion, etc. and once each week, in groups of thirty they held conferences with the director of the department of health education on such important aspects of educational hygiene as the following: The problem of health conserva- tion; the cost of preventable diseases; the physical basis of education; laws of growth and factors influencing it; physiological differences between chil- dren and adults; educational significance of physiological age; disorders of growth; mal-nutrition; tuberculosis ; physiology of ventilation; care of the teeth ; hygiene of eye, ear, nose and throat; causes and prevention of head- aches in school children; nervous disorders, and speech defects. Throughout the third semester while the students are engaged in "prac- tice teaching" especial stress is placed upon the necessity of outdoor exer- cise and varied recreational activities. A number of recreation clubs meet weekly and endeavor to foster interest in outdoor life and to enlist active participation in a wide variety of invigorating games. The list of such organizations includes: folk dancing, swimming, tennis, horseback riding, hiking and nature clubs. During the fourth and last semester a systematic course in home and community hygiene and sanitation was given by the director of the depart- ment of health education. Among the topics considered were : the character of the available food supply, milk supply, water supply, sewage disposal, bacteria and the transfer of diseases, disinfection and quarantine, preven- tive medicine, infant welfare agencies, industrial and occupational diseases, with special reference to diseases common among teachers, mental hygiene and vital statistics. Throughout this final semester every effort was made to complete the removal of every physical handicap which might tend to interfere with the student's attainment of the health standard set for admission to the teach- ing staff of the city school system. It was well understood that this final health examination would be conducted by the head of the division of health education of the public school system and that it would be exacting. During the year following graduation and while these beginning teachers were on probation and under special or "helping teacher" supervision the health service of the school of education was available to them on request. And now a word about courses pitched to the senior college level and offered primarily for teachers in service. These included (1) folk dancing and recreation, (2) the health of the teacher (a course in vocational hy- giene), (3) nutrition of school children, (4) school and community hygiene. These courses in part duplicated the content and activities of courses given on the junior college level in the pre-service group. They were intended, however, primarily for teachers who had not had the advantage of such types of work while preparing for teaching. All of these courses were offered (and some of them in several sections) during the regular school year and also during the summer term. They were made so intensely practical that the enrolments steadily increased from year to year. In the DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 587 judgment of our school authorities generally, the course in folk dancing accomplished more in the physical and mental rejuvenation of hundreds of our teachers than any other single agency in the school system. When the annual May festival was put on in the Municipal Auditorium, hundreds of teachers including many who were well on in middle life, joined with about 2000 public school children of junior and senior high school grade in an afternoon's program which was witnessed by six thousand or more adults and which was widely commended as heralding a new day in the development of a sane and wholesome type of recreation for our urban population. About two hundred children of grades five to eight inclusive, and representing thirty-two elementary and junior high schools, the "play leaders" of their several schools, met each Saturday morning in the school of education under the direction of the instructor in the senior college to put on demonstrations in the presence of teachers enroled in folk dancing classes and interested in promoting this type of exercise and recreation in their own classrooms . The course in the Health of the Teacher was con- ducted on a lecture-conference basis. During a period of five years, about eight hundred teachers had taken it. The general effect of this wide par- ticipation in the consideration of the vocational hygiene of the teacher as a professional worker resulted in the institution of many practical reforms in teaching schedules, in provisions for rest rooms, warm lunches, recrea- tion courses, etc. As a result the average number of days of sick leave each year was greatly reduced among those who had taken this course. The course in the Nutrition of School Children was so conducted as to make the classroom of each teacher enroled in the course a laboratory for the intensive study of problems of nutrition under the direction of the in- structor of the course. This has meant the accumulation of a vast amount of scientific data during the course of the years and has resulted in a wide- spread interest among parents in the problem of nutrition. Another prac- tical result has been the more adequate support of the nutrition clinic under the supervision of the Welfare Federation. The course in school and community hygiene was conducted on a lecture- conference basis and aimed (1) to define the problems of school hygiene as they were found in any given school and the problems of community hygiene as they were found in any given section of the city, or in the city as a whole, (2) to provide information concerning sources of help in the school supervisory staff in the division of health education and in the department of health of the city, and (3) to encourage teachers to make definite at- tempts to improve conditions in school, and, through the school as an agency, to attack the problems of community hygiene and sanitation. In conclusion, may I say that while I realize that the particular program of courses and activities and the scheme of their administration as here out- lined form no ready to hand model for the imitation of any other institu- tion, it is my hope that the definiteness and practicability of this program for the city in which it has been operated may be suggestive to normal school workers elsewhere. I regret exceedingly that circumstances have made it 588 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION impossible for me to leave my work at this time to present this paper in person and to have an opportunity to try to answer such questions as may be suggested by it. I am sure that Mrs. Harriet Ballard, the head of the Division of Health and Recreation in the Cleveland School of Education, will be glad to answer special questions by letter and to confer at the college with any visitors who may be privileged to visit the department. PREPARATION FOR SCHOOL LIFE—ABSTRACT H. M. YOUNG, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA In reviewing the work being done and suggested for children of pre- school age, one is impressed with two facts ( 1) that there are very many things being done and (2) that practically the entire field would be cov- ered if the various phases done at different places were organized into one program. Agencies in different cities emphasize various phases of the work. The one thing needed is to select the best of these various phases and to coördinate them in one agency in every community in order to accomplish with pre-school children all that we may hope for at the present stage of scientific and educational development. We should begin immediately after the birth of each child to determine his constitutional make up and developmental possibilities so that we may discover as early as possible in his life the possibility of instituting direc- tive or needed reconstructive work so as to make out of him as nearly as the material which he furnishes us upon which to work, and as far as our scientific technique enables us to go, the type of child we believe he should be. In order that the best work may be done for each child and that a better basis may be developed for handling the next generation of chil- dren, accumulative records should be kept of the pre-natal conditions, of the conditions surrounding the birth of the child, of a complete physical examination ten days after birth and of a thorough physical and mental examination at the end of three months, at the end of six months and semi-annually thereafter up to the time that he enters school. The child's general health conditions between examinations should be reported and recorded every time the child is given a complete physical examination. The record of the child's general health condition should include items concerning his height and weight, his illnesses, and his general conduct . Frequent examinations during the first year of life are important because permanent injury to the child is more likely to occur at this time in con- sequence of illness than at any later time in his life. All the general physical examinations prior to entrance in school should be made by a competent physician, preferably a pediatrician. Other special examina- tions should be made as required and recommended by the physician. Both parents should be present at these examinations and the examiners should DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 589 instruct the parents in the matter of properly caring for the child's develop- ment. The accumulative records, copies of which should be kept both by the parents and by the agency conducting the examination will furnish the basis for deciding what progress the child is making and for properly instructing the parents. All workers who come in contact with a child and who have occasion to consult the parent concerning the child must always show due respect for the position, the rights, and the intelligence of the parents and must never advise or boss beyond their actual knowledge of the requirements of the situation with which they are concerned. They must let parents, guardians, etc. do some of the talking. A nurse and a social worker should be present during every examina- tion so that they may become personally acquainted with both the child and the parent. This will establish such relationship with the family that home visits can be made to best advantage and that parents will more freely seek and may more often be given assistance when needed. In addition to the medical examination, each child should be observed for a period of time or given a standardized, psychological test by a clinical psychologist. In the psychological examination an effort should be made to determine the child's general mental ability level and to determine whether he is developing the best habits of life in accordance with his mental abilities. The recommendations required after such psychological study will vary greatly from child to child. What would be correct hand- ling for one child might be the worst possible type of treatment that could be accorded another child . Through the work of the home visitors mentioned above, all possible efforts should be made to handle children in their own homes. The parents should be assisted in their work with the children and should be encouraged in those things they are doing which are right. Institutional treatment for any condition, physical or mental should be resorted to only as the very last resource. At best, institutional life is artificial and should not be given children who will eventually be expected to go out into life and take a position there. No children except the lower types of feeble- minded, the insane and some of the epileptic should be institutionalized . The chief difficulty of getting much done for children within the next few years lies in the fact that the adults of the present generation are so well standardized in the way things have been done and are being done that they actively resist changes. This would suggest that possibly the best thing to do at this time is to begin at once to so standardize the parents of the next generation, because they will become standardized one way or another whether we will it or not, that they will be willing to coöperate with some of the simpler things indicated by present day scientific knowl- edge. Effective teaching cannot be done by precept alone. Real education comes only through having a vital and intimate connection with the sub- ject under consideration. We are therefore confronted with the task of somehow bringing the present group of young people into such connection 590 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with the physical and mental defects of children that they will appreciate the value of detecting defects and of treating them at the earliest possible moment. Another feature of the problem seems to be that of reaching as many children as possible in addition to working up a public attitude which will permit more work to be done for the next generation. It is probably not very generally recognized that there is really so much need of work in this field. Those who make special studies of school failures, those who analyze cases of delinquency and of mental and nervous diseases and those connected directly with child welware work appreciate more fully than any others the supreme importance of the early years of child life. The personal and social importance of physical and mental health in any stage of an individual's life seems to vary inversely with his age. One very important step which should be made in the very near future is that of enacting laws which require that the enumeration of children made by the school enumerators extend down to the time of birth and that all children under twenty-one years of age be included in this school enumer- ation and that specific items of information be secured about each child which would make it possible for those children of all ages who are most in need of medical and psychological attention to be located. School enu- merators cannot be expected to make interpretations but they should be able to collect simple items of information. Immediately after the enumerator's report is completed all his records should be carefully gone over by a social worker or a properly trained nurse . She should select and conduct a home visit on those cases appar- ently most in need of special attention. Counsel and help should be given where needed and accepted by parents or guardians. This work should be handled from the office of the public health nurse, of the health depart- ment, or of the school health officials. Permanent records of all work should be kept on file by the agency doing the work and should be made available to all other agencies coming in contact with the case. Another very important matter which has been given very little con- sideration is that of the educational procedure which should be employed in introducing the child into public school life. Before entering the public schools most children lead a relatively unrestrained and undirected active life. To attempt to force the child to suddenly change from this type of life to that of the sedentary job of sitting quietly and erect in a rather uncomfortable seat at school is not consistent with either good physical or mental hygiene or with theoretical educational doctrines. To expect a sudden successful transition from free activity to submissive obe- dience is as unreasonable as to expect the average six months old baby to walk. In this connection it is important to remember that for practical purposes it is true that we cannot do anything we never did before. What appears to be the new in any case is merely a reorganization of the old through a series of minute gradual changes into a new pattern. The child DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 591 cannot therefore be expected to do new things unless he has developed enough habits out of which to construct a new pattern. The traditional procedure of disregarding child life up to the age of six and then suddenly chucking him into a school seat, asking him to read and write is a flagrant violation of both physical and mental hygiene. Some children are capable of doing the traditional first grade reading and number work long before they are six years old, others cannot do it until much older, and a few can never do it. Often those younger ones capable of doing the prescribed reading and number work do not have that motor control and muscular coördination necessary for the finely coördinated movements of the prescribed first grade writing exercises. These two phases of first grade work should be considered separately and be intro- duced into each child's educational career at the time indicated by appro- priate physical and mental examinations, rather than by traditional or theoretical educational doctrines based upon unscientific notions of what a six year old child should be able to do. Summary. The points of possible attack in efforts to prepare children for school may be included under two headings : I. To begin to educate the parents of the next generation in the importance of child welfare. 1. Put them to work at once to help solve the problems of the present pre- school age children. II. To develop legal and professional machinery just as rapidly as public opinion permits to give all pre-school age chidren proper special attention when needed. This may be done: 1. By having school enumerators collect significant items of information on all children under twenty-one years of age. 2. By having proper health and school authorities locate and offer help to parents having children seriously in need of help up to the age of five. 3. By requiring medical and psychological examinations of all children on their fifth birthday or within ten days thereof. 4. By having nurses, psychiatric social workers, and visiting teachers do whatever follow up work is needed. 5. By having the child introduced into the educational work of the school in accordance with his individual requirements as revealed by the records of the pre-school examinations and investigations. IS SEX EDUCATION PROPERLY A PART OF OUR PRO- GRAM OF HEALTH EDUCATION ?—ABSTRACT EDGAR F. VAN BUSKIRK, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, SOCIAL HYGIENE SOCIETY CINCINNATI, OHIO Developing a healthy mind in a strong body should be the ultimate aim of health education. Recently public schools have made wide appli- cation of scientific knowledge about bodily health and disease prevention. Medical inspection has been instituted; and well lighted, heated and ventilated schools have been built. All of these things have to do pri 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION marily with bodily health. What is being done about the health of the mindor spirit? During the last twenty years much has been learned about the laws of mental health, and educators are beginning to apply this knowledge. Character education programs are being developed, based upon carefully ascertained scientific facts. This work is being linked with previously established health programs. One part of character training relates to the sex impulse, that great human force without which family life would be impossible. Sex edu- cation does not necessitate the introduction of a special course in the schools, but merely the inclusion of a few well selected topics in already established courses. In view of work done in recent years it would seem that sex 'education is ready to emerge from the experimental stage and set forth its aims and methods in such a manner as to merit the endorse- ment of all. Cincinnati is one place where special sex education work has been in progress for several years. Starting four years ago in a modest way it has steadily developed until now almost all of the grammar school principals have made provisions for scientific sex instruction to their graduating classes. There is no doubt but that whatever good such programs contain they eventually will be incorporated in the public schools of the country. THE MORAL OBLIGATION TO BE PHYSICALLY FIT- ABSTRACT J. ANNA NORRIS, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA Almost any day in south east Minneapolis, a dapper, erect man of the appearance of about sixty-five years, walks to and from the university and his home, and works in his study at the university library on the second volume of his three volume history of Minnesota. This is Dr. William Watts Folwell, the remarkable and beloved first president of the university. He is really ninety-one years of age. Great age alone is not a thing which most of us covet. But great age coupled with health, serenity, command of one's physical powers, undiminished enjoyment of the humor in life, the affection of family and friends, and a worth-while goal toward which to direct one's work- ing hours that we might well wish for the common lot. We don't know how to give a prescription that will achieve the wonder- ful staying power that is Dr. Folwell's. We know that it is important for him to live so long, contributing his work and his rich nature to his fellows. The trouble with most of us is that we muddle along, taking care of ourselves when we are sick, but otherwise living a life which is largely DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 593 suggested to us or forced on us from the outside, and not keeping before ourselves as a part of our program a goal of such fitness of condition as shall make us masters of our happiness and our success in work. There are so many degrees of "wellness," and there is nothing more difficult to measure than the degree to which a person has approximated his possibilities of "wellness." Most of us respond "Very well, thank you," to the salutation, "How are you this morning," and this is fine for there is no need of burdening our friends with an analysis of our feelings, and yet it is well to be fastidious to ourselves in our taste for being really "Very well indeed." It has always interested me to see that there are a good many of our students who have said they were perfectly well on entrance to the uni- versity in the fall, who say, nevertheless, in the spring when filling in the routine health questionnaire, that they are better. Questioned about it, they say they really are better, they have more life, more "pep." They had been satisfied in the fall, but it was because they hadn't realized that there was a still higher degree to which they could attain. One who has charge of physical education in a college comes across occasionally the girl who dislikes any health requirements. I remember one such girl who had been delinquent in fulfilling certain responsibilities. She burst out with "I hate exercise anyway. I hate doing things to keep myself well. I don't see why we have to anyway." And when reasoned with from the standpoint of her future fitness and the emotional poise, which she was sorely lacking, she responded, "I'd like to be like Robert Louis Stevenson ." Her ambition was in English. She knew Stevenson was distinguished and had been an invalid. Her idea seemed to be that the spark of genius -of which perhaps she had a glimmer-could burn more brightly if unexposed to the draft of fresh air or the competition of sunlight, or was separated in some way from a healthy body. She hated to admit that a literary genius might do even a better balanced piece of work if he had the emotional poise given by good health, and the vigor that did not tire, and that he could certainly give a larger offering of enjoyment to mankind if he could continue to exer- cise his genius over a long period of years rather than to have it cut short by illness and untimely death. There is so much for us to do in the world and so much happiness to be gained that it is a moral responsibility for us to lift the plane of our well-being as high as possible, so as to be set free for accomplishing it. We really should be required to keep ourselves fit in order to retain our positions and our self-respect. Public health is pretty well established now. Pure drinking water, pure food, safe disposal of sewage, control of epidemics. The public agencies have gone about as far as they can in controlling disease condi- tions. It is necessary now for the individual to take himself in hand. One way of getting the information we need in order to act intelli 594 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION gently is to have periodic examinations. The health examinations of the Life Extension Institute, as quoted in Fisher and Fisk's How to Live, showed that among large groups of employes of banks and commercial houses in New York, averaging twenty-seven years of age, and all sup- posedly picked men and women, only 1 per cent were found free of impairment or of habits of life that invited impairment. Of those with important impairments, 89 per cent had been unaware of it before the examination . We realize how important it is for children during their growing and developing period to have physical examinations. It is equally important for people as they grow older. The degenerative changes of heart, arteries, kidneys, etc. can be identified and their progress retarded for many years if not stopped altogether by the discovery and removal of the cause and by following a wiser manner of living. Sometimes a life insurance company gives the first inkling that a diseased condition is present; it may in their opinion make the man so poor a risk that he is rejected for insurance. Sometimes the discovery isn't made until a tragedy has occurred. I realize perfectly well that what we call physical health does not always indicate mental health. The subject of mental hygiene is being intensively investigated in these days in an effort to find scientific methods of overcoming handicaps. At a recent meeting I heard a distinguished gentleman draw a picture of two women of his acquaintance. One was what would ordinarily be considered a perfectly well woman, strong, vigorous, never ill. The other had had many more illnesses and operations than even the unfor- tunate would ordinarily experience, and was never without pain in some part of her body. He said that when he had talked with the "well" one he came away with the depressing idea that every one and everything in that little town was bad. She had a taste for scandal. No husband was true to his wife, no wife was true to her husband, lying was common among the business men and stealing among neighbors. In fact the utter depravity of everyone except herself seemed to be established in her mind. Then he would drop in to see the other woman. He would find her probably in her invalid's room . There was no talk of her symptoms or suffering or of herself in any way, but gracious and generous talk of the topics of the day as they had arisen in the little town, the nation or the world-and a spirit of peace and serenity that settled like a blessing on the visitor. There could be no better example of the fact that the hygienic care of the mind is just as important as the hygienic care of the body. The "well" woman wasn't really well at all. Her mind was out of order. Her habit of thought and feeling had probably been started wrong in childhood. She may have lived with a bad example among her elders and had not had any educational guidance to help her to see that the DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 595 good is at least as worth looking for as the bad, and as our character- istics, if left to themselves, become more set with age, so she had grown more critical and fault finding as she grew older. The "invalid" was beautiful in spirit not because she had a weak body, but in spite of it. If good general health could have been associated with her normal, healthy mind and generous attitudes she would have been able to extend her power for good far and wide. Theoretically, all of us would probably subscribe to a statement that however fine a person's spiritual nature might be, however keen and potent his mind, his total influence would be greater and far more com- plete if he possessed in addition, physical power, endurance, capacity to work. If the health of the adult is his own responsibility and obligation, the health of the child is the responsibility of the adult also. Handicaps to growth and development should be removed, such as adenoids that are interfering with breathing and hearing, tonsils which are diseased. Vision may need the help of glasses, nutrition may need a special study of diet, his home environment may need readjustment so that he can have suffi- cient rest, sleep, sunlight and fresh air. Habits of behavior that threaten to interfere with his success in life will probably need adjustment. ( The new study of mental hygiene should give help here.) The earliest years are the most important in these matters for then he is most easily molded for good or ill. The habits he forms before the age of eight are likely to determine his action throughout life, save as he may be subjected to rigorous experiences of one sort or another later. From the standpoint of influencing the younger child or the child of adolescent years the teacher has a moral obligation to keep herself in such good health as to radiate the feeling of fitness. It is so much easier to mold attitudes and desires by example than by precept. An attitude developed early that health is the natural and desirable condition will go far toward supporting the child's conscientious efforts for it in later years . So much of the child's life is spent in exercise, by nature's provision that he and she shall desire it, that it is a pity that we cannot in larger degree give the attention to leading activity toward the educational results that it can surely bring. The proper balance between expression and con- trol of instinctive tendencies, the solving of problems in mastering the en- vironment, as in using natural or artificial gymnastic apparatus, the solving of problems of living in friendliness with other children, as in games and the use of equipment of which there is not sufficient to go around, the development of moral standards that contribute to social standards in citizenship, the organic stability of the nervous system that is one of the by-products of big muscle activity, the skills in various usages and con- trols of parts of the body which will fit the child in later life to take care of himself in emergencies, the development of standards of posture and the habit of erect carriage, many of these are more than matters 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of health as health is ordinarily conceived. They are matters of educa- tionally fitting the child for life and deserve more attention from that standpoint than they ordinarily get. Organic health will be promoted by big muscle activity whether or not it is under expert direction ( as witness the farmer boy with his sound heart and digestion and stability of nervous reaction) , but the motor skills which make for fitness and the lessons in character building can only come under educational and edu- cated guidance. There is one other thing I wish to say to the profession. I see a good many teachers who are graduates of normal schools or of college's and have dropped out of teaching to study at the university for a bachelor's or a master's degree. The impression I gain from them is that there are a great many teachers who, by the time they have taught a few years, are worn out. One reason many of these teachers stop is to take a year for recuperation, which is their idea of a year at the university as com- pared with their teaching experience. There are others, however, who seem equally tired on entrance and need recuperation just as much, but who will not let go of the fixed idea they have which is to take all the courses the law allows and prepare all of them in excellent form. Now there may have been various reasons for their accumulated fatigue, but one thing stands out as general and that is that they are people who don't know how to relax when they have a chance, they don't realize that the right kind of recreation will be re-creation for them. They are serious-minded, they have forgotten how to play and to let that temporary separation from their ordinary train of thought bring them refreshment. The ideal now is to be fit for work, to do a fine piece of work, and yet have surplus energy to enjoy our leisure time in some kind of satisfying recreation. When we have the vitality that this implies, coupled with disciplined emotions, we find that work is a joy and life a tremendously worth while experience. THE SCHOOL HEALTH PROGRAM IN RELATION TO MENTAL HYGIENE-ABSTRACT DR . THURMAN B. RICE, INDIANA STATE BOARD OF HEALTH INDIANAPOLIS , INDIANA The process of education is one of development of the mind rather than one of packing the mind with facts. Since only a healthy mind may develop, the matter of mental health or mental hygiene becomes one of paramount importance. A man had much better be an ignoramus with- out any schooling than have a mind wrecked by a pernicious system of edu- cation. As soon as we have become reasonably sure that we know what is right in the matter of mental hygiene we can do nothing less than modify the entire school curriculum to meet its demands, if such drastic action DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 597 should be necessary. What shall it profit a child or a man to gain an education and lose his health or his mind ? Whatever else mental hygiene may mean, it must insist that the child in school be happy, not happy-go-lucky, and perhaps not happy all of the time, but free and happy enough for normal symmetrical development. The proper attitude toward work, play, love and religion, the cardinal parts of our mental existence, will forestall an immense amount of mental trouble during school life and in subsequent years . The school room must be regarded as a miniature cross section of life itself, rather than a place for making preparation for life. It must encourage initiative, independence, expression and enthusiasm as well as order, team-work, and the develop- ment of the inhibitions . Matters which pertain to the proper mental development of the twenty- odd millions of school children in the schools of the United States will affect the health, the happiness, the efficiency and the welfare of future generations to an incalculable degree. They deserve the closest scrutiny and study. Department of Science Instruction OFFICERS Acting President, W. L. EIKENBERRY, State Normal School, East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Secretary, EMMA M. GRIEBEL, Head of General Science Department, Lincoln High School, Portland, Oregon, Historical Note-The Department of Science Instruction is an outgrowth of a State Department of Natural Science Teachers which was organized at a meeting of the Colorado State Teachers Association in 1894. See Proceedings of 1895, page 951. It was first known as the Department of Natural Science Instruction. This department meets once each year, in June. Monday Afternoon, June 29, 1925 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION AS A DEFENSE AGAINST PRO AGANDA AND DOGMA-Benjamin C. Gruen- berg, Director, American Association for Medical Progress, New York City. TYPES OF INVESTIGATION IN SCIENCE TEACHING-Hanor Webb, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. WHAT IS IT THAT SCIENCE TEACHING OUGHT TO ACCOMPLISH IN THE SCHOOLS?-Henry Harap, Cleveland School of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. ROUND TABLE DISCUSSION OF PAPERS The authors of the latter two papers are connected with the American Association for the Advancement of Science Committee on The Place of Science in Education, and their papers will open discussion of its work. Since the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science and the National Education Association are coöperating organizations, both are peculiarly interested in the work of this committee. Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1925 Joint Meeting with American Nature- Study Society THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY-Anna Botsford Comstock, Professor of Nature Study, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. THE METHOD AND CONTENT OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE-Wilbur L. Beauchamp, University High School, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. THE PRESENT AND FUTURE OF NATURE EDUCATION-M. R. Van Cleve, Director of Nature Study and General Science, Toledo , Ohio . SYMIOSIUM : THE PROBLEMS OF NATURE STUDY TEACHING AND THEIR SOLUTION -OPEN DISCUSSION This program was presented with the cooperation of the American Nature- Study Society. It was designed especially to interest teachers in the junior high school and the elementary school. SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION AS A DEFENSE AGAINST PROPAGANDA AND DOGMA BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG, MANAGING DIRECTOR, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR MEDICAL PROGRESS, NEW YORK CITY Everybody believes that truth is necessary for the people's welfare and salvation, just as vitamins are necessary for the healthy development of a child. Teachers are therefore called upon to improve the minds and morals of the people by imposing upon them the accepted truth, just as a con- scientious mother resorts to forcible feeding when she discovers the im- portance of spinach and codliver oil. In our daily teaching we are often confronted by the dilemma represented by the alternatives as formulated by Bryan. We must choose between teaching what Bryan contemptuously calls " guesses of scientists" , and [598] DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 599 teaching what he complacently calls "the Word of God" . It does not help much to protest that the guesses of science often come very close to demonstrable truth, nor does it help much to point out that Bryan's categories virtually beg the question. Our sad predicament arises from the very foundations of our educational purposes. It is this view, namely, that teaching is to impose truth, that was in the past responsible for persecutions and inquisitions, and it is this view that is today responsible for a hundred statutes that we consider foolish , or worse, but against which we feel perfectly helpless. Here belong the legislation against the teaching of evolution, or for the standardization of pi as three without any fractions, or for the elimination of objectionable teachings from history textbooks, or for compulsory worship of selected portions of the United States Constitution to the exclusion of others, and similar efforts to protect children against false teachings and agitators and to insure their possession of sound doctrine. Here belong censorship of libraries and of teachers' readings, the Lusk laws of New York and the Ohio committee to inquire into the heresies of State university instructors. About a dozen States have laws requiring the daily reading of the Bible in public schools; about as many have laws forbidding the reading of the Bible in the public schools-both for funda- mentally the same reasons. It is this view of truth and of teaching that has in the past made possible the ruthless coercion of whole peoples into the support of tyrannies and unholy wars; and it is this view that is today responsible for a similar coercion of whole peoples into the support of tyrannies and unholy peace . In a magazine article published within the year the writer makes claim or confession to having destroyed some letters by George Washington in a private library, because the letters had certain smutty spots in them, in order to preserve the "ideal" of Washington held by the uninformed. In several States grown men and women have been carefully reading new text- books in civics and history, searching for words or passages that might undermine the patriotism of our children. The theory behind much of this solicitude seems to be that that devotion to country depends upon the country being superior in every respect to all others of the present and of all time, including the future; every suggestion that its heroes were any- thing less than demi-gods, every suggestion for improvement, are considered attacks upon its perfection. It is of course conceivable that patriotism or affection for our country is like affection for our parents or our children- not the result of the love object having attained perfection, but the motive of our devotion and effort and sacrifice for its welfare and improvement . We might compare our intellectual loyalties to these emotional ones : is it our duty to insist that what we believe is true, or to seek the truth regard- less of what others or we ourselves have hitherto believed ? In many States the laws require the teaching of physiology and hygiene. which are useful for all as science and art; but in many cases the statutes prescribe the inclusion of teaching about the evil effects of tobacco and 600 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION alcohol-which is neither science nor art, but doctrine. If you disapprove of the doctrine you may call it propaganda; if you approve of it, you may call it sound doctrine. But it is doctrine. Inmany cities the physiology and biology teaching have been under more or less direct attack, not on the ground that science teachers are doctrinaires but on the ground that they present obnoxious doctrines, such as the unity of all life, or the non-transfer of maternal impressions or acquired traits, or the so-called "germ-theory" of disease. We accept propaganda and are misled by it because we are as a people dogmatic and committed to the doctrine that we are guided by sound doctrines. This view of truth and of teaching is so ancient, so well established, and so widely accepted, that even teachers of science succumb to it, even while we are engaged in the teaching of science. In fact, we often take so much delight in exposing the errors of our predecessors that we help to fix more firmly than ever the notion that we have at last attained to true beliefs . It is a part of the teaching process, where we are concerned with science , to help even young children to realize that things are not always what they seem. The earth, for example, comes into the child's experience as a vast plane, with more or less surface irregularity. We teach him that in truth the earth is round; and he believes us. Has the earth changed its appear- ance to him ? Does he now visualize a sphere swinging majestically in space, among millions of others, most of them larger and swinging even more majestically ? Does he actually picture to himself the daily rotation, and feel the roundness of the earth as a help in unifying many familiar phenomena ? Well, sometimes he does; but alas, even a teacher of geogra- phy can retain for a lifetime an identification of "north" with "up" ; and can be sure of the roundness of the earth only because he can remember the enumerated "proofs." For most children, however, one doctrine dis- places another; and without being very clear as to what it all means, they can display cruel derision for the ignoramus who still believes the earth to be as flat as in all good conscience and common sense it appears to be. What is gained by such teaching? We can impress children with the ignorance of the untutored, with the stupidity of our ancestors, with the superiority of our own enlightenment, with the mysterious ways of science. As citizen and as prospective teacher, the child exposed to such teaching becomes, intellectually, as complacent as any person with a closed book and a closed mind. Does it ever occur to us that for many people the roundness or flatness of the earth is still an open question; or that for still more people the assumptions may be totally different from ours; or that new discoveries may again reopen the question for those who think as we do ? While this is an extreme example, it is typical in its results of much of our teaching.. It is part of the business of science teaching to make people, including children, realize what is involved in the progress of human knowledge. The ancients were not fools; they knew what they knew and made the best use they could of their knowledge. Wherein do we better today? We have indeed accumulated more facts. We have refined the instruments DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 601 for seeing the immensely far and the wonderfully minute, we can detect and measure happenings beyond the reach of our senses. We have poked into corners of the earth not previously visited by man, and have dug deep into her bowels ; we have climbed the tallest peaks and have floated high above the clouds. We have explored the bottom of the ocean and have disclosed events of prehistoric times. We have millions of facts not ac- cessible to Socrates or Solomon. But these facts alone give us neither science nor wisdom. It is part of the business of science to disclose new facts, to refine and make more precise old facts. And so it becomes part of the business of science teaching to familiarize the world, including pupils, with some of the facts. But that alone is of small moment. There are more planets than Copernicus studied, more continents than Columbus knew, more elements than Mendeljeff counted, more species than Linnaeus listed. Since the time of Galileo and his telescope we have weighed and measured the heavenly bodies, determined their distances and movements and chemical composition to a degree of accuracy and of comprehensiveness far beyond the wildest imaginings he might have indulged himself. But what of it ? Do we need to teach any considerable portion of these millions of facts ? Even the teacher does not need most of them. After all, neither the scientist nor the man in the street is concerned with the million new facts, primarily. Both are concerned with conclusions from facts, with general principles, with interpretations and applications. We are sometimes impatient of the extremely practical person who asks about a research : "What can you do with it?" We feel quite properly that research in science cannot be evaluated in terms of immediate applica- tion. We feel, quite properly, that science has amply justified itself as a spiritual adventure which has brought us larger visions of human possibili- ties, deeper insight into nature and man, even if it never added a cent to the econome productivity of the day's work. Nevertheless, the practical man's query deserves a dignified reply. It is precisely because we do be- lieve that truth-truth of science-will make us free, will influence con- duct in a way that matters, will modify practical affairs, that we take our teaching so seriously. While the investigator may spend days or years in pursuit of an elusive fact, it is not this fact that the rest of the world cares about. We want the larger truth of which this fact is but a fragment. Moreover, the in- vestigator in pursuit of an elusive little fact, sometimes bags something much bigger. Curie did not go out to find radium; Pasteur did not go out to discover the pathogenic microbes; Metchinkoff was not looking for phagocytes, just as Columbus was not in search of new continents. We believe that such searchings should be encouraged, not merely tolerated ; and we believe that the results of such searchings, the truths revealed to the human spirit, even though they are fragmentary, should be taught with- out restraint. In the long run such truth is important and will prevail. There is something, however, to be said for the obstructionist, who 602 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION wants only his grandfather's truths taught; and for the legislator who is looking after the interests of the public. The latter makes the plausible claim that those who pay for education have the right to select what they are to pay for. The teacher may have whatever opinions he likes; but he has no right to teach the children what the parents and taxpayers do not like. The parents and taxpayers, since they supply the pupils and the teacher's salary, have the decision in their hands. So long as teachers concede that the business of teaching is to transmit sound doctrines; so long as they admit that in a controversial issue one opinion is right and the others wrong, the legislators are doing their duty in prescribing and proscribing our teaching. On the assumptions stated, they have responsibilities that they can meet in no other way. Personally, I consider both assumptions utterly untenable, and the conclusions there- fore unwarranted. The assumption that the school is to transmit sound doctrine I consider untenable because it implies in its turn both the attainability of absolute truth and its having been attained. If modern studies in the various branches that have been affected by the scientific method teach us anything. they teach us that in varying regions people clung earnestly and tenaciously to varying truths; and that in any one region, people have at various times held just as earnestly and tenaciously to varying truths. Moreover, our conscious efforts to discover criteria of truth, which have been characteristic of centuries of thinking, have during the period of science led to abandon- ment by scientists of the pursuit of the absolute. The scientist is indeed positive as to what he knows; but he distinguishes rigorously between as- certained facts, facts which others can confirm, and conclusions drawn from these facts. He distinguishes his facts of observation on the one hand from his postulates, and on the other hand from the inductions or generalizations which he constructs from those facts. It is our business as teachers of science to lead our pupils to make these distinctions for themselves, by mak- ing them conscious of postulates and of generalizations as such. We as- sume, for example, the conservation of matter and of energy: this postulate cannot be "proved" in any strict sense, yet all of our quantitative work in business and in industry, in medicine and in commerce, no less than in re- search, rests upon it. Moreover, while we cannot prove it, neither can we think straight or carry on satisfactorily without it. We must "believe" this, but we must know both the warrant and the purpose of our belief. Again, we assume the principle of adequate cause and the principle of uniformity without being able to prove them. We ought to know and our pupils ought to know that from the nature of things every induction must rest on limited data or facts; and that every deduction is in effect an inter- polation or an exterpolation that may or may not accord with reality. We apply these assumptions with the utmost confidence when we build bridges, when we chlorinate a water supply, when we use a comp'ement fixation test, when we administer anti-toxin. Once in so often a bridge collapses, typhoid fever appears in Chicago, the pathologist's findings are misinter DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 603 preted, diphtheria is accompanied by anaphylaxis. Disasters do occur in spite of our best knowledge; and disasters are irreversible; but they should at least teach us to improve our technique for the next day. From the standpoint of science, they rectify and refine our fragmentary generali- zations. We must ourselves distinguish between opinions and facts, and teach our pupils so to distinguish. Science teaching must make those taught conscious of the working hypothesis as an instrument of thought, not as a finality, or as an authoritative opinion to oppose to the opinions of others. The truth that most people take so seriously as something to teach, or not to teach, is in most cases a more or less elaborate, more or less supportable opinion. There are no "sound doctrines" except detailed facts, which for the most part are useless or uninteresting; and well considered hypotheses, which should, however, be taught as hypotheses and therefore subject to change. Some four years ago when amusement and consternation were being scattered to all parts of the country by the press accounts of the efforts in the State of Kentucky to pass a law prohibiting the teaching of evolution in tax-supported schools, a faculty conference was held in one of the uni- versities to consider the position university professors ought to take on the controversy then raging. One of the professors is reported to have said, in effect, " If the proposed law prohibits the teaching of the Darwinian hypothesis, then it is bad legislation and we ought to oppose it. If, how- ever, it undertakes to prohibit the teaching of Darwinism as an established fact, that is different and the legislation cannot be harmful, even though unnecessary." To this a professor of zoology is said to have rejoined, "Darwinism is not an hypothesis, it is an established fact." I do not know who these professors were but in this case the professor who was supposed to be scientific, because he taught one of the sciences, certainly had some- thing to learn from the professor of philosophy. The assumption that the-authorities or taxpayers have the right to choose what doctrines or opinions are to be taught I consider untenable because from the nature of our institutions and of our social development it has already become impossible for most laymen to form intelligent judg- ments in technical fields. We need more and more schooling precisely because our scientific knowledge is rapidly outrunning popular knowledge. The child has to learn vastly more than his parents can possibly know ; and the parent is in no better position to decide in detail what and how his children should be taught than the legislator is to decide how the doctor is to diagnose and treat his ailments. When you go to the store you may buy whatever pleases your fancy, if you can afford the price. When you go to the doctor, you may think you know what you want; but if he is an honest professional man he will not ask you what he is to write on the pre- scription. When you place the manufacturer's child in my science class- room or laboratory, neither the father nor the school superintendent nor the governor can tell me what I am going to teach, or how. If I am not 604 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a better judge of these things than the taxpayer or the legislator, I am not fit to hold the job. As for those who want their own brand of doctrine taught, we may have some sympathy for their feelings, but we can make no concession to their wishes. Their wishes are also based on an assumption of absolute truth. They hope to get their doctrines adopted as teaching material by force of numbers, by majority in the legislature. This is on the theory that the public is entitled to what it wants, whether it is in the way of a bond issue for roads or in the way of a central water supply, or a theory of cosmogeny. As teachers of science we cannot concede that the ballot is an effective in- strument for discovering the kind of truths that concern us. The place of doctrine in the school is closely related to the place of propaganda in the community at large. So long as all teaching as well as all thinking was dominated by the assumption that we had truth to begin with, it was not only proper for each group to tell the rest of the world ; but for those who took their doctrines seriously it was a duty to enlighten the heathen. Doctrines affecting all aspects of life emerged out of a com- paratively few general concepts regarding the nature of the universe and were closely connected with what we sometimes call religious beliefs. Even today there are many groups that cannot divorce folk-lore from theology and theology from such highly technical problems as medicine, agriculture, meteorology, and astronomy. We cannot blame people who suffer from such fixations, but we have to recognize that one of the great difficulties arises from the ease with. which the human infant does learn. If you tell a very young child a fairy tale which he likes, you have to be careful when you repeat the story to get the details exactly right. The contents of Little Red Riding Hood's basket are determined once and for all by the first accounts and no deviation from the standard equipment will be tolerated. This is typical of the method by which obstacles to learning and enlightenment become thoroughly fixed during early years of life ; and for our purpose these include the years of progressive schooling . Thirty to forty years ago, children were being taught that the adult mosquito is an ephemeral of some eighteen hours life span. Experiments on the transmission of malaria by the mosquito brought results in conflict with this doctrine : many could not believe the new teaching because it involved for Anopheles a life span of two or three weeks. Moreover, many had been taught that the female mosquito has one good meal, lays her eggs , and perishes-by analogy, no doubt, from other insects. The new doctrine gave the animal at least two meals, and that was hard to reconcile with earlier teaching. Finally, the very name of the disease, malaria, was for millions of people associated with the doctrine of bad air, bad night air, usually, as an etiological factor, and with the corresponding applications to life. Language fixations are much more common than most teachers seem to recognize, and probably most of us are ourselves somewhat handicapped by DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 605 them and by their implications. Many still speak absent-mindedly of water seeking and finding its own level, while the child sincerely wonders how the little drops can be so clever. We read in recent texts that the hind legs of the whale and the eyes of cave fishes have disappeared through disuse; and in later pages of the same texts, clear intimations that Lamarck was probably mistaken. Or we read that the stem provides a path for carry- ing materials from the roots to the leaves, and other materials in the reverse direction; while later chapters tell us plainly that a conscious anticipation of future conditions and needs depends upon a rather complex nervous system, which the stem obviously lacks. Most people, even those with high I Q's, attach sacredness to various concepts or mere formulæ acquired early in life, with the simplicity and earnestness that young children feel about their precious treasures. Those who worship symbols that have no meaning to us we consider heathen or idolaters; while we worship our own symbols and cannot understand the indifferences of the barbarian. The early conventions thus become serious obstacles to the later development of an objective consideration of facts and problems. Like the Briton in "Caesar and Cleopatra" , we think that our provincial customs are Laws of Nature. The uncritical acceptance of this situation is characteristic of large numbers of people who have learned what they know only too well; and it results in bigotry, dogmatism and attempts to legislate doctrine into the schools and into the lives of other people. With the development of scientific methods and scientific ideals, and especially with the systematic introduction of science teaching into the public schools, indoctrination as a method and the true faith as an end must gradually be removed from education. Children will for a long time continue to come to school saturated in superstition and anchored to rigid prejudices. Parents will for a long time continue to protest at our efforts to analyse the objective world and our traditional concepts. We shall have to be patient, and we shall have to be at least as tolerant of their absurd doctrines as we want them to be of our alarming heresies. But we shall have to rely upon our scientific method and not be tempted into controversy or propaganda on our own account; for if we have faith in the validity of scientific methods, we need not be too greatly concerned about what our pupils believe for the time being. If we can get people into the habit of asking "what are the facts in the case?" or "what is the reliability or ac- curacy of these facts?" we shall not need to insist upon our own views, we shall not need to proclaim our doctrines with vehemence and with mega- phones. The science teacher must take his place with other professional workers and insist upon the right to speak authoritatively in his field. This would mean the right to decide what and how he will teach. The reciprocal obligation is that of being thoroughly qualified to discharge the responsi- bility that should go with so much power. His qualification will rest not upon his mastery of a body of doctrine, nor upon his subscribing to accepted 606 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION beliefs, it will rest upon his mastery of a point of view and upon his thorough-going and honest reliance upon science at every step. It is altogether too easy to proclaim our superiority by casting ridicule upon superseded beliefs and practices. Of course it is absurd to believe that nature hates a vacuum, or that wicked spirits cause acute infectious diseases, or that the shape of a leaf shows the kind of sickness it can cure; but it was not absurd to believe such notions when they represented the best knowledge available. Our superiority lies not in having attained true beliefs, but in having acquired the habit of analyzing and formulating our own assumptions and in having acquired a technique for testing our "be- liefs"-that is, our working hypotheses. In an age that depends as does ours upon a day by day application of science to the health of the people, to the supplying of common necessities, to transportation and communication, to recreation and to other acces- sories that make life interesting, the teacher of science stands in a position of peculiar responsibility, for it is his work at every level of instruction that will determine the attitude of masses of people toward fundamental issues. Where peoples have been brought up to attach the greatest significance to what is believed, the science teacher must get them to realize the significance of understanding the basis of belief. Where tradition implies that "truth" is in some sense eternal, the science teacher must get people to realize that our knowledge grows by constant revision and adjustment of approxima- tions to reality. The business man has been influenced by the growth of science insofar as it directly affects his material interests; he has learned to scrap expensive machinery to make way for better machinery. As a people we have to learn to do this with the most precious machinery we have, namely, the ideas through which in the end we control our material surroundings and hold our far from perfect own against a hostile universe. Science teaching should include the teaching of this practise: every principle is held subject to good service, and subject to replacement by a better principle. It ought to be impossible, eventually, to discredit the work of scientists because doctors did at one time believe in humors or bleeding, whereas today they believe in germs and vaccines ; or because chemists at one time believed in atoms and today believe in electrons. Those who have given some thought to education cannot escape the feeling that the school must somehow transmit to youth the gains of past experience. If science is to be always tentative and forward reaching and theoretical, it will seem to many, even to many teachers, to have nothing of lasting value. It is nevertheless this very characteristic of science that gives it lasting value. The facts of science are overshadowed by new facts. The theories of science are replaced by new theories-not altogether re- placed, but notably modified; it is therefore futile to impress our pupils too insistently with the striking facts newly revealed, or with plausible theories assimilated during our own impressionable years. Our insistence should be upon the prnciples that entitle science to a hearing; the reliance upon fact, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 607 the measurement and reproduction of fact, the honest facing of negative instances, nay the eager quest for negative instances, the distinction be- tween fact and theory, the experimental method, the frank acceptance of hypothesis as subject to revision, and the open mind ever ready to revise its postulates. It is the method of science that will enable us to counteract propaganda, and that will equip our pupils to meet the onslaughts of propa- ganda and dogmatism. WHAT IS IT THAT SCIENCE TEACHING OUGHT TO ACCOMPLISH IN THE SCHOOLS ?—ABSTRACT HENRY HARAP, CLEVELAND SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO Science should be taught with a view to making life in the home and in the community more efficient, comfortable, and happy. The study of science should help to reduce the burdens of the home, and to make home life more efficient and economical. It is ignorance of the facts of nutrition among other things which causes our nation to consume 180 pounds of meat per person per year and only four pounds of cheese per capita per year, although cheese is twice as nourishing as meat. The average person is called upon daily to solve problems of ventilation, heating, lighting, p'umbing, and cleaning for which simple technical facts are a great help. If our generation of children learned the truth about furniture woods the furniture dealers of the next generation would not dare to make false statements to their customers. Automobiles, phono- graphs, and radios are so generally used that the school has it in its power to help the owners to extract maximum service from these mechanical appliances. It is said that three-quarters of the homes of the nation are without plumbing. This is so vitally related to health that the future citizen needs to be prepared to remedy this deficiency. The rural home faces a par- ticularly urgent need to appreciate the possibility of reducing drudgery by the use of mechanical appliances. The average working day for the farm woman is thirteen hours in summer and ten hours in winter. Nearly half the homes in the United States are wired to receive electric current. It is becoming more necessary daily to understand the useful facts of electricity in order to use and select electric equipment intelligently. Of all the technical problems of the consumer the school has neglected the fuels most. The nation is unaware of a serious fuel problem. The people have it in their power to save over one billion dollars annually in energy supply. Our fuel reserves are rapidly dwindling away. Geological experts predict that at the present rate of extraction our oil supply will not last more than twenty years. There is a rich field of scientific instruc- tion in the matter of fuels. 608 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE AIMS OF THE NATURE STUDY MOVEMENT— ABSTRACT ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, PROFESSOR OF NATURE STUDY CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK Nature study has had for its chief purpose, first and last unswervingly, the cultivation of the child; the developing of his powers of observation and of thinking, and making him intelligent as to his natural environment. Nature study gives practical and helpful knowledge along many lines, especially in agriculture, horticulture, and hygiene. It cultivates in the child a love of the beautiful; a perception and appreciation of color, form, and music. It cultivates the imagination of the child, and more than any other study, except perhaps that of mathematics, develops in the .child perception of truth and a realization of its importance. Nature study develops in the child a sensible altruism and humanness. Above all it gives the child a sense of companionship with life out-of-doors which is a most valuable asset in these days of hurry, stress and strain. Nature study in the school is a help of a most practical kind in giving the child a vital interest in other studies. Nature study is making good progress throughout the schools of Amer- ica. It is also a growing activity in the summer camps. These camps are usually situated in ideal places for becoming acquainted with all phases of outdoor life. This year fifteen thousand boys and girls in camps all over our country will study their environment practically and intelli- gently. The necessity of conserving wild life is becoming more and more of interest to the public. Owing to the growth of this sentiment nature study is taking on new duties and responsibilities. There can be no intelligent conservation without knowledge of the species to be protected as well as the method of protection. Department of Secondary School Principals SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS Acting President-MILO H. STUART, Principal, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Indiana. Vice-President-JAMES TAYLOR, Principal, Denfield High School, Duluth, Minnesota. Historical Note-The Department of Secondary Instruction was organized in Topeka, Kansas, in 1886. See Proceedings of 1887, page 395. Anticipating the pro- posed merger of the National Association of Secondary School Principals with the National Education Association, the name of the Department has been changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers of the National Asso- ciation of Secondary School Principals for 1925-26 are : President, William E. Wing, Deering High School, Portland, Maine. Secretary, H. V. Church, Cicero, Illinois . The meeting was held on July 2, 1925, at 2:00 P.M. in the Spink Arms Hotel in Indianapolis, Indiana. Milo H. Stuart, Principal of the Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis , presided. The secretary, Lillian V. Johnson, Lincoln High School, Seattle, Washington, being absent the chairman appointed Mabel E. Tichenor of Princeton, Indiana, to act as secretary pro tem. The chairman also named the following nominating committee: L. A. Fullwider chairman, Freeport, Illinois ; James Furgeson, Chico, California ; and J. J. Mitchell, Logansport, Indiana. This committee submitted the following nominations for officers : President-Charles Edwin Keyes, Oakland High School, Oakland, California. Vice-President-L. W. Smith, Principal of the Joliet High School, Joliet, Illinois . Secretary-Margaret Durkin, Scranton High School, Scranton, Pennsylvania. These nominees were elected. A program which had as a subject "Extra Curricular Activities, Civic and Athletic, " followed. Franklin S. Lamar, Vice-Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri, talked on "Extra- Curricular Activities ." W. M. Aiken, Principal of the John Burroughs School, Clayton, Missouri, talked . on "The High School Principal and World Diplomacy." "The Place of Athletics in the High School Program" was the subject of C. W. Whitten, secretary, Illinois State Athletic Association, De Kalb, Illinois. A. L. Trestor, secretary, Indiana High School Athletic Association, Anderson, Indiana discussed the "High School Principal's Job in Athletics." EXTRA - CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES FRANKLIN S. LAMAR, VICE- PRINCIPAL, MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI The people of the United States are pouring out their wealth to main- tain the public schools at a cost undreamed by the most ardent advocates a few decades ago. They are giving their money without stint, and with unbounded faith in the efficacy of the program of education. They are not making these sacrifices in the interest of the individual ; not in order to prepare him to live his life in a way more pleasing to him, [609] 610 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to enable him to enjoy more leisure, to prepare him to contemplate beauty and grandeur for the mere sake of contemplation, to read poetry with feeling and to hear the symphonies of the masters with understanding ; in short, to become possessed of the learning of the ages, and to be spoken of by the multitude as a man of wisdom, who sits by his fireside and meditates day and night. Taxes are levied in ever increasing amounts for the public schools in order that a high plane of citizenship be guaranteed; that the social behavior of the men and women who are now our boys and girls in school be elevated to a degree that will justify the outlay. Society is becoming increasingly complex. New problems are constantly arising. New adjustments must be made, or there will be friction and clashing. The machinery of our fathers had few close fitting parts. Gears might rattle in their untrue bearings with small concern to the neighbor a half mile distant. There is a far cry from the rattle of our grandfather's reaping machine, to gentle purr of the Rolls Royce, in which every moving part is in complete adjustment. There is no back lash, no clashing of gears, no heating by friction, no impeding of motion; but the beautiful mechanism moves with a nicety that is possible only when there is com- plete harmony among its parts. So it is with society. ॥ We are not especially interested in the intellectual attainments of the man we meet on the street, in the office, at the theater or at the ball game. We do not care about his classical knowledge when we are closing a business deal with him. But we are tremendously interested in his behavior. The woman who bustles into the store and shoves herself into a place at the head of a line of men and women who have been standing a long time in order that they may take their proper turns at the cash window, may be able to quote Browning, to criticise the rendition of Wagner, and to pass judgment upon the question as to whether a picture purchased at great price is a masterpiece or a copy; but the weary, patient, pushed-back line of customers do not care about her boasted culture. To them, she is a self-willed unsocial, untrained woman who jars society, and who belongs at the foot rather than at the head. She has not been able to profit by the training in youth that hard social knocks give. She has not been blessed by coming up against the stone wall of opposition, when her will went contrary to that of the group in her childhood. She has not learned the great lessons of social adjustment that extra-curricular activities teach. She might have had a private tutor who poisoned her mind with the doctrine of aloofness from the contaminating influence of the public school. Her parents might have made her believe that she was of better stuff than those about her, and that she had rights in society that she should defend by trampling upon others. And these notions have prevailed because her school has not given her the opportunity of receiving an emotional training that would surely and effectually displace them. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 611 The man who can read Plato in the original, who can discuss to the satisfaction of the average person the Einstein theory, who can meditate upon the beauties of Ancient philosophy, and tell the stars in their courses, presents his knowledge to small avail when in the traffic jam he takes liberties that interfere with the rights and the movement of the procession. They care not whether he drive a Ford or a Packard. They think not of his erudition. They are intensely interested in his behavior. Social behavior is determined by emotional training. The three R's never guaranteed a boy's actions in a crowd. The three R's alone never can train his emotions. We may feel like rushing to the defense of the downtrodden and oppressed when we read the stirring lines of poetry ; our hearts may swell with ambition when we repeat the words of Excel- sior; we may be impelled to do the worthy deed and perform the noble act when we are in the seclusion of our study; but unless we promptly give expression to our thoughts when the opportunity arises, by the wor- thiest and noblest action that accords with our social training, our inten- tions will become as the burning taper, whose flame has gone out from the mists of eventide, and whose light will be more difficult to kindle again. It is steel against flint that creates the spark. It is social contact that builds character. The world calls for action, and action unguided by the right kind of emotional training, may bring the ship of state upon the rocks. The value of intellectual training is not depreciated; but the value of emotional training along with that of the intellect is emphasized. It is an easy thing to do to tell a man who has never ridden a bicycle just how to do it. Make the pedals go round with the feet, and guide the front wheel with the handle bar. Committing to memory these simple rules, he may be able to proceed in a forward direction some distance. But let a crisis approach, let the unusual happen, let an object move toward him that he must hit or go around, think as hard as he is able just what to do, the almost inevitable result will be a collision. He will hit the thing that he ought to miss, and miss the path he ought to take. Practice is necessary to enable us to miss obstacles and to make sure our behavior. Actual practice in meeting the demands of society is required of our boys and girls in their relationships on the playgrounds, in clubs, in assemblies, at games, and in their inter-school contests. It is only by such practice that our future citizens can be expected to react correctly in social crises. Time was when one might be recognized as highly educated who could not keep his equanimity in a crowd that would push him and carry him along against his will, and with small concern inflict upon him discomfort or pain. He might object to going where the crowd was going. He might feel his superiority of intellect over the mass that surrounded him; he might argue his rights as a cultured gentleman, and then, if his emotional training had not been severe enough to prepare him for this ordeal, he might feel that his dignity was assailed, and forthwith assert 612 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION his manhood by personal encounter, undeterred by the sense of his own responsibility for the feelings of the group. The man or woman who does not know how to get on in society, is not rightly educated. The boy or girl who is not being given training toward that end will sooner or later bring public condemnation on the school which nourished him. Behavior is more evident than knowledge and the public is going to demand more and more that the schools give adequate attention to this phase of education. Children learn to behave by behaving and behavior cannot be taught adequately in the class room. Glacial pebbles of quartz and granite were not rounded and worn smooth by lying quietly in a snow drift. Feathery flakes did not shape them by resting quietly by their side. They had their rough edges, that would cut and scratch and carve, worn off by rubbing. against each other, rolling and tumbling and moving with the mass. The boy that is encouraged to stand aloof from the crowd, that refuses to mingle and to let the rough edges of his emotional nature be worn off by contact and attrition, that is encouraged to believe that his high scho- lastic grades alone will give him entrance to society, and that nothing more will be expected of him than his exhibit of the type of culture that he exemplifies, will run grave risk of being hazed when he enters college, and of being the butt of society when he returns. The world demands sportsmanship, and coöperation; it demands the ability to adapt one's self; to give with love and to take without rancor. It expects participation in worthy social enterprises, and the feeling of responsibility for their success . To secure this, it will require practice, not preaching; training in the crowd, not isolation; hard knocks and stiff opposition. There must come defeats along with successes, for occasional defeats are more to be desired in youth, than continued success. The school that wins regularly in athletic contests, or in music or debate, that carries away triumphantly, year after year an array of silver trophy cups, comes to look upon itself from an unhealthy view point. It will be difficult for those in charge to suppress a feeling of superiority in other qualities. It may be possible that the successes have not been due to the real superiority of the school so much as to a chain of circumstances over which they have had no control. They are not really better pre- pared for victory than they should be expected to be. Change condi- tions that they themselves have no part in making, and they may meet blessed defeat. If they do not, it will be but a few short years until society will test them as individuals. If they fail in this test, their school will have failed. If they win, then their school has only done its duty. The type of disciplinary training necessary to enable one to carry on in this busy complex age, is demanded of the schools. Today, one meets more people on the street while he is on his way to work each morning, than our grandparents met in a year. We must start and stop with the DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 613 procession; we must avoid left hand turns when left hand turns would save the individual time and trouble. We must rub elbows with our competitors daily, and we no longer are able to boast of our personal liberties without fear of contradiction. Children will not get this discipline by being compelled to toe the mark and to remember facts and dogmas. They must be given the opportunity to engage in the various extra-curricular activities. Extra-curricular activities are the pupils' own enterprises. The child may choose from the ones that appeal to his nature, that arouse his inter- ests, that give him a choice of companionship, and that stimulate him to do his best. They should be provided by the schools in variety wide enough to appeal to the taste of every pupil. These activities should be carefully sponsored. They should be organ- ized with the end in view of their efficacy in disciplinary training. No public school can afford to neglect them. The sponsors should be deeply concerned with behavior, and they should so unobtrusively direct the activities that the pupils forget that they are being directed. Democratic principles must prevail at all times. The group can generally be relied upon to settle its problems in its own way. It may be that the suggestions of certain principles of right conduct may be of assistance, but the value of these activities lies in the opportunity they afford the pupils for practice in making their own decisions, and acting in the interest of the group. Even conflict of opinions between individuals and the group should not be outlawed. Authority may be applied only when it becomes hopelessly impossible for the children to settle their questions, and when further division might bring disaster. Many things that occur should be neither seen nor heard by those in charge. The teacher who holds the idea of military discipline, who expects to issue commands and to see them blindly obeyed, will fail utterly to meet the qualifications necessary to direct one of the activities . Many are coming to disbelieve in the theory of blind obedience as a virtue. In spite of all that has been said in the past few years against the so-called loose discipline on the part of parents and teachers in America, in spite of the oft repeated prophesy issued by the adherents of the old idea of discipline, that the present generation was losing respect for authority, and that they would fail in a national crisis, the American soldier was unexcelled on the battle fields of France, and no soldier, of whatever nation, could be more certainly depended upon to do his duty, whether it be in the smoke and flame of battle, or back of the lines in the arduous and unsung labors of the supply department. Play grounds are supervised in order that the children get more joy out of play. Extra-curricular activities should be sponsored, not with the idea of inhibition, but with the idea of more complete and more abundant and more enthusiastic support on the part of the child. The value of athletic contests is not inherent in the team itself. The crowd of enthusiastic boys and girls, whose hearts beat in unison for 614 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION victory, who cheer the good plays of their own teams and forget not to applaud the skill of their opponents, are bound together for the accom- plishment of one single purpose. They are receiving a training that in its summation, is of far greater value than that to the teams themselves. Five thousand cheering boys and girls, intent on victory, become quiet instantly when one of the members of the teams holds up his hand for silence. The effect is marvelous. Opponents respect the simple request. No constituted authority could accomplish so quietly and so effectively such a result. The training that is able to accomplish such social control, is vastly worth while for it is the kind of training that will endure throughout life. This crowd of boys and girls will unite their enthusiasm and spirit into the larger social enterprises of later years. Children who can cheer their teams in defeat, and who can use all their powers of youthful enthusiasm toward the preparation for victory in the next contest, will be the men and women who, given a just cause, will bear their banners high, and work for the accomplishment of ideals in later life with a zest that knows no bounds. Not only are pupils trained thus in athletics, but in debate, in club contests, in music, and oratory, in whatever group they be, training for citizenship will be effective. When we provide extra-curricular activities in sufficient variety to appeal to every child in school, and so direct them that they will adequately meet the demands for emotional training, we will be able to eliminate much of our repressive discipline that we use at present. We will develop leadership, and the ability to follow. We will banish the evils of idleness, and add a zest unknown in many places to school life. We will prepare our boys and girls to take their places in society, and to bring their emotional natures to harmonize with the true spirit of democracy. EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS WILFORD W. AIKEN, DIRECTOR, JOHN BURROUGHS SCHOOL CLAYTON , MISSOURI We easily forget. A merciful Providence permits us to forget. The heaped-up tragedies of life kept constantly in mind would overwhelm us ; but there is danger in forgetting. There is danger that we shall forget things that should remain vividly in memory. Each new day's duties crowd out of the memory tremendously important things which should not be forgotten. It is only a few short years since we were in the midst of the world's greatest tragedy and we seem to have forgotten already, and each one has turned to his separate way as if our whole civilization had never been upon the verge of destruction. We have forgotten the call to arms, the laying aside of ordinary pur- suits, the building of camps, shipyards, ships, munition factories, and of DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 615 turning our whole industrial life to purposes of destruction. We have forgotten the marching in the streets, the partings, the tension, the waiting, the fears, and the casualty lists. Those of us who were in the service have forgotten the drill, the discomfort, the embarkation, the tension of the passage, the mud, the rain, the cold, the sickness, the wretchedness, the misery and the hell of the trenches. Why should we remember member ?-In order that we should not grow care- less and permit it to happen again. Will it happen again ? There are those who honestly believe that war will always exist, that there is nothing that can be done about it except to prepare for the next one. If they are right we must look squarely at the prospects, for the next war will be inconceivably more terrible than the last one. All students of war unite in predicting that the next war will utterly destroy our civilization ; that the means of destruction developed in the last war have been supplemented since with more deadly means of destruction; that the next great struggle will mean the annihilation not of armies but of whole peoples. It must be said that the same forces which brought on the last great war are still active and at work among the nations of the world and they will surely produce another war unless stronger forces conteract and con- trol them. National suspicion, distrust, ill will, fear, hatred, and self- seeking aggrandizement are found on every hand. Even among the closest of the allies who swore eternal friendship at the close of the war, there is now bitterness and distrust. There are honest seekers for a better way among the nations who have concluded that there is no hope except in the abandonment of nationality. They point out that nations are comparatively modern, that in their present form, nations did not exist until three or four hundred years ago and that the very nature of nationality is such as to cause conflicting interests which lead inevitably to war, and that the solution lies in the substitution of world citizenship and world consciousness for national citizenship and national consciousness. I think that not many of us are of that mind. We believe that it is possible for the nations of the world to find some way of avoiding mutual annihilation. Let me emphasize at this point one essential feature of nationality. The heart of nationality is sentiment. A nation is made up of people living together by common consent in a certain area, who possess a common tra- dition and common ideals about which sentiment gathers itself. We call this sentiment patriotism. It is something which is the growth of years and generations, it becomes the comomn possession, it is the binding force which holds them together, it is something very precious, and it is some- thing for which men are willing to die. Now, must these national traditions, sentiments, patriotisms be antago- nistic to each other? It is true that in the past they have been and at present they frequently are. Much of that sentiment gathers itself about conflicts of the past, glorying in victories over others on the field of 616 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION battle and resenting bitterly defeats by others on the field of battle. How much of the patriotism of the world, how much of the patriotism of the nations has been developed from these sources ? Isn't it possible for this powerful sentiment to find its inspiration not in conflicts of destruc- tion but in great achievements by great national heroes in exploits which contribute to the welfare not only of their own people but to the welfare of all people everywhere ? Let the patriotism of France build itself around the achievements of such men as Pasteur rather than Napoleon; let the patriotism of Germany find its inspiration in the great achievements of Beethoven rather than Bismarck; in England let the glories of Shake- speare surpass those of Drake; of our own what shall we say ? Many of us will recall the thrill of pride with which we read in our school histories of the exploits of our heroes in battle against England and it was right that we should glory in their achievements but unfortunately we were left with the impression that England is our enemy and almost every American school child of my school generation came out of school with a chip on his shoulder which he dared any Englishman to knock off. We were ready to be belligerent. Surely we have in our history and tradition sufficient to give us inspira- tion for a glorious patriotism which has nothing to do with conflict with other peoples. What shall we glory in ? Surely this that in spite of all of our failures, this is still the land of opportunity. We have developed here on this continent a social order still far from what we wish it to be but nevertheless an order in which real worth may manifest itself and rise from the humblest to the highest positions. Every people has in its history and in its life today great achievements of which it may be justly proud, which contribute to the welfare of all mankind. Let national sentiment, patriotism, and pride take its just source in these things. It seems to me that the question is largely one of intelligence. I believe there is enough good will in our human race. The question is whether we are sufficiently intelligent to avoid what we all believe is the most stupid thing left in our civilization, the attempt to settle justly any question by killing each other. Surely men are guilty of no more stupid thing than that. Are we intelligent enough to devise better ways of settling our differences ? I have suggested one, a better and more intelligent patriotism . I suggest a second-let us believe that our common humanity is intelli- gent enough to find a better way. How often have we heard in this connection, "You cannot change human nature." That statement usu- ally ends any argument on this subject. We take it for granted that because our human nature is what it is, war is and always will be in- evitable. One might pause to question whether human nature doesn't change even though very slowly. One could very successfully, I think, challenge the belief that national conflict is inherent in human nature. Human beings are not equipped to fight with tooth and claw. Man doesn't instinctively don kahki, drill through endless days of fearful hard DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 617 ship and then live in the mud and filth and stench of trenches fighting an enemy whom he seldom sees and frequently with no very clear idea as to what it is all about. I say that is not so deep rooted in human nature that it cannot be changed. The trouble is not with our human nature but with human conduct. The difficulty is not with our biological but with our social inheritance. John Dewey has recently made it very clear that most of the hindrances to progress, that most of the difficulties in changing human conduct lie not in human nature but in social custom and I believe that there is little in our natural make-up but much in our traditional beliefs to prevent the solution of the great problem. I have suggested first, a more intelligent patriotism and second a confi- dent belief that it lies within the possibilities of humanity to rid itself eventually of its greatest stupidity-war. I wish now to propose to you, teachers and students of education, an immediately practicable procedure by which we may enter into our privilege and obligation of doing what we can to postpone or make less frequent conflicts among the nations of the world. Since the elements of suspicion, distrust, ill will are still active what forces can we bring to counteract them ? Most important of all is understanding, and understanding must be based upon knowledge. Understanding of the peoples of the world of each other is surely neces- sary. Any league of nations, any association, any organization of the nations of the world rests for its successful operation upon the under- standing of each other. It is the governments that should be free; it is infinitely more important that the peoples of the world should under- stand each other. I believe that the greatest hindrance to understanding is ignorance. We are unbelievably ignorant of each other. How little we know of the other peoples of the world, and much that we do know, as Artemus Ward said, "aint so." Ignorance is the soil in which fear, distrust, misunderstanding, ill will, and conflict grow. We fear what we do not know or understand. We are distrustful where we are ignorant. Knowledge will liberate us here also, truth will make us free. To provide this knowledge is every teacher's privilege and obligation. I would introduce no new subject into the study program. It is not necessary for history, geography, civics, foreign language, literature, music, art, these and others, to provide every teacher an opportunity to teach the truth so far as he is able to discover, concerning other peoples. This is the obligation of the teachers of the world. I believe that the most important question that can be asked today concerning Europe is this : What are the teachers of France teaching their boys and girls concerning Germany and what are the teachers of Germany teaching their boys and girls concerning France? How shall we know the truth? That is a difficult question. The answer is not easy. It is difficult to separate the chaff of propaganda from the wheat of fact and truth. However, many attempts to discover the 618 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION truth are being made. Fellow teachers, I am not a pacifist. I believe that we can do nothing worse for our fellow men than close our eyes andbe blind to dangerous conditions inthe world. Let us avoid a sloppy, wishy-washy sentimentalism. I have not allowed my ardent wish for peace which tops every other wish of my life to lead me into extravagant hope. Ihave proposedthat, in confident belief that peace can ultimately be made enduring, we seek to banish, that we seek to lessen ignorance and to develop a wiser patriotism. Surely we can do these things. We can all do these things. Andwemust do them now. Ifnothing can be done to delay or prevent the next war our other work is largely in vain. If the teachers of the world can have no hope, if they must prepare the young men of the world for mutual slaughter, most of their work is in vain. Why should we concern ourselves with school administration, with principles of education, with educational research, if these boys are inevitably doomed to life and probably death on the field ofbattle? Our human race is still very young but progress has been made. Un- happy things which were once universal and which many thought could not be changed have been changed. Let us believe that God has put it within the power of mankind to remove the scourge of war. THE PLACE OF INTERSCHOLASTIC ATHLETICS ON THE HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAM C. W. WHITTEN , SECRETARY, ILLINOIS STATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION, DE KALB, ILLINOIS The interscholastic aspects of high school athletics so dominate the pres- ent situation or, at least, so completely absorb the public interest, that any adequate discussion of the present status and outlook of athletic activities must, of necessity, deal very largely with the interscholastic phases of the subject. It will be understood, then, that I am attacking the problems from the viewpoint of interscholastic competition. In choosing this aspect of high school athletics, i.e., the interscholastic aspect, I am not unmindful of the progressively increasing esteem in which athletics are held for distincitively physical education purposes. For how- ever valuable may be the contributions of the so-called German and Swedish and other systems of calisthenics or setting-up and health exer- cises no one can have a very extended experience in adıministering physical education courses in a high school without finding that these calisthenics soon prove rather dry and uninteresting to the average American high school boy or girl. And progressive teachers of physical education are utilizing more and more and with unquestionable success such organized competitive games as seem to promise most for the aims and purposes of aphysical education program. However, I prefer to disregard this aspect of athletics for the purposes of this paper and to limit my present dis- cussion, as already stated, to interscholastic athletic competition. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 619 Now I appear before you as a cordial supporter and an ardent advocate of interscholastic athletics. At the same time we must recognize that educators of eminence, whether considered from the viewpoint of posi- tion, character, judgment, or motive, are very critical of interscholastic athletics, at least as now conducted. We need only cite a recent report by Dean Angell of Michigan, the sharp attack by Prof. Mahin of Purdue, the radical departure just announced at De Pauw and similar pronuncia- mentos from numerous sources to show that there is a rather formidable alignment of educators of eminence and integrity in opposition to our present interscholastic program . It will do our cause no good to engage in an exchange of epithets in this controversy. We can settle no question by a resort to that popular form of logic that takes comfort in the "you're another" type of argument . In the matter of hurling anathema our academic friends might have the better of the contest as to both form and distance. I think it would not only be strategically unwise not to consider their criticisms but it would be professionally unethical not to investigate them with the closest and most analytical judgment we can muster to the end that we may be able to eliminate the evil and conserve and enhance the good that may, through such a study, be found to exist. I am not ready to admit that the evaluation of an athletic program differs in any fundamental way from the evaluation of any other proposed educational activity. We all recognize, of course, that there are always some very baffling factors to hinder the reduction of any philosophy of education to a program of concrete school-room activities. None of our high school courses is wholly free from imperfections due to misconcep- tions of aims to be secured, inept and wasteful technique and general in- efficiency of concept and execution. We shall find athletics no exception to the rule. Indeed, considering the relative novelty of interscholastic athletics on any very extensive scale we ought not to be greatly surprised to find rather wide departures from educational standards due, in part, at least, to their tremendous appeal to popular interest and their conse- quent extraordinarily rapid growth. But even these conditions do not justify a wholesale condemnation of athletics. Rather, as I have already stated, they demand a close scrutiny of the aims and methods of athletics with a view to enlisting them, with all their apparently limitless drive and energy, in the promotion of our educational program. How, then, shall we evaluate our athletic contests to the end that they may be accorded their proper place and function in our scheme of high school education ? The problem is certainly not insuperable and as far as I can determine it is only difficult because of matters largely extraneous to our educational program that persist in imposing themselves upon our attention and claim- ing for themselves a degree of consideration wholly unwarranted by their merits. If the problem were one of an academic or vocational subject, I suspect 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the method of procedure, very briefly and generally stated, would be somewhat as follows : First we should attempt to formulate as fully and as specifically as our understanding would permit, the ultimate and also the immediate objectives we hope to achieve through our high school program. Secondly by an analysis of the processes and outcomes of the subject under discussion we should endeavor to determine the contribu- tions it promised toward the various objectives thus coveted. And, thirdly, by a comparison of its contributions with those of other educational ac- tivities we should attempt to determine the appropriate amounts of time and effort that might profitably be accorded to its mastery. This, of course, is not meant as a laboratory manual to serve as a guide in con- structing a high school curriculum; it is merely meant to suggest in meager outline a possible method of approach in seeking an answer to the question implied in the topic assigned to me. If, however, I attempt to apply this outline in determining the place of athletics in the high school program, it at once becomes evident that for the purpose of this paper I can by no means go into any such elaborate detail as would be necessary in an original or research investigation. I shall have to be content with a very condensed and rather dogmatic pre- sentation of material that under a more generous time limit might serve as a basis for extended research and discussion . With respect to the objectives of high school education may we not assume, for purposes of this discussion that there is sufficiently substantial agreement to render any detailed statement unnecessary ? Let us agree that we are seeking those commonly accepted virtues that seem essential to efficient citizenship in a democracy and which, with slightly varying em- phasis, have been elucidated by numerous writers, committees and com- missions within recent years. If we proceed to the second step in our process, namely, the analysis of our subject to determine its contributions to the aims we are seeking, we shall not find such substantial agreement. As already suggested we shall find opinions varying all the way from utter and unqualified condem- nation of interscholastic athletics to the most fulsome and excessive ap- proval of them; opinions on the one hand that estimate them as just about 100 per cent destructive and demoralizing and, on the other hand, that seem to esteem them as just about 100 per cent perfect. The propagan- dists of one class point out with every apparent detail and circumstance of inerrant wisdom that a debauch of athletic enthusiasm has inserted the skids of immorality beneath the educational structure and we are gaily coasting to utter and irretrievable ruin; still others with apparently equal claims upon our confidence and credulity maintain that our schools are, at last, responding to the sacred summons of a finer Americanism and in their athletic activities are giving expression to the real genius and aspir- ations of our national character. Between these extremes are all inter- mediate gradations. I believe a brief survey of the field of athletics to determine, if we can, the conditions that serve to stimulate these conflicting opinions will amply repay the time and effort required. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 621 Let us first, then, attempt to visualize the situation through the spec- tacles of those to whom the whole athletic program is anathema. Possibly I should warn you that these glasses seem slightly colored at times and, in my judgment, there is considerable distortion of the lenses. Never-the- less, those who condemn athletics unquestionably find a substantial basis , for their attitude in actual conditions and those of us who have an abiding faith in the values of athletics can ill afford to deny them a hearing. What, then, do they see ? In the first place, and possibly most important of all, they see athletics apparently advanced to the position of primary interest in the educational program. There is, say these people, no longer any semblance of what may be termed a "prestige of scholarship." The only prestige now recog- nized and rewarded is the prestige of athletic accomplishment. They see the coffers of athletic departments filled to overflowing and they see fre- quent lavish expenditures for purposes that in their judgment, at least, are fantasic and absurd. They see successful coaches rewarded both ma- terially and socially on a scale of magnificent extravagance far in excess of the rewards accruing to those who are bearing the burdens of what they esteem to be the more substantial and abiding factors of education. They see students who in an earlier educational regime would scarcely have been considered capable of distinctive educational accomplishment exalted on the basis of athletic achievement to positions of highest honor in their schools and they see college presidents vieing with each other in elaborating to these secondary school pupils of athletic renown the tre- mendous educational advantages of their respective institutions. They see influential alumni, coaches of wide distinction and "educational scouts" exerting the full weight of their popularity accompanied, occasionally, it is claimed, by more substantial inducements, to secure for their colleges these choice spirits who, in their high school careers, have made so enviable a record-always in athletics. They see serious minded school men of wide training and successful ex- perience, of idealistic outlook and painstaking industry supplanted in posi- tions where it would seem that the public welfare demands just such qualities as these by successful coaches whose chief claim for promotion lies in the probability of a more effective athletic program from the view- point of turning out winning teams. They see vast mobs of athletic "boosters" demanding a voice in the management of high schools to the end that their irrepressible passion for winning teams may be gratified. They see newspaper editors and correspondents similarly demanding that the school achieve distinctive success in athletics in order that the fame of the team may supply suitable soil for a luxuriant growth of flamboyant copy, afford amply opportunities for the exercise of the jargonistic talents of cub reporters and "put the town on the map." As an inevitable concomitant of these destructive attitudes they see a multiplication of the thrills through the practice of betting on the games 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION whereby is afforded a factor of demoralization probably unexceeded by any other subversive influence. They profess to see the so called " red-blooded, he-man" attitude of the propagandist for athletics as exalting brute force over intellectual and spiritual influences, as promoting vulgarity and con- tempt for the culture and refinements attained through a long and tedious struggle for the supremacy of idealism in human relationships and, in gen- eral, as subverting and negating the ideals and methods of education which have through long and wearisome effort been brought to such a standard of perfection as, until recently, seemed full of promise for a nobler and kindlier association of men. Now this seems like a long and very formidable list of charges to bring against any school project and we cannot escape an attitude of consid- erable concern when such charges are made against an activity that has become so firmly intrenched in our educational scheme as high school athletics. If these charges can be supported it behooves us to busy our- selves either to modify or eliminate entirely an activity that thus threatens our educational system with such demoralizing influences and our society with such dire consequences. But, what are the facts ? In the first place we may as well admit that if we demand only oc- casional, more or less sporadic and isolated cases in evidence the opponents of athletics have the decision. I am sure that flagrant illustrations of every enumerated evil have passed under my personal observation. Anyone hav- ing adequate opportunities for wide observation of high school athletics will see some very discouraging performances. I have seen high school principals resort to very questionable practices to "foster" the athletic in- terests of their schools. Sometimes whole communities under weak or vicious leadership seem to strip away the thin veneer of conventional honor and integrity and revert to cave man ethics. Thoughtless, superficial, weak, even wicked men and women occasionally secure places of power and influence in our social system and probably will continue to do so for some time to come. When such men and women have the guidance and con- trol of high school and athletics or of any other enterprise we may look for foolish or base administration. This is as true in the state, the church. in commerce and industry as in the school. But I am thoroughly convinced that not one of all the charges made against athletics is inherent in the athletics themselves. If we administer them from an improper viewpoint or with improper aims and motives they may indeed become actually destructive of our educational aims. But let us not attribute the offense to athletics. Let us rather attribute it to the weakness and inefficiency of those who administer them. If we turn our attention to the charge that athletics are usurping the place of primary interest in the educational world I believe we shall im- mediately uncover the one, single factor that lies at the bottom of all the evils that either openly or covertly attend the administration of our athletic programs. And this factor, far from being in itself an evil, is a DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 623 virtue of such merit that every teacher in the land might wish it inherent in every subject of the school curriculum. This factor is, in brief, the unequaled entertainment content of athletics for both participants and spectators. I believe most implicitly that if athletic contests made no greater appeal to popular interest than Latin translations we should hear very little about difficulties of administration. On the other hand if Euclidian demonstra- tions aroused the same fervor or, should I say fever ?, of enthusiasm inherent in athletic contests we should be dedicating stadia to Euclid and the ever watchful guardians of our educational integrity would be bemoan- ing the ruthless disregard of the intrinsic amenities of axioms, postulates, hypotheses and corrollaries. I have neither the time nor the necessity, in this paper, for enumerating the elements that enter into this entertainment content of athletic contests. They are many. But I am sure no one will deny the fact of the enter- tainment content of athletic games. I recently heard a college football coach of national renown say that the football coaches of the country were engaged in the biggest show business in America and that they might as well recognize their occupations as such. As to the first of these claims there certainly is ample ground for agreement. We humans the world around just naturally like to see the show staged by our athletes, that's all there is to it. And, furthermore, it is no doubt the personal experience of every one of us that we enjoy a tremendous expansion of the ego when the team to which we attach ourselves in partisan allegiance wins the game. And here is initiated the demand for winning teams with all its train of attendant vices. And it is this expansion of the ego developed by our vicarious vic- tories that stimulates betting with its intensified insistance upon winning teams and the eventual submergence of every ethical and educational ideal in the mad scramble for the top of the percentage column. We like so well to see these games that we unhesitatingly pay large, absurdly large, admission fees for the opportunity to see them. And at that point are initiated whatever financial evils may be attendant upon our athletics. We are so fond of these competitive spectacles that we re- frain from a too inquisitive attitude as to how the money is spent. Athletic departments know that they can get the money. Who is to blame if they charge " all the traffic will bear?" I have no doubt science departments, Latin departments and other departments would do the same thing if they had the opportunity. I am old-fashioned enough to believe that the possession of unlimited wealth does not always contribute to ethical and spiritual uplift. Very few people of unlimited means have the necessary spirit of self denial to withstand the temptations of self-indulgence. So the very presence of well- filled coffers leads to unnecessary and extravagant expenditures. We vie with each other in seeking adequate rewards for athletes and expensive jaunts and elaborate fetes are the order of the day. In Illinois high schools 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION are technically prohibited from giving expensive awards for athletic accom- plishments. But occasionally high school men of reputation seek to evade the letter of the law and ally themselves with the destructive forces of society to make public recognition of the athletic prowess of our high school boys as a commodity having a merchantable value and entitled to a ma- terial reward. And, again, it is the great popular interest in athletics as exhibitions that has stimulated every town "sport" to study the technique of winning games. In general the processes and outcomes of high school activities are rather too subtle and intangible to engage the attention of the average lay mind. The man on the street seldom offers suggestions as to either the matter or method of Latin or Geometry or even of the so-called vocational subjects. But the methods and outcomes of athletic contests are so con- spicuously tangible that they constitute a very vulnerable point of attack for those who assume that a familiarity with the picturesque vocabulary of sports editors and a detailed mastery of the outcomes of current con- tests qualifies them as educational specialists and prompts them to seek an avenue for the expression of their athletic erudition through the high school team. Possibly, being tax payers in a small way, they adhere rather too ardently to the recently announced theory that "The hand that writes the pay check rules the school. " And in the face of the popular demand for a winning team in connec- tion with more or less indifference as to methods employed school men are sometimes prompted to court popularity and prestige, both institutional and personal, by yielding to the clamor of the "sports" and sacrificing the educational ideals to placate the demands of the spectators. Thus eligibility violations are winked at, professionalism constitutes no bar, athletes are subsidized and various irregularities are condoned. The desire is strong to deal in much greater detail with these alleged evils. But the time limitation imposed upon me demands that I proceed to a consideration of remedies. Surely those of us who esteem athletics for their educational values are not going to permit them to degenerate into destructive and demoralizing influences negating the ideals of ethical char- acter at which our educational efforts are aiming and nullifying all of those constructive and wholesome educational practices which we all esteem and which our critics are so jealously and so justly guarding. If I am right in assuming that all of the evils of interscholastic athletics grow either directly or deviously out of their unusual entertainment con- tent then it would seem to be the logical thing to do to look to a proper regulation and control of athletic exhibitions to remedy the abuses which in my judgment really afford a very vulnerable point of attack for our opponents. In this hypothesis, too, I am confident I am on the right track. But who can draw the line between the wholesome and wholly legitimate use of athletics for public entertainment and the exaggerated, over-emphasis which reduces our educational institutions to glorified circuses intent, some DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 625 times I fear, upon deliberately setting up a smoke screen of athletic suc- cess to distract attention from a paucity of intellectual and moral values. As a citizen and a taxpayer as well as an educator I should strenuously oppose a discontinuance of interscholastic contests. When properly safe- guarded they constitute a source of clean, wholesome, stimulating enter- tainment that certainly far excels the modern stage or movie. Yet I do believe that there are today thousands of school men who have abrogated the function of educator or have, at least, made it subordinate and sub- servient to the function of showmen. This is bad. In solving the problem we have recourse to both direct and indirect at- tack. Some of the college conferences have set us an excellent example of direct attack by limiting the number of interscholastic games in each sport and by prohibiting intersectional and post-season games. High schools must eventually adopt similar rules. The National Association of Secondary School Principals in session at Cincinnati last February recom- mended such a limitation of high school contests and also the entire elimi- nation of interscholastic contests betweens girls' teams. Both of these pro- posals have my entire endorsement. The best authorities I can find agree that both the physical and mental health of high school girls are seriously endangered by interscholastic contests. In my judgment any such contest must be based in large measure upon the exhibition motive and amounts in effect to the exploitation of our high school girls in the interest of the gate receipts. Let me appeal to every high school principal present to go back to his own State and employ his energy and his influence in the interest of in- corporating these limitations into the regulations of his State athletic asso- ciation, This would be a rational and justifiable step toward a direct limitation upon the exhibition aspect of our athletics. Indirectly our attack must be through such eligibility requirements as will put a premium upon scholarship, and the refinements of culture and will in general encourage rather than negate the commonly accepted ethical and scholastic aims of the high school. I hear over and over that in these matters we cannot go much faster than is warranted by the progress of our clientele. This is only approximately true. In my judgment we should always keep well ahead of them. And then we must have such cordial coöperation and support from school men that the constant tendency will be for the lay booster to "go along" in the enforcement of our rules. But at any rate, and this is the very first importance, the ultimate direc- tion and control of the athletic program must reside in the high school principal. Whenever on any pretext the direction of high school athletics is usurped by any association of " fans" or by alumni associations or com- mercial clubs or even by organizations of such idealism as Kiwanis and Rotary Clubs we are embarked upon a course that can end only in disaster. But since the high school principal's job is to be discussed in another paper I need not follow that topic further. 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There is no doubt whatever that we have already made notable progress along many lines. I have some very definite data relative to the scholar- ship of high school athletes as compared with the scholarship of other high school boys. We had in Illinois 6000 high school boys participating in our State-wide basketball tournaments in March, 1925. I attempted to collect data on the scholarship of these boys and got official reports on 3300 of them. My data reveal that 32 per cent of these were in the upper quarter of their respective classes, 33 per cent were in the second quarter, 22 per cent were in the third quarter while only 12 per cent were in the lowest quarter. This shows a decided advantage in scholarship on the part of high school athletes over their nonathletic associates and is undoubtedly due, in part, to the restrictions imposed by our eligibility rules. The very poor students are denied the privilege of playing on the teams. I am sure that what I have already said reveals my concern relative to the charge of financial extravagance. I believe it is all too common. In an address prepared several years ago I suggested that a complete cure for such extravagance and waste would be to put athletics on the same financial basis as all other school activities. That is, let the athletic funds be raised by taxation. There is really no logical argument against such procedure. The only argument against it is that athletic departments would have far less money to spend. Or, if the school authorities desire to profit by the entertainment appeal of athletics let all receipts be turned into the general school fund and then expend money for athletic purposes on regular school warrants just as other expenditures are made. The first of these courses would absolutely eliminate, and the second would greatly reduce the probabilities of, any wasteful and unnecessary expenditures. But in the present status of public opinion the advocacy of such a course is like trying to whistle against the wind and the advocate is a voice crying in the wilderness. So all we can do is to urge a sane and conservative budget with a close supervision and inspection of all expenditures. And I should especially insist upon eliminating all expensive awards or rewards of every kind for the athlete himself. But if the administration of athletics is fraught with such difficulties why should we not follow the advice of their critics and eliminate them en- tirely from our high school activities ? To do so would, in my judgment, deprive the schools of one of their very most effective means of developing the type of wholesome, straight- forward, ethical character and generally efficient manhood just now so much needed in our society. Even on the physical side, while it may be true that boys who make the interscholastic teams are not greatly in need of further physical development, yet the intense interest in their achieve- ments stimulates many physically less perfect pupils to emulate their activi- ties and the interscholastic game thus becomes a constant incentive to hygienic habits of living, adequate exercise and a generally effective program looking toward greater physical efficiency on the part of numberless pupils DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 627 who never make the teams. It takes a much more immediate goal than an abstract ideal of future physical efficiency to stimulate the average high school boy to correct physical habits. The athlete, stimulating as he does a certain factor of hero worship always present in the normal high school boy, affords exactly the immediate aim necessary to incite to effective efforts in the acquisition of strength and energy. So that through the athlete we set up a practical and very alluring ideal of physical efficiency that undoubtedly promotes health training throughout the schools. Again, an extremely valuable immediate end of athletics is one that is sometimes urged as an argument against them, namely, that they make such large demands upon the boys' time. The error consists in assum- ing that were it not for athletics the boys would be at their books or at some constructive work. I venture that in four cases out of five, under our modern organization of society, if the boys were not at their athletics they would be frequenting some objectionable resorts or occupying them- selves with trifling or corrupting activities. In most cases, the athletics, demanding as they do practically all of the boys' leisure time, are a real godsend. And still further, by furnishing a legitimate outlet for the sur- plus energy of the boys, through the sheer weariness imposed by the athletic activities the boys are saved from numerous types of excesses with which the educational forces have to contend. We ought to congratulate ourselves on being able to employ a major portion of the leisure time of our boys in such wholesome exercises and we should be fortunate indeed if we could make such recreational activities so habitual that they would persist throughout the boy's life long after the passing of the school period. And still further, in a day when popular philosophy seems to put the stamp of approval upon unrestricted "self-expression" even to the point of self-indulgence and sensuality we should thank God for an educational project that emphasizes self-restraint and a modicum, at least, of self- denial for a rigid discipline of hygienic living is the exorable condition of athletic success. And who can estimate the value in this formative period of a boy's life of so practical a demonstration of the theory that the truest type of self-expression is to be attained through a sane and sys- tematic self-control? But the finest outcomes of athletics are to be found in the realms of social control and ethics. It is my firm conviction that we today have no other high school activity that approaches athletics in opportunities for the development, through actual practice, of all of those social virtues that are so essential to the art of "living together." For in addition the personal qualities of alertness, determination, persistence and courage, the successful team athlete must practice the virtues of self-control, team work and coöperation, the submergence of the self in the interest of the group, and unselfish devotion and loyalty to a social unit, virtues of which all society stands so much in need. Then there are the further virtues of courtesy to opponents, the attitude and practice of "fair play," the cultiva- tion of the amenities that govern the conduct of gentlemen and, in short, all 628 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of those virtues which we popularly sum up in the term "good sportsman- ship" which may be briefly defined as the practice of the golden rule in the competitive activities of life. Let us concede to literature, philosophy, ethics and other social studies the noble function of developing and emphasizing high ideals of social behavior. In athletics we have the opportunity of translating these ideals into social practice and habit. Athletics can never supplant these tradi- tional subjects but they can and do, when wisely administered, most effec- tively supplement them. There can be no legitimate quarrel between them. And so my appeal is for a rigid control of interscholastic athletics in the interests of our educational objectives. In gaining this control we shall have to overcome some very fundamental traits of human nature. But let us not succumb to that traditional slogan of the pessimist, "you can't change human nature." As a matter of fact we are daily changing human nature. In large measure that is the chief function of civilization. We must educate, first, our principals and faculties to the end that we shall all understand the aims and methods of our athletics programs. And, sec- ondly, we must educate our public to the end that they are willing to repose the athletics along with other educational activities in the hands of the educational experts. And with these accomplished we shall have at hand for the discipline and nurture of our youth an instrument of education not excelled by any other subject or exercise included in the high school curriculum. THE HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL'S JOB IN ATHLETICS ARTHUR L. TRESTER, PERMANENT SECRETARY OF THE INDIANA HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION, ANDERSON, INDIANA High School athletics have gone through several stages in recent years and in the main there has been a very decided growth in an educational way as each stage has given way to the succeeding stage. The progress has been from rabid opposition or the "Athletics is an evil" stage through a necessary but unwelcome toleration of athletic activities, through accept- ance and provision for facilities and management to the present time when athletic activities are recognized as not only deserving of management but of sympathetic support. The educational values of athletics properly con- ducted are being appreciated by school men and laymen as never before. Condemnation, denunciation and damnation have given way to clear think- ing, wise planning, sympathetic management and the proper fostering of this field of secondary education. In all of these stages in the growth of athletics in secondary schools the Principal has been given, often without request or pleasure on his part, a larger and larger place in the formation of policies, the determination DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 629 of programs, the selection of coaches and directors, the dove-tailing process of making athletics an integral part of the curriculum, the adjustment of ideas within and without the school regarding athletic activities and the execution of the program so that the proper educational values result. There is no element of high school work, both in the junior high school and in the senior high school, that demands the best in high school prin- cipals in more ways and with greater urgency than the one of administra- tion and supervision of athletic games for boys and girls, intra-school and interschool. The field of proper and desired athletics in secondary schools has never been and is not now properly filled for secondary school students. Junior high school principals and senior high school principals are chal- lenged by the thousands of secondary school students and by the thou- sands of school communities in the United States to take advanced ground in their thinking on the question of "Athletics For All." Many High School Principals are accepting in a fine way this responsibility and as a consequence our secondary school students are receiving as a part of their education the teaching, the training and the values connected with con- tests, competitive activities, games, and sports. In all too many cases the high school principal is lacking in the train- ing necessary for the proper handling, control, and guidance of athletic activities both within the school and between schools. Many of our high school principals are lacking in the skills that are born in the actual participation in games and sports. These skills were no part in their op- portunity nor training in their younger years. In many places there is an alarming lack of proper attitudes on the part of high school men and women toward the play of boys and girls. The educational values of prop- erly conducted athletic activities have never been appreciated by many prin- cipals and superintendents. Play is "monkey business," as far as the thinking of some school administrators has gone. "Athletics is an evil" has been the end of too much thinking and planning in this important field of high school education. Athletic policies in individual schools and in the schools of a State are often entirely absent or formed on too little think- ing along educational lines. The job of being a high school principal, therefore, at the present time requires men and women who do not lack the training mentioned above or who are trying in every way to secure it even at so late a date. The elements in the job of the high school principal in athletics are many and rather varied but he can not ignore any of them. School men for the most part came into the field of athletics and games too late by several years, but the job belongs largely to the high school principals and they must assume it. The formation, establishment, and maintenance of athletic policies lo- cally, in State and in Nation is an element in the job of conducting athletic activities and it is an element in the job of the high school principal. This element in his work must be assumed as his and not delegated to any other party. He must not abdicate in this piece of work for as soon as he 630 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION shows any such tendency or a tendency to looseness, elements of control enter from the outside that are altogether undesirable. The high school principal is the party to make the proper selection of the major sports and the minor sports in both intra-school and inter- school athletics. In order to do this he must have some well established standards of selection. This job belongs to the principal after he has re- ceived contributions from all sources and after he has weighed and evaluated all suggestions carefully with a view to having a high school with no flat wheels. The element of sportsmanship is one belonging to athletic activities but not to athletic activities alone. A definite program must be mapped out and carefully followed in order to secure the best results here. Sports- manship is not secured by spasmodic efforts in rallies just prior to games. It is secured by continuous efforts, well-directed efforts and by efforts ex- tended by all students and by all faculty members be they coaches, physical directors, or academic teachers. It must be taught as English must be taught-by all of the teachers all of the time. The proper handling of the finances in athletics is one of the most im- portant elements in the job of being a high school principal. It is ex- ceedingly important and the part of wisdom to give much attention to this phase of the work in athletics. This is not a job for a student nor for a committee of students. It is a job for the principal of the high school. In all probability the best way to handle the finances of athletic activities is to select a faculty financial secretary to handle all extra-curricular ac- tivity funds. Of course, the handling of athletic funds will be a part of his job. Accurate receipts and expenditures should be kept. Bills should be paid only upon the presentation of sanctioned invoices presented by the proper parties. Frequent reports covering in detail the condition of the athletic fund should be made to the public, the school board, the principal, and academic teachers, and to the students. In a word, good business procedure should prevail at all times. The financial secretary should be under bond and proper audits should be made frequently. Since the high school principal is the responsible party in high school athletic affairs, he must be given authority commensurate with his re- sponsibilities. The selection, teaching, and training of the coaching per- sonnel in athletic activities is a responsibility of the high school principal and he should be given quite a latitude in authority here. The high school principal should have the guiding hand in this matter. There is going on now and there will be more going on in the future in the problem of dove-tailing athletic activities and physical education. This is an element in the job of the principal and we are finding many of them not ready for the attack. Some are not ready in ways and means while others are not ready in their thinking. There are those who cling to the easy notion that athletics and physical education are not related and should always remain separate and distinct. Such a notion is erroneous as all good DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 631 clean-cut athletic activities are elements in good physical education and good clean-cut physical education is made up on the physical training side with games, sports, play, and competitive activities. In the final analysis, we will consider athletics an integral part of physi- cal training, physical training an integral part of physical education, and physical education an integral part of the school program with health as the fundamental basis under all. The job of community leadership as an element in the work of the high school principal has come to the front in importance by rapid strides in the affairs of athletic activities. The modern high school principal has no bigger job than the one of community leadership in athletic activities. It is an element in his work that he can not neglect. It is an element that challenges the very best that is in him. This job, this challenge, this op- portunity if you please, should be grasped firmly and willingly by the high school principal. It is his chance to make good in the field of real leadership. Probably the biggest element in the job of the high school principal and others closely associated, as pertains to athletics, is the formation of a public opinion that is intelligent. Loose thinking and unscientific evaluations in athletic affairs must give way to careful thinking and scientific evalua- tions. We must cease to assume, for instance, that honesty is always taught when a game is played. While we are measuring the results in other de- partments of education, we must measure also the results in physical educa- tion and athletics. It is an important element, therefore, in the job of the high school principal to mould public opinion in the right way regard- ing the values of athletics and physical education. This must be done by clear thinking and by a scientific study of adolescent boys and girls on the physical, mental, social, and moral sides. Department of Superintendence SECRETARY'S MINUTES AND OFFICIAL PROGRAM CINCINNATI, 1925 OFFICERS President , WILLIAM MCANDREW, Superintendent of Schools ... ..Chicago , IU. First Vice- president, PAYSON SMITH, State Commissioner of Education .. Boston, Mass. Second Vice-president, JOHN J. MADDOX, Superintendent of Schools .... St. Louis, Mo. Executive Secretary, SHERWOOD D. SHANKLAND, 1201 16th St. N. W., Washington, D. C. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE RANDALL J. CONDON, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1925) .. Cincinnati, Ohio FRANK W. BALLOU, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1926) .. Washington, D. C. FRANK D. BOYNTON, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1927 ) ...... Ithaca, N. Y. MELVIN G. CLARK, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1928) .... Sioux City, Iowa Historical note-At the meeting of the National Teachers' ( Education) Association in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1865, the State and city superin- tendents present decided to form an organization, to be composed exclusively of those engaged in supervisory work in the schools. This group decided to meet in Washington, D. C., in February, 1866 , at which time the work of organizing was completed. The new organization was called the National Association of School Superintendents. Nine States and twenty cities were represented. The mayor of Washington gave the new organization a cordial welcome, and the members were received by President Johnson, who expressed great interest in their aims and purposes . In 1870, the National Association of School Superintendents merged into the National Educational Association as a department. Following a change in the by-laws of the association, adopted in July 1921, the department was reorganized under a new constitution, with a full-time secretary. It publishes a report of its annual meeting, which appears also in the Asso- ciation's Proceedings and a yearbook which is sent only to its members. Sunday Afternoon, February 22, 1925 "Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened."-President Washington, Farewell Ad- dress, 1796. American Ideals and the Public Schools Vesper Service-The 193d Anniversary of the birth of Washington ORGAN PRELUDE-Even Song, Martin Mrs. Lillian Arkell Rixford . CALL TO WORSHIP [633] 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PRAYER The Reverend Frank H. Nelson, Rector, Christ Church, Cincinnati. CHORUS RESPONSE-Girls' Glee Club, accompanied by String Orchestra Deep River-Burleigh Hymn of Praise-Marchetti RESPONSIVE READINGS-Words of the Founders, selected and adapted. Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.- Paul. Even so faith, if it hath not works, is dead, being alone. -James. This day we sailed west, for that was the course. -Columbus . Sail on ! Sail on! Sail on ! May not and ought not the children of these fathers rightly say: Our fathers were Englishmen which came over this great ocean, and were ready to perish in this wilderness ; But they cried unto ye Lord, and he heard their voyce, and looked on their adversitie. Let them, therefore, praise ye Lord, because he is good, and his mercies endure for ever. Let them confess before ye Lord, his loving kindness , And his wonderfull works before ye sons of men. -Governor Bradford, of Plymouth Plantation. To hold forth a lively experiment that a most flourishing civil state may stand and best be maintained with full liberty in religious concernments.- John Clarke, of Rhode Island Colony. We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the com- mon Defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CON- STITUTION for the United States of America. Humbly and fervently to beseech the kind author of these blessings, graciously to prolong them to us ; Teach us rightly to estimate their immense value ; Preserve us from the arrogance of prosperity; Extend among us true and useful knowledge. Keep the United States in thy holy protection, Incline the hearts of the citizens to cultivate a spirit of subordination and obedience to government, And entertain a brotherly affection and love for one another. Dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper which were the characteristics of the divine author of our blessed religion, and without a humble imitation of whose example in these things we can never hope to be a happy nation.- Washington. Happy that King who is great by Justice, And that People who are free by Obedience.-Penn. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 635 By far the most important bill in our whole code, is that for the diffusion of knowledge among the people. No other sure foundation can be devised for the preservation of freedom and happiness. Preach a crusade against ignorance ; Establish and improve the law for educating the common people. -Jefferson. Let us by all wise and constitutional measures promote intelligence among the people. As the best means of preserving our liberties. Monroe. The good citizen must in the first place recognize what he owes his fellow- citizens . If he is worthy to live in a free republic, he must keep before his eyes his duty to the nation of which he forms a part.-Roosevelt. Our Government rests upon religion. It is from that source that we derive our reverence for truth and justice, for equality and liberty and for the rights of mankind. Unless the people believe in these principles they cannot believe in our Government.- President Coolidge. America was established in order to vindicate, at any rate in our Gov. ernment, the fundamental rights of man. And the hopes of mankind cannot be kept alive by words merely, by con- stitutions and doctrines of right and codes of liberty. The object of democracy is to transmute these into the life and action of society, the self-denial and self-sacrifice of heroic men and women willing to make their lives an embodiment of right and service and enlightened purpose. Once more we shall make good with our lives and fortunes the great faith to which we were born, and a new glory shall shine in the face of our people. Wilson . Our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take renewed devotion to the cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion-that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain. That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, And that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.-Lincoln. Remove not the ancient land-mark, which thy fathers have set.- Proverbs 22:28. Our fathers' God ! to thee, Author of liberty ! To thee we sing ; Long may our land be bright With freedom's holy light, Protect us by thy might, Great God, our King ! 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HYMN-To Thee O, Country ! Eichberg. SALUTATION Frank B. Dyer, Board of Education, Cincinnati. STRING ORCHESTRA AND ORGAN Vesper Bells-Lefebure-Wely SALUTE TO THE FLAG-followed by America, the Beautiful ADDRESS- The Faith of the Founders Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. HYMN-O God, Our Help in Ages Past BENEDICTION The Reverend George A. Thayer, Pastor Emeritus, Unitarian Church, Cincinnati. ORGAN POSTLUDE Monday Morning, February 23 "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good govern- ment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged."-Ordinance of 1787. Music-Organ Selections-Alma Strautmann WHY IS SUPERINTENDENCE ? Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo., President, National Education Association. WHAT IS SUPERINTENDENCE ? Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. WHAT PROGRESS HAS SUPERINTENDENCE MADE ? Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. Monday Afternoon, February 23 Group Meeting A "From the beginning these states engaged, as a duty of govern- ment, to secure to all equal rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Chairman, John J. Tigert, United States Commissioner of Education, Wash- ington, D. C. EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY John J. Tigert, Washington, D. C. IN THE SOUTH A. F. Harman, Superintendent of Montgomery County Schools, Mont- gomery, Ala. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 637 IN THE NORTH Ernest W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, N. Η. Talks will be illustrated by lantern slides and moving pictures. Group Meeting B "All men are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights. Among these is life." Chairman,C. B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. HEALTH EDUCATION VERSUS PHYSICAL TRAINING Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. WHAT THE EDUCATOR OUGHT TO KNOW ABOUT MODERN MEDICINE William D. Haggard, M. D., Professor of Surgery, Vanderbilt Univer- sity, Nashville, Tenn., President-elect, American Medical Association. Group Meeting C "To establish justice." Chairman, Arthur C. Perry, Jr., District Superintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y. JUSTICE FOR PUPILS H. O. Dietrich, Superintendent of Schools, Norristown, Pa. JUSTICE FOR TEACHERS E. Marie Gugle, Columbus, Ohio. JUSTICE IN HIGH PLACES Arthur C. Perry, Jr., Brooklyn, N. Y. Group Meeting D "To insure domestic tranquillity." Chairman, John O. Chewning, Superintendent of Schools, Evansville, Ind. STUDENT SELF -GOVERNMENT John O. Chewning, Evansville, Ind. CONTROVERSIAL SUBJECTS IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS Herbert S. Houston, Publisher, Our World Weekly, New York City. Group Meeting E "To Provide for the Common Defense." Chairman, William J. Bogan, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Chicago 111. DEFENSE THROUGH THE EDUCATED QUOTA : THE ALL-YEAR SCHOOL H. C. Weber, Superintendent of Schools, Nashville, Tenn. FORTIFICATION BY PUBLIC OPINION Erie C. Hopwood, Editor, Plain Dealer, Cleveland, Ohio. 638 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION DEFENSE AGAINST ACCIDENTS-Illustrated with motion pictures Zach C. Elkin, Chicago Motor Club, Chicago, Ill. SAFEGUARDING PEACE ( Illustrated) Major F. L. Beals, Supervisor of Physical Education and Military Training, Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Monday Evening, February 23 "A More Perfect Union." OUR LINCOLN-An Ode for Children's Voices Words by W. C. Washburn; Music by Joseph Surdo. Sung by 800 elementary pupils of the 27th District, Vine St., Central, Fairmount, Peaslee, Raschig, and Webster Schools. Accompanied by Withrow High School orchestra. Director of Chorus-Gustav Clemens Director of Orchestra-Joseph Surdo THE NEXT STEP : THE OUTLAWRY OF WAR Raymond Robins, Lieutenant Colonel, United States Army. Retired, Chicago, Ill. Tuesday Morning, February 24 "To Promote the General Welfare." EXECUTIVE SESSION- For Members of the Department of Superintendence only MUSIC- SELECTIONS -Hughes High School Band; A. R. KRATZ, Director (a) Dances from "Henry VIII” . German (b) March, Men of Ohio .... Fillmore (c) March, Military Escort . ..Bennett Chairman, John H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebraska . Seven-Minute Contributions DOLLAR FOR DOLLAR Carleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools, Savannah, Ga. HOW WE USE VOCATIONAL INFORMATION W. W. Borden, Superintendent of Schools, South Bend, Ind. INTRODUCING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH F. W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. CENTRAL LIBRARY: A DISTRIBUTING POINT Henry C. Johnson, Superintendent of Schools, San Diego, Calif. A HOME FOR RETIRED TEACHERS Olive M. Jones, Public School 120, New York City. OUR NEW BUILDING PROGRAM Henry S. West, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 639 THE PERSONNEL AUDIT OF THE TEACHING STAFF E. E. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools, Flint, Mich. THE SUPERINTENDENT AND THE BUSINESS MANAGER : AN ANOMALY George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. HOW WE CELEBRATED EDUCATION WEEK J. W. Gowans, Superintendent of Schools, Hutchinson, Kans. TAKING THE SCHOOL TO THE PARENTS James A. Nugent, Superintendent of Schools, Jersey City, N. J. OUTCOMES OF OUR CURRICULUM PROGRAM Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. BUSINESS MEETING Nomination of officers from the floor. Wednesday Morning, February 25 "In Union There Is Strength" MUSIC-ORCHESTRAL SELECTIONS-Combined Elementary School Orchestra- Director, MERRILL B. VAN PELT ( a) Overture-Gypsy Festival .. Fillmore (b) Rose Buds ..... Zamecmik (c) Hunting Song ..... Lazarus (d) March-"Our Boys" Zamecmik Chairman, Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. , and Chairman of the Commission on the Curriculum. THE CURRICULUM : A PARAMOUNT ISSUE TODAY Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. THE CURRICULUM PROBLEM ATTACKED SCIENTIFICALLY Ernest Horn, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. MEETING COMMUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL NEEDS John W. Withers, Dean, School of Education, New York University, New York City. HOW THE INDIVIDUAL CITY MAY SOLVE THE PROBLEM A. L. Threlkeld, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. A COOPERATIVE PLAN FOR CURRICULUM REVISION Zenos E. Scott, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass. BALLOT BOXES OPEN Music Hall and Hotel Gibson, votes for officers of the Department of Superintendence may be deposited between 11:00 A.M. and 6:00 P.M. 640 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thursday Morning, February 26 "To secure the blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our posterity." SELECTIONS-WOODWARD HIGH SCHOOL ORCHESTRA WHAT THE COLLEGES CAN DO FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS William Lowe Bryan, President, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. E. G. Doudna, Editor, Wisconsin Journal of Education, Madison, Wis. Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools, Ithaca, N. Y. FINAL BUSINESS SESSION Thursday Afternoon, February 26 "The good education of youth has been esteemed by wise men in all ages as the surest foundation of the happiness both of private families and of the commonwealth."-Benjamin Franklin, proposals relating to the education of youth in Pennsylvania, 1749. Chairman, E. U. Graff, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. HAPPINESS AND SCHOOL MUSIC-Indianapolis Teachers ' Chorus. "Largo" from Xerxes . ......Handel Indiana State Song "On the Banks of the Wabash" ... Paul Dresser If I Knew You . MacDermid The Home Road ... .Carpenter Whip-poor-will Hahn Chorus To a Wild Rose . MacDowell Sextet Volga Boatmen's Song. Russian Santa Lucia Italian Crusaders Hymn German Chorus Trees Hahn Double Quartet Serenade Schubert "Lovely Appear" from The Redemption . .... Gounod Chorus Mrs. Frank T. Edenharter and Mrs. Lenora Coffin, Accompanists. Ernest G. Hesser, Director of Public School Music, Indianapolis, Ind. LIFE, LIBERTY, AND HAPPINESS THROUGH ART EXPRESSION ( Illustrated by work of Vienna children of the classes of Professor Franz Cizek ) Antoinette B. Hollister, Edgewood School, Greenwich, Conn. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATION'S HAPPINESS A processional by the public schools of Cincinnati. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 641 ORGAN PRELUDE-A HERALDING VOICE Out of the shadows of night The world rolls into Light ; It is daybreak everywhere ! PROLOGUE- The Coming of Light Darkness with the beginning of Light is indicated by the flickering flames which finally evolve into form, culminating in the Fire Dance. From this springs the figure of Light, which, throughout the seven episodes , is symbolical of Knowledge and advancing civilization. EPISODE I-Joys of Childhood The imaginative factors so strong in the race and in childhood are sym- bolized in the dance of Peter Pan and the Kindergarten children. EPISODE II-Joys of Youth, Health, and Happiness The health and free physical activity of youth are suggested by a joyous folk-dance, and by groups of children representing various forms of sport and play, such as ball games, hoop rolling, kite flying, sprinting, and leap frog. EPISODE III-Joy in Nature Joy in nature is symbolized, through the delights which the children may find in each of the seasons of the year-winter sports, summer's call, and the dances of autumn and spring. EPISODE IV-Joy in Practical Arts The appearance of groups showing many activities suggests the dignity and beauty of the Crafts. Household arts are symbolized through the Cycle of the Bread, indicated by the farmer, miller, and baker ; and through the Dance of the Textiles. Trades and vocations are rep- resented by the groups in woodworking, metal working, printing and drawing, electricity, and automotive trades . EPISODE V-Joy in Fine Arts, Form, Color, Rhythm, and Melody Form, color, rhythm, and melody find expression in song, in design, and in a dance embodying all these. EPISODE VI-Joy in Literature Childhood's beloved characters come to life and step from the pages of fiction, fairy tale, adventure, poetry, romance, chivalry, and drama. EPISODE VII-Joy in Service The seventh episode symbolizes joy in service. First, through Festivals : Hallowe'en, historically interpreted as light dispelling darkness ; Harvest Home, in gathering and rejoicing; Thanksgiving with its note of reverence and praise; Christmas with the Tree of Light and Carollers of Joy. Second, through the spirit of service and patriotism in the Community; Junior Red Cross ; Boy and Girl Scouts; Civic and Voca- tional League, and an Americanization unit. FINALE-America, the Beautiful-Chorus and Audience. 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thursday Evening, February 26 "I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be, blythe and strong, The boatman singing what belongs to him, The delicious singing of the mother, or of the young wife at work or of the girl, Each singing what belongs to him or her; The day what belongs to the day-at night the party of young fellows robust, friendly, Singing with open mouths their strong melodicus songs." -Walt Whitman . The Public School and the Happiness of the Nation Massed Chorus of seven hundred fifty, with accompaniment of organ and high school orchestras by pupi's of Cincinnati Schools. Director of Chorus, Louis Aiken ; Director of Girls' Glee Club, E. Jane Wisenall; Director of Orchestra, A. R. Kratz; Organist, J. Warren Ritchey. ORCHESTRA-Egyptian Ballet ..... ... .Luigini CHORUS-Sanctus Gounod GIRLS' GLEE CLUBS-How Lovely are the Messengers . ..... Mendelssohn THE GOSPEL OF BEAUTY Lorado Taft, Chicago, Ill. CHORUS Lovely June . Arditi GIRLS' GLEE CLUBS (a) Walnut Tree ..... .Schumann (b) Wake Miss Lindy. Warner CHORUS -Zion Awake ... Costa SECRETARY'S MINUTES CINCINNATI, OHIO, FEBRUARY 22-26, 1925 The fifty-fifth annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence was opened Sunday afternoon, February 22, 1925, in Withrow High School with a vesper service commemorating the one-hundred-ninety-third anni- versary of the birth of Washington. Other general sessions were held in the Cincinnati Music Hall. The keynote of the convention was "School is for Service, not for Self." February 23 After the convention had been called to order Monday morning, Mr. Frank W. Wright, of the State Department of Education of Massachusetts, speaking on behalf of former President Payson Smith, presented a gavel to President William McAndrew. Mr. Wright stated that the gavel was made by the students of the Fitchburg State Normal School. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 643 February 24 At the business session Tuesday morning, the president announced the appointment of the committee on resolutions and the Board of Tellers. A meeting of the Resolutions Committee at the Business Men's Club at 4 o'clock Tuesday afternoon was announced. Albert H. Hill, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va., and Henry S. West, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md., were named as the auditing committee. Nominations for officers were made as follows: For president, Frank W. Ballou, superin- tendent of schools, Washington, D. C., and J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, San Francisco, California; for second vice-president, George N. Child, superintendent of schools, Salt Lake City, Utah; A. H. Hill, super- intendent of schoo's, Richmond, Va.; E. E. Lewis, superintendent of schools, Flint, Mich.; Arthur C. Perry, Jr., district superintendent of schools, Brooklyn, N. Y.; for member of Executive Committee, Norman R. Crozier, superintendent of schools, Dallas, Texas; C. Ray Gates, super- intendent of schools, Grand Island, Nebr. February 25 At the c'ose of the program presented Wednesday morning by the Com- mission on the Curriculum, the following statement was made by President William McAndrew : "Let me say that this department has reached the point where it is determined that action shall follow discussion . Over the doors of one of the great engineering schools is the word, ipso, which stands for 'investigate, formulate, ca'culate, operate.' This Department through its Commission on the Curriculum has investigated, formulated, calculated, and now it has decided that the schools must operate. The Commission itself will be in consultation with you in its committee room on the Ballroom Floor at the Hotel Gibson from 1 until 3 o'clock. Superintendents of schools who have already begun work in revision are requested to report that fact, and others interested are invited to ca'l there. It is the intention of the Executive Committee of the Department of Superintendence to continue in office the members of the Curriculum Commission or to supply omissions if any have resigned, and we desire to have your opinion on the subject . As many as are in favor of continuing the Commission will signify by say- ing 'Aye' ; those who oppose will say 'No. " The vote was affirmative, and the commission was directed to continue for another year . February 26 Milton C. Potter, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, as chairman, presented the report of the Committee on Resolutions at the opening of the Thursday morning session. The report was adopted, section by section, as read. At the close of the session Thursday morning, the tellers presented their report of the election, which was as follows : 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CINCINNATI, OHIO, February 26, 1925. REPORT OF BOARD OF TELLERS We hereby certify that the following persons were elected to the offices named below at the election of the Department of Superintendence held this day. President : Frank W. Ballou, superintendent of schools, Washington, D. C. Second Vice-President: E. E. Lewis, superintendent of schools, Flint, Michigan. Member Executive Committee for four years : Norman R. Crozier, superintendent of schools , Dallas, Texas . Respectfully submitted, BURR J. MERRIAM DAVID B. CORSON, Chairman IRA J. BRIGHT E. M. OTIS F. D. BOYΝΤΟΝ R. E. RAWLINS FRANK W. WRIGHT EDWARD B. SELLEW BURR H. JONES President McAndrew then introduced Superintendent Frank W. Ballou , of Washington, D. C., the newly-elected president. Mr. Ballou spoke as follows: " It has been said there are three events in the life of every man: when he is born, when he is married, and when he dies. I desire to add one to this trilogy, that of election to the presidency of the Department of Super- intendence. You have conferred upon me a great honor which I thor- oughly appreciate. You have likewise placed upon me as presiding officer for the coming year great responsibilities. It will be my purpose to under- stand and to maintain the high standard of programs of my predecessors, including that arranged for us for this occasion by the incomparable William McAndrew." On motion of Mr. Broome, the Executive Committee was authorized to print the address of Superintendent F. D. Boynton, of Ithaca, New York, and to distribute a copy to each college president in the United States. It was announced that the vacancy on the Executive Committee occas- ioned by the elevation of Mr. Ballou from the Executive Committee to the presidency, had been filled as provided by the constitution, by action of the Executive Committee, in the election of C. B. Glenn, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Alabama. The final business meeting then ad- journed. RESOLUTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE February 26, 1925 Resolutions Committee MILTON C. POTTER, Superintendent of Schools, Chairman . ..Milwaukee, Wis. CHARLES B. GLENN , Superintendent of Schools .. .Birmingham, Ala. GEORGE D. STRAYER, Teachers College, Columbia University . .... New York, N. Y. MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Superintendent of Schools ... .Los Angeles, Calif. THEODORE SAAM, Superintendent of Schools.. Council Bluffs , Iowa Thanks to Cincinnati-We record our grateful and hearty appreciation of the splendid hospitality of the citizens of Cincinnati, of the untiring ef DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 645 forts of the local committee and the splendid coöperation of the public press. We are especially grateful to the members of the Board of Education, the Superintendent of Schools and his staff, and to teachers and children of the public schools who have helped to make this convention a success. Education in the Nation's capital-Inasmuch as the Federal Govern- ment has in but one city the opportunity of setting up a model school plant and organization, the Department of Superintendence rejoices that much needed legislation for the schools of the Nation's capital has been passed, including the Teachers' Salary Act, the Compulsory School Attendance and School Census Law, and the Five-Year School Building program authorizing an expenditure of $ 19,000,000 for school buildings and grounds in the city of Washington. The Department expresses its thanks to Con- gress and the President of the United States for this substantial contribu- tion to the welfare of the children of Washington. Moral education-We applaud the increased emphasis being placed upon character training in the schools of our country. The systematic effort so to organize the school as to make of it a civic and moral workshop is a forward step and merits encouragement of school authorities. Decency-We commend the constructive efforts being made in many communities to encourage clean drama and condemn licentiousness. We deplore the elaboration of the details of crime on the stage and in motion pictures, books, and newspapers. In spite of the danger inherent in censor- ship we commend and will support the people in legislature assembled en- acting measures for the preservation of common decency. Our women-The Department of Superintendence recognizes with satis- faction the tendency of the American press to cease a traditional and stupid practice of ridiculing by cartoons and by alleged humorous paragraphs the fine women who constitute a large majority of the teaching corps of Amer- ica. No decent allegiance to the American ideals as expressed by its best statesmen who have called education the hope of the country, can be main- tained if public prints, while claiming to respect education, continue to throw disrespect upon the women who to a large degree are the educators. Child Labor Amendment-We believe in the necessity for a proper con- servation of childhood and to that end pledge our unfaltering support to the proposed Child Labor Amendment. We respectfully urge its adoption by the various State legislatures. School financing-We realize the necessity for effecting economies in present costs through efficient organization and management. We strongly urge the adoption of a budget system of estimating the annual school needs and apportioning the annual school revenues in every community. We re- affirm our position that it is of paramount importance for the successful administration of public education that all school boards shall have in- dependent and complete control of their finances. 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION National relations of public education-We have carefully noted and confidently rely on the declarations of President Coolidge before the Na- tional Education Association in Washington last July with reference to proposed legislation recognizing education as of vital national concern. National welfare demands for each person that measure and kind of education which is basal to effective participation in our democratic life. The Federal Government has contributed to the realization of this ideal by grants of land and of money to the States. This principle, long ac- knowledged, and this practice, long established, should-without interfer- ing with the control of education by the several States-be maintained and extended. The present diverse and scattered educational activities of the Federal Government should at once, in the interest of efficiency as well as of econ- omy, be unified in a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President's Cabinet. To the foregoing principles we again pledge our unswerving faith and active support. War-We reaffirm our faith in education as a potent means for inter- national understanding. We urge the coöperation of government and school throughout the world toward this end. With faith in the mission of the school to bring to mankind life, and this more abundantly, we pledge ourselves to educate public opinion that offensive warfare may be outlawed. To this end we favor the codification of international law on the principle that all nations great or small shall be given equal right and justice. We favor setting up an international court with affirmative jurisdiction under this code. Civic service-A principle which has been proclaimed by the Association from the beginning, that the chief aim of public education is the training of the citizen to live up to American civic, political, and moral ideals, we reaffirm together with our resolve to direct the daily exercises of our schools predominantly toward this end. SALUTATION FRANK B. DYER , MEMBER BOARD OF EDUCATION, CINCINNATI, OHIO I take it that the salutation is injected into this program to make a little break in the solemnity of the occasion in order that you may relax. The subject assigned to me threw me into a state of doubt-The Vesper Saluta- tion-if I only knew I should certainly salutate you thoroughly this after- noon, but I don't. It cannot mean a welcome for that has already been extended to you in far more eloquent language than I could hope to use, by one who is better justified in giving it. And anyway a true welcome is not to be expressed in fine speeches, but in cordial treatment. As Emerson said of travel, we are not to say that we visited the Alps or the Pyramids, it is to appear in our behavior. So must our welcome. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 647 If the salutation means to give our guests advice that will make their stay profitable, we should like to recommend simply the three injunctions that Socrates laid upon his disciples. First, "Watch your step," by which Socrates meant, of course, be careful of your actions and circumspect in your conduct, but we hope you will take his dictum literally for we recognize that our streets are perilous, and our motor cars, working for a record this month, have inflicted fifteen serious personal injuries in one day in the past week, so watch your step. Second, "Don't bolt your food," said Socrates, by which, of course, he meant do not swallow your opinions and ideas until they have been thor- oughly masticated or deliberated upon. When we think of 12,000 of you in line at the lunch counter at noon, we hope you will take his dictum quite literally because we hate to think of you with indigestion if you do not. Don't bolt your food. When we look over this multiform program, this intellectual bill of fare that you propose to devour, we hardly know what advice to give you because we recognize you must bolt it. We trust that you will do as ruminating animals do with their forage-regurgitate it! Chew it over and mix it with your own saliva ! Socrates' third dictum was, "Say what you have to say in as few words as possible. " We recognize that you have something to say, but say it as simply as possible, so that a wayfaring man like myself can understand you. I am appealing not only in behalf of other educators, but on your own be- half, fellow speakers, in order that you may have time left to mingle in the lobby and cultivate the human touch which after all is the most important thing at a convention. Now we recognize that every city, like every individual, has its particular distinguishing characteristics which set it apart. Unfortunately these dis- tinguishing characteristics in our city may not be observed by the passing stranger. Our wealth is largely in intangibles, not only literally, but figuratively. At the same time the most impelling human interest is the desire for approval. Certainly that is true of this city. We want your approval and therefore you will pardon a word concerning these more or less intangible characteristics. This city is an Eastern city in its love of music as we have demonstrated to you this afternoon; in its love of art and literature. It is a Southern city in its easy-going ways and hospitality, as well as its climate and mar- kets. We have even built a railroad of our own far down into the heart of the South not as a means of escape from our city, but in order to bring the South to our hearts, and to our kitchen also. We are a Western city in our old adherence to a belief in individual liberty. I say this for the comfort of you people. You may do what you wish this week and we will not write home to your folks about it. We allow a good deal of liberty. This city also has the Western belief in equality of opportunities. It takes the doctrine in the largest sense and in a way that is unparalleled in most cities of this country. This community has just flooded the Board of Edu 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cation with means to provide in the near future absolute equality of oppor- tunity for all the children of this city according to their needs. On account of the intermediate position of our city, between the East and West, North and South, we are tolerant, unusually tolerant. You may give the most explosive utterances to the most radical sentiments that are upon your soul this week and we may be amused but we will not be radical. We are tolerant of opinions and creeds. We even believe that true religion and true science are compatible. We do not have the Bible in our schools, but our schools are closely affiliated with our churches in religious instruction and with churches of all creeds. We recognize that the fundamental pur- pose of education is to give the child an understanding of the laws of the universe and to put him in harmony with those laws, with physical law, civil law, moral law, spiritual law, and universal law. We recognize that the schools make the best approach from one side of this great problem, and the church makes its approach from the spiritual side. They may over- lap upon the moral side, but they are compatible and supplementary and necessary each to the other. We recognize what Emerson meant when he said, "Hitch your wagon to a star. " He meant to ally yourself with the forces of the universe and put yourself in harmony with law-physical law, with moral law, with spiritual law, with universal law, and therefore, put yourself in harmony with God, for universal law is universal will and universal will is God. Now friends, guests, we hope that the deliberations of this week will have a forward look to the building of a better world and the nearer coming of the Kingdom of God and so we salute you. We rejoice that you are here. May the blessing of Heaven be upon you! THE FAITH OF THE FOUNDERS RANDALL J. CONDON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS CINCINNATI, OHIO Faith of the Founders! Before I speak briefly upon that subject I want to give myself the satisfaction of a personal word of greeting to you who have come from afar. We welcome you to this city that is glad to have you in her midst. I want to express my great appreciation for the cordial and heartfelt welcome that the home folks have given to me as I return from my year's leave of absence. I just received a lovely message of flowers of which the principal feature was the forget-me-not, sent by teachers and friends, and I have worn some of them this afternoon as a pledge that as they do not forget, neither do I forget. Twelve years of service in this splendid city, fine in its social outlook, fine in its appreciation of life and great in the opportunity that it gives to any man in its service ! To the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 649 people of Cincinnati and to the teachers, I extend my heartfelt thanks for the greetings which I have received. And then, I want to pay a special tribute to Washington who one hun- dred and ninety-three years ago, as a little child opened his eyes under the blue sky of the Old Dominion, at that place where President Roosevelt visited and from which he wrote to his son Kermit these words : "On Sun- day, mother and I spent about four hours ashore, taking our lunch and walking up to the monument which marks where the house stood in which Washington was born. It is a simple shaft. Every vestige of the house is destroyed, but a curious and rather pathetic thing is that although it must be a hundred years since the place was deserted, there are still mul- titudes of flowers which must have come from those at the old garden. There are iris and narcissus and a little blue flower, with a neat, prim, clean smell that makes one feel as if it ought to be put with lavender into chests of fresh old linen. The narcissus in particular was growing around everywhere together with real wild flowers like the painted columbine and Star of Bethlehem. It was a lovely spot on a headland overlooking a broad inlet from the Potomac. There was also the old graveyard or grave plot in which were the gravestones of Washington's father and mother and grandmother, all pretty nearly ruined." 1732-1799-1925-all the years that shall come from the "marching morrows " ! Oh! flowers of springtime bloom on to make the world more lovely with thy perfume. And may the spirit of Washington be born ever anew in the hearts of the children of men to bless not only America, but all the world. We come today to pay our special tribute to one who did a great service to this country-one, who as a boy played among the flowers unmindful of the burden he must bear and the part he must play in the history of his country. It seems especially appropriate that I should give two tributes to Washington's character by those that knew him better than others. Jefferson said, "I think I knew General Washington intimately and thoroughly, and were I called on to delineate his character, it should be in terms like these: Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every consideration was maturely weighed; refraining if he saw doubt, but when once decided, going through with his purpose whatever obstacles opposed. His integrity was most pure, his justice the most inflexible I have ever known, no motives of interest or consanguinity, of friendship, or hatred being able to bias his decision. He was in every sense of the word a wise, a good, and a great man. On the whole his character was in the mass perfect, in nothing bad, in few points indifferent; and it may truly be said that never did nature and fortune com- bine more perfectly to make a man great and to place him in the same constellation with whatever worthies have merited from man an everlasting remembrance. For his was the singular destiny and merit of leading the armies of his country successfully through an arduous war for the establish 650 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ment of its independence; of conducting its councils through the birth of a government new in its forms and principles, until it had settled down into a quiet and orderly train; and of scrupulously obeying the laws through the whole of his career, civil and military, of which the history of the world furnishes no other example." Monroe said, "I saw him in my earliest youth, in the retreat through Jersey, at the head of a small band, or rather in its rear, for he was always next the enemy, and his countenance and manner made an impression on me which time can never efface. A lieutenant then in the Third Virginia Regiment, I happened to be on the rear guard at Newark, and I counted the force under his immediate command by platoons as it passed me, which amounted to less than 3000 men. A deportment so dignified, so exalted, but yet so modest and composed, I have never seen in any other person. Washington, the creator of his country ! And now, The Faith of the Founders : "Where there is no vision, the people perish." "I will lift up mine eyes to the hills from whence cometh my help." Because the founders saw beyond the years, they visioned things as they should be ; we exalt their work and rejoice in the foundations that have been laid for our government. Once more we see Columbus as he steers his ship on the western course. He holds the tiller but God Almighty steers the ship, and day by day the record runs in these words, "This day we sailed west for that was our course." Once more we see in imagination the little band of Pilgrims leaving old England, and sixty-four days out, sighting the sandy shores of Cape Cod. The prow of their ship is turned south, but the Almighty for centuries has been spreading the shoals of Monomoy and Nantucket as a bar to the Pil- grims' way, that, turning them back to the shores of Massachusetts, he might beat out upon the anvil of adversity-in trial and hardship, in hunger and death-the best type of American citizenship. The next day, November 11 , (old style) about noon, they drop anchor in Provincetown harbor. The anchor is no sooner at the bottom-the sails furled-than they gather in the cabin of the Mayflower and draw up that compact, beginning, " In the name of God, Amen," and which continuing says, "We covenant & combine our selves togeather into a civill body politick, for our better ordering & preservation & furtherance of the ends aforesaid ; and by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just & equall lawes, ordinances, acts, constitutions, & offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye generall good of ye Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience." And when this had been signed by the 42 men who made up the company, the sun set across the bleak waters of Massachusetts Bay, and the Sabbath of the old dispensation was at an end; and out of the tomb of the buried past came forth two angels clothed in white-Liberty and Justice-a new dis- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 651 pensation. With the sun arose new hopes; a new world with new op- portunities, ready for new institutions, lay before them. Today we rejoice not only in the coming of Columbus and the May- flower, but in the fact that that voyage has not ended and, please God, it never shall ! "Sail on, sail on, sail on," until the hopes of mankind shall be realized more fully than they are today. For Washington and Jefferson, and Marshall, and Adams, and Hancock, and Franklin, and their associates , that great company of men who were able to lay the foundation through faith in God and in humanity, proposed that all men should have an equal chance-an equal opportunity to work out their destiny according to the talents which God had given to them. If one talent that it might be multiplied; if it be ten, then the obligation should be greater by ten, all to be used for the common welfare, for the good of all. That was the great thing that our fathers established. Not merely a new form of government , but a government based upon the common welfare and upon the consent of the governed, where every man-and now, please God, every woman- shall have a chance to say something as to the kind of government under which they shall live; and in these great days the sun shines brighter be- cause the love and faith of womenkind has been added to that of men to help make this a better country in which to live. Our fathers knew that only as the people were educated, as all the people were given a chance through the education of heart and hand and head should this venture of theirs be realized . This school in which we meet today, like many other schools is the best evidence of our faith in the experiment of our fathers. These schools open alike to all the children and to all adults for the good of all! Wash- ington said, "Knowledge is the surest basis of public happiness," but I think he had in mind only this, the knowledge that comes from books. And we know now that the knowledge that comes from things is as great as that which comes from words. Now we have combined both. As you came into this building you noticed the inscriptions on the outside, "To reveal truth and beauty," to "Inculcate Social and Civic Ideals," and "For a Broader and Richer Personal Life." That is what our schools today in America express. They are to cultivate the citizen not only for himself, but so that he may subordinate his life and liberty and happiness to the common welfare, knowing that he reaps a richer reward for himself as he gives of himself to others. Our fathers established America not alone for the native-born, not for the Gentile, or the Protestant, not for the white race, but as a nation where-irrespective of color, or place of birth, or race or religion-all men should be free, and as a united nation that we should go forward to our great destiny. Today there comes to us the opportunity to solve some of the problems that present themselves, not the same that our fathers faced, but we meet them in the same spirit, and as they were not afraid, no more are we . They looked far down the ages and saw the hopes of mankind 652 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION waiting upon the solution that they attempted; they were not afraid to take a chance to work out their own salvation, for there is no other way given under Heaven whereby men can be saved except as they have the oppor- tunity to profit by mistakes and errors. So, we meet today to pay our tribute to these founders of our country, to rejoice that we have entered into the harvest of their planting, and that we have this opportunity to go forward in the faith which they established. We realize that faith without works is dead and that "Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen." We face the future with hope and courage. The people of this State of Ohio, of all the States of the Union, of the Nation itself, all realize that education is the biggest and most important business of the State and that the hope of the future is in the schools of today. Upon the public schools of this Nation rests the hope not only of America, but of the world, for the hope of America is the hope of the world, and America's only hope is in its children and in the education which they receive all shot through and through with the spirit of service and devotion to the common welfare. We shall teach patriotism, and it shall not only be " 100 per cent American," but much more. It shall be like that of the days of 1776 when a man shall be taught to think not of himself, but to be willing to give all-to give up life and liberty and all happiness, sacrificing for the common good. And America shall never be finished, God willing, until the white city of God comes to make its abode among the sons of men. As the Moki Indian woman weaving the pattern of her life in the cloth she makes, leaves always an unfinished end for the escape of her spirit, so we weave the pattern of our individual life, city life, and National life, with a pattern of our own color, but always leaving an opening that our spirit may be free. The foregoing is only fragmentary and only a part of what I should have liked to say if there had been more time. The schools are in the service of the State, and they have a two-fold mission : To educate the individual citizen for himself, and for the part which he must play in the social organization that we call the State, whether it be the neighborhood, the city, the State, or the Nation, or all combined. This is said with a clear understanding that only a small part of the education of a child or man is given through the school, but with a firm belief that the school must co- operate and combine with all the other forces and institutions of the com- munity, and must come itself into a larger place of influence and respon- sibility, coördinating and directing these forces to a common end. The public schools are reaching out to every field where children live and work and play, and they are trying to help shape the influences that touch childhood for the welfare of the children and the State. They are not limiting their mission to the children alone, but stand with wide open doors ready to render any service which the community may need. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 653 They are trying to educate to the largest possible extent all the people, in the belief that only so shall democracy rest upon a sure foundation ; for democracy is safe not when we have educated a part of the people, or have developed a few great leaders-though this is also necessary-but when we have raised the average intelligence of all the people and have made each man a master of himself and his vocation; when we have kindled within his heart the feeling of brotherhood, and have inspired within him a lasting devotion to the State and to the ideals for which America stands. How shall the schools most effectively serve the State through the educa- tion of its children without destroying that individuality and initiative and liberty that are the cherished possessions of democracy. We must in the future even more than in the past teach our young people the ideals of social service. They must learn that "no man liveth unto himself," but that each must live and work and fight for the common good. We must teach civics-applied civics-as one of the most fundamental topics in the curriculum. We must teach greater respect for authority, we must emphasize obedi- ence, but it must be a willing and reasonable obedience, not a blind ac- ceptance of arbitrary control. The State exists for the people, and not the people for the State. Our discipline must not be such as weakens the individual will, but such as trains that will to a prompt acceptance of what is right and reasonable. We must not subordinate the individual to the State, but must so teach him that he will of his own free choice subordinate himself to the common good. For in a democracy not only must there be opportunity for indi- vidual choice ; but there must be developed an intelligence and idealism that enables the individual to choose that which makes him of the largest service to his fellows . Fine character, lofty motives, social ideals, civic service, a patriotism that makes the citizen ready to live or to die for his country, these are the things the schools must strive after and these they must accomplish in their teach- ing if they are to render the largest service to the State and to its citizens . This is the mission of the public schools, and this the measure of the service which they must render in a democracy. OUR COUNTRY "And thine shall be the power of all To do the work which duty bids, And make the people's council hall As lasting as the Pyramids ! Thy great world-lesson all shall learn, The nations in thy school shall sit; Earth's farthest mountain-tops shall burn With watch-fires from thy own uplit. 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Great-without seeking to be great By fraud or conquest; rich in gold, But richer in the large estate Of virtue which thy children hold. With peace that comes of purity And strength to simple justice due, So runs our loyal dream of thee; God of our fathers ! make it true. O Land of lands ! to thee we give Our prayers, our hopes, our service free." My flag-born in the days of revolution, baptized in the days of civil strife, rededicated to the cause of human freedom in the great world con- flict; in peace and in war it has ever floated as the symbol of liberty and justice. May its stars never grow dim, and its stripes never fade. And may the children in the schools over which it shall float be so taught to love justice, to hate evil, and to do good, that they may forever protect the flag and the ideals for which it stands. "O Thou who hast called us out of darkness to be the bearers of light; we beseech Thee' to make us helpers in the world. Take away from us the love of ease, and the fear of men. Show us the simple things that we can do to help our neighbors to be good. Brighten the daily round of tasks that we have undertaken and are tempted to neglect. Make us faithful to the trust that life has put upon us; hold us to the humblest duty. "Prepare our hearts in sympathy to be partners in suffering with the weak; partners in eager service with the strong. "Reveal to us the wavering ranks of those that are struggling upward that we may cneer and support our comrades unknown. Remove from us the love of glory and the thirst for praise. Give us, in weariness refreshment, and in strength, peace; but when we are idle, send shame, and when we are false, send fear, to bring us back to Thee. By Thy love restrain our censorious speech and teach us to commend. By Thy wisdom entighten our plans, and direct our endeavors for the common wealth. And give to us the vision of that bright City of God upon earth where ali shall share the best they have, in thought and deed, and none shall harm or make afraid. "And establish Thou the work of our hands upon us; yes, the work of our hands establish Thou it." DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 655 PRESIDENT'S OPENING ADDRESS WILLIAM MCANDREW, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS AND PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Ladies and Gentlemen : Sixty years ago this association was launched in Harrisburg, bearing the name, "The National Association of School Superintendents." During these two generations its emphasis has flitted from point to point, resting now here, now there, in the wide expanse of educational doctrine. We started in 1865 with a determination to have our business recognized as a profession. The West was always generous in this regard; it called every schoolman Professor. In time the colleges began to help and are now nobly making what the professors profess pro- fessional. Our association's record shows us stressing in 1866 the value of methods, chiefly those of Oswego and then of Quincy. Now, with Batavia plans, Dalton plans, Gary plans, every little village has a method of its own. In 1876 we began promoting the idea that manual training will add to our National wealth. The hand workers are now getting more than their teachers. In 1886 we claimed that money spent on schools would save expenses of jails and courts. We spend more now on all three and Dr. Pritchett says it is too much. In 1896 we sang the claims of culture and adopted the alluring slogan : "Education for Leisure." We are now looking for the leisure. By 1906 the testers and researchers had in- jected a suspicion that the training in our grammar, algebra, Latin, and other fads was valuable in no other field than that of grammar, algebra, Latin, or any other particular fad. In 1916 intelligence testers evolved the dismal doubt as to whether we can do much worthwhile with what the inheritance of glands and brain-cells has already determined for bad and all. They tell us that in industry and in business 5 per cent of all experi- ments succeed. Our own belief and a supporting public opinion is that we are beating the record. Like a golden thread running through the weaving of our sixty years is our declaration that the prepondering purpose of it all is the preservation and perfection of our social and political union. Horace Mann had stressed this-all Boston schoolmasters protesting-thirty years before we organized ourselves. Stevens, Clinton, Webster, arguing for schools at the expense of all the people, had promised, if the tax laws were passed, that a perpetual devotion of an educated people to a high and pure civic ideal would ensue. They were sixty years behind the makers of the nation who had listed civic virtue as the one great reason for converting education into a function of a self-governing republic. For 150 years since the Revolution its educational doctrine-schools for political progress has been accepted; its direct application remaining appallingly in the background. Established for the perfection of government, education has the melancholy 656 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION record of seeing its alumni avoiding the simplest duties of politics. Pro- posed by the Father of his Country for the enlightenment of that public opinion upon which government by the people rests, the public school sees half of the populace shirking its civic duty and that half consisting mostly of education's output. Should the Fathers who harbored such high hopes of universal instruc- tion as a government duty come back to earth as a Survey Committee and ask, "What have you devised to train the nation in its civic and moral duties as men and citizens? " "What are the exercises making up your students' days work under your guidance ? What are the things most stressed in the preparation of your teachers ? What are considered most important in the institutions harboring your youth of from fourteen to eighteen years of age when real thinking may begin ? What is of most account in your state colleges and universities?" Should they see to what extent we have retained the contents of ancient schooling and neglected a whole-souled reconstruction of educational procedure for civic and political ends, I can imagine them remarking, "We statesmen had our Revolution in '76 ; when does the schoolmasters' revolution begin ? This association, in spots, is coming around to see that the reason public schools are paid for, not by parents as such but by the whole community, is that public schools may devote themselves to teaching us our duties toward the community. This Department has a commission of school- masters devoted to devising a course of study for American schools, a course devoted not to reading, writing, and arithmetic, for their own sakes, not to personal ornament, accomplishment, nor success of John and Mary, but to the general welfare. The men on that commission themselves il- lustrate the spirit of public service in that they are giving free what, if published by themselves in book form, would bring them respectable finan- cial reward. They are entitled to enthusiastic approbation. On your behalf I hereby tender it. That this curriculum shall be the means of a more direct realization of the American public school aim ; community service-not individual gain -public service, consciously, perpetually, enthusiastically, intended, rests with you, the school managers of America, more than with any other known body, be it school board, Legislature, Church, or club. We have had the slogan, " Schools for Civic Righteousness" since 1776. You remember the motto on the templar's sword : I cut for Christ and Church. The motto cuts nothing at all. It is the valiant swordsman who makes it avail. It is the purpose of these gatherings here for which our people back home have spared us from our local duties so to inspire us with the spirit of service that, returning we may pass it into our schools and make them different from what they were before. For "only the spirit can teach. Only he can give who has. He only can create who is. He on whom the soul descends can teach. Courage, piety, love, wisdom can teach. But he who aims as books enable, as interest demands, only babbles; let him hush." DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE -657 WHY IS SUPERINTENDENCE ? JESSE H. NEWLON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO AND PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Why is superintendence? At first blush, the need is so obvious that to spend thirty minutes in discussing the subject may seem like debating an axiom. But it is undoubtedly true that some of us would be better super- intendents if we did not take our positions and our importance so much for granted. It is well to consider occasionally the reasons for our exist- ence. A clearer conception of the need of leadership in educational affairs will enable us to understand more fully our functions in a democratic society and what the public expects of us as leaders in our own communi- ties. Viewed from the standpoint of objectives to be attained, many answers can be given to the question, "Why is superintendence ?" In thirty minutes I can discuss only three of these reasons. In any important enterprise such as a school system, direction and direct- ing heads are necessary-First, I ask you to think for a moment of the developments of the past fifty years in the organization and procedure of school administration. You will recall that the tendency has been to substitute small boards for large boards, to substitute boards elected at large for appointive boards or for boards elected by wards; that boards of education have tended more and more to delegate administration to the superintendent and his associates and to restrict their own work to the de- termination of policies. Without question, that board of education renders the best service to its community that makes a clear-cut division between the determination of policies and administration and delegates the latter function to the administrative staff, while restricting itself entirely to the legislative function. Strange as it may seem, there are still school systems in America that have the dual executive. There are still cities in which the business man- ager is coördinate with the superintendent. This violates a fundamental principle of administration. Two thousand years ago, ancient Rome dem- onstrated conclusively that the consulship was a failure. Two heads of a government are impossible. No one would think that Cincinnati should have two mayors coördinate in authority, or that Ohio should have two governors. It would be ridiculous to suggest that we should have two presidents of the United States. The United States Steel or the General Electric or the Pennsylvania Railroad does not have two presidents. I do not recall any great university with a business manager on a par with the president. Every business transaction that takes place in a school system has a direct bearing on the education of youth. Business and education cannot be separated. Every building that is erected, every purchase that is made must be considered in reference to education. It goes without saying, 658. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION therefore, that the executive who directs the educational program must of necessity have oversight of the business affairs. Otherwise he is not in complete control of the educational program. The people have seen the necessity of making every activity of a school subordinate to the process of education and that the direction of the pro- fessional work of teaching is a professional job. And for that reason we have the profession of superintendence. It is obvious that in large systems the chief executive officer cannot per- sonally perform all of the executive functions. It is for this reason that a large share of these duties is delegated to others who share with him the work of superintendence. This necessity explains the existence of assistant superintendents, directors, supervisors, and all who exercise the functions of superintendence. The greatest danger that besets superintendents at the present time is that they will become merely business managers. Two conditions make for such a result. In the first place there are those holding executive positions who are lacking in the qualities that make for leadership, who are more concerned about the purchase of pencils and paper, about the em- ployment of janitors and clerks, about mere business routine, than they are about the educative process that goes on in the schoolroom. Such indi- viduals would make good bookkeepers. They are not executives. The other condition that tends to make merely a business manager of a super- intendent is the tremendous size and complexity of the administrative problems which he faces. In a period in which enrolment has grown by leaps and bounds and in which the educational program itself has rapidly expanded, the purely administrative and business problems have been so numerous, so complex, so difficult, that it has been very easy indeed for the superintendent to become immersed in purely administrative details or to devote his energy chiefly to the great task of securing adequate financial support of the schools, and thereby lose his interest and active participa- tion in the development of the educational program itself. The first busi- ness of an administrative staff is to visualize clearly the edcational objec- tives to be attained by the expenditure of funds. There is general agreement that the business administration of schools should be subordinated to educational administration. How often does it happen, however, that the superintendent-either because he gets more pleasure out of management, or by force of circumstances-devotes most of his attention to mere management and thus subordinates the educational to business considerations. Society has created the public school system for the education of youth. Problems of education should therefore be the chief concern of superintendence. Educational leadership is the chief function of superintendence-It is a truism to assert that human society is dynamic and not static. The most evident social phenomenon is that of change. Today we live in a period of kaleidoscopic change brought about chiefly by the great discoveries of DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 659 science and by the marvelous inventions of the last century. This process has been enormously accelerated by the inventions and scientific discoveries of the last twenty-five years and by the upheaval of the World War. No curriculum can remain a static thing. A course of study in the social sciences that was suitable in 1890 would be suitable only in part for 1925. Science courses are constantly out of date by reason of new discoveries. Many mathematical operations that were used in the daily life of the people a generation ago are obsolete today, but many mathematical skills and much mathematical information not needed then are indispensable to the general public today. The ability to read statistical tables and graphs is now essential to good citizenship, to say nothing of its necessity to effi- ciency in business. As the science of education develops, we constantly modify methods and procedure in the light of the latest research. It is apparent, then, that one who would aspire to educational leadership must be a student of human nature and human relationship and of the social and economic changes that go on around him. There are still those among us who believe that the best college curriculum was the classical-scientific curriculum of a generation ago, but I submit that a training in the classics, in pure mathematics, or in pure science, while valuable in itself, does not fit for leadership in public education. Those who are charged with the re- sponsibility of formulating and administering educational policies should be students of the social sciences, of all that is included in the fields of history, sociology, economics, psychology, political science. We cannot become experts in these fields, we cannot gain distinction as sociologists or historians, but we must draw constantly on the findings of historians, sociologists, biol- ogists, and of all other students of biological and social phenomena. Nor will the information gained a quarter of a century ago in college classes, in the social sciences, suffice for present needs. The educational leader must be a reader and a student. He must keep pace with modern thought in many fields of human activity. The charge has been made that public school executives are not readers. There is too much truth in the accu- sation. Too many school men cannot carry on an intelligent conversation outside their immediate concerns . Such men and women are not and never can be educational leaders . We have witnessed in the past twenty-five years the development of a science of education. Our presence here denotes the fact that we are in- terested in the scientific aspects of our work. We are rapidly passing out of the age when a superintendent will be measured by his personal popular- ity brought about by his handshaking, backslapping propensities, by his ability as a raconteur, as an entertaining public speaker or as a wily pol- itician. The superintendent of the future will be an educational engineer. He will approach his work as a great engineer approaches his problems, bringing to bear all of the technical knowledge at his command. Of vastly more importance, he will appreciate and employ the services of those who are experts in the numerous fields of education. The educational program 660 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION formulated under his direction will meet the acid test of public criticism because it will be founded on the bedrock of sound investigation and re- search and not because of the personal popularity or the political ability of the school administration. There was a time when the chief mark of the captain of industry was his ability to exercise complete autocratic and dictatorial control over the pol- icies and methods of the organization under his management. That was in the period of the "public be damned." We are now in the period of the "public be pleased," and one of the outstanding tendencies of modern bus- iness has been the development of leaders instead of autocrats. Business management is becoming in a large measure the science of human relation- ship. The most successful manager is the one who obtains the most effective coöperation of every employee, who inspires, who knows the secret of morale. The same tendency has been marked in the field of public school administration. No longer may educational policies be dictated by any man or any group of men. Educational policies must be developed as a result of the thinking of all members of an educational staff. I like to think of the teaching staff as a company of scholars engaged in the education of youth. The teacher should approach his work in the same spirit in which a scientist approaches his work. In the scientific world the individual who can make a discovery, however small, gets the credit due him. It is only infrequently that some higher authority exists that can repress or obstruct him. Teachers are compelled to work in large organi- zations. This situation presents many difficulties. In the schools too often the administration intentionally or otherwise represses initiative and discourages teachers who could make distinct contributions to the develop- ment of policies. The educational leader will regard every teacher as his associate. He will strive to create conditions that will make possible the participation of all in the study of educational problems and in the develop- ment of methods and procedures. To this end machinery is necessary. There must be committees and councils and organizations of one kind and another. But far more important are spirit and morale. The approach to educational problems ought to be impersonal, but edu- cational engineering does not mean that the human touch is to be taken out of the administration of schools. It means less of personal favoritism , less of the tendency to view matters from a purely personal standpoint and more of those human qualities that make for sympathy, inspiration, and friendship. What I have said under this head does not mean that the superintendent need be a tool of the teachers, or of any group, or of any interest. It does not mean that the staff will be the superintendent. Leadership is more difficult than autocracy, and the leader as well as the autocrat must possess and must exercise authority commensurate with his responsibilities. Al- though it is somewhat a superficial view, superintendence may be described as the science and the art of finding the happy medium between chaos and DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 661 dictation. It may be regarded as the science of coöperation. If the prin- ciples which I have advocated are applied, the result will be neither anarchy nor dictation but effective organization and procedure. We have the profession of superintendence because courage in educational leadership is required-In enumerating some of the salient qualities that must be possessed by the leaders in our profession, I reserved that of cour- age for special treatment. Any great enterprise must be conducted according to a system if it is to be conducted efficiently. Of course, there must be a minimum of red tape. System must never be allowed to get in the way of the ends to be achieved. System must be a means and not an end. System and machinery must be permeated by enthusiasm and the spirit of coöperation. We must choose between system and anarchy. It sometimes requires courage to cut the Gordian Knot of red tape, or, on the other hand, to insist on a reasonable amount of system. And it requires vision to keep clearly in view educa- tional objectives and to subordinate all means to that end. It is regrettable that there are a few members of our profession, superin- tendents, executives, who have never caught the vision of leadership. It is equally regrettable that there are a few members of our profession, some- times organized groups of classroom teachers, who do not recognize that there must be system in any organization that is effective. Sometimes these individuals mistake the school as existing for themselves rather than for the children. They think on all school problems in terms of their own fancied self-interest, losing sight of the fact that they are the servants of the State. It sometimes requires fine courage to stand in the face of movements of this kind. The public schools exist for the education of youth for their places as citizens of a democratic state and not to provide jobs for superin- tendents and teachers. One of the chief responsibilities of a superintendent is that of inter- preting the schools and their needs to the public that pays the bills. It requires courage constantly to stand for that which is best for the children and for the State even though it may cost money and result in taxation, or even though such policies may cross the selfish interests of politicians or others who have personal ends to gain. And we would as well admit first as last that the battle for public edu- cation has not been completely won in this country. There are those who do not believe in public education. There are those who believe only in a modicum of public education, who object to the cost of the schools and would greatly restrict the public school program. Again there are those who do not hesitate to use the schools for political purposes. In recent months we have had the spectacle of the governor of the great common- wealth of Kansas attempting to pay his political debts and to strengthen his political fences by forcing appointees on the State University. This gov- ernor did not hesitate to use all the power of his great office to force the removal from the faculty of men of eminence when he thought they were 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION standing in his way. But the University of Kansas has a great chancellor. Ernest H. Lindley stood staunchly against this wanton use of great power. His fight was a long and hard one. The people did not know the true state of affairs. Finally the chancellor was sacrificed. He put principle above position. In this instance the new governor, Governor Paulen, on coming into office, quickly righted this glaring injustice and reinstated the chancellor. Chancellor Lindley has given a fine example of the courage which the cause of public education demands of its leaders today. Not always is the outcome of such a battle so happy. Frequently brave men and women go down in the struggle. All honor to them. It is the price we pay for the development of a profession of superintendence. It is the price we pay for the benefits of public education. It is the way of democ- racies. In the last ten years, many a city superintendent has faced bitter and un- scrupulous opposition to the public schools. Sometimes vicious political in- terests seek to control the schools. In one instance a powerful newspaper of notorious ethics headed the opposition. A favorite device of the enemies of public education is to seek to destroy its leaders. America has had no truer patriots than the educational leaders-men and women who have stood boldly, regardless of personal cost, against such influences. Society also expects of public school exceutives leadership in many hu- manitarian movements, especially humanitarian movements affecting child- hood. A good example of the type of thing which I have in mind is found in the proposed Federal Child Labor Amendment. The opposition to this amendment is well organized. Some of the most powerful influences and individuals of the country are arrayed against it. The sincerity of many of the opponents of this measure cannot and must not be questioned. Others are actuated solely by their greed. In any case we have here a test of the courage of our leadership. Are we speaking out in our communities in favor of this amendment? Have we the courage of our convictions no matter how powerful and influential the opposition ? This convention should go on record with a resounding resolution in favor of the amendment. In an unmistakable pronouncement we should join company with such men as Roosevelt, Beveridge, Walsh, Coolidge, and all others who had the courage to advocate the protection of childhood as of more importance than the fancied rights of the States or the pecuniary gains of those who are ex- ploiting childhood in factories and shops. Again, the support of the Education Bill sometimes requires courage. Every good cause is some time in some quarters unpopular. I wonder if there is any superintendent within the sound of my voice who has been afraid to lift his voice in behalf of a measure which he knows in his heart to be in the interest of the public schools ? Those whose names are written indelibly in the history of education are those who have had courage. The United States is going to have a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President's Cabinet. Every principle contained in the Education DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 663 Bill will be embodied in Federal legislation. The people of the country look on education as the chief function of a democracy. When the Educa- tion Bill has been enacted into a law will I be able to look back on the fight with the satisfaction that I stood courageously for the right or will I look back with regret on the rôle of a faint heart ? Now may I speak a word as president of the National Education Associa- tion ? Were the time at my disposal I should have chosen as a fourth point that of the relation of school executives, the official leaders in education, to our voluntary teachers organizations. The prime reason for the existence of these professional organizations is that the profession of teaching has a most important contribution to make in the improvement of American public schools that can be made only through organizations such as local, State, and National teachers' associations. The Department of Superin- tendence already has a fine tradition of service. There is a tremendous need for this organization and for the National Education Association with wig is great departments. Likewise there is a most vital work to be done by So he and local associations. Those engaged in administrative and super- visory work have a grave responsibility in this matter of professional organi- zation. Are you discharging your responsibility in this respect ? Are you active in the affairs of these associations ? What is your attitude toward local teacher organizations ? Is it constructive or destructive ? Will your suc- cessor inherit a bad situation because of your weakness or mere obstruction? Are you a constructive worker in the ranks of the National Education Asso- ciation or are you merely a critic ? Have you examined the history of teach- ers' organizations in this country, and are you conversant with the tremend- ous contributions which these organizations have made in the development of our schools, in raising the standards of qualifications for teachers, in con- vincing the public of the need of paying better salaries, in securing better conditions of work, in improving instruction, in enlarging the program of the schools and their service to the State and to the Nation. If you will read the history of the National Education Association you will find that every superintendent of the last sixty years whose name is remembered today as an outstanding leader was closely identified with the Association and with its departments, and was a leader in strictly profes- sional organizations. Today the National Education Association enrolls over 100,000 mem- bers. The demands upon it for service are far in excess of its ability to serve. There are 800,000 teachers in America. The next five years should see at least half of them enrolled in the Association. There are 12,000 superintendents in the United States. Less than 3000 have paid the five dollar fee for membership in this Department. This is not as it should be. I make a plea for a recognition of our responsibilities in the matter of pro- fessional organizations, and I point out to you that in the evolution of the profession of superintendence (spelled "ence" ) , one basis of selection has been that of professional interest manifested by activity in professional organizations. 664 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHAT IS SUPERINTENDENCE ? CHARLES S. MEEK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOLEDO, OHIO It is not the executive head of the schools. It is not the supervisors of instruction. It is not the experts engaged in research. It is not the principals in the various schools. These officials do sound the tocsin which calls to service all those who can think to some purpose. They challenge all to go adventuring, to take the courageous leap in the dark, to try for a foothold where no foot has been before. They, however, are only a part of superintendence for associated with them in that enter- prise should be all those who possess the aggressive spirit and the superior talent. Superintendence should, therefore, be the mobilized and organ- ized ability of the entire corps. As such it may be a compelling force which starts the procession with which the unready and the unwilling must fin- ally catch step. It may act as discriminating group intelligence to formu- late and to procure general acceptance of uniform, adequate and defemaper standards of educational value. mie Public schools everywhere afford numerous illustrations of the futinty and waste of permitting individual caprice, and not generally approved standards, to determine the objectives of endeavor. One school fixes as the justification of its existence nearest possible approximation to one hundred per cent attendance of its pupils. Prizes are awarded the rooms which have nearest approached perfect attendance. A very high morale is infused into the pupils. They devise refined punishments for the few of their fel- lows against whom the absent mark of shame is recorded. Not a very satis- factory standard of achievement, when one analyzes it deliberately. The only institution which invariably maintains one hundred per cent attendance is a cemetery. Another school prides itself upon the orderly routine by which the pupils move about the building. The visitor is always directed to observe how beautifully the pupils shift. In such a building inquiring visitors see little and hear little but the rhythmic tread of tireless children's marching feet. Another school's bid for fame is based upon its system of according to the pupils the maximum of individual freedom. Everyone is importuned to do just what he likes in just the way he pleases. Truly remarkable progress is made toward the land of heart's desire. Each day the pupils become very noticeably more happy, more noisy, and more empty. Yet another school provides for its teachers a congenial atmosphere in which to labor. Nothing is permitted which might upset their serenity or cause them any unnecessary anxiety. No one would dare propose the grouping of pupils on the basis of intelligence, the use of educational meas- urements, the diagnosis of individual difficulties of pupils, and the appli- cation of appropriate remedial devices. Very effective protective meas- ures have been provided to keep out all such machinations of Satan designed to vex the flesh. This school is to be an Utopia in which the lives of teach- ers are to be untroubled pilgrimages to the grave. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 665 There may be found also the city's one school beautiful. Visitors come from afar to admire its statuary, its pictures, and its mural decorations. Former pupils and wealthy friends of education have their names upon the roll of honor as donors of works of art. Such enterprises are inspiring but the enthusiasts who promote them should bear in mind that the scrub woman in an art museum remains a scrub woman unless she is taught to react to her artistic environment. In the somewhat flippant treatment of these diverse individual standards which might be extended indefinitely, there has been no intent to ridicule any of them. All of them are worthy and all of them are commendable. But they should be kept in their proper perspective as minor and not major educational objectives. No one of them should be striven for exclusively anywhere, each of them should be a factor in general procedure every- where. A colored minister for a time filled his congregation with awe by firing big words at them. They finally became dissatisfied and sent a committee to him demanding his resignation. To the committee he indignantly said, "What is the matter ? Don't I argufy and sputify enough to please you ?" He received this reply, "Yes you argufy and sputify good and plenty, but you don't tell us wherein." It is the business of superintendence to tell them all wherein. The management of a manufacturing institution, such as United States Steel, knows exactly the service its trade requires and also the commodity which may most effectively render that service. With the least possible expenditure of time, energy, and money it builds its plant, devises its ma- chinery, collects its raw materials, assembles its human agents, and pro- duces its product. It develops its selling organizations and induces its cus- tomers to buy its output and to pay for it not what they like but what it costs plus profit. Superintendence which is capable of telling them all "wherein" just as effectively performs all of these services in education. Its first duty is to know definitely just what product society requires of the schools. That society may continue to progress upward, the boy in the school must be made into a better human being than his father was before him. He must be more kindly, more considerate, more wise, sounder in body, more re- sourceful in utilizing his leisure time, better equipped to make a living, more responsive to his obligations to society, and better prepared to dis- charge them. As a summary of it all, he must be better trained for service. If superintendence could produce this desired output of the schools with as much dispatch and with as little waste as the manufacturer's processes step by step eventuate in his finished product, how changed would be the world in which we live. The schools would master the Nation not in the old discarded way by which kings conquered their dominions, but, in the words of Henry Suzzalo, "By moulding the procession of youth on its way from home to citizenship by the pathway of the schools". But school superintendence, dealing as it does with the destiny of civili 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION zation and the welfare of human souls, has a far more momentous task than has factory management. To develop human intellect and human character is a far more intricate task than to convert iron ore into steel needles. There is, however, no reason why we should not profit by such analogy as exists in the two procedures. Superintendence has arrived at a fairly satisfactory consensus of opinion as to what should be the product of the schools. All over the Nation plants have been constructed capable of housing adequately the activities which may eventuate in the desired output. Thus far the job of superintendence has been as well performed as may reasonably be demanded. But the management of public schools has not as yet provided the well balanced curricular activities which may most surely and most directly contribute to the realization of its announced aims. Management and teachers are more alert than ever before as to the possibilities and obliga. tions of their positions. They see more clearly what they should do and are more eager to do it, but as yet they have not arrived. In these modern school buildings too many children go on studying the same old routine lesson assignments today, to recite them tomorrow with no motive other than that, if recited well tomorrow, the same assignment need not be recited day after tomorrow. Much subject-matter is still retained in the curri- culum for no reason other than it has been taught, it is easy to teach, and there are teachers equipped to teach only it. Heterogeneous groups of children all in the same time are expected to consume an equal amount of curriculum material with little consideration of their individual capacity to assimilate it and with no sanction but tradition as to its nourishing quali- ties when assimilated . Successful factory management does not now use in its processes raw material merely because in the past it has consumed that particular ma- terial. The manufacturer in selecting his raw material has a keen sense of value, ample courage, and no sentiment. He also standardizes all of his material production. If it be of iron or steel, the capacity of each bit of it to withstand stress and strain is tested and labeled. In the finished prod- uct each part is given a burden well up to its capacity but never beyond it. The individual capacities and skills of children with equal precision should be tested and tabulated and burdened . Superintendence knows all this. It knows the right and approves it, sees the wrong and yet does not eliminate it. Should it establish its own confessional and confess itself to itself it might arrive at about this sum- mary of its spiritual and professional difficulties and its own somewhat be wildered and hesitating attitude toward them. There are teachers in every system whose aims and techniques are so happily adjusted to the status quo that they would very reluctantly endure the discomfort, the anxiety, the labor which reform exacts. The public also is ever ready with its cry of fads and frills at every departure from time-tested procedure in the schools. Then there are the militant State and National associations of mathematics teachers, of English teachers, of history teachers, of science teachers, of modern language teachers. In demanding the retention in the curriculum DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 667 of all that they now have and in insisting upon the introduction of more of the same, all of them are simply hell-bent. To combat all these influences of obstruction superintendence has not as yet gotten its courage up to the required fighting point. It has not found the convenient corner from which to repell the assaults from every- where. It has not as yet been sufficiently impelled to make the good fight and to keep the faith. The management of industry relies most completely for its success upon the morale and the skill it may develop within its human agents of pro- duction. Henry Ford in ten years increased the wages of his employees sixty per cent and in the same ten years decreased the price of his product forty per cent. He announced that he was able to accomplish this marve- lous feat because at the same time his employees were becoming more and more efficient and productive. He conducts the greatest training school in service the world has ever known. Even when he attempts a formal bit of academic education, such as teaching foreigners to speak English, he does the job better than any school or college has ever done it. In the old steel plant at Homestead every captain of industry who in this generation has attained wealth and fame in steel production, procured his initial training under Andrew Carnegie, the greatest captain of them all. His human organization was of such importance to him that he once said of it, "If I were called upon to part with my organization, or, sur- render all of my wealth, I would give up my wealth and retain my organi- zation" . He had a genius for discovering rare ability, of putting it in po- sitions which taxed its capacity to the utmost, and then of quickly and amply rewarding its distinctive achievements. He quickly promoted Charles Schwab from the furnace room to the management of the entire plant over the heads of many employees who had served longer and more faithfully than he. It was not the spirit of service but the results of service which Mr. Carnegie most highly valued and rewarded. The man- agement of industry owns the business and may of course do as it likes. Superintendence of schools is made up of employees who can act with no such assurance and freedom. No one individual or small group of indi- viduals is well enough entrenched to disregard priority of service and allot the unusual rewards only to those who render superior service. But if superintendence might comprise the mobilized and organized intelli- gence of the entire force it might operate as impersonal group judgment to segregate the corps into the ranks of the professionally quick and into the files of the professionally dead. As persuasive group eloquence, it might render the quick one hundred per cent effective and convince the protesting and belligerent friends of the dead that they are, in truth, bereaved. The problem of financing schools is merely that of providing effective superintendence. The successful manufacturer each year improves his product and makes it more and more capable of rendering his trade satis- factory service. He is perfectly willing to allot any amount of money to improvement provided he charges little to waste and loss. The trade will 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ingly pays the increased cost of better service. It only demands that it may receive a full dollar's worth of improved service for each additional dollar it is expected to pay. The public will pay the increased cost of extended and better educational service just as willingly as it pays more for what better satisfies its other wants. Industry is adequately financed because the trade knows it is getting that for which it pays. Some schools are inade- quately financed because the public is not convinced that, for each dollar of mounting cost it is expected to pay for schools, it is receiving a full dollar's worth of extended and improved educational service. My contention is that in perfecting its processes, and in developing, utilizing, and rewarding all the capacities and skills of its employees, and in financing its enterprises superintendence has not functioned so effectively as factory management. If this assumption be true-Why ? To me the answer appears obvious. It may be quickly stated and easily understood . In the one case competition operates as a motive and in the other case it does not. The manufacturer has done a better job than the educator, not because he is more industrious, more conscientious, more capable, but be- cause he has been compelled to do a better job. His rivals in production are ever at his heels, alert to profit by his mistakes, eager to take away his trade. In such a contest competition quickly eliminates the unfit. But public education is a monopolistic enterprise. It has no rivals. Love of quietude and reluctance to fight vigorously are very potent factors in the lives of all of us. Those human impulses may be indulged in educa- tion, and they may not in industry. Management in industry is compelled to deliver the goods; superintendence in education may get by without de- livering the goods. It would do its job better if everyone associated in it had a next-door neighbor eager for his position and equipped to discharge its obligations as well or better than he. As an illustration of difference, management in industry maintains a very effective experimental laboratory which constantly tests and improves its processes and its products. Superintendence does too little of its own testing and improving. It leaves that important activity too exclusively to the wealth endowed experimental schools and research bureaus. Fac- tory management does that job because it must and superintendence neg- lects it because it may. Zeal for service must do for education what competition has done for industry. The impelling force of factory management has come from without itself. The driving power of superintendence must be derived from within itself; out of its own puzzled brain it must formulate its program as Martin Luther developed his Theses. It should then announce its ultimatum with all the intentness to abide by the results with which he nailed his Theses on the cathedral door at Wittenberg. To steady its faith and to sustain its courage it might then repeat the prayer which he there uttered, "Here I stand, I can not do otherwise. God help me! Amen". It was not competition but the promptings of his own anguished soul that made Martin Luther, right or wrong, one of the world's few great fight- ing heroes. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 669 WHAT PROGRESS HAS SUPERINTENDENCE MADE? PAYSON SMITH, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION , BOSTON MASSACHUSETTS¹ As a preliminary statement, let it be said in all modesty that the begin- nings of school supervision were in Massachusetts. As early as 1642, the selectmen of towns were authorized to divide the town among them for the purpose of having educational oversight of a certain number of families . These early superintendents were to see that the children could read; that they understood the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country ; and that they might be put to some useful work . This first plan of supervision, apparently not wholly satisfactory to the friends of education, was superseded in 1647 by the famous law of that year which laid the foundation of the Massachusetts public school system, in the requirement that elementary schools should be established in towns of fifty or more families and grammar schools in towns of one hundred or more families. The administration of education under this law confined itself to such elementary problems as the housing of the school and the choosing of the teachers. These important questions were settled by popular vote of the free men of the towns. To the ministers fell the task of examining the teachers as to scholarship and character. The teachers of grammar schools, whose morals and scholarship were apparently matters of special concern, were to be examined not only by the local minister but as well by two ministers of adjoining towns. In this same year, 1647, we find the first record of a special committee appointed and made responsible for the control of the schools. In Dor- chester, to quote the recorded action of the town, "three able and sufficient men of the plantation were chosen to be wardens or overseers of the school, who shall have the charge, oversight, and the ordering thereof." More than a hundred years later, in 1789, there was enacted the first law providing specifically for the supervision of schools. The ministers and selectmen, or a committee especially chosen for the purpose, were re- quired to visit and to inspect the schools once in six months in order to inquire into the discipline and proficiency of the scholars. Even before this date, Boston in 1710 and Salem in 1712 had school committees whose records are still to be read. In these records, the semi-annual inspection of the schools by these committees, sometimes consisting of as many as twenty members, is described as a formal and solemn affair, as they went in stately procession to the schools at an appointed time. In 1826, a law was enacted which made compulsory upon all towns the choice of a school committee which should be a special body with extended powers. A committee so chosen was designated the "town committee" or 1 In the absence of Dr. Smith , this paper was read by Mr. Frank W. Wright, director, division of elementary and secondary education and normal schools, State Department of Education , Boston, Mass. 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION "supervising school committee" to distinguish it from the district com- mittees, who a year later were given the care of property and the selection of teachers. The movement from the lay supervision of schools to professional super- vision began in 1836. Eighty-nine years ago, a convention of superinten- dents of schools of this country should have been held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in order that it might be convenient for the attendance of the one superintendent of schools recorded in service in that year. The convention, however, might easily have been a combined convention of superintendents and school committee men, since the superintendent then serving was appointed from the membership of the school committee of Cambridge at a salary of two hundred fifty dollars. To locate the first serious beginnings of professional supervision, one must reluctantly leave Massachusetts and find these early officers serving in Buffalo, New York, in 1837, in Louisville, Kentucky, in the same year, and in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1839. The city in which we are met elected its first superintendent in 1850. Happily for Massachusetts, however, Horace Mann in his fourth annual report called attention to the fact that in 1840, an event worthy of special notice had occurred, namely, the appropriation by the Town of Springfield of the sum of one thousand dollars as a salary for a superintendent of their schools to be selected and appointed by the town committee. "In that town," Horace Mann goes on to say, "as in a considerable number of others in the State, the schools are so numerous, and their terms so long, that if one person were to visit a school each working day in the year, the number of days would be too few to complete the circuit of visitations as required by law." Horace Mann in his report of the Springfield experiment pays compli- ment to the neighboring city of Providence, saying that that city had "within the last two years established a system of public schools upon the most liberal foundation, has incorporated the office of superintendent into her general plan; and, under the auspices of a gentleman in every respect admirably qualified for the station, her schools are making very rapid improvement." While it has been the boast of Massachusetts that she has started more things in education than any other State, it is sometimes the supplementary boast of other States that Massachusetts has started things on'y that other States might finish them. Before completing the record of the initial contributions made by Massa- chusetts to the cause of professional supervision, it may be proper to refer to the laws of 1870 and 1888, which respectively authorized, and then required, the employment of full-time superintendents for the smaller towns of the commonwealth. Under the provisions of these laws, subse- quently adopted by other States, there has been a rapid extension of pro- fessional supervision into all ranks and grades of schools . The growth of supervision throughout the country from the days of Cambridge, Buffalo, and Louisville in 1836 and '37 was very slow up to DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 671 and including 1870 when, according to Cubberley, there were only twenty- seven superintendents of schools in the entire United States. Since that time, the development of supervision as measured in terms of persons em- ployed as superintendents of schools has been rapid. According to the last directory of the Federal Bureau of Education, there are at the present time 6568 persons serving as superintendents of schools in the cities, counties, districts, and supervisory unions of this country. That some practical application may be given to these figures, it might be gratuitiously observed that, if every superintendent of schools in America had done his duty during the past year, the Treasurer of this Department would have received in annual dues $32,840. Compare that, if you wish, with approximately $10,000 which Mr. Shankland reports as having re- ceived last year, and you have the margin of progress which in this field of the superintendent's duty is still to be covered. In the period of this rapid development of school supervision, there has been, of course, the greatest progress in the growth and development of education in America that has ever occurred. Strikingly is this true of the development of city supervision. In 1870, there were only fourteen cities in America with as many as 100,000 inhabitants. Today the enrollment of the schools in New York City is greater than the population of Maine, or Montana, or North Dakota. There are more pupils in the schools of Chicago than there are persons in Arizona, Delaware, New Mexico, or Vermont. The City of Chicago alone is expending annually over half as much for its public schools as the whole country expended for the same purpose in 1870. In 1922, New York City expended for the support of its public schools twelve million dollars more than the entire country expended in 1870. While we are enjoying such satisfaction as come out of the knowledge of rapid growth, we may as well indulge ourselves in making some compari- sons of our office with administrative and executive positions in other lines. Professor L. O. Cummings, of Harvard University, brings exactly the message which affords comfort and pride on that point. Professor Cum- mings shows, in a survey which he has made of the office of superintendent of schools as compared with that of executive officers in private industry in Massachusetts, that in nine leading cities of the State outside of Boston, with a total of 2671 mercantile and industrial establishments, there are only 122 of these establishments that employ even approximately as many persons as there are teachers emp'oyed in their respective cities. In the remuneration of the superintendent, there has been all the distance traveled between the $250 paid for the part-time service of the first super- intendent of schools of Cambridge and the salary check which the men in this room received last year. Having made favorable comment on the pioneering of Springfield in the establishment of the office of superin- tendent, in 1840, it is only in the interests of honesty and recorded fact to state that, after the first year during which the salary of $1000 was paid, it was regarded as too large and the position was vacant for the next 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION twenty-five years. The average salary of superintendents of schools in 1869 was $2520 for eighteen representative cities of the country. In 1914, it had risen to $6736, and in 1923 to $8750. So much for a report of the facts of superintendence on the historic and statistical sides. If you desire more of that sort of information, let me direct you to the Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence for last year, where you will find, among other things, that the typical superin- tendent of schools of this country is a graduate of a four-year high school, of a standard college, and that he has had training beyond the eighth grade amounting to eight and one half years. You will find that fifty-eight per cent of the superintendents enter that field from a high-school principalship and that nineteen per cent enter from an elementary school principalship. You will find that the median length of the present term in office is four years; that fifty per cent of the superintendents reporting have one-year contracts; that the median length of contract increases gradually from about two years in cities of less than 5000 to four years in cities of more than 100,000. This reference would seem to indicate that one important forward step in supervision is that of securing longer terms of office and more permanent tenure in office for men in the field of superintendence. The Department of Superintendence might well record, for the benefit of the American public, its opinion of the advantages which would accrue from more permanent tenure in the office of the superintendent of schools. The early superintendent of schools was an examiner of teachers and an inspector of schools. He was in the beginning, is now, and very likely will long continue to be, the responsible guide of his community in matters of fundamental educational policy. To these duties have been added execu- tive and administrative functions of great importance. The young man today entering upon the profession of school superintendence goes into a field rich in the traditions of a useful past, full of the challenge of unsolved problems, and conspicuous in its opportunities for leadership in the public service. I, therefore, desire to direct your attention, not for the benefit of those of us who are old in the service, but for the sake of those who are to follow, to those elements in the service of the superintendent in which progress in the future must be made. Progress in superintendence means, first, that there must be, increasingly, in the office of the superintendent, men who believe in their work . There is no room here, if there is anywhere, for the apologist. Not long since, the press of an American city reported that the superintendent of schools had stated to the city council that, in his judgment, the wave of retrench- ment which had spread into his section justified his advising that certain subjects lately come into the schools should, in the interests of economy, be discontinued. The newspaper in question, in its editorial column, stated that the subjects should not only not be eliminated, but that they were essential and should be continued. If I were a superintendent, I should not be happy in seeing another hand light the torch committed to my own. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 673 Asuperintendent who readily falls prey to the reactionary should speedily take counsel with either his courage, or his judgment, or with both. Since there are over six thousand superintendents of schools in more than six thousand political units-States, counties, cities, towns, and supervisory districts there should be exactly that number of men and women who are willing to stand, in season and out, for the defense of children against every force that would deny them opportunity. Progress in superintendence means, second, that there must be in the office of superintendent men with a strong sense of justice. The man who occupies this position must be able to receive evidence, to weigh it, and to pass justly upon it. He must, in numerous instances, be a final court of appeal. He must never be open to special influences. A mind single to the one purpose of preserving the rights of childhood is a test of prime im- portance. The superintendent receives no special favors and he grants none. He knows that wherever a favor is given a favor will be expected. He must be able to see both sides without being on either side. He must have the capacity to get the other man's point of view without surrendering to it. Unbound by tradition and unmoved by prejudice, he must so ad- minister his office that the public he serves will hold him in no less esteem than the man who sits as a judge in a court of law. Indeed, the extra-legal quality of the justice which he dispenses should guarantee a mind free of bias. Progress in superintendence means, third, that there must be in the office of superintendent men with courage. They must have that kind of courage that includes intelligence. Courage without intelligence becomes foolhardi- ness. Nowhere may the victim of foolhardiness do more harm to his cause than when he is found in the position of dealing with public education. The superintendent should meet issues in his own field. He should not too quickly run to issues in fields outside his own. Progress in superintendence means, fourth, that there must be in the office of superintendent men with a sense of perspective. The possession of this quality in any profession or calling gives one that saving sense which helps in the avoidance of extremes and in the keeping to the wise and permanent course. To be able to put the important thing in the important place and to keep the unimportant where it belongs signifies not only thrift of personal resources but also the application of strength where and when it will count for most. In the daily life of the superin- tendent of schools there are issues constantly arising which demand quick decision and prompt settlement. The superintendent who develops a sense of proportion will be able to meet these issues with a minimum of expendi- ture of his own energy and with a maximum of results to the service in which he is engaged. A sense of perspective will enable the superintendent to understand that the schools under his direction are not a laboratory for experimentation with his own personal ideas. If he is so fortunate as to have this gift as an 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION actual possession, it will prevent his becoming the exponent of a particular cause in education and therefore a specialist. While there is ample room for the specialist in education, the only specialty that the superintendent of schools should have is superintendence. Many a superintendent has ren- dered less than the best service of which he was capable because he has so closely identified himself with a particular cause in education that he has been unable to escape the narrowing influence of a label. As a superin- tendent progresses in superintendence, he will find that his service in special fields will be best rendered through specialists under his direction, that his own judgment will be most useful in checking and correcting the recom- mendations and findings of these specialists and not in becoming himself a specialist in a selected field. Progress in superintendence means, fifth, a growth in the superintendent of confidence in his supervisory and teaching staff. One somehow prefers to meet that superintendent who speaks of his "associates" rather than the one who refers to his "subordinates." The superintendent must early make whatever sacrifice is implied in frequently performing his service through the work of the minds and hands of other persons. He thus comes to respect his teachers because of a knowledge they have which he hardly expects himself to possess. There is no more pitiable spectacle among superintendents than those men, now happily rare, who feel that they are in some way outdone if a teacher possesses more knowledge about something than they themselves have. On the contrary, a good superintendent knows that he cannot expect to have as thorough understanding of primary teaching as that held by the best primary teacher under his superintendence. He knows that his teachers of music, of art, of history, of language, and of all the other subjects are, or should be, masters in their several fields to a degree that he himself cannot attain. Recognizing this, progress in superintendence means that the superin- tendent will increasingly find ways of releasing the talents of his associates. No greater good can come to school system than that it should fall under the direction of a wise superintendent, who desires that each of his associates shall make use of all his resources in the common cause, and who helps toward that release. Unhappy the school system presided over by a superin- tendent who believes that educational progress can be made only through and by himself. Progress in superintendence means, sixth, that we must have men who themselves have capacity for education. There are many tests for approach- ing old age. None is surer than the test of the ability to face a new truth and to receive a new idea. I think we should at this moment frankly answer this question: "Who have been our teachers ?" Since we are of that great army of progressive, forward looking men who make up our pro- fession, we should think not alone of those who guided our first steps in education. In all the years that have passed and in the years that now are, we have been taught, and are being taught, by various experiences and con DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 675 tacts of life. Our teachers are not confined to the men and women who instructed our early years. Progress in supervision will develop men who will not only organize and direct the conduct of the schools, but who will increasingly realize that that conduct and that direction will be wisest when he who directs con- tinues to be taught by the teachers with whom he daily serves . Progress in supervision means, seventh, constantly increased recognition of the importance of frankness and sincerity in all human and official rela- tionships. I once heard a man, representing a school committee that had recently employed a superintendent, say that the committee would make of the superintendent one test, important beyond all others. That test was that in all the relationships between the superintendent and the committee there should be utter frankness and complete sincerity. The test is a good one. Itmight well be regarded as the most important to be made. More failures may be due to the lack of sincerity and frankness between committee and superintendent than to any other single cause. Crafty dealing, indirect approaches, skilful maneuvering, adroit managing under cover and behind the scenes-these tendencies are disappearing in committee and superin- tendent relationships and, as our profession advances, will decrease and finally vanish. Progress in superintendence means finally that we must have more men who know how to interpret to the people their own best ideals and who embody those ideals in the best standards of action. There are a few super- intendents who like to use another term for what I prefer to call interpreta- tion. I may be oversensitive about it. I am probably, on this point, too critical. But I have a feeling of revulsion when I hear some of my re- spected colleagues talking about "selling education to the people." I am a good deal in sympathy with my friend, Dallas Lore Sharp, who once said that he would as soon think of selling the American flag to the American people as he would of selling education to them. There is no doubt of the deep and lasting devotion of the American people to the American public school . They show their faith in it by the laws which they enact in State and Nation. They show their faith in it by the millions they appropriate for it. They show their faith in it through the service their sons and daughters render in the classrooms of the republic. They show their faith in it by the extent to which they entrust the minds and interests of their children to the teachers of their schools. The great educational prophets and reformers of all time have sensed this fact that there is something in- grained in the nature of man that insists on the growth and development of body, mind, and soul. There is something ingrained in our social conscious- ness that tells us that human development is not only a right of the indi- vidual but a safeguard of the welfare of society. He who would lead the people to progress in education must understand that from him no other service is greater than that he should seek and find the elemental needs of children, the fundamental requirements of the state, and reflect in his teach 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing and in his direction the finest and best ideals of the constituency he represents . Progress in superintendence is progress in administration. It is progress in carrying wisely executive responsibility. It is progress in developing leadership. It is progress of the open mind. It is progress in the recognition of the expanding needs of society. And finally it is progress, most of all, in the development of that personality which the people will recognize and gladly welcome in that highest of all professions, the one which has the future as its client. EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON, D. C. "From the beginning, these States engaged, as a duty of government, to secure to all equal rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness ." Every nation is dominated by an ideal. The ideal of America has lain in an aspiration for that equality for its citizens which finds its basis in equality of opportunity. Opportunity is determined very largely by education. Twelve million, or slightly more than one half, of the school children of the United States are now attending schools in the open country and small villages. Rural schools in the past have not offered opportunities com- parable in any sense to those of urban schools. The teachers in these schools have been poorly paid and poorly prepared. The buildings and equipment have been meager. There has been little or no supervision. Financial sup- port has been inadequate. The length of term has been short, and in prac- tically every significant detail these schools have lagged behind the more fortunate schools in the cities. There has been no more significant move- ment in education in recent years than the rapid overcoming of the handi- caps under which our rural schools have labored, and no movement could contribute more toward the realization of our ideal for a square deal in equal opportunity for all American children. So rapid and so varied have been the strides that have been taken for the betterment of our rural schools that a very large volume would be filled in giving even a bird's-eye view of what has been accomplished. Here we are undertaking to sketch a few of the prominent features of this movement. Equalization by more liberal financial support from the state-In the ultimate analysis most of the disparity of educational opportunity arises from difficulties in financial support. Some communities which possess valuable minerals or fertile agricultural land bear the burden of supporting the schools with little difficulty. Other communities which do not abound in natural resources or advantages find it an economic impossibility to pro- vide good schools. It is obvious that this inequality cannot be met except by taxation and financial support from a unit which is large enough essen- tially to include within it much of that part of the region which possesses DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 677 natural advantages in wealth. The State is the legal unit for educational administration and control, and the natural unit for taxation, to accomplish measurable equality in school opportunities. This has become clearly recognized in all parts of the United States in recent years. The progress of State support is evidenced by the fact that nearly a score of States within the past few years have materially increased their support for rural schools. The States have been appropriating larger per- centages for the support of education from their funds and have been set- ting aside a specific amount for equalization. In Texas and Alabama ap- proximately 50 per cent of school expenditures are furnished by the State. Recently New York has increased its State funds about $20,000,000, and the State of Pennsylvania has assumed the payment of approximately 50 per cent of the salaries of rural teachers. Some of our Western States make an appropriation of $25 and even $30 per capita for all children of school age. Of these Utah is an example. The State of Arizona augments its county funds sufficiently to provide about $45 per capita, with the minimum of $ 1500 to each one-teacher school, and $3000 to each two-teacher school. California supplements its county funds in such a magnificent manner that $60 and $90 per capita respectively are available for each elementary and high school pupil in the State. Massachusetts meets the problem of unequal local wealth with increased State funds distributed on a basis of inverse ratio to local tax valuation. The equalizing fund in the States of Maine and Mississippi is distributed very largely at the direction of the chief school officer of the State. Indiana, Oklahoma, North Carolina, and West Vir- ginia give aid to the weaker districts by increasing the length of term. Altogether 28 States have provided for equalizing funds from State sources within recent years. During the scholastic year 1923-24, 12 States reported to the Bureau of Education marked increases in the State apportionments, or the initiation of new programs for enlarging State support. Equalization through administrative organization-Equality of educa- tional opportunity is dependent upon adequate administration as well as upon adequate finances. Correlative with increased State support in financ- ing schools, we find the rapidly enlarging unit of administration for rural schools. A widespread attempt is being made to substitute professional ad- ministration for the outworn system of rural supervision by politicians, inspectors, and annual visitants. The county unit of administration in some form or another is now in vogue in 22 of our States. The latest information that we have in the Bureau of Education tells us that at the present time 12 States are seeking a larger and more effective organization for the administration of rural schools. Equalization through consolidation-The merging of small districts into centralized units for school purposes has made possible the erection of con- solidated schools all over the United States, thus bringing to 2,500,000 American boys and girls living in the country, educational opportunities 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION which are quite comparable to those which boys and girls living in the cities enjoy. In 1916, there were 7,000 of these consolidated schools in the Nation. In 1924, their number had doubled. In this eight year period 30,000 old-fashioned one-room schools, which correspond to the pioneer stage of development and the ox cart in transportation, were closed or ex- panded into centralized or consolidated schools. Between 1917 and 1922, two leading States closed as many as one third of their one- room schools by providing the opportunities of consolidated schools and in five States about 20 per cent of the one-room schools were closed in this way. Twenty-seven States are now giving financial aid to further consolidation and transporta- tion of pupils. Incomplete but fairly reliable data enable us to say that we are now spending annually about $30,000,000 for transporting approxi- mately one and one-quarter million children to 14,000 consolidated schools. Equalization through better supervision-Supervision, as understood in well organized city systems, was practically unknown in our rural schools a decade or so ago. During the past eight or ten years the need of pro- fessional supervision for rural schools has been realized practically every- where. Thirty-seven States have established fully or partially a distinct administrative machinery by which such supervision can be secured, and six States are now in the process of organizing supervisors for intensive work through their State departments of education. In the past few years we have progressed from the situation in which we had one or two super- visors in each of a dozen isolated counties to the point where we now have approximately 1,250 rural supervisory assistants employed in 360 counties in 37 States. About 20 per cent of these supervisors have been added to the force during the past two years. State departments of education, with trained State directors as members of their staffs, universities, colleges, and normal schools, through the pro- vision of proper courses of study, and other important agencies are com- bining to emphasize the need and provide for supervision for rural schools on a basis comparable to that which is general in city schools. At least six States are now definitely aiming at an objective which will put rural super- vision on the same basis as urban supervision. At least four States have actually made provision for a supervisor for each 30 to 40 teachers on a State-wide scale in their rural territories. Seven States have recently inaugurated intensive in-service training for supervisors and superintendents in rural schools . Equalization through supervision and administration-Twenty-two of the States now provide in-service training for rural school superintendents by conferences devoted to the study of professional administration and in- structional supervision . State supervisors of rural schools have ceased to be inspectors and their work now belongs properly in the class of expert super- vision. Assisting county superintendents with demonstrations, teachers meetings, conducting in-service training for teachers, planning county-wide school programs for superintendents and supervisors, and similar things are DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 679 among the types of work now being done by State supervisors. Thirty-five States now have 75 State rural supervisors, or persons doing a type of work similar to supervision. Alabama has 13 State rural supervisors, the largest number reported to the Bureau of Education for any State. Equalization through teacher certification-Formerly, thousands of teach- ers served in country schools with no education beyond the high school, and many with even less. Comparatively few obtained the advantage of college preparation or special professional training which is usually considered necessary for employment in city schools. Of late, notable improvement in professional preparation and certification of rural teachers has been accomplished by centralizing authority for teacher certification in the State Departments of Education and by eliminating the practice of granting certificates or conducting examinations in the counties or localities. Sixteen States have accomplished the elimination of examination or expect to do so at an early date. Fifteen States have reported to the Bureau of Education definite progress during the year 1923-24 in raising the standards of certifi- cation of teachers. This statement can be comprehended in its fullest signifi- cance only when we remember that unless a State program for securing better teachers includes laws and regulations requiring professional train- ing in addition to high school graduation, offers salaries commensurate with the qualifications demanded, and provides adequate facilities for training the required number of teachers to make the necessary annual replacements, little or no progress can be made in the direction of improving teachers for rural schools. Heretofore, rural schools have had to be content, in a large measure, with teachers who were left after the cities had supplied their needs. It is gratifying to know that along with the improvement in certification requirements for the professional preparation of rural teachers, there is a corresponding increase in compensation. In 1912, the average salary of the public school teacher, city and rural, was $492. In 1922, it was $1166, an increase of 137 per cent in ten years. For the past four years, county superintendents have reported to the Bureau of Education the salaries of rural teachers. These reports show that salaries vary directly in propor- tion to the size of the school, small salaries in the one-teacher schools, with a slight increase in the two-teacher schools, a larger increase in the schools having three or more teachers, and the largest increase in the consolidated and village schools. The average salaries in the consolidated schools in- creased from $964 in 1923 to $1017 in 1924. Equalization through adequate teacher preparation-No State has an adequate supply of prepared teachers if we consider two years beyond high school graduation as a minimum standard. Forty per cent of the States are unable to secure an adequate supply of teachers, if the standard is only one year beyond high school graduation. Remembering this general short- age of adequately trained teachers, it is encouraging to know that 60 per cent of the rural teachers of Michigan have completed one year of pro 680 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatiON fessional preparation beyond high school graduation; that 68 per cent of the beginning teachers in the one-room rural schools in Connecticut last year were normal school graduates, and that 57 per cent of the 305 graduates of the Maryland State normal schools entered one and two teacher schools last year. These facts, considered in connection with the high standards of certain States which in the course of two or three years will require a minimum of one or two years of professional preparation for their teachers, under terms of laws already enacted, afford excellent testi- mony of the progress that is being made in professional preparation for rural teachers. Departments of rural education have now been established in nearly two score teacher-training institutions. One hundred twenty-two State teachers colleges and normal schools are now offering 257 courses in rural education. Courses in rural education are required for graduation in the State normal schools of Connecticut. The increased enrollments in extension courses and in summer schools are further indications of more intensive teacher preparation. Eighty-six per cent of the teachers of Alabama were reported as having pursued some kind of professional study during the past year. Wyoming reported 50 per cent of its teachers in summer schools alone. Arkansas reported an increase last year of 80 per cent in summer school attendance, and Pennsylvania an increase of 133 per cent in the past three years. These are typical reports which indicate what is happening in the improvement of professional preparation for teachers generally. Additional teacher-training institutions are being established each year . In 1923, five such institutions were opened, and in five States money has been voted for the establishment of State normal schools which have not yet been opened for students. Equality of opportunity in secondary education-For a long time second- ary schools such as are found in every city were infrequent in rural com- munities. Centralization and consolidation have made possible high schools in the open country comparable in their facilities to those situated even in the large cities. Practically all States now have legal provisions through which all children may attend a high school without direct tuition charge. In many cases tuition is paid from public funds of State, intermediate, or local districts. Transportation at public expense is a common expedient in the majority of our States. In every State, extensive curriculum revision is carried out to provide education suited to community and occupational needs. So great has been this movement for secondary education in the rural communities that at the present time more than 80 per cent of all the high schools in the United States are located in the open country or in villages of less than 2500 population, although the population served is less than 50 per cent of the total population. This movement is all the more remarkable when we realize that the per capita expenditures are much greater in these schools because of smaller attendance than in the city schools. Statistics collected by the Bureau of DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 681 Education show that in many instances the per pupil cost in Virginia, Arizona, and other States in these small schools is sometimes almost 75 per cent greater than in large schools. The high costs in small schools are due very largely to the effort to provide a varied educational program. The success which has been achieved through consolidation, transportation, pay- ment of tuition, and the establishment of high schools serving small pupil groups in rural communities is proved by the following data: In New York State 1.69 per cent of the pupil population of the rural districts were enrolled in high school as compared with the State average for all pupils, including the cities, of 1.64 per cent. In 1922, Montana enrolled approxi- mately 32 per cent of the farm population of high school age as compared with 32.6 per cent of non-farm population. Oregon enrolled 50.5 per cent of the farm population as compared with 46.5 per cent of the non-farm population. In Maine the corresponding percentages were 49 per cent as compared with 42 per cent; and in New Hampshire 52 per cent as com- pared with 49 per cent. In the States of Maine, New Hampshire, and Oregon there are as high and even higher percentages of teachers who are college graduates employed in rural high schools than in the city schools, and in these States all high schools are accredited by the same general standards. It is often noted that tests of achievement have shown that children in rural schools are inferior to children in corresponding grades in city schools, but recent studies made in the Bureau of Education involving more than 18,000 high school pupils from all States indicate that this inferiority is not due to inability to do the work of the school. Measured by standard tests in intelligence and by achievement through the high school years, farm pupils show a normal distribution of ability. Compared to the non-farm children studied they make slightly better progress through high school. The children tested in this study, farm and non-farm, came up through the same school systems. Equalization through buildings-In many rural sections of America today we can find school buildings as costly and as adequate for educa- tional purposes as we find in the larger cities. This has been brought about by statutory provisions requiring approval of all plans for school buildings by State officials, by the policy of centralization and consolidation of small schools, by State appropriations for building purposes and by standard- ization of school buildings through statutory provision or otherwise. The rapidity with which rural school buildings are transformed from the old inadequate, unsanitary, and unattractive type into up-to-date buildings com- parable in many instances with the best that can be found in the cities, is astonishing. One State reports 450 rural schools which were rebuilt dur- ing the past year to meet specific requirements set up after inspection by members of the State department of education. Another State reports 246 rural schools inspected and improved. Another reports that during the past decade in which the present law has been in effect, 1100 new school 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION houses have been built and many more remodeled, while still another reports that 1000 will qualify for State standards during 1924-25. Altogether 19 States have recently reported to the Bureau marked progress in the improve- ment of rural school buildings. There are numerous other phases at which we are aiming toward our goal of equalization in educational opportunity. A good deal might be said of what is accomplished through general activities, through improvement of laws relating to rural schools, and especially about the equalizing tendency resulting from the movement for State courses of study, but this short and cursory review must come to an end. We have presented in the merest outline some of the significant and conspicuous developments which are raising to a higher level all the schools of America and hastening the com- ing of the day when all boys and girls, wherever they may be born, may find readily accessible to them an education through the secondary school, under professionally prepared teachers, with courses of study scientifically adapted to their needs, in buildings which are comfortable, beautiful, and sanitary. EQUAL RIGHTS TO COMMUNITY BENEFITS IN THЕ FIELD OF RURAL EDUCATION IN ALABAMA A. F. HARMAN, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA A certain man from " Back East" went down to the Mexican Border. There accommodating friends took him in hand, thinking to show him things interesting and unusual to the Easterner's eye. He was taken across the river to a great amphitheatrical affair, where hundreds of people were gathered. Into the arena came a man and an animal, broad of back and strong of haunch. Then the crowd arose, shouting "Bravo ! Bravo ! El Toro!" And to the uninitiated Easterner's inquiry, "What are they say- ing?" his friends replied, "They are saying 'Hurrah for the Bull.' " I shall draw upon the experience of Montgomery County for some con- crete illustrations of an effort at equalizing educational opportunity for rural children. Having undertaken to do this on more than one other occasion, I am now in trepidation lest some one shall shout from this audience, "Bravo ! Bravo ! El Toro." Nevertheless, with pictures for my medium, I am more than willing to repeat, but not without marking out what seem to me certain definite limitations, nor without presenting for consideration what seems to me an ever-present danger to rural education. To say that every American child, regardless of residence, is entitled to educational opportunity equal to that of every other American child seems a platitude. But the wide discrepancy between the educational opportunity of the average American city child and the educational opportunity of the average American rural child is also a platitude. Moreover, lack of balance in educational opportunity is not merely a matter of the city versus DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 683 the country. As we go from the city to the country, from school district to school district, from county to county, from State to State, we must be convinced that equality of educational opportunity is as yet little more than a pretty phrase. Everywhere there is evidence of the far cry from grim reality to fine ideals. I do not wish to be understood as holding an altogether pessimistic view of the outlook for rural education. Undoubtedly, advancement has been made, can be made, and will be made in spite of all our present limitations, but as things now stand, the conclusion seems to me inevitable that, from the rural viewpoint, equality of educational opportunity is not to be dreamed of except in counties that are favored by fortune and the law. That education is a business and that, like any other business, education cannot be successfully conducted without money for capital outlay and for operation, are theses not to be discussed before such an audience as this. It is to be noted, if not discussed, that the inequalities of educational oppor- tunity throughout America are due chiefly to widely varying amounts of money available for the education of youth. Evidence of this wide vari- ation is easily obtainable, as, for instance, in "Bulletin, 1924, Number 36, of the Federal Bureau of Education, A Manual of Educational Legisla- tion." For the purposes of this discussion it must be noted that this wide variation in the average per child valuation of taxable property exists not only between cities and rural districts but also between districts in the same county, and also between counties in the same State, and also between States of the nation. So great is this variation that taxation to the point of confiscation will not bring the per capita funds of some rural districts to a level with the per capita funds of some city districts nor the per capita funds of some rural districts to a level with the per capita funds of other rural districts, nor the per capita funds of some counties to a level with the per capita funds of other counties, nor the per capita funds of some States to a level with the per capita funds of other States. Whether or not educa- tion is, or is to become, a national responsibility, it is a fair proposal that the boundary lines of no civil unit, large or small, should stand as barriers to the educational opportunities of any child. No scheme of State-wide application for the distribution of school funds among counties or dis- tricts has yet been devised whereby equality of educational opportunity has been obtained. More is the pity that many, if not most, of these schemes have proved leveling-down processes when pressing need and fair principle call for leveling up. I have come through this tedious preliminary in order to make it clear that if Montgomery County has made a contribution to the problem of equalizing educational opportunity, it is due at least in part to the fact that we have been favored by fortune and the law, and also to make it p'ain that we know at least something of the distance yet to be traveled before our rural children may boast of educational opportunities equal to those enjoyed by other children. 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To elaborate, I cannot conceive of equality of opportunity for rural chil- dren unless the schools are consolidated. And I cannot see how economical and prompt and safe deliveries of children at consolidated schools can be effected unless there is a system of good roads adequate to this need. And I cannot see how children are to be provided with the transportation and instructional equipment, the buildings, the teaching force, unless school funds are available. Now it happens that in Montgomery County an ade- quate system of good roads antedated our system of consolidated schools . We have in Montgomery County a city in which lies the preponderance of taxable property of the entire county, and under the laws of Alabama the County Board of Revenue and the County Board of Education, respec- tively, have levied upon the wealth of the entire county, the wealth of the city included, for buildings and for funds for operating the rural schools of the county. It also happens that the laws of the state empower the County Board of Education to create school districts, to consolidate schools, and otherwise to organize and conduct a system of schools similar in every respect to a system of city schools . So, I am willing to draw upon the experience of Montgomery County for some concrete illustrations of efforts at equalizing educational oppor- tunity for its rural schools only under the definite limitation that fortune and the law have made possible whatever progress we have enjoyed. Rural schools are always in imminent danger of accepting the shell for the substance. Particularly in rural schools there is always danger of mis- taking buildings and equipment for an educational program. The mere obtaining of funds for buildings and equipment sometimes satisfies the de- mand for educational opportunity. Architectural monstrosities in the way of schoolhouses to be found in practically every section of the country are mute but convincing evidence of this fact. In rural education we must learn that obtained revenues should be followed by good and attractive and permanent construction work. This may be a homely truth, but it is none the less the truth. In rural education we are also in danger of prac- ticing extravagance in the purchase of equipment, not so much as to quan- tity as to kind. If we are honest with ourselves we can find many instances of unintelligent buying. In rural education we must learn lessons in our responsibility for the care and upkeep of school plants. Unkept and untidy yards, dilapidated and defaced toilets, broken window lights, floors strati- fied with alternate layers of mud and oil, leaking roofs, and basements running over with discarded furniture everywhere challenge us who would provide rural youth with educational opportunity equal to the best. But buildings and equipment, however fine they may be and however well they may be kept, are mainly a means to an end. Altogether they do not make a school. It seems to me a danger to rural education that we have so far paid so little attention to curriculum making. Perhaps we have been so busily engaged with the thought of the mere material side of the school that we have been mere imitators as to the content of the curriculum and the pro DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 685 cedures whereby we shall make it function in this question of educational opportunity. At least it seems to me that rural education must now begin to think of a curriculum with emphasis on rural life, rural in all its rami- fications, and yet a curriculum that shall make the world every rural child's to conquer. By reason of its instructional implications, I am impelled to include under this head what I conceive to be an error in rural education-namely, the placing of consolidated schools in towns and villages, instead of in the open country. Even at disadvantages of travel and expense, consolidated schools should be located in the open country if we mean to place emphasis on rural life or if we hope to hold the coming generations to the land. More important than buildings and equipment, more important than care and upkeep of property, more important than curricula, is the teacher. It is an impending and tremendous danger to rural education that we shall overlook the teacher as vital to any scheme for equalizing opportunity. This is particularly true, unless there is intelligent and courageous guid- ance and authority in the selection and placement of teachers. Nepotism, politics, religion, social rivalries, and ignorance play havoc with many an effort at equalizing educational opportunity. Nor is it merely a question of standards for teachers that makes the rural situation difficult. The country is yet the training ground for many hundreds of teachers who ulti- mately are to render their best service in urban schools. Many of you have on your desks piles of letters from ambitious young women who are zealous to teach-"in or near some city or town." Until salaries are ade- quate, until living conditions are tolerable, until the social and recreational advantages of the city are readily accessible, until the restrictions upon the life and conduct of the teacher are reasonable equality of educational opportunity for the rural child is not to be dreamed of. Finally, it is a danger to rural education that we shall overlook the importance, if not the absolute necessity, of well-trained, professional supervision . It is a danger that we shall accept a mere division of labor for a highly technical and essential thing if rural schools are to do the things any good school ought to do. Drawing upon the experience of my own county for illustration, I do not hesitate to express the opinion that super- vision makes the most important single contribution of the county in its efforts at equalizing educational opportunity. Our average annual turn- over of teachers is one third of the force. It is impossible to estimate the loss to the country on account of this annual turnover, but it is certain the chief, if not the only, offset we have is highly trained, successful supervision . Under supervision the instruction of holdovers is. refined and projected ; that of novices and newcomers is corrected early in the game and directed towards safe and fundamental goals. It is also certain that supervision holds for the county many of the best teachers we employ, teachers who remain deliberately for the benefit of the supervision they are able to obtain. Now you may shout "Bravo ! Bravo ! El Toro !" if you will. But be- cause I realize the limitations that beset the educational enterprise with 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION which I have been connected for the past five years and because I sincerely believe that we have avoided some of the dangers to rural education, I am undertaking, as far as possible, to draw upon Montgomery County's ex- perience for some concrete illustrations of an effort to provide rural chil- dren with educational opportunities equal to those enjoyed by any other children. IN THE NORTH, EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY ERNEST W. BUTTERFIELD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION CONCORD, NEW HAMPSHIRE Our Puritan forefathers and their contemporaries who came first to these shores had diligently learned one lesson. They knew from sad ex- perience that in a monarchy a state church creates a divided allegiance and menaces national integrity. They hoped for a church subordinate to the state but they had not considered the possibility of a separation of the two. Many of the colonists thought that the failure to secure harmony in Eng- land was not because there might not be a state church but because their experience had been with the wrong churches. They had tried the Roman church, they had tried the English church, and their experiences were written in their histories, but they believed it possible that some other church organization, Puritan, Baptist, or Quaker, might with safety con- stitute a state church. With this belief well established, we find suffrage restricted to church membership, election sermons, legislative sessions opened by the clergy and donations of land for the Church Glebe, for the minister, and for the first incorporated church society. Even as late as 1770, Wentworth, the Royal Governor of New Hampshire, in the charter of each township re- served one lot in each sixty-four for the public school and three lots for the support of religion . Our early laws reflect the belief that there must be a state church, pro- vided that it is not the discredited Roman or English church. The first New England law which established public schools, that of 1647, had for amainpurpose the continuity of a succession of pious and learned clergy- men. Hear the sonorous introduction, "Since it is one chief project of the old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scripture." So schools must be maintained in order that "learning may not be buried in the grave of our fathers, in the church and commonwealth." At this time it was still fondly hoped that church and state might be coterminous and each sovereign in its own field. A century and a half brought great social and economic changes. In 1647, there were true colonies in America. In 1776, though colonies in name, these were in spirit separate republics and they had learned the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 687 lesson that in a republic there can be no national church and no state religion. Our constitution expresses this changed conception and makes clear that for all time with us there shall be separation of church and state. "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- ligion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," and "No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office of public trust under the United States." Other nations have learned this lesson more slowly. France in our own time, Italy a generation before, and Russia perhaps in these immediate years. In a monarchy a state church produces a situation fraught with danger. In a republic a state church is impossible. We may well rejoice that in America we have no predominant church but faith and devotion expressed in many forms and controlled by different organizations. Politically the only institution worse than a Roman Catholic state church or a Church of England state church would be an Episcopal or Methodist or a Presbyterian state church and they worse because they would be churches with a national rather than a remote hierarchy. His- tory from the days of Amenophis and Samuel has shown us no example of a national hierarchy of religion which has not sought with varying success for political control as well. As patriots we may well rejoice in our many denominations. The Nation is safer so. Our fathers, then, in successive steps declared their acceptance of the proposition of separation of church and state. They did not at first un- derstand that they must accept, also, the corollary that the state must educate its children. In England, and in colonial days, the duty of educa- tion so far as it rested upon any one rested upon the church and was re- served by it for the chosen few. For all other citizens, religion itself was education and all the education which was held to be necessary. Let me restate this thought. Our forefathers in common with other churchly people believed that there should be full education for ecclesiastical and clerical service but for the great majority no education was needed nor desirable beyond that furnished by the church. Therefore, church attend- ance was required, catechisms were taught, sermons were preached, and assent demanded not to codes of personal behavior but to creeds which as- serted intellectual beliefs. We may say that for these people religion was education. Our position has become a different one, for we have made of education a National religion. We require school attendance of all children. We set the hours, we fix the courses, we add to the fundamental subjects of the earlier schools-reading, writing, and arithmetic-the essential sub- jects-history, art, citizenship, and morality. We permit neither parental need nor greed, neither financial disability nor commercial avarice, to in- terfere. Education has become an inalienable right of American childhood and is our National religion. Will you follow me when for one section of the country I trace the development of this religion as shown by legal enactments ? In order that 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION this presentation be not too different, it is necessary that the successive changes in this fundamental conception be shown for a single typical state. I shall, therefore, in my dates and illustrations confine myself to the State with which I am most familiar. The other older States of the North have had like experiences and have reached similar conclusions. The first New Englanders had very clear ideas about individual rights of judgment and action, but their ideas of public education were not worked out to logical conclusions. Two statements, however, made by Luther a century before, expressed their firm belief. "Government as the natural guardian of the young has the right to compel the people," and the educa- tion of the young is a "grand and serious thing affecting the kingdom of God and all the world." In other words, our first New Englanders were ready to assert that the state has an inalienable right to guard and direct the care of its children and that education is of supreme importance. The first New England law on education was enacted for Massachusetts and New Hampshire towns in 1642 in these words : "Forasmuch as the good education of children is of singular behoof and benefit to any commonwealth, and whereas many parents and masters are too indulgent, and negligent of their duty in that kind, "It is ordered, that the selectmen of every town in the several precincts and quarters where they dwell, shall have a vigilant eye over their neigh- bors, to see, first, that none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their families, as not to endeavor to teach, by themselves or others, their children and apprentices so much learning as may enable them to read per- fectly the English tongue, and to get knowledge of the capital laws, upon penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect therein. "Also, that all masters of families do, once a week at least, catechise their children and servants in the grounds and principles of religion." It will be seen that this law did not create public schools but required parents and masters to teach the children dependent upon them reading, citizenship, and religion. The great Act of 1647 went a step farther. It required elementary schools to be maintained in all towns of fifty families and secondary schools in all towns of one hundred. "It is therefore ordered that every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them to the number of 50 house-holders, shall then forthwith appoint one within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose wages shall be paid either by the parents, or masters of such children or by the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the major of those that order the prudentials of the town shall appoint ." Thus were public schools established in New England as a town obliga- tion. It is to be noted that these were not free schools since the cost was to be upon the patron, except in the rare instances when a town by a ma- jority vote would accept the charge. Still the principle was clearly ex DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 689 pressed, and for the first time, that private property might be taxed for the benefit of public schools. This law made provision for opportunities of education for those who should seek it. It placed no obligation upon children or upon ignorant , selfish, or vicious parents. It was the beginning of our state school systems, but there is little evidence that for one hundred fifty years it was generally enforced. In the century and a half which followed this law of 1647, education was seldom mentioned in the debates before the General Court of New Hamp- shire and the changes made in the school code were few and unim- portant. In fact, for fifty years, from 1721 to 1771, the legislature main- tained a profound and unbroken silence upon this "grand and serious thing," education. The schools of this century and a half were not free schools, they were unsupervised, they were taught by itinerant or nonprofessional teachers, the terms were short, the enforcement of the law was of limited local applica- tion, no provision was made for the education of girls, no school records were kept, and no school reports made. As a result during these years, ignorance and illiteracy were very common, except that the ideal persisted that qualified and patriotic parents should teach their own children. This alone prevented learning from being "buried in the grave of our fathers." The gain that was made was in the acceptance of the belief that the state must educate its children. In 1647 many were willing to say that the commonwealth needed public schools. In 1776 many were willing to act so that in the state there should be common schools rather than common ignorance. The stirring events of the Revolutionary War and the discussion of the form and principles of the new government not only set people to thinking but placed a premium upon literacy and education. When the war was over and the new government securely established, our states were ready for educational progress. We have particular reason in New Hampshire to be proud of our State constitution. It antedated the Federal constitution, and, drawn up in 1783, it was the first adopted among the states. As a literary masterpiece, it is not of uniform excellence, but it expresses with admirable precision the great principles of democracy. "Knowledge and learning generally diffused through a community being essential to the preservation of a free government and spreading the op- portunities and advantages of education through the various parts of the country being highly conducive to promote this end, it shall be the duty of the legislators and magistrates, in all future periods of this government, to cherish the interest of literature and the sciences, and all seminaries and public schools; to encourage private and public institutions, rewards, and immunities for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and natural history of the country; to countenance 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and inculcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence, public and private charity, industry and economy, honesty and punctuality, sincer- ity, sobriety, and all social affections and generous sentiments, among the people; provided, nevertheless, that no money raised by taxation shall ever be granted or applied for the use of the schools or institutions of any re- ligious sect or denomination." Vigorous attempts were made through legislation to make effective this general principle and in 1789 the former laws were repealed and a new law enacted. These had failed in a large measure through local inefficiency in enforcement and because school appropriations were dependent upon the frequently changed opinions of towns and selectmen. This new act pro- vided for a uniform minimum tax for schools, for an examination of teach- ers by some competent scholastic or clerical authority and it required in all town schools where should be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. During these years, it was first discovered that, if education is a state religion, it may not be denied to girls. In the colonial period, they had little formal schooling and this in inferior classes. The term children in the early laws was interpreted to mean boys since girls were not thought capable of education. Beginning with 1789, girls were admitted to school attendance rather freely in the rural towns, with much deliberation in the cities, and to the private secondary schools with a reluctance which has not yet been entirely overcome. This medieval conception is responsible for the persistence of those atavistic New England institutions, the scholastic monasteries and nunneries which give college education to a single sex in primitive seclusion. From 1789 , it was required that there be a tax for the support of public schools, that is, schools where the house was built and repaired and the wages of the master paid, by a rate on taxable property. Only to this extent was Jones obliged to educate Smith's children. All other charges, books and apparatus, board for the teacher, fuel for the school, were parental and not public obligations. All parents, and they alone, must in proportion to the number of their children board the teacher or hire this board. So, too, fuel was a parental obligation. "Voted that three-eighths of a cord of hard wood be laid on the head of each scholar in the district under eighteen and over five years of age, to be good sound wood and to be delivered at the schoolhouse, cut and corded, before the opening of the school." In 1812, the master's board was made a public and not a parental obligation ; so with fuel in 1815, with books and supplies in 1889, and with State-wide second- ary school tuition in 1901 . A study of the educational history of any State shows the process by which each school advance has been accepted. At first the plan has been an ideal in the mind of one or of a small group. Then it has been persistently advo- cated by those committed to it. Each year new friends have been found until finally the legislature, after some sessions of increasing interest, has adopted the plan. Almost invariably a reaction has followed with attempts DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 691 not infrequently successful to repeal and return to the former situation. After a few years, if the plan has continued in operation, it has won sup- port and has commenced to show results. By this time all have become habituated to it and few think that the law has not always been in opera- tion or that a different situation ever existed. This is the reason why school progress is never continuous but appears to be by a series of plateaus and these plateaus separated by about thirty years. Each generation takes one step forward and then halts to recover its equilibrium. One thought for each new generation seems to be about the limit of human capacity. As an illustration, let us take the development of the principle of re- quired school attendance as recorded in New Hampshire statutes. In 1642, it was the duty of parents to teach their children, and the State could but urge this duty. In 1647, the town must take the initiative and must ap- point a schoolmaster and might tax the people, if a majority agreed, for the support of the master. In 1667, the towns were required to erect a school- house but all laws dealt only with those who might choose to resort to the school. The law of 1789 required a uniform minimum tax for schools to be raised in all districts. The law of 1827 required school superintendents, "To use their influence and best endeavors to secure a full and strict attend- ance upon schools of the youth of the several districts." In 1848, it was en- acted that no young child should be employed in a factory, unless he had been given a minimum amount of schooling. This early step was not one of personal compulsion but was a requirement contingent upon factory em- ployment. In 1871 was enacted the first real attempt at a school attendance law. It directed that children between the ages of eight and fourteen years should have at least twelve weeks of schooling in every year unless excused by rea- son of some mental or physical disability. This law exempted from its application many pupils and it was required that but six of the twelve weeks be of continuous attendance. Until 1870, it had been held with decreasing conviction that a parent had sole educa- tional control over his child and might doom him to ignorance and illiteracy, if he desired. So long it took for our people completely to accept the words, "Government as a natural guardian of the young has the right to compel the people," and declare in statute form that not even a parent may deprive a child of the inalienable rights of childhood, since the welfare of the State rests upon the guardianship of its children. It was thirty years later before the State declared that children must be in school all of the days of the school year when schools are open, and it was two more decades before we were ready to tax all of the property in the State so that all of the children of the State might attend schools which reached approved standards. I wish to repeat the successive steps by which children in New Hampshire were enfranchised. 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1642. Education is a matter of State interest. 1647. Public schools must be maintained. 1789. Towns must support schools by a uniform minimum tax. 1827. Pupils may not be denied admittance and should be encouraged to attend. 1848. Limited school privileges may not be denied to pupils by parents . 1871. School attendance is a State obligation and parents and pupils for the good of the child and the State must obey the law which re- quires attendance during at least a part of the school year. 1901. Children must attend school all the time that the schools are in session. 1919. Through State aid, all schools which children attend must reach approved standards. This tabulation shows that for three hundred years, in New Hampshire, we have been working on the problem of equal rights in education and the last decade has seen a partial solution of the problem. This has come about through a frank acceptance of the dictum that whenever the welfare of the child is concerned, the State, and not the city or township, must be the unit of taxation and administration . In the fullness of time we passed from the belief that the State must take a paternal interest in education but must not direct it to the position that all communities must maintain schools and all children must attend them. It remained only to declare that the schools for all children be of equal merit and the school costs be equitably distributed. For the legislative assent to a new educational plateau, the present speaker and his associates may properly claim only a measure of credit. We inherit from our fathers and bequeath to our children. The laws enacted in 1919 resulted from the activities of those who made legislation possible by the ac- complishments of 1900. Similarly, the work which we do today, if worth while, will be credited to our ancestors. Epoch making or progressive laws are always the epitaphs of those who have seen the vision and made ready the highway. Since 1918, we have asked neither for additional laws nor for enlarged ap- propriations. We firmly feel that the next advances in education are to be made not by more laws but by more efficient administration; not by more money but by more economical expenditure of money now available. The change from a district system to a town system and from a town sys- tem to a state system seems inexplicable in a section of the country which has always cherished local rights. I wish to point out the historical changes which have made this modification necessary. In New Hampshire, as in many States, the last century has seen a com- plete social, economic and industrial revolution. In 1825, the State was predominantly agricultural. It was divided into many semi-independent ⚫ townships, approximately equal in population, in children to be educated, in taxable wealth and in dominant men. All citizens were farmers or DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 693 those who rendered comfort and assistance to farmers, as cobblers, ministers, and storekeepers. Neither wealth nor town leadership was mobile. The educational ideal in these early towns was not strongly developed but the educational procedure was exceedingly easy. Each town, and often each district in a town, possessed sufficient children for satisfactory schools without transportation or boarding difficulties, sufficient leadership to de- mand schools and to secure results and sufficient wealth so that equality of school privilege was possible. This was the educational status in our north- eastern States in the static years about 1825. How different is the condition in many parts of these States now that a century has passed. In our back towns we pass for miles along little traveled roads where crumbling walls and half obliterated cellar holes show how fair were human hopes and endeavors in 1825. Cultivated fields have turned to pastures, pastures have become woodland, and for these sections each census return for a century shows fewer inhabitants. These desolate places are everywhere separated by fertile and prosperous valleys, by manu- facturing and industrial cities, and by long streets lined with comfortable and luxurious homes. It is hardly necessary at this time for us to consider the cause of this depopulation, of this hegira from country to city, from wide- spread freedom to crowded comfort. Civilization in 1825 was in most respects medieval. Transportation and industry of all kinds were little different from that which prevailed in the days of John, the landless king. In particular, all farm work was done by hand or by implements not materially changed from those of the Middle Ages and, moreover, production was for use and not for exchange. Then came as a spring efflorescence farm machinery of all kinds, factories, railroads, and an enlarged vision which made these years a true renaissance. We call this the period of industrial revolution. It resulted in a state richer and more populous than ever before, a state no longer agricultural but predominantly industrial; a state of cities and manufacturing villages and also of great open spaces; a state which has gathered pioneers and out- casts from all the ends of the earth ; a state so foreign that it has a greater proportion of its children in private denominational schools than any other in the Union; a state so American that it binds all together in ceaseless industry, in patriotism and in the support of education as an essential in a republic. These changes account for our condition in 1919. The ma- jority of our children were living in cities and towns, rich, progressive and prosperous. They had a full school year, in modern buildings, sanitary and well equipped. They had trained teachers and effective superintendents. In the other townships, and these territorially were the larger half of the State, were few children. These children lived in scattered homes and attended for brief periods miserable schools. Occasionally there was a competent and devoted teacher ; more often a teacher of the Sarah Gamp type or a young girl whose only preparation for her profession was the direct course from the rear seat of the schoolroom to the teacher's desk. The oldest pupil in the winter term became the teacher in the summer term. 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In the maze of inequality and injustice two points were clearly seen. The children whether in rich or poor towns were equally the wards of the state and in their welfare the state was equally concerned. The serf was no longer bound to the soil. He moved readily from his ancestral acres and transportation had become so easy and migration so common that ignorance could no longer be localized. No city could insure its future, if it educated its children alone, for no Chinese Wall could shut out those reared in igno- rance in impoverished nearby towns. Neither could taxable property be localized as formerly. In 1825, a rich farming town might have four stores and a dozen artisans with their mills and small shops. These served the town and with their equipment and stock in trade were taxed for the schools of the town. In 1925, this town has as many farms and nearly as great a population as a century before but not within its border a mill, a store, or an artisan's shop. These all have moved into nearby or more remote villages or cities. Improved roads, mail order catalogues, and the common use of the telephone and the automobile have made possible a distant service when formerly service must be secured near at hand. From the industrial towns and cities at least a score of arti- sans and merchants continue to serve this agricultural town. In labor they belong to the town but they reside elsewhere and are taxed for the benefit of the already well-to-do city. Again in 1825 men of means lived permanently on their farm homes and surplus wealth was localized in these towns and used for town development. Accordingly it was taxed for the town schools. In 1925 as fast as men ac- quire rural property they seek urban homes, and all surplus wealth, taken from the town, is in city banks or city securities and is used to develop these industrial centers. It is town money but it is taxed for the benefit of city schools. Since these two factors were clearly seen, we could accept this principle. The child is the ward of the State and we will tax the State dollar wherever it is for the welfare of the State child wherever he may reside. When we reached this agreement, our legislature declared that for all children there should be schools for not fewer than thirty-six weeks, in equipped and suit- able buildings and that all teachers and superintendents should meet ap- proved standards. In addition, it declared that the cities which had ab- sorbed the wealth of the poor towns should so pay for schools in the poor towns that there should be for all children education without excessive taxa- tion. Shall we consider the essential and non-essential items in school adminis- tration? All school costs are for essentials, comforts, luxuries, diversions, distractions, and nuisances. School buildings are expensive comforts. They are certainly desirable but they are not necessities. Socrates and other great teachers were able to lead their pupils in education without them. So. too, fuel and janitors are non-essential comforts. Books are luxuries. They make our school work DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 695 easy and delightful but they never have been essentials. Libraries, labora- tories, gymnasia are not necessities; they are diversions. The contraptions of the schoolroom and the mechanisms employed, the pencil sharpener, the grid condensers, the regenerative ventilators, the self-effacing blackboards, are not necessities but distractions. And the patent plans of instruction in reading, writing, and the rest, the systems and the methods, these are nui- sances. There are after all but two essentials, the learning pupil and the teach- ing teacher. Without ignoring the comforts, the luxuries, the diversions, the distractions, and the nuisances, we in New Hampshire have tried to place our greatest stress upon these two essentials. Our first aims are to lengthen the time of receptive learning in weeks, days, and hours and to improve the quality of the teachers. If we do these two things, we will have good schools though the heavens fall, though city councils are nig- gardly, though Pritchetts and Butlers roar with the swelling thereof. I will now summarize the results of six years of administrative improve- ment in the essentials of education. In 1919, it was thought that a full school year was impossible in poor towns and in many rural sections. In that year 924 schools were open but twenty to thirty-four weeks and 161 towns gave their children a shortened school year. In 1924, only 9 small schools in a total of 2015, failed to be in session for thirty-six weeks or more and only one town failed of a thirty- six week average. In spite of the usual winter the average per cent of attendance was 93.9 or 2.5 per cent higher than in 1919 with its shorter school year. No New Hampshire winter is too severe for New Hampshire children to reach good schools. Our pupils not only reach these schools but they stay there longer than before. In 1919, of 100 pupils who entered the first grade, 31 graduated from the high school. In 1924, we similarly had 56 graduates. All of the public schools are supervised by sixty-seven superintendents, employed by the State but responsible to the city or group of towns to which they are assigned. These men without exception are college grad- uates with teaching experience and professional training. In country dis- tricts, they supervise but fifty teachers. They are well paid, they have permanent positions and they live and lead in their own communities. The success which the New Hampshire system is meeting comes more from this competent and united group of men than from any other source. To improve teachers is a slower process but our normal schools have trebled their enrolment in six years. We have in the same time cut our mid-year overturn of employed teachers to one third. Our number of thoroughly trained teachers has doubled and the number of wholly un- trained teachers has become negligible. No State can assure itself of competent teachers, unless it controls the process of training. So we, with the help of superintendents and head 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION masters, are using much of the influence which we once used to drive the choicest souls into Latin classes to direct them to the normal schools. At the normal schools we make the cost low and the value high. As a result we gather annually hundreds of students of high scholarship, strong bodies, good inheritance and, I may add, pleasing faces. The future of our schools rests upon the selection and the training of the teachers. Education has become our National religion. All children are the wards of the State where they reside. We shall tax the State dollar where it is for the benefit of children wherever they may reside. The two essentials in school progress are the learning pupil and the teaching teacher. HEALTH EDUCATION VERSUS PHYSICAL TRAINING CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION , UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO , ILLINOIS If we go into the physiological laboratory where experiments are being carried on to determine the ability of muscles to do work, we shall learn some important lessons about health. The physiologist takes a muscle out of the body of a frog or some other animal and causes this muscle to con- tract by means of an electric shock applied to the nerve which is con- nected with the muscle. The muscle contracts at first vigorously, but gradually responds less and less until it refuses to work any longer in response to the electric current. Is the muscle exhausted ? Not at all. It is merely clogged with the waste chemical substances that are left behind as a result of the molecular processes which take place in the muscle every time it contracts. The muscle is a storehouse of energy. Every time it contracts a part of its energy is released and at the same time there accu- mulates within the muscle some waste material which prevents the muscle from vigorous action . That the muscle is not exhausted can be proved in the laboratory by dipping it into a solution of water and salt. After this bath the muscle once more responds to stimulations with the same vigor that it exhibited atfirst. We all of us have experiences which confirm the findings of the labora- tory experiment. If one takes more exercise than is usual one finds the muscles which have been overworked stiff and sore. The reason is that they are clogged up with their own waste products. This means that the body is not prepared to wash out the muscle in such a way as to keep it fresh and vigorous for new work. Pushing this lesson still further we may point out that the athlete whose muscles are in fine trim is a person whose blood circulation and other organs are working to support the muscle whenever it has to contract. The muscle is not alone in the work which it does; it is part of a system which replenishes it and keeps it in trim for the demands imposed upon it. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 697 I have never seen a group of children who cannot be interested in this story of the contracting muscle. I have never known a group which can- not be taught an important lesson about health by being told in these terms that running and wrestling and swimming are not forms of exercise which are advisable chiefly because of the effect which they produce in enlarging the muscle but because of the training they give the body in taking blood to the muscle for the sake of keeping it clear for action. In short tell boys and girls that what their bodies need is not a lot of overgrown muscles but a clear strong blood stream and you have set their feet on the path of intelligent health. Let us borrow again from the physiologists. If one examines the be- havior of a normal animal which is digesting its meal, one finds that the muscles of the alimentary canal are working slowly and rhythmically pro- moting the processes of assimilation essential to health. The physiologist in his experiments gives this animal which is peacefully digesting its food a nervous shock of some kind. What happens ? There is a spasmodic contraction of all the muscles of the digestive apparatus and all the peaceful rhythm is lost. The processes of digestion are interrupted. Not only so but the glands of the startled animal begin to secrete more vigor- ously under the nervous excitement and the body is chemically disordered as well as deprived of its normal muscular contractions. Again we may appeal to personal experience which parallels the labora- tory experiment. It is proverbial that any high emotional excitement im- mediately after meals is disastrous. If one must be angry or sad or afraid, it is desirable that the experience be carefully timed so as to avoid meal hours. This is the reason why we retire to the quiet of our peaceful homes for meals, or if we must eat in public seek out places where strains ofmusic will drown out any untimely and undesirable conversation. One reason why lessons of this kind have to be taught to young people is that the digestive processes are wholly beyond the reach of direct obser- vation and at the same time seriously complicated by all sorts of demands that our modern society makes upon us to be social and conventional in our eating. It requires a superior intelligence to manage one's eating and digestion in the modern world of artificial excitements. Why is it worth while for us to recite these facts which the physiologists teach us as a result of their laboratory experiments ? The answer is that most people do not realize that the fatigue of a muscle and the interrup- tion of digestion as a result of excitement are matters which the intelligent man must deliberately overcome by good management of his body. The body is a fine machine capable of many intricate adjustments, but like any delicate mechanism it works well only when due regard is had to the laws of its operations. No one who owns a good automobile would race its engine all of the time or run with the brakes set or overheat the circulatory system. Why should we treat our bodily mechanisms more carelessly than we do our automobiles ? 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I am thinking, as I try to illustrate what I mean by health education and health intelligence, of some timid sensitive child who comes to school from the sheltered environment of his home and finds himself sur- rounded by the bustling excitement of the school. He feels all the internal commotion of that situation and the strain of trying to make his way about through the strange and noisy company. His heart beats fast and his cheeks are flushed and after he gets home at night his nervous system is still excited, and his appetite is disturbed. I suppose that if we con- sulted some burly football player about this child we should be advised with a loud guffo to bring out the weakling and let him grow husky by running a hundred yards, or if we consulted some food specialist of the keep-up-your-weight variety we should be told to add a few glasses of milk and more brushing of the teeth to the child's daily program. I think that I have not caricatured the ordinary physical director in most schools by the statements which I have made about the kinds of advice which people of this cult ordinarily give. The fact is that most directors of physical education are made up chiefly of arms, legs, and good intentions. They know how to run and make run. They tackle hard and expect rough treatment but they have little knowledge and little sym- pathy which can be drawn upon with safety for the guidance of a timid or immature child . What I am trying to point out is that ninety-nine out of a hundred health problems of life have nothing to do with athletes or with getting strong or fleet or quick. Health is an internal affair. To learn to live at peace with one's self, to have a nervous system which keeps out of the way of one's stomach, to cultivate just enough secretion of the thyroid glands to give one vitality and not to overdo the job by secreting so much as to induce internal overexcitement, these are the ends to be greatly de- sired if one is to be happy in the land and long enduring in his generation . I dare say you have detected by this time my disposition, natural enough perhaps for one trained as a psychologist, to think of health in terms of the nervous system and its proper functioning. The fact is that there is quite as much ill health in this modern human world of ours resulting from nerves which are not working properly as from any single cause on the calendar. I am not, of course, falling into the fallacy of arguing that because nervous conditions are important there is nothing else that is important, but I am quite sure that the individual whose internal organic and nervous conditions are wholesome and normal has a much better time in the world than does the individual who is full of internal conflicts and commotions . The important fact for our present purposes is that the internal com- motions which are to be avoided if one is to get on well are not corrected by violent exercise. Internal coördination is a habit. It grows like any other habit through slow systematic practice in the course of which an individual is guided not by conflicting motives but by a steady clear- headed purpose to fit one's self to the demands of life. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 699 The most effective work which is being done today in the promotion of health in the schools is the work which is being done by some of the school nurses who go to the homes or deal with pupils individually and set up through intelligent advice and supervision habits of good living. Much of the training which is given in dietetics is done with a view to training pupils in habits of internal living. There are, to be sure, extremes in this field as in all others. There are some also who deal in a purely for- mal way with pupils, striving to bring them to a certain weight which is ascertained by impersonal averaging devices. One can be complacent about some of this health formalism, however, because it moves, with all of its blundering in the right direction. Some day there will be a true guide in our educational formulas for the control of diet as well as for the teaching of reading and spelling. In the meantime we are pass- ing through a period of experimentation which is good because it is pro- ducing partially good health results and much more because it is getting school people to realize that health teaching is not primarily athletics or prevention of contagion. It is interesting to note in this connection that the Federal Public Health Service is carrying on at the present time elaborate studies which promise to give us a much more intelligent view than we have had in the past regarding the relation between height, weight, and nutrition. The results already secured show that individuals of different types must be recognized as conforming when in perfect health to averages which are not stateable in general terms for all types. The problems of nutrition are thus shown to be much more complicated than is sometimes assumed. Whatever the final outcome of these studies, one fact is fully established. Health depends on the proper nutrition of the individual. Furthermore, nutrition in the highly artificial surroundings of civilized life is not some- thng which can be left to the untrained native impulses of children. Health must be conserved by training in what to eat just as vocational in- telligence must be cultivated through contributions to individual thinking from the maturer experience of the older members of the community. The time is pastwhen we throw pupils without guidance or advice on the mer- cies of a complex industrial world. The same attitude ought to be culti- vated in our schools with regard to health. Our excursion into the detailed problems of health training and health habits within the individual has perhaps carried us as far as we ought to go for our present purposes. The true goal of all school training is the adaptation of the individual to his environment. This requires internal and external coördination. It would be quite proper to describe health as a form of bodily skill. He who has this skill goes about the activities of life with an attitude that is highly desirable and with a probability of success unattained by the individual whose inner bodily adjustments are clumsy and uncoördinated. I repeat what I have said before and what it is the chief purpose of this paper to point out that health in this broad sense cannot be secured by 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION pupils through games and athletics nor as a result of medical inspection . Health in the broad sense comes through intelligent living, and intelli- gent living requires intelligence. When one observes what is now going on in many of our schools, one is tempted to ask why there is such a lack of true health training in these institutions. Teachers and parents seem to be confused. They regard health as a kind of super power to resist attack. Boys seek health by stowing themselves daily at the bottom of a pile of their fellowbeings in a football scrimmage; or they pant with tongue out and muscles up to their maximum tension through a few yards of strenuous competative running amidst the wild excitement of partisan friends and enimies. Can one advantageously seek health and at the same time give his chief energies to the excitement of being candidates for the baseball captaincy ? It seems to me that the mere asking of the question leads one to see the answer. Health is a possession which is acquired by the systematic co- ördination of all one's organs under the guidance of a nervous system that sends deliberate streams of energizing stimulations down to all parts of the body, bidding the coöperate in the maintenance of well being. To be sure there come times when the mechanism is hard put to it. The body may be invaded by bacterial enemies and there will have to be for a time the mustering of all the organic forces to do battle. There come times too when the exigencies of life call for protracted and unusual effort of the muscles. Long experience has shown that the best preparation for these emergencies is the systematic upbuilding of a well coördinated internal mechanism, not the highly specialized training of the legs and arms . I believe that the matter which I am trying to present to you is one which will have to be thought of and that right vigorously by school administrators. At the present time there is a disposition on the part of the school superintendent to modestly disclaim any knowledge about the health needs of pupils. The superintendent seeks out some local doctor or employs a special school physician and turns this specialist loose on the children. The trained doctor usually knows more about disease than he does about health and whenever he can get hold of a human being he locates with unerring and almost uncanny precision all defects. If any- one puts himself into the hands of a doctor the chances are eight to ten that he will get sad news about his condition. If our modest school superintendent does not begin his campaign for a healthy generation of pupils by appealing to the doctor, he usually finds an athlete, male or female, and says to this fortunate son or daughter of Apollo, "Make all of the pupils in this school like unto yourself." There begins then much running to and fro. There are as a result bandaged parts and excited interscholastic competitors for gladiatorial honors. There is school spirit which often has to be described as a spirited distraction from all that the school originally started out to accomplish . DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 701 The superintendent ought not to have been so modest. He ought prob- ably to employ the doctor and the athlete but he ought to associate these two persons, each with a single purpose in life, with some intelligent third person who is interested in pupils as human beings. I think this third person might properly be a psychologist who knows that pupils have a nervous system. Or he might be a relaxationalist who knows that the best exercise for the body is very often complete loosening up of all the tensions as one drops back with rest. Or he might be a person skilled in knowledge such as this: when one is not exercising strenuously one should eat light food; when one is doing a task which requires fine co- ördination it is important to keep the eye clear and the nerves steady by keeping the air around one cool and moist through what we call good ventilation. I am here to urge superintendents not to commit the health programs of their schools to narrow specialists. Health is the most fundamental of the virtues. Health is a general condition. Health is the right of the most sensitive, most delicate child in the school. There is no more reason for leaving that part of the curriculum which deals with health to a narrow specialist than there would be to assign the training of pupils in the use of good English to a person who would approach his task from the point of view of an historical grammarian. If there is any superintendent who is disposed to accept my advice and asks where the broad-minded person is to be sought who thinks of health as the basal need of pupils, I have to admit that the supply is small. I am of the impression that a few of the people who are being trained in the schools where public sanitation is made a matter of particular concern are getting to the point of view which will ultimately be recognized as the legitimate view for the school to entertain. I am quite sure of the validity of the program of comprehensive health training which I am advocating even though I can find only a few living examples of the type of health teacher that I have suggested. I am pre- pared to reply to my superintendent friend who asks me to deliver to him such a person in these terms. There are at present very few teachers of health because there has been no demand for them. Health was thought of two decades ago as a domestic commodity. If the home supplied us healthy children, we were glad; if not, the school shrugged its shoulders and either sent the child home or kept him in the same grade several years in succession . In twenty years our notions about the school's responsibility have en- tirely changed. We are now trying to turn out human beings well started on the path of successful adaptation. This we cannot do if we do not help our pupils to equip themselves with well organized, well controlled bodies. The lesson is gradually coming to be clearly recognized. We must teach health in the schools by precept and through drill in practice. We have done the work which we recognize to be necessary somewhat 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION clumsily in the past and often through agencies which are only partially aware of the breadth of their tasks. We must not fail in our task be- cause we have come late to its doing. We must see the demand clearly and go about meeting it. My concrete suggestion in the premises is that superintendents, if they have themselves caught a glimpse of the broader view, go to their existing school physicians and physical culture directors and ask for coöperation in a broader program of health supervision and teaching in which the super- intendent himself will coöperate. I am satisfied from contact with some of the people in question that the superintendent will in a great many cases make no impression. I shall not indulge in any harsh indictments of school physicians and physical directors I have known. They are no worse as a group than teachers of grammar or algebra. They are, however, more harmful because health is more important than grammar or mathematics. So without vituperating the school physician or the physical educationalist I suggest to the superintendent when he finds a specimen with a tenacity for tradition that he help that person to secure another position and begin over. I am hopeful that some day the community will regard that super- intendent who does not have a good health program as dispensable. Then it will happen that the community will ask the superintendent, the super- intendent will ask somebody, somebody will pass the word along, and the children will be well taken care of in all matters relating to health. WHAT THE EDUCATOR SHOULD KNOW ABOUT MODERN MEDICINE WILLIAM D. HAGGARD, M. D., PROFESSOR OF SURGERY, VANDERBILT UNI- VERSITY, AND PRESIDENT- ELECT OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE Sir William Osler has most beautifully said, "For countless genera- tions the prophets and kings of humanity have desired to see the things which men have seen and to hear the things that men have heard in the course of this wonderful Nineteenth Century. To the call of the watchers on the towers of progress, there has been one sad answer, 'The people sit in darkness and in the shadow of death.' Politically and socially and morally the races improve, but for the unit, for the individual, there was little hope. "Cold philosophy shed a glimmer of light on his past. Religion in its various guises illumined his sad heart, but neither of them availed to lift the curse of suffering from the sin begotten son of Adam. In the fullness of time, long expected, long delayed, at last Science emptied upon him from the horn of Amalthea blessings that cannot be enumerated, blessings which have made the century forever memorable and which have followed each other with a rapidity so bewildering that we know not what next to expect." DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 703 Practically all of our modern knowledge of diseases, especially those that are infectious and contagious and caused by microorganisms or germs, go back to the middle of last century when Pasteur found that fermentation was due to microorganisms and also that putrefaction was due to micro- organisms. Joseph Lister, the great surgeon of Glasgow, applied that knowledge to the infections of wounds, proved them to be of germ origin, and by de- stroying these germs chemically and by sterilization revolutionized surgery. Infection and blood poisoning in wounds were controlled. Before this when a man sustained a fracture of the thigh in which the end of the broken bone penetrated the skin, allowing germs to enter, the danger of blood poi- soning was ever present and so thorough that all these cases required am- putation. Even then the death rate from blood poisoning was 50 per cent. Now amputation is rarely required and the death rate from blood poisoning is only 1/5th of 1 per cent, which is a magnification in efficiency and life- saving of 250 per cent. It is difficult to compute the enormous increase in the span of human life from modern surgery compared to that of medieval times. If he who made two blades of grass grow where only one grew before is a benefactor to the human race, what can be said of the scientist who has made countless lives bloom where death would lay it desolate. Typhoid fever-We have accomplished in the first quarter of the twentieth century more than in twenty centuries in prevention so far as typhoid fever is concerned. In 1900 for the first time the disease was conveyed experimentally, thus proving the belief that typhoid resulted from the germ contained in the discharges from the body of the patient suffering from the fever. It is especially virulent in camp life and caused over half of the deaths in the Franco- Prussian War. More died from typhoid in the Boer War than were killed in battle. We blushingly recol- lect that 86.2 per cent of all the deaths in the Spanish-American War were due to typhoid, but we rejoice in the remarkable record that in the late war with over four million American soldiers, as a result of anti-typhoid vaccination to every man the disease was almost unknown. In the first two million men vaccinated, only 18 deaths occurred from those who contracted the disease thereafter. The occurrence of typhoid fever can be greatly curtailed even without the anti-typhoid vaccination although that should be given every two years until an individual is 45. The intent is to keep the discharges from the patient getting into the water, milk, or food supply, or in any way into the intestinal canal of the individual. It has been carried immemorially by fingers, filth, and flies. The protection of water and sedimentation by filtration; of food by cleanliness and screen- ing; proper disposal of sewage; destroying the germs with carbolic acid when they leave the patient; the elimination of flies, should with anti- typhoid vaccination'eventually make the pestilence only a memory. The next Pepys diary will allude to it as a "social error ." 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Tuberculosis-Tuberculosis is the captain of the men of death. Every three minutes some person in the United States dies of tuberculosis. There are a million active cases in this country at all times and perhaps another million that are inactive. One of every ten persons who die, die of tuberculosis. More than 50 per cent of all children are in- fected before they are ten years of age and it increases until they are 15 years of age. Fortunately, most of us have overcome the disease through the forces of nature together with ordinary care, such as fresh air, sunshine, and pure food. It is not an inherited disease but is due to the in- haling into the lungs the germ of tuberculosis which is only one ten thousandth of an inch long. We sometimes get it in our milk from un- tested tuberculosis cattle, but more especially from the millions of germs that are expectorated from the lungs of its victims, which, when dry, are blown about and inhaled by its unsuspecting victims. Every one who is below par is at all times subject to the disease. During the operation of the Selective Service Law, one fourth of every thousand was found to be suffering from this disease. The war of tuberculosis goes on while the war in which they were asked to fight has been victoriously terminated. During the two years in which America participated in the war, we lost less than 80,000 men on the battlefield, in the camps, in the air, and on the seas. Whereas each year now we lose twice that many from tubercu- losis, for which there has yet been declared no armistice. Education, periodic health examinations, the stopping of careless spitting, and infections that occur in poorly ventilated schools, tenements and workshops will conquer it. Our allies are fresh air, sunshine, nourishing food, sleep, and proper medical supervision. It not only attacks the lungs, but practically every other tissue in the body-the brain, as in meningitis; the throat, as in tubercular laryngitis. It causes practically all of the hunchbacks. In the joints, it is the white swelling of the knee. Tuberculosis of the hip causes shortening of the leg and crippling. In the skin it occurs as an ulceration called lupus. In the glands of the body, especially the neck, it is known as scrofula. If theoretically it were possible to form a barrage of handkerchiefs for every expectorated particle that comes from the mouth and lungs of every individual and that could be immediately burned, tuberculosis could soon be wiped off the face of the earth. When one hears school boys and college boys yell, "Block that kick!" "Block that kick!" , it suggests the slogan, Block that sneeze (with a handkerchief) ; Block that cough (with a handkerchief) . The sneeze and cough atomize a fine spray of assorted germs that are more deadly than a machine gun. As it is, the death rate has been almost miraculously cut in twain, and prevent- ive medicine has one of its most striking victories in the throttling of the Great White Plague. Malaria-Malaria instead of being caused by bad air, is like yellow fever, caused exclusively by the bite of the mosquito, carrying with it the germs which it has absorbed by biting an individual infected with malaria. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 705 It is difficult to compute the amount of damage malaria has done, in spite of the fact that for a century now we have had a specific for the disease in quinine. It cost the lives of fifteen thousand people in the Southland alone last year, and yet if we can teach the coming generation to despise flies and destroy their breeding places in filth and not take comfort behind screen doors, the menace of malaria can be manhandled. The draining of swamps, the destruction of little bodies of water where the mosquitoes so quickly develop and the pouring of oil on water where they are prone to breed, will go far toward lessening this terrible and unnecessary disease. A railroad company in the Southwest by draining its ditches and oiling the water to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes lessened the incidence of malaria in one of its hospitals alone from over 600 a year to less than 100. Think of the enormous economic gain in this one procedure and what it would do if every school child learned the magnitude of that lesson. Smallpox-Ignorant of the history of the scourge of smallpox when every seventh babe in Russia died from it and the fact that by long periods of vaccination we have become largely immune to the disease and protected from its ravages, some misguided people argue against its protec- tive powers. Some years ago Niagara Falls had an epidemic of smallpox that had been raging for two years and could not be put down. It got so bad that the health officers showed the New York Central Railroad the menace of uncontrol and the officials declined to stop their trains there. The level- headed business men promptly prevailed upon those who were prejudiced to inaugurate a general vaccination and as a result smallpox was put down within six weeks . Heart disease-Nearly one fourth of a million school children in this country, which is about seven tenths of the whole number, are affected with organic diseases of the heart. This is a terrible indictment and especially when it is recognized that many of these cases could be prevented by the removal of infected and diseased tonsils and adenoids, rotten teeth, and by protecting children from over-strain after acute illnesses, like scarlet fever. Diphtheria-Diphtheria once thought to be a scourge to please the angered gods, is now, thanks to the knowledge vouchsafed to us through the great God who has given us the mind and the ambition to study His uni- verse, His laws, and the causes of diseases which are not visited upon us but which are incidentally a part of the great scheme of creation, becoming very greatly robbed of its terrors . The year that Columbus discovered America witnessed a terrific scourge of this dread disease in Nuremburg, which spread slowly from person to person and from community to com- munity and became not only epidemic but almost universal. Prior to the time of the finding of the germ by Loeffler in 1883, and the discovery of the antitoxin for diphtheria by Behring in 1893, the death rate was about 35 per cent. It had broken the fireside circle of nearly every home. Now owing to the beneficence of the antitoxin and the wisdom of the medical 706 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION profession in its utilization, and the education that has become necessary, the death rate the world over is now less than 9 per cent. However, in the tender years from 5 to 9, it is 15 per cent, and from 9 to 15 it is 7per cent. If antitoxin is used in the first 24 hours it is practically nil ; in the second 24 hours it is 5 per cent; in the third 24 hours it is 12 per cent; and in the fourth 24 hours it is 16 per cent. Antitoxin, as you know, is derived from the blood of a horse which has been gradually inoculated with the germs of diphtheria and has manufactured this antitoxin to over- come the poison of diphtheria in his blood. That is Nature's way of cure. We have unlocked the secret door of Nature's laboratory. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." In 1910, Shick introduced a plan whereby by the injection of an antitoxin we could determine quickly from the reaction on the skin of the patient, whether or not he was im- mune to diphtheria. If not, he could be rendered immune by antitoxin. In that way this scourge ought to be wiped off the face of the earth. All school children should be Shick-tested. Most intelligent parents would give their permission, and if not, if such a one should be visited by this death-dealing malady, it would be a sad but convincing argument. If scientific medicine had done no more than to eliminate the terror of this single disease, it would be no more than right and just for the world to bare its head to the scientist to acknowledge its debt of gratitude. Should not the attitude of all people be like that of the great French surgeon who said, "I dressed his wound and God healed it." In order to show that there is no conflict between science and the highest possible theology did not Agassiz, the great scientist, say that his laboratory was a place of wor- ship into which he went with reverence to trace out the laws of God. Science should be a sustenance to the spirit of man as well as for his bodily uses. The control of scarlet fever-Scarlet fever has been one of the most dreaded scourges of child life not only because of the danger attend- ing it but the many complications that follow it, such as Bright's disease, heart trouble, suppuration of the ears, etc., leading to deafness and oc- casionally to mental impairment. Until the last two years we never knew definitely the exact cause. It was supposed that it was carried by the clothing of individuals who had it and its contagiousness was thought to be due to the branny scales that came from the patient dur- ing convalescence. Finally with the advance of knowledge, it was so akin to diseases caused by the germ known as the streptococcus, that the Doctors Dick, husband and wife, at the McCormick Memorial Institute for Chil- dren, in Chicago, carried out a long series of experiments in which they finally proved that it was due to a variety of the streptococcus called the hemolyticus. It seems that animals are unsusceptible to this disease as every effort was made to produce the disease in animal life so that it might be studied. Finally human volunteers permitted themselves to be in- oculated with the germ of this disease from a sore on the finger of a nurse DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 707 who had attended a scarlet fever patient and thus a typical case of scarlet fever was for the first time experimentally produced. More remarkable still, the Dicks have worked out in a splendid way a method to determine whether or not a child is susceptible to this disease. We have long known that a considerable number of children were immune no matter how much they were exposed to the disease, but, of course, no one could ever anticipate that accurately beforehand. Now all that is necessary is to inject a few drops of the toxin of this germ into the skin of the forearm and if the child is susceptible a bright red spot varying in size from a nickel to a dollar will appear regularly within twenty-two hours and begin to fade at the end of twenty-four hours. In this way they proved that about 41.6 per cent were susceptible to the disease. Now the most remarkable part is that with this same toxin susceptible children can be rendered immune by the injection of small doses on three different occasions five days apart. This is so uniform in the prevention of the disease that in order to prove it one could then be given a skin test and it would prove negative which gave the red spot before the immunizing treatment. The Dick test fol- lowed by the immunization can at once establish exactly which children are not immune from the disease and the susceptible children can be ren- dred entirely and completely immune from scarlet fever. It at once will be seen how important this is, not only to children but to those who nurse contagious diseases and perhaps to teachers who occasionally may be ex- posed to scarlet fever without their knowledge. The disease is very much more dangerous in adults than in children. This wonder-working anti- toxin is what Nature herself manufactures in the blood of the victim of scarlet fever which renders him immune from the disease for all time. Thus science is only the recognition of Nature's sublime plan and its utili- zation in a beneficent way. Where is the irreverence in science and evolu- tion? Who could think science is in any way antagonistic to religion and especially to the highest possible concept of the oneness of our great Creator and the miraculous ways by which His wonders are performed ? There is over-zealous and misguided fanaticism that makes a small group of people in this country constantly propagandize against the employment of animals in the study, cure, and prevention of disease. The great majority who believe in this and espouse the cause are totally unfamiliar with animal experimentation. They have heard distressing stories of so-called "torture" in the employment of animals and as lovers of animals, as most of us are, and in their unbridled efforts to prevent imaginary cruelty, they become oblivious to the tremendous benefit that they as well as the rest of mankind are enjoying as the result of animal experimentation. Would you not sacrifice the lives, if necessary, of many scores of rabbits to give life to one little baby ? Through the experiments upon relatively few animals in the past, life and happiness will be given to these little buds of love through countless ages. The span of human life has been increased by fifteen years during this 708 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION century. That has been largely due to the great improvement in the care and prevention of illness and death among babies. The death rate is ap- pallingly high yet. Some of the principles of infant welfare could be im- parted in the schools to the little 12 year old assistant mothers. The prac- tical application of the prevention of disease, a knowledge of personal hygiene, and an ambition for a healthy body and a healthy mind should be inculcated. In the high schools and in professional schools, social hygiene and eugenics should be properly taught. William H. Park, one of the greatest authorities on public health and hygiene, says : "An alert teacher will not overlook the opportunities presented by the assignment of health topics, as a subject in English composition, by health problems arithmetic- ally presented, by the study of health problems under the head of civics. In the upper grades the preparation of simple graphs dealing with vital statistics make public health problems a reality to the student. The art classes can coöperate with the health authorities in the preparation of posters. The domestic science classes can be interested in teaching the relation of nutrition to health. In chemistry and biology they are prepared to study the work of a health department laboratory. " The Detroit Board of Health offers to the schools, (public, private, and parochial ) nursing service especially for the diagnosis of communicable diseases, medical and dental service, nutrition classes, little mothers' classes, health talks, supervision of children in open air schools and open window rooms, and special medical attention to the handicapped, including the deaf and partially deaf, blind and the partially blind, and the crippled. Rapeer says that physical defects and ill health cause 15 per cent of elimination, 16 per cent of failures in promotion, and 17 per cent of re- tardation among school children. This is a resultant of poverty, of dis- ordered nervous conditions, and of the prevalence of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, malaria, hook worm, filth, and ignorance of hygiene. In the country it is much worse. One-third of the automobile accident deaths are in children under 15 years of age. It must be remembered that we lost over 65,000 people in 1922. This death rate has more than doubled in seven years. "Safety First" education can play an important part in the instruction of child life. The heart-rending tragedies to little tots even on their way to and from school should be prevented by intensive instruction. What does it profit the child if we instruct it in everything else and still he loses his life by not knowing how to care for it ? Some cities have systematic training by games, in which they learn traffic law regulations. In higher grades fire preven- tion and accident prevention are emphasized. Children might be method- ically taught, too, the dangers of the more frequent causes of fatal accidents, such as concentrated lye, the danger of matches, the inflammability of celluloid, of gasoline, the danger of live wires, of carbon monoxide poison- ing from the exhaust from motors in enclosed garages, of illuminating gas , the terrors of the family medicine cabinet, and the accidents with foreign DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 709 bodies that children put into their mouths. If a child couldn't be taught anything else in the kindergarten but never to put anything in its mouth that he wasn't going to eat, and that to be properly prepared and inspected and approved by its parent, it would be a great gain. The Child Health Organization of America has been a great help to the educators of this country. Their motto is "Health in education; education in health." Its program includes : a scale in every school, time allowed every day for teaching health ; hot school lunches; teachers trained in all normal schools to teach health habits; every child's weight to be taken and the record sent home each month . School inspection-Quite half of the urban populations have medical inspection of schools, but in the country which represents over half of the school population there is no health supervision, except such as the teacher may introduce. In school communities numbering between six and eight thousand there will be required the half time of one medical inspector and two trained nurses. If the population is between eight and twelve thousand, it will require an all-time medical inspector with an assistant who will put in half of his time and three or four nurses. New York State asks an additional medical inspector for each additional three thousand school children and an additional nurse for each fifteen hundred school children. The assistance of the teacher is very badly needed and can be utilized to such splendid advantage in the preliminary examination of the eyes, ears , teeth, in ascertaining whether or not the child is a mouth breather, in detecting the presence of any sort of contagious eye trouble or skin disease, which an intelligent teacher could see in a very short time . That child is best taught whose health habits and emotions are trained as well as the intellect. It is as important to guide the child to prevent ill- ness as it is to treat his illnesses when they come. The best routine which can be imparted is the routine of health. It is essential to keep a health score card of the pupil as it is his report averages. Of the twenty-two mil- lion school children in the United States, it is estimated that over six and a half million are so far below par in body weight that they must be looked upon as illy nourished. It has been computed that nearly a million children are suffering from diseased adenoids and tonsils, that about four million have errors of vision that should be corrected and that something like fifteen million have dental defects that need attention. Herbert Hoover, com- puting the loss to industry by illness in adults in this country, estimated that it was close to a billion dollars, which could be saved by attention to education in health matters and supervision of the well in order to beget good health. How much more urgently necessary is it to detect incipient diseases in childhood. The seeds of education could be sown to such great harvesting in the future. It is ideal to have a splendidly equipped school nurse who can intelli- gently care for and investigate every case of non-attendance of over four 710 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION days and bring to bear her judgment and experience in meeting the situa- tion. A child may be neglected before he enters school by thoughtless or unimaginative, uninterested parents, but he must not be neglected after he enters the public schools of America. The superintendent must utilize all of his influence to see that the periodic health examination of every single, solitary school child under his care is carried out at least once each session toward the detection of defects. All of the defects that children may have can be detected and appropriate advice given that may be carried out by the family physician. Unfortu- nately we cannot divide the child, like all Gaul, into three parts-the mind for the teacher, the soul for the preacher, and the body for the doctor. The educator has to be the trinity. The medical profession wishes to be the hand-maiden of education in making the world healthy. Does not the word "physician" mean teacher ? When loved ones are sick the best medical advice is none too good. Did you know that it now requires seven years to make a doctor after a man has graduated from high school ? The greatest universities of the world find that it takes three years of college, four years in a medical university, and one year in a hospital to equip a doctor. Does it not therefore seem ridicu- lous for individuals who take a shorter course to propose to treat all the multifarious diseases of the body and mind by some bizarre and single method of treatment ? Yet some of the American people whom Barnum loved stand for it. There is nothing under the sun, on the earth, or beneath the earth that is not utilized, if proven of value, by the regular medical profession in the prevention of disease and its cure, and all of chemistry, biology, physics, electricity, radium, drugs, massage, dietetics, surgery, and sanitation that are the heritage of the world from the studies of the scholars of all time, are at the disposal of the regularly educated, graduated prac- titioner of medicine. JUSTICE FOR CHILDREN H. O. DIETRICH , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NORRISTOWN , PENNSYLVANIA Schools of America exist for the purpose of training or educating, if you please, the children of America. School buildings are built, school ad- ministrations are organized, and textbooks, furniture, and equipment are bought solely for the purpose of providing housing and educational facilities in order that the children may be educated by teachers. It is the last three words of the above sentence that I wish to stress-you note that I say edu- cated by teachers. America needs a strengthened public school, and the first essential in a strong public school is a capable teacher. If children are to be well taught, first-class teachers are essential. If the Nation's teachers do not represent the best, the Nation's children suffer. Hence, in this matter DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 711 of justice for the child, the question of strengthening the teachers deserves special consideration. Teaching personnel-In justice to the child, then, we must ask who are the teachers, what is their training and experience? There are something less than 15,000,000 children between the ages of seven and thirteen years enrolled in our schools. More than half of these children are being in- structed at the hands of teachers who do not possess the minimum qualifica- tions necessary to entitle them to take charge of a classroom; but this is by no means the whole of the story. If we could say with some assurance, that one-half of our teachers in the elementary grades possess the minimum qualifications, and that the other half have at least a high school education, we might say, with some justification, that while there is room for improve- ment, the situation could be worse. And it is worse! By no means, all of the46 per cent of the teachers who have not had the advantage of a normal school, have had even a high school training. Approximately, 100,000 of them left high school at the end of the second year, while at least 30,000 never went to high school. Even high school graduates, without training, without experience, are not equipped for teaching in these days of scientific education. They are not well educated themselves, yet we accept them as educators of the next generation of American citizens. While 54 per cent of these teachers are not qualified to teach, at least 50 per cent have not had a great deal of experience. Think of 600,000 teachers, 325,000 of them not qualified to teach, 300,000 of them with hardly any experience, and the situation becomes staggering. This means that a large number of the 15,000,000 children between the ages of seven and thirteen receive their early education or training from teachers of this class. Now I do not wish to say that all of the 54 per cent of these teachers who are dis- qualified are not fitted to teach. Thousands of them, of course, have suc- ceeded, by reading and experience, in fitting themselves for their work. However, I do claim that their experience and training was received at the expense of the children. The sad part is, that this is still going on at the present time. Teachers are being fitted for teaching at the expense of the next generation. I believe we lose a large portion of those who could join the rank of leadership because we fail to find them, to train them rightly. Our teachers are the army of inspectors in our Nation who must find these individuals and must stimulate them forward. This requires a vast trained teaching personnel. If we believe in the creed of Americanism, we must first of all educate the children of the masses so that they may have the mental development and understanding to uphold that creed. The little red schoolhouse may be passing and its place taken by modern, consolidated schools, but the un- educated, untrained, inexperienced "teen" teachers are with us in constantly increasing numbers. The result-we hate to even as much as whisper it lest the army of 15,000,000 children rise up and demand of King Justice that he impose a sentence upon us in accordance with the injustice done to 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION them-yes, what can the result be? Nothing less than this a nation of partially educated persons, an easy prey for all sorts of half-baked, radical, and even anarchistic ideas. Yes, and with the exception of a small in- tensely interested group, nobody seems to care a hoot-not even the parents. Training must be standardized-The second point I wish to make is that standards for teachers' colleges must be raised. The Nation needs a teacher preparation program which will be a permanent solution of the problem and will result in an adequate supply of properly trained teachers in every State. The time is at hand when we must have a teacher prepara- tion program nation-wide in its scope. Teacher training schools are as yet unstandardized institutions. Admission to a teachers' college should be on the same basis as that for admission to schools of law, engineering, and medicine. Teachers in training should have just as exacting requirements of accomplishments and just as excellent instruction as we find in our undergraduate professional schools. It should be just as difficult to secure a license to teach as it is to secure a license to practice law. Classes in teacher training schools must be no larger than they are in other schools. Teachers in these institutions must not teach more classes than teachers in other schools teach. Material for practice must be provided in teacher training schools just the same as the medical schools provide clinics for student study and observation. Most of our teacher training schools now do not have a sufficient number of children for these observation clinics. Let us not forget that before we license a teacher to go out and practice upon our children, that teacher must have had a chance to work with real children, in real schools, and that this is as absolutely essential as are hospitals in the training of doctors. There seems to be a prevalent conception that teachers can be made by sending them to a normal school or teachers' college for a few years, have them study a lot of high-sounding terms like, pedagogy, methods , psychology, sociology, and other 'ogies' and 'oligies'. Teachers can no more be made by a course of this type than can a Baldwin apple be made to grow by grafting a twig of the Baldwin tree on a branch of fig tree . The combination is wrong; it is not true to nature; the types cannot be changed. Teacher training schools disregard this principle. They take practically anyone who may knock for admittance. In fact, they seek candidates, regardless of a natural desire to teach. Just last summer, there came to me a solicitor from one of these teacher training schools. He wanted the names of high school seniors. He wanted to influence them to enter his normal school. What ? Influence seniors to become teachers who may not be of the teaching type ! Yes, this is exactly how we make our teachers. We fail to sift the teaching from the non-teaching type. The big thing about the teacher is not how much she knows. The essential thing is the power to shine or illuminate; the power to spread or radiate light. A manufactured teacher coming from a teacher-factory never can DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 713 pass this radiant light. Yes, such a teacher may give facts in history or arithmetic to the children, but how will she give this radiation which her children must have. She did not receive it in the teacher institution be- cause she did not possess the endowment for it. Some of the greatest teachers we have known were non-factory produced. They knew little about the modern mistaught and misunderstood teacher training subjects as they are being taught today. Standard tests to them were unknown, scientific courses of study, measuring ability, and all the modern scientific, statistical factory-made processes of teaching were never used. Yet they taught, actually radiated light-light and influence which led their children to look for more-created a craving for school, a thirst for knowledge. They just taught. Wherever they were, there was a school, regardless of equipment or building. I still know a few of these real teachers ; if I were to mention their names, you would recognize them at once. But if I were a school superintendent and were looking for a teacher of literature, I could not employ either one of these real teachers. No, I'm bound by rules and regulations-rules and regulations of the State Department, the local Board of School control, Board of Regents, and so on. These teachers are not professionally trained; they escaped the teacher-factory process of making literature teachers, and became real teachers in spite of the escape. I instead, must employ one of the profes- sionally trained teachers-one of these scientifically, statistically, or rhetor- ically trained teachers; one who can define every figure of speech, analyze every sentence, tear to bits every poem, give the date and place of birth of every poet or writer from Chaucer to date. Yes, she may be able to do all this and more, but still may not teach. In this whole teacher training and selection problem, justice for children seems to be a minus quantity. So I say the personnel needs to be changed ; rules and regulations need to be changed so that a superintendent may be permitted to engage a real teacher, regardless of the process she went through to become a teacher, when he sees her, provided, of course, he is able to tell a real teacher when he sees her. Local politicians find it profitable to attack superintendents who fail to select all teachers from the offerings of "Main Street"-the "home town" girl is given preference over the outsider. Everything is con- sidered but the main thing, that is, where may be found the teacher capable of rendering to the children the greatest service. How can this personnel be changed ? There surely are not enough of the real teacher type to go around. Yes, there are, if we only are big enough to step out from our iron-clad, hide-bound, professional-factory training requirements and look around, surely they can be found. I have said what I did, not because I have no belief in teacher training institu- tions or no sympathy for the teacher, for I do have a firm belief in the institutions, but what I wish to emphasize is that they do not strike the fundamental in teacher training-sifting the non-teaching type and lead them into avenues where they can do no harm, but save all the teaching type 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and provide the richest kind of nourishment for these, for surely these are "the salt of the earth" ; these must "restore the souls" of our children and "lead them beside the still waters." Sympathy for the teacher ? Yes. Haven't I passed through the "valley of the shadow" of the teacher ? I know what a time a teacher trained in one of these teacher institutions has in trying to teach a room of thirty or forty children according to the rules and regulations of the said insti- tution, trying to comply to the prescribed course as laid down by the au- thorities. Surely Diogenes, in seeking an honest man, had no harder task. But still, the fact remains that the people who ought to teach, as a rule do not teach, while thousands teach who should be mothers in homes or pensioned. Educational method-The third point I wish to make is that we must have an improvement in educational method. Courses, today, seem to center around the individual-individual instincts, individual's learning curve, rank in reading and arithmetic-all these are stressed and set forth for the teacher to understand. Products of collective activity, such as 'language' and social customs, get scant recognition in teacher training schools. A glance into books on educational psychology reveals the fact that instincts receive the major emphasis. Such terms as 'language' and ' speech' do not appear, while instinctive activities are greatly stressed. Yet the instinctive activities are the ones that need very little attention; these take care of themselves. The curriculum is to be reconstructed, the or- ganization of classes is to be modified, the natural impulses of children are to be accepted as guides to discipline. The student teacher learns long descriptions of instincts and finds himself little prepared by what he has been taught to teach pupils how to spell or add. Everywhere, we hear the cry 'to care for individual differences,' yet, we see the failure to impress those who guide children with the importance of group thinking and group action. Educational psychology, then, needs to be revised. Student teachers must be taught that schools are places where children are sent to substitute for instinctive impulses, habits which are gradually developed with social institutions. Teachers need to be trained in the nature of language, the nature of the number idea, nature of social customs, politeness, punctuality, the nature of the economic system, and so on, until these social facts which make up modern civilization form the background for all subject teaching. For instance, it is the business of the teacher in teaching handwriting to transform the child from a purely instinctive animal into a being capable of using a highly developed art which the race has evolved. Take the subject of arithmetic-educational reformers suggest that if pupils are not drilled in the use of Arabic numerals in the lower grades and are allowed to go on untrained in the complexities of numbers, they will, somehow, by the exercise of their own natural curiosity, come into the possession of the principles of numbers. This is based on the most absurd psychology. Psychology of numbers is that of a race, not of an individual. The same DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 715 holds true about thrift. People, in general, think of money as a thing to be used, not as an instrument of civilization to be explained and understood. Schools have never treated money as a social institution. Thrift depends on an understanding of where money comes from, how it is related to labor and intelligent purchasing. Teaching thrift furnishes an excellent oppor- tunity to emphasize the importance of social psychology as a basis of educa- tion. Yet schools pay no attention to money. It is merely used as an example of the application of arithmetic. Children are taught to compute interest and taxes, yet they get no insight into how capital earns interest or the justification of taxes. The result-when they leave school, they have to learn lessons which are of a wholly different order from any that the school teaches. The most numerous and most difficult problems of the world today are those involved in social adjustment and control. Yet how shamefully negligent we are in making this principle a fundamental factor in all our teaching. Human life, group life is sadly neglected. Student teachers are not taught how to teach this principle. Much time is now spent in drilling teachers in certain technique. There is also a great insistence on method. Now, both of these are essential, but when either one displaces the life of the study, then it ceases to be of value. Teachers are judged by their ability to make things so plain that he who runs may read. Children do not profit by such a procedure. There often is nothing left for the child to do, no contribution that he can make. It is small wonder that such children lose interest in school. We are willing to sacrifice personality, intelligence, and character for the sake of system, mechanism, and uniformity, so I say, a far-reaching reform must come about in the selection and training of teachers, and a new type of educa- tional psychology taught if America wishes any sort of justice meted out for her children . Taking stock account-Nobody expects the teacher, the school, to diag- nose the children or to base the training of the children upon their abilities and defects. I say no one expects the schools to do this, in fact, the person advocating this will be called an extremist. But in spite of these assump- tions, the American public school dare not be a fixed quantity. Unless it be changed from the present fixed quantity to a changing quantity, ready to meet the needs of changing ability, the "common denominator" of America will fall. Now, I am not going to say very much regarding the waste- slush-hodge-podge-hit-or-miss methods we have followed and are still fol- lowing in our schools, but I do say that any attempt to teach a child without taking into consideration the psychology of the "teach" is a crime against the very foundations of civilization-past, present, and a thousand- strength crime against the civilization of the future. Unless we consider teaching as "testing psychologically" we surely can never expect to know whether Tom, who comes to us in the first grade, can be educated or not. Yet we start out on the assumption that Tom is "innocent until he shows guilt." We attempt to teach him, we spend a whole year, two years, yes, I shamefully say, often eight years attempting to educate him, and ther ease our conscience by saying, "Oh, Tom dropped school to go to work.' 716 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Think of the time and energy wasted on the part of the teacher, then consider the value to Tom had he been tested so as to reveal his ability or performances and his instruction adapted accordingly. What a wealth of good had this been to Tom and the future! The trouble with us has been that we based our methods on the assumption that under the right con- ditions all children would make satisfactory progress in school. This is contrary to actual fact. Children do not fall into certain definite classes as the "normal " and "feeble-minded." Instead, there are many grades of intelligence, due to mental endowment or innate ability. These differences affect the capacity to profit from the ordinary school instruction immensely. Is it not sound pedagogy to take the mental abilities of the children and instead of holding all classes of children up to the level of the normal child, adapt our instruction to suit these various abilities in such a manner which permits progress according to ability ? How many children, uneducable from birth, are incompetent of ever learning the very fundamentals ? Have we ever tried to discover them ? Take the first subject we attempt to teach, reading. Do we take into con- sideration, do teachers take into account that reading includes abilities as, eyesight, hearing, articulation, attention, memory span, imagination, and so on ? We teach, at least attempt to teach, this subject, year after year, without ever asking or trying to discover whether or not Tom could master these different phases which reading involves. When Tom gets to the sixth school year, and he feels that he cannot get along in school, that there is nothing there for his capacity, he comes for an employment certificate, but the law says, "Tom, you have not passed the sixth school year, you can- not read, therefore you cannot go to work." Can the law, can we as teach- ers, tell Tom, or any one else, what standard he was supposed to reach at the end of the sixth year ? Why did Tom fail to reach the standard, if we had a standard ? Was it due to teaching, no teaching, or was it innate, inborn lack of ability ? Who knows ? Do you as a teacher, do I as a superin- tendent, know ? Should we know ? Now, take it for granted that Tom was uneducable : was it not a crime, if he possessed inborn disability to read, was it not a sheer waste of time and energy to try to keep on educating him? Did the school teach Tom anything which he could take with him into life ? Did the school teach Tom habits which will hinder his success in later life ? Let us see. Tom came to us with the idea of being educated. He started with the rest of the boys and girls. We accepted him as a normal child. We gave him the same kind of instruction as the rest. We gave Tom the impression that he was a normal child, that he was profiting from his work in school to the extent of the requirement of the social world. Everything went well with Tom, as far as he was concerned, until he realized that he was not getting what the other boys and girls were getting. Then Tom came to us for permission to drop school ; we said, "No, Tom, you cannot do that, you have not yet learned to read." In other words, we tell Tom that he has failed. ( We do not tell him that the school DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 717 has failed, which would be the real truth, but it is always the child, not the school that fails) . "What! I failed after all these years of smooth sailing with my school ? I started out with the idea or impression that the school taught children to master the fundamentals, the three R's, taught them habits of strength, morality, success. But now I see that I was mistaken-the school does not teach those things at all, but teaches, at least taught me, the criminal habit of failure." Ah, fellow co-workers, this may read like a myth, a theorized story, but is it not too true that the school does teach failure, that it crushes self-confidence, that it drives thousands of children into blind-alley jobs every year ? Yet the law says, Tom must attend school until he is 16, unless he can pass the sixth grade, upon which condition he can go to work at 14. Now, I do believe in child labor laws, in compulsory attendance laws, but I do not believe in such non- sensical, tommy-rot, and criminality as the compulsory laws demand. Any law which does not make provision for a substitute for the thing it prohibits, which equals the bad in the prohibition, is a crime against civilization . This is exactly what the school attendance law is doing. It prohibits Tom from quitting school, but does not offer a substitute better than the thing it prohibits. For in this case, we have granted that Tom does not profit by the ordinary school instruction . Thousands of cases like this one can be sighted. Yes, the school teaches failure-it teaches Tom to run away, to become a criminal. Who was at fault, the intelligence of Tom or the lack of intelligence of the school authorities ? Now we all grant that the chief business of the elementary public school is to train the children to an adequate proficiency in the elements, so that they may be able to earn a respectable living in accord with the demands of their fellowmen. Had the school tested Tom, had his innate ability been discovered, he would have been able to conform to the above aim or purpose. The examination would perhaps have taken thirty to forty- five minutes of the school's time, but these minutes would have revealed more than a teacher can discover by the trial-and-error method in a whole school year, yes more than was discovered in Tom's case during six years. I shall not continue with the days which followed Tom's ejection from school. We can imagine what the life of a child will be as he grows to man- hood, whose habits were habits of failure, whose self-reliance is crushed, as well as his faith in the schools weakened. But on the other hand, let us take the opposite of Tom's case . We must remember that at the same time that Tom entered school, Dan also entered. Now Dan is the very opposite of Tom. Dan is full of energy, he is in mischief all the time. Whenever he recites, his work is about perfect. When assigned a task, he finishes it in from one half to one fourth of the time. We keep playing hide-and- go-seek with Dan for eight years. He finally discovers that there is nothing for him in school, that all is horseplay, that he has to move with the rest of his class, even though he could move twice as fast. As a result, he loses confidence in the school and drops out. Here again, the school has crushed confidence and ability. Surely the school stifles instinct and ability and 718 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION many a genius is lost to the world because the school lost him in mass instruction. Yet it is from these types of children that the future leadership of the country must be drawn. If these children, the type of Dan, are not given a grade of work calling forth their best efforts, they, too, like Tom, will fall into bad habits. They will always remain at a lower efficiency than they are able to perform. Schools have lost to society some of the best brains by failure to keep rapid learners learning rapidly. I am fully convinced that the child who is normal, and the majority are normal, can learn to get adequate proficiency in the elements in from three to four years. In other words, I believe that our public elementary school course can be covered proficiently in from three to four years. Further- more, I believe that from 10 to 20 per cent of the children can be taught in one year what we now take two and three years to teach. On the other hand, I believe there are from 10 to 25 per cent who can never profit by the ordinary school instruction enough to become proficient to the degree of using the elements for tools. I hear you say, "Yes, that is your personal opinion." So it is. But in reply, I say, "If you do not agree that it is a crime to teach or rather, attempt to educate children who are not capable of being educated, that it is wrong to keep the upper 25 per cent of the children who are capable of going on faster than we permit them, due to slow groups, you must admit that you do not understand the problems entering into the instruction of the children in the very elements of school subjects. Furthermore, you will agree that agriculture did not take on the scientific aspect until certain processes were adopted, suited to certain kinds of soil, certain types of cattle, and so on. Yet, in the human, we deny these same truths. My experience is not very old, but old enough to convince me that from 25 to 50 per cent of our children can learn to do in one year what we teach them in two and three years, yes, can learn to do the same things without even going to school before they are of school age. When a child not yet five years of age composes without a bit of help from any one letters like the following: "I wish to thank you Grandpa and Grandma for the things you sent me for Christmas. It is so good of you to do this . Next Christmas, I must send you some, for fear you will get cross at me, because you sent some to me." or again, "Thank you Uncle and Aunt and Cousin Ben, for the many good things you sent me for Christmas. You were very good to me. I like everything so much. We are expecting you next summer." then I say, surely the school represses innate ability, because in school, first-grade composition does not compare to these above, and I want to fight for the child who is not yet able to fight for himself. If I want to be real conscientious, I have to advise parents with children of a very high innate ability against sending them to school. We know that in many instances ability is stifled by compulsion, law or rule, until DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 719 the child is dwarfed in ambition and ability. In many cases, forcing a child to stay in school has a far more degenerating influence upon the child than the street. I do not wish to assert that we should make the educational road a path so smooth that it may be traversed by the child without using intellectual gasoline. I believe that pupils must be taught that life sets before them certain duties and unescapable tasks; that duty is not going to be made interesting; that Nature does not excuse and give us another chance; that our work is to be done, our lessons learned, not because they are easy, painless, interesting, but because they must be done. The important thing is that education shall be educative. In order to be educative, we must know how to differentiate between the uneducable and the educable. Only the educable can be educated. This does not imply, however, that the uneducable should be left to themselves, that their course should consist of tea and soaked toast to be swallowed without effort, but it does mean that their instruction, their teaching, shall be compounded so that they may be trained to chew and masticate as much of the toast without soaking it as possible. In other words, the innate uneducable must be trained educated they cannot be. To determine who the educable or uneducable are, we can no longer trust to opinion or environment. Whatever we wish to say concerning the influence of any one of these, we must admit that original capacity or ability is fixed before the child enters school. It must then follow that the purpose of the school must be the provision of such teaching as will exercise these already fixed capacities. I do not wish to say that the original ability cannot be aided by training, but I am very confident that the schools cannot produce in a child what he does not possess innately. The schools must provide a chance for the child to produce or show what is in him . The child cannot do this unless his environment in school will be of such a nature as to foster growth of the established abilities. Differences in ability are due to differences in innate capacity, rather than to differences in environment. An environment highly favorable to the production of a genius will not produce a genius; the innate capacity must be there. On the other hand, although unfavorable environment may not suppress the innate ability entirely, we all know that it often suppresses the functioning of that ability. To provide for the environment suited to the different capacities of children, the teacher must know, first, the nature of the child's innate capacities ; second, how to provide instruction suited to these abilities. We, as teachers, must confess that we really know neither. Unless we know something about the innate abilities we are going to teach for the average pupil. The affairs of the world will be run by those of superior intelligence. The reason for this is that this class of individuals is not only the most intelligent, but humanly also that is, superior in justice and good will. It has been a good investment to permit the intelligent to rule the 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION masses . History proves this. So it must be in the future that superior beings-mentally, morally, and religiously-must be the leaders. So I say we are not making for class distinction when we classify according to men- tality, but making for greater freedom, justice, and power. Education must accept innate abilities as they come, but it is the business of the school to provide every possible exercise which will make them capable of rendering the greatest service to the child. If inferior children are to be cared for, and not be allowed to become still more inferior, the high-school courses of our country must be readjusted so as to provide for the children below the average; provide something which they can master and yet will have a real educative value. Surely, when 70 per cent of our pupils in high school fail in one half of their studies, and more than one third fall below the 95 I. Q., is it not time that we cease calling our high schools the people's colleges, and name them by the proper name-class schools or do the better thing, readjust the courses so as to care for the pupils of varying capacity. This would be more like the ideals of a democracy. Whatever good may be credited to our public school system, we must admit that we have failed to give the type of instruction which will help the child to function properly. On the whole, all we can safely say, is that we give a mastery (dare I say mastery?) of the fundamentals to the child in eight years of school life. Spending six or eight years on the mastery of the fundamentals for the bright child is a sheer waste of time. He does not need to be taught much after he has once learned the 3 R's; but he does need to be trained so as to permit him to use his ability in an enlarging way. The slow child must be given a working knowledge of the 3 R's, then given work which he can master-even if it be training in mechanical processes or motor abilities. The recognition of individual differences is the greatest boon that has come to children since the dawn of time. The good work must go on . Equal opportunity in a democracy implies that every boy and girl, what- ever may be his or her physical, intellectual, emotional, or spiritual equip- ment, shall have an even chance with his fellows to develop to the utmost according to his capacities and endowments. Upon city, State, and Nation is imposed the grave responsibility of providing unlimited educational, recreational, and vocational facilities for our children and our youths. As groups appear or are discovered that require special training, varied diversi- fied avenues of instruction must be opened to welcome them. Our public schools are the one institution through which society can purposefully attack problems of a democracy. America is a democracy of souls a co- operation of free citizens who must be trained to develop and give their best. If helping each child to develop his individual aptitude accomplishes this aim, and it seems a safe process, let us, then, further that school system that more nearly fits the child to his inevitable future-be it bricklaying or law-practicing. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 721 Raising school revenue-The next point I wish to stress, before we can have justice for children, is that we must be willing to spend for our children at least as much as we spend for our cattle. The business man must be willing to pay the person who trains the mind of his child, at least as much as he pays his private secretary or his stenographer. Men must be just as willing to pay an increase of a few dollars in taxes for education as they are to pay $30, $40, or $50 a week for an experience-trained nurse, in addition to three meals a day, a room, and pay her laundry, if his child is physically ill. A woman must be just as willing to pay an amount of yearly school taxes as she is to pay a cook for a week. Our method of raising school revenue here in America is the most anti- quated and absurd of any civilized country in the world. Our property taxes and methods of assessments are the most ridiculous of any method in use anywhere. No nation in the civilized world ranks as low, has as absurd, antiquated methods of raising revenue as America. We need to realize that money raised and spent for education is the best investment for any com- munity. Until we do realize this, our children are going to suffer. School revenue must be raised and spent upon the youth of America regardless of location-whether in the most modern city or the remote part of the country. You say, "Oh, you couldn't tax the whole country for education for a local community." Well, we are told that in times of peace, the teaching body of America is our first line of defense; what is our second line of defense at that time ? The army and navy. It is the first line of defense in time of war and I don't believe in putting away the army and navy at the present time. We never hesitate, anybody, everybody, everywhere, to get the money to take care of the army and navy, and having laid the taxes, we are not seriously concerned where we put the army or where we put the navy. We are not seriously concerned about that; we put them where we believe they will best contribute to National defense. Wouldn't it be wise if we would raise enough money for our army of millions of children, then place it where it would serve them best ? I have a notion that there are eight to ten millions of children in this Nation who are not given a fair chance of justice because we have a financial system for the support of our free public schools that is as inadequate, inefficient, and childish as anything that can be found in any civilized nation. Yes, justice for the child will come only when we secure an adequate supply of money to insure a fair chance for every child regardless where they may be. Of the thousands of residents of any large city, comparatively few reside in the city. When their children reach school age, their education will be provided by the rural and small town school. Because the country teacher has to teach all subjects and all grades, she ought to be the best trained, most experienced, and the best paid. In fact, she is the youngest, least experienced, least well trained, and lowest paid. As good schools in the country as in the city is the only safe and sane course for any nation. We cannot shake off our mutual responsibility. Let us not forget that the 722 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION degree of educational opportunity for a child in city, mountain, or ranch, or plantation sections of the various States is a problem and a responsibility greater than that of any army and navy, of greater urgency than railroads, cotton, wheat, or coal, for then only will justice come to the child. The time for an educational up-plowing surely is at hand. The tradi- tional and medieval must become a relic. Teacher training schools must give us another type of teacher-this teacher must provide another type of instruction; this instruction must care for innate abilities. This will prepare the children not to master facts only, but prepare them how to act with greatest efficiency in the niche which may be their lot to fill in life. Finally, this up-plowing must demand a new type of educational administrator-one with leadership and vision, one able to educate the public to the need for 'Justice for Children.' It seems that only in the educational field can a man talk feeble-minded nonsense and get a hearing, yes, a hearing with an encore. I am con- vinced that about 20 per cent of the children fail to function in schoool be- cause they have to lockstep in order to conform to a prescribed course of study administered by a supervisor with less vision than the 20 per cent who fail to function. Yes, I am convinced that the large percentage of blind alley jobs are held because the persons holding them have been made to lockstep in school to the orders of one of these short-visioned educational frauds. Yet, we call this a democracy! The remedy for deficiencies is not ignorance, but vision. If the educational reins were given to men with a real understanding of the principles underlying a democratic government, men with vision of the future essentials of the training in schools in order to conform to these principles, instead of petty politicians seeking selfish ends, we would soon be out of the educational tommy-rot, hit-or-miss calamity we are finding ourselves struggling in today, and justice for chil- dren would reign supreme. JUSTICE FOR TEACHERS E. MARIE GUGLE , ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , COLUMBUS OHIO In its derivation the word justice is based on the Latin "jus," meaning right or law. The Romans had three words for law, fas, lex, and jus. Each of these Latin words has a distinctive meaning. Fas means that which is spoken or laid down, as divine law or that which is right in the sight of heaven. Lex refers to the laws that have been gathered up and reduced to writing; the man-made code that can be read, a statute. The word jus carries a bigger idea. Literally it means that which morally joins or unites; that which is just, fair, good, right, and proper; conform- ing to whatever is righteous in the dealing of one man with another; giv- ing to every man his due. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 723 Plato conceived the ideal justice to be obtained in perfect social harmony in beneficial activities. Aristotle said that justice is the practice of virtue toward others. He distinguished between distributive justice and cor- rective justice. Distributive justice is distribution according to merit and corrective justice is designed to rectify errors of distribution. Justice in- cludes the idea of fairness, impartiality, and requital according to merit or desert, equity as distinguished from mere legality. From these definitions of justice, as fairness and impartiality, we must conclude that there should be no conflict between justice for teachers and justice for pupils or for those in higher places. When all teachers can look at all school problems from the point of view of the pupil, the parent, and the administrator, as well as from that of an instructor, many of their ideas of injustice will disappear. Some teachers feel that raising the personal and professional standards of requirements for entrance into teaching is an injustice. It may work a hardship upon a few individuals, but even the majority of teachers agree that it is beneficial to the many. Teachers' rights imply teachers' obliga- tions, one of which is adequate preparation. We should all welcome every move toward better preparation and selection of teachers. If more care- ful selection and rating of applicants were made before they get into the teaching profession, the fewer the cases of so-called injustice there would be in the schools. I have never known of an instance where a teacher was not reëmployed, that he did not feel that a rank injustice had been done, even in cases in which a whole year of warning or probation had been given . His inability to see the true situation is probably the cause of his dismissal, for, a teacher who is reasonably well prepared and has any possibilities for growth can usually be helped by a principal to become a satisfactory teacher, provided he can see his own strengths and weaknesses. But a teacher, who does not know when he is failing and cannot see his deficiencies even when they are pointed out to him, is well nigh a hopeless case for a prin- cipal. This situation suggests the subject of tenure. I believe in tenure. I believe that every capable teacher should feel secure in his position; that he should not be humiliated by having to be reëmployed each year. On the other hand, I believe that the idea of the teacher's uncertainty and the resulting nervous strain about reappointment has been greatly overdone. I do not know about some reported conditions in rural communities, but I do know that no teacher in a city system whose work is reasonably satis- factory ever had anything but permanent tenure. Too much turnover in any business is an economic loss. The superintendent as well as the busi- ness man realizes this fact. Then, too, the superintendent finds it dif- ficult enough to fill vacancies caused by transfers, marriages, and deaths, without deliberately making more trouble for himself by unnecessary dis- missals. The most insecure position in the public schools is that of the superin- tendent, but no tenure bill attempts to give him permanency. No tenure 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION bill that I know of is eminently satisfactory. Perhaps, the California law is the best because there is less of it. As I suggested before, I believe that teaching should be on such a pro- fessional basis that annual appointment should not be made, and teachers should know that during good behavior and satisfactory teaching, they need have no concern about their tenure. Some persons think the social order would benefit by more strict divorce laws; others think divorce should be made easy. That is a mooted ques- tion. But for the sake of the children, it should be easy to divorce an in- efficient teacher from his position. Justice to him, however, demands that the teacher should have had competent supervision, definite written state- ments of his deficiencies, and a reasonable period of probation with its chance to improve . But, the question comes, "Who decides whether or not a teacher is in- efficient ?" The answer is, "Unquestionably, the principal." Of course, before approving a principal's recommendation for a teacher's dismissal, the superintendent should give some personal attention to the problem , should work with the principal in trying to help the teacher improve ; and, in case of failure, should share with the teacher and principal the re- sponsibility for it. It is no more a credit to a superintendent or principal to have numerous cases of dismissal from his school than it is to a teacher to have numerous failures in his class . Cannot this organization devise some simple plan, without so much red tape and so many restrictions, that will relieve good teachers of the embarrassment of annual appointment, will raise the dignity of the pro- fession, insure tenure to the worthy and justice for all? Justice for teachers should mean a salary schedule that is more than a minimum wage scale. It should mean a professional competence that will insure a reasonable indulgence in the luxuries, pleasures, and refine- ments of life. It should be commensurate with the incomes of other pro- fessions, if ours is to attain equal social prestige and respect. Many cities are already leading the way for the rest of us by breaking down the tradition that the prestige and salary should increase with the age and grade of the pupils taught. They are rightly maintaining a single salary schedule for teachers with the equal qualifications, so that the artist teacher of the first grade has an equal chance with an ordinary high school teacher. Fairness, impartiality, and justice demand that such salary sched- ules become operative everywhere. Some one may raise the cry, "Oh the cost would be prohibitive." So many generations of school teachers have been forced to live in poverty that as a group we have become penurious. We have been so humbly grateful for mere pittances that a public opinion has been developed to the effect that the people have been generous and the schools are extravagant. If we place a low value on our services, the public is willing to agree with us. If a doctor would charge only fifty cents a visit, people would begin to ask, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 725 "What is the matter with him?" On the other hand, if he puts a high value upon himself and charges five dollars or twenty-five dollars for his advice, the public believes he is an expert and many flock to his office. Justice demands of teachers that they give efficient service, then it demands for them a generous salary. An enlightened American public will meet any reasonable demand for the schools. Anything else would be a travesty on American justice, for it is in the American public school that the ideas of fair play and justice are fostered and developed in the American youth . A salary schedule represents the legal phase of this subject. It can lay down very definite, objective, measurable requirements, such as age, health, normal diplomas, college degrees, and experience. These objective meas- ures are necessary as the best we have, perhaps, but they are in no way satisfactory and infallible measures of teaching ability. These measures should be used in establishing minimum requirements for entrants into the profession but, in my judgment, should not be the basis for special in- creases . Giving a bonus for attending a summer session or for securing a given number of university credits is a very questionable procedure. According to Aristotle's idea of distributive justice, extra compensation should be given for unusual merit. As every class of pupils has its wide range of individual differences, so every group of normal graduates will vary. No doubt, a few will fail as teachers. A large group will become good, average teachers, a very few of whom will ultimately become ex- ceptional or outstanding teachers. Justice for teachers demands a uniform single salary schedule applicable to all teachers, elementary, junior and senior high school, and to both men and women. This schedule should be based on a reasonably high standard of qualifications. It should be automatic in its operation. Its minimum should be sufficient to per- manently attract capable persons to the teaching profession. Its maximum, which all teachers should reach, should be high enough to insure a good com- fortable living for the teacher and his family, without worry and undue sacrifice of the pleasures and finer things in life. The annual increment should be large enough to enable the teacher to reach the maximum as soon as he reaches what might be called his teaching majority. That does not mean waiting till he grows gray or decrepit in service. It should be while he is young enough to profit by this maximum during the many best years of his maturity. It should be high enough to make charity pensions unnecessary . In Dr. McAndrew's article on "Justice" in the World's Work of March, 1924, he quotes Thomas Churchill, a lawyer and president of the New York Board of Education as saying : "I am not so much concerned with justice to teachers as I am with justice to the public. For a school board to keep down the wages of teachers to a charity basis is to retard the progress of the Nation and to dissipate its prosperity, endanger its safety, and destroy its happiness." Until a proper salary scale is well established, a teachers' pension is neces- sary and desirable. But we hope for a better day when, instead of be 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing objects of charity, teachers will have their due respect from the public and their rightful social position. Beyond this uniform salary schedule should be a super-schedule for the exceptionally superior teacher, who remains in the same school system and definitely proves his superiority. The number of teachers in this group must necessarily be small, not more than ten or fifteen per cent; for, as soon as a large proportion of the teachers enter the group, they cease to be exceptional . The selection of these superior teachers should be the im- personal judgment of the principals, supervisors, and superintendents . The objection may come that such discrimination will cause hard feelings among the teachers. Let such teachers withdraw and enter any other kind of occupation and they will soon learn that, except in the most menial kind of work where there is a wage scale, each person is paid according to his merit as determined by one person, the owner or the manager. As be assured that there never will be an adequate maximum for the best in the profession. It will always be an average salary for the average teacher. The teachers themselves have a wonderful opportunity for making a big contribution to the profession by facing this problem, not in a personal selfish way, but in devising a salary schedule based on merit that is fair and just to all. Justice demands that teachers meet this issue in an impersonal professional attitude of mind. If teachers teach justice, they should practice it towards their fellows. Superior teaching means so much more than good instruction, although that is a very essential feature. Superior teaching has so many other intangible, spiritual phases that can not be described or readily measured. They depend upon the heart as well as the mind. They include the teacher's sympathies, attitudes, in- terests, manners, refinements, genuineness, sincerity, force of personality, as well as his I. Q. and his knowledge of subject-matter and methods. The latter important group is readily tested or measured; but the former group is most important and, unfortunately, cannot be measured by ob- jective standards. Teachers do not hesitate to grade pupils with a combination of objec- tive and subjective measures, but they object strenuously to being graded or rated by their principals or supervisors. They claim the personal ele- ment enters into the judgment. Yet are their own ever free from that element ? There are many pupils who are deliberately "marked down" and even failed by teachers, not for lack of knowledge or inability to do the work but as a means of discipline . Despite their protests, teachers cannot escape the judgment that is be- ing passed upon them by the pupils. It is usually unbiased and accurate. If a group of seniors in a high school were asked to select the superior long as teachers oppose extra salary for certain superior teachers, they can teachers of the corps, their judgment would not be far wrong, but I am not recommending this plan. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 727 In no other business or profession is there such a dread of supervision and rating of work. It seems that because teachers in the classroom deal with the immature and submissive pupils, they fail to learn that give and take of suggestion and criticism that comes from association with one's fel- lows in other occupations. The teacher who assumes most authority in the classroom resents suggestions most. As a group, teachers, especially women teachers, take things too personally. One of the best talks to teachers I ever heard was one given to the Columbus principals by our former Superintendent J. H. Francis, on Attaining the Impersonal. That phrase is a key to successful supervision and growth of teachers in service. Justice for teachers demands that they have competent, fair-minded educational leaders as their principals and supervisors. Unfortunately, in some systems, the incompetent but ambitious pedagogue, who plays petty politics, sometimes is found posing as a principal. The most pivotal posi- tions in the whole school system are the principalships, especially of the elementary schools . Justice demands that teachers' programs be more or less standardized and equalized. It is the business of the principal to make such a program and to distribute the work so that one teacher will not have 200 pupils a day in six classes, while another has only 90 pupils in five classes. The principal should equalize the teaching load and not overwork the willing, capable teacher while shielding an incompetent one. The teacher has the right to have a principal who knows good teaching well enough to approve it when he sees it and to give helpful suggestions for improving it. Many rating blanks have been devised, but most of them are too cumber- some. In Columbus, we have a very simple one. It is merely a small sheet about 5" by 8" with a heading showing the school, the teacher, the subject taught, and the date of the visit. The blank is divided into two parts by a line. In the upper part is the heading. "Evidences of satis- factory work, " and in the lower part, "Definite suggestions for improving the work of the teacher." At the bottom is a line for the signature. At least once each semester, every principal and supervisor is expected to visit each teacher in his school or department and fill out a blank in triplicate. One copy is given to the teacher at a personal conference held soon after the visit; another copy is kept on file in the principal's office ; the third is sent to the assistant superintendent of the district. This simple blank has these advantages. It encourages the teacher by having the good features of his teaching recognized and approved. It offers definite suggestions for the improvement of the work, which every teacher should welcome. There is no place on the blank for destructive criticism. Some such simple device is far more satisfactory than com- plicated rating cards . "Justice to teachers demands that they be supplied with the best texts and equipment available. Certain departments seem to get more or less abundant and expensive equipment while others are expected to get along 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with little or none. Costly apparatus is supplied to every physics labora- tory, but what per cent of the high schools have transits and slide rules, or even graph charts, tape measures or models for the mathematics de- partment ? It speaks well for the professional spirit of the kindergarten and first grade teachers, but not for the budget makers, when these teachers spend three to five per cent of their meagre salaries in buying supplies and seat work for their little people. Justice demands greater equity in dis- tribution of equipment and supplies. Every one knows that in State adoptions of textbooks politics play such a large part that the quality of the books is seldom considered. The re- sultant forcing of poor texts on the teachers is a rank injustice. They are entitled to the best and the best for their particular school system. Therefore, they are entitled to local option on textbooks and equipment. It is hoped that the day will soon come when the selection of texts and equipment will be on a purely professional basis with no undue pressure from without. Justice for teachers demands that parents and the public give them intelligent coöperation. There has been great achievement in this respect, due largely to the efforts of the Parent Teacher Association. But much remains for them to do in interesting and educating the thousands of parents who are not yet reached by its influence or that of the school. SUMMARY The idea of justice means conforming to whatever is righteous in the dealing of one man with another. It includes fairness, impartiality, and giving what is due according to merit. The teacher's rights imply the teacher's obligations ; first, in making ad- equate preparation ; second, in giving the best of service, and third in maintaining a fairminded, unselfish, impartial attitude toward his pupils, his school, and his fellow teachers. Justice demands for the teacher that he should not be humiliated by hav- ing to be reappointed annually, but the inefficient teacher should not be given a strong hold on his position. Except in rare instances, good teachers have permanent tenure in reality but not legally. Justice demands that there should be a single salary schedule, with no discriminations as to grade or sex, which guarantees a wage adequate for a comfortable living for the teacher and his family. It also demands that the exceptionally superior teacher receive an extra salary according to his superior merit, in order that the best may be retained in the profession . If the American people, one of whose ideals is justice for all, are to establish justice for the teacher, they will give him the same social prestige accorded to a member of any other profession, and even more, on account of his greater service to his country. Justice demands that the teacher's salary be such that the charity of pen- sions may be safely abolished. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 729 Justice to the teacher further demands that he have only the best edu- cational leaders as principals, supervisors, and superintendents; that the schools be administered so as to insure equalization of work and be super- vised in an impersonal, constructive manner; that the teacher be supplied with the best textbooks and equipment available, equitably distributed. In the name of American justice let the American parents and public give the teachers an enlightened, intelligent, helpful support, and coőpera- tion, which is their due. When these demands of justice are met, the teachers stand ready to pledge to the public better teaching, better service, and better results, the natural outcome of working under improved conditions, with less worry and greater appreciation. JUSTICE IN HIGH PLACES ARTHUR C. PERRY, JR. , DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NEW YORK CITY Any consideration of the subject of justice in connection with our public educational institutions must have in mind that the fundamental justice is justice for the pupil, for whom alone the public school exists. Rights of teachers as teachers are rights only when they involve rights and interests of pupils. Injustice to teachers may be of public concern, but not because it is an offense to the persons who happen at the moment to be engaged in teaching. It is because it is impairing the efficiency of the service rendered to pupils and is therefore an offense against them. Consequently, in any specific instance, to determine whether an action which is regarded by the teacher as an injustice to her, is to be construed as of public concern, we apply this criterion: Does the questionable action result in present or ultimate impaired service to the pupil ? If it does not, it is merely an incident to which the ordinary rules of personal relation- ships apply. If it does, it is a civic offense and is to be dealt with in the realm of the public welfare. When we extend our consideration to the other elements of the admin- istrative organization-the principal, the superintendent, the school board -we must recognize the same principle and apply the same criterion. Many of the forms of injustice, legitimately so termed, that affect the teacher, carry over to the administrative personnel, and are shared by principals and superintendents. But in addition to these there are certain others which inhere distinctively in the executive position. Before we note these injustices, and in order to evaluate them properly, let us remind ourselves of the status of the American public school. The state everywhere has a tremendous stake in education. Practically every civilized nation recognizes, at least theoretically, that its schools constitute its first line of defense. It must, therefore, regard its obligation to main 730 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tain a system of public education with especial seriousness. America can be no exception. Our youth must be so trained that a citizenry is developed that is not only literate and economically competent, but well grounded in the history of the Nation and unswervingly loyal to its traditions. Some of our people are naturally fitted to lead their fellows; but by far the greater number must limit their service to the Nation to the exercise of the franchise and the choice of those who are to lead them. The schools must, therefore, both train the few to leadership, and train the many to such a degree of intelligence that they will choose sound leaders and reject the self-seeker and the demagogue. The public schools are a factor in the common defense, even in the narrow field of military competency. The civilian drafted in time of war cannot render satisfactory service unless he is intelligent in mind as well as patriotic at heart. The World War opened our eyes to the appalling extent of illiteracy among our fighting men. In these modern days a man who cannot read orders or write his name is less than a 100 per cent fight- ing machine. America's schools, therefore, are essentially a matter of National concern. Though this is everywhere conceded, there is no agreement of opinion as to the extent to which this nation-wide concern shall find expression through formal direct action by the Federal Government. The establishment and maintenance of public schools is legally a function of the individual States and sentiment is strong that it shall remain so. Such functions as munici- palities or other political subdivisions exercise is by the will of the sovereign State, whose ereatures they are. American opinion is clearly not yet willing that the States shall do now that which they did not do at the time of the adoption of the Constitution-specifically transfer to the Federal Government the power to control public education . In military defense, need for direct action by the National Government is instantly recognized. It is not left to each State to decide for itself whether or not it shall contribute or to what degree-toward the repulsion of a foreign enemy who is making an attack on the country. Yet in educational defense, against ignorance, against illiteracy, against propa- ganda that would undermine its traditions, the Nation is dependent upon the forty-eight States with their wide variations in resources and interpre- tations. It is true that every one of the States has, by one phrasing or another , written deep into its organic law-its State Constitution a mandate to its legislature to establish and maintain a system of free public schools. But the variations from State to State are extensive, even extreme. This we realize when we consider any of the essential phases of school administra- tion-the number of days schools are in session, the financial support given the schools by State and by local treasury, compulsory education provisions, the standards for teaching licenses, the extent and quality of supervision- to mention but a few. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 731 National defense in terms of education does not have to be written in uniformity of details. We do not need, we do not want, we could not tolerate, any Federal system of schools which, with bureaucratic deadliness, made every classroom in the United States look like every other classroom, every teacher act like every other teacher, and every curriculum keep step with every other curriculum. Yet we cannot abandon the proposition that the National safety, the National interest, the National honor even, demand that certain accepted American ideals be exemplified in every American public school. These ideals have to do with the rights and privileges of the American child, which include also his social and civic duties and responsibilities. These rights cannot be accorded him unless the rights of his teachers are zealously guarded, using here the word teacher in its generic sense to include all those who serve the pupil in whatever capacity. Let us now inquire rather specifically into the rights and wrongs en- countered by the educator-personnel, which are to be interpreted in terms of the rights and wrongs of the pupils of America, and therefore of America herself. In the whole series of school relationships we may state the case thus : The pupils are entitled to proper teaching by the teachers; the teachers are entitled to proper supervision by the principal; the principals are entitled to proper leadership from the superintendent; the superin- tendent is entitled to proper coöperation from the school board; and the school board is entitled to proper support from the community and the State. If we add that the State is entitled to the loyalty and fidelity of the pupils, both in the present and in the future, we have completed the cycle and epitomized American educational theory and policy. Whatever, then, impairs adequate teaching for pupils, adequate super- vision for teachers, adequate leadership for principals, adequate coöperation for superintendents, or adequate support for school boards, is an attack on all, an attack on American childhood, an attack on America. The right of the pupil to adequate teaching and the right of the teacher to adequate supervision and just treatment have already been treated. There remain the rights of those in the so-called "high places," high only in the sense that the occupants hold positions of large trust and responsibility and are obli- gated to serve a larger number of individuals than does the teacher. Among the more important rights of the principals a few may be noted. The violation of any of these is a personal injustice to the principal, but what gives it social significance is the fact that it is an injustice to the pupils in whose service he acts. The enumeration is by no means complete, but it suffices to illuminate the general principle. (1) A cultural wage. If the position does not pay a salary sufficient to enable the principal to move among cultured people of even moderate means, then the pupils and teachers are not receiving the stimulus of that quality of leadership which alone can result in adequate service to the pupils . (2) A protective tenure. If the principal has hovering over him the continuing fear that his services may be discontinued on short notice, per 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION haps as the result of the whim or the misconception of some layman en- joying a brief authority as a school board member, then he cannot give his pupils that impartial and free-from-worry devotion to which they are entitled. (3) Clear delimitation of his powers and obligations. If the principal's functions are not clearly defined, if he does not know whether he or some teacher or the janitor or the superintendent is responsible for the perform- ance of certain duties, then there is conflict, dispute, and waste, and the pupils suffer. (4) Respect for his administrative headship of his school. If the super- intendent or the board member fails to recognize the administrative head- ship of the principal and gives orders to teachers and pupils unknown to the principal or over his head, then the principal cannot administer his school consistently and the pupils are the losers. (5) Freedom from ex parte decisions. If pupils, teachers, parents, and others can go to the superintendent or the board member with an unsub- stantiated complaint concerning the principal and get a decision against him without his having had a hearing, then not only is the principal himself cruelly wronged, but the integrity of the whole system is threatened, and pupils get false ideas of procedure and of justice. (6) Recognition of accomplishment. If the devoted and efficient serv- ice of the principal meets no sign of commendation, if he sees others, by common agreement of lesser ability and competency than himself, given preferment in the material rewards of salary and promotion, then he is subjected to a strain that no battery of professional ideals charged by devotion to childhood and to the art of teaching can entirely overcome, and his pupils are bound to receive in the end a smaller measure of en- thusiastic service than that to which they are entitled. Passing from the principal-and we have but sketched an outline of his difficulties to the superintendent, what are the injustices to him which may properly rate as injustices to pupils ? By way of preamble let us utter a caution that applies to the superin- tendent and to all others in the educational field, indeed to people generally in any line of endeavor. Don't take things, or oneself, too seriously. Ask the successful business man his occupation, and often his reply is "I'm in the insurance game," " I'm in the realty game," "I'm in the advertising game," thus expressing the zest that he puts into his work. Whatever it is, it is for him a game. He knows by the experience of years, if not by instinct, that every business has its defeats as well as its victories, its losses as well as its gains, its outs as well as its home-runs. He knows what off- side play is, he knows what a foul-tackle is, he knows there are aces hidden in flowing sleeves, and he knows that sooner or later he is to encounter them. When he does, he meets them with courage and complacency, charges them to profit and loss, forgets them and plays the game. We in the educational business must learn this lesson early. Can we say, "I'm in the school game," and know that we have disciplined ourselves as DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 733 well as our pupils and teachers? Have we developed the protective armor of philosophy and humor that holds its sense of proportion when we en- counter the inevitable set-backs, however unjust they may seem at the moment? If not, perhaps we would better take a course in the training school of the book peddler and study the architecture of the doors that are slammed in our faces. All of which is but to say that before we use up too much time declaiming about the injustices we meet, we make sure that we are setting aside those personal annoyances which, though looming large under the microscope of our sensitiveness, are after all but the by-products of normal earthly existence. As the experienced superintendent of a Tennessee city writes me, " I do not feel that in my career as superintendent I have suffered any injustices which are really worth complaining about." And, as a Maine superin- tendent says, "the apparent injustice that the superintendent brings upon himself, due to his own ignorance, lack of foresight, or adaptability, is no injustice." But after discounting the unimportant phases of the superintendent's troubles there remain certain real difficulties that he frequently encounters- real because they impair in a disproportionate degree his service to teachers in their service to pupils. A Vermont superintendent finds hampering the fact that he is expected to mingle on even terms with the professional and business men of his city ; if he does not he loses in prestige and support; but he is expected to do this on an income far inferior to theirs. He also finds his time that should be devoted to the direct interest of his pupils frittered away in what he calls running errands for the board of education. Another waste, as cited by an Idaho superintendent, is involved in being obliged to spend his time in fruitless interviews and sending misdirected people to the right persons for attention. He refers, too, to a common experience in these words : "Like every other man in public life I get a good many axes to grind. I am a very busy man, trying to serve all the people, and consequently have to turn down these odd jobs. The result is that the ones who have axes to grind find that they are not sharp enough to cut. so they use them for hammers. My friends hear the knocking and know the meaning of it, and yet they consent to the noise and disturbance." Similar to this is the sort of thing referred to by a South Carolina superintendent-the experience of being misquoted or but partially quoted, with the result that he is misrepresented in the minds of the public. This goes hand in hand with well-intentioned but badly informed criticism. Again, he encounters the injustice of being held responsible for events and results controlled by others, and of not being allowed time in which to work out a program. From Wyoming and elsewhere comes the objection that the newspapers distort the facts; from Texas, that to the superintendent are assigned "unholy motives" and incorrect information is circulated; from Illinois, that the community and the school board do not accept the judgment of 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the superintendent as that of an expert, as they do in the case of other professions. Lack of proper coöperation by the school board is cited in various ways : West Virginia says, listening to unwarranted rumors by the disappointed ; Connecticut, interference by busy-body members of the board; Pennsyl- vania, the urging of the appointment of unqualified relatives and friends ; New York and Minnesota, taking action on important matters without consulting the superintendent. Nebraska is not alone in decrying the exercise of political, commercial, and religious pressure on the superin- tendent. From Ohio comes objection to the practice, by no means uncommon, of separating the educational and material phases of supervision, so that the superintendent is unable to subordinate building, equipment, and supplies to teaching. Mississippi cites the practice of the so-called "best citizens," through promise or threat, to influence action to secure what they know to be of selfish advantage to themselves and not of interest to the schools. General, too, is the demand, cited from Iowa, for tax retrenchment and changes that impair proper educational progress. The Board magnifies the dollar , not the child. I have referred to the geographical sources of some of the testimony on the matter of injustice to pupils through injustice to superintendents be- cause it stresses the fact that conditions are generally distributed, and in no sense isolated. To be sure, there are hundreds of school systems where the community recognizes its obligation to its children. Such a community operates with the knowledge that it can fulfill this obligation only by employing a competent superintendent and then giving him reasonable opportunity to work out the common problems unhampered by extraneous influences or faulty administrative procedure. Nevertheless, scattered widely throughout the land, opposite conditions are to be found all too frequently for the ultimate safety of a nation with democratic ambitions and ideals. Turning now from the superintendent, the final unit in the scheme of administration is the school board. A board may be composed of high- minded and devoted individuals and yet find itself confronted with con- ditions which prevent it from rendering proper service to pupils. The board itself may know good teaching, good school management, and good supervision. Knowing this, it also knows that these things cost money, but it may find that the very community which it represents is unwilling to tax itself to secure them. In consequence, in spite of a conscientious and intelligent school board, the children of an ignorant or parsimonious community are defrauded of their birthright as Americans, and America is suffering attack within its own lines. These, then, are some of the difficulties experienced by principals, super- intendents, and school boards, when they endeavor to function in full service to America's children. The resulting loss is a loss, not alone to DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 735 the teaching personnel, but to the children and to the Nation. The in- terest of the Nation and of the teaching profession is identical. Any attack on the Nation through its schools is an attack on the teaching pro- fession ; even more, an attack on the profession is an attack on the Nation. Theoretically the Nation itself, through its governmental agencies, should repelthe attack. But the Nation is more impersonal than the profession. It is more unwieldy and less easy of mobilization. It needs the counsel and help of the personal profession. Specificially, then, how can the profession mobilize to give this help? The obvious answer is that the teachers of the land should so organize themselves that the weight of their numbers and the strength of their influence shall be ready to be thrown against any community-any State, any city, any village-that attacks the Nation by failing to maintain its own segment in the line of educational defense. Already the teachers are organized through this National Education Association into a professional body that stands as a unit in service to the Nation as a whole. But a greater service is yet demanded of them: that they do what the Federal Government itself cannot do-could not do without a catastrophic recon- struction of its machinery-namely, discipline any community that turns traitor to America by neglecting its schools. For neglect on the part of any community to do its share in providing for the common defense in the face of the enemy-ignorance, prejudice, propaganda, and anti-American ideals -is nothing short of treason. How shall the teachers of the Nation organize for mobilization, and how shall the organization operate ? Through a national professional union. Now that I have used this word union let me hasten to say that I do not mean a teachers' union narrowly interested only in teacher welfare. I do not mean a teachers' trade union . I do not mean a teachers' union affiliated with organized labor, or with organized capital, or with organized anybody else. I do mean a teachers' union free from all entangling alliances, operating with an eye single to the welfare of America and America's children, and therefore necessarily, but only incidentally, interested in the personal welfare of the teacher . Shall this union be organized as a department or bureau of the already existing National Education Association or shall it be coördinate with the National Education Association and associated with it, or entirely inde- pendent of it? I do not venture an opinion. These are but details, im- portant it is true, but yet details. Of this I am convinced that the organization is needed in the name of America, that it should comprise all grades of the teaching profession and represent every section of the country, and that it should function surely and swiftly. What shall be the function of this union? First, let us state it briefly in general terms. The union should stand ready to receive a formal and official complaint from the teachers, the principals, the superintendent, or the school board, of any administrative school unit, specifying neglect of duty on the part of any factor in the unit which results in failure to 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION operate the schools of the unit in the interest of America. Upon receipt of this complaint, the union through appropriate agents should investi- gate it and report its findings, sustaining, modifying, or dismissing the complaint. If the complaint is sustained, the union should promulgate it in the form of a charge and present this charge to the offending party. Reform of conditions is to be effected chiefly by the use of publicity and the campaign of education. In flagrant and unyielding cases, the strike and the boycott might be invoked as sanctions-a boycott, not in restraint of trade, but in restraint of any community that is guilty of malpractice in respect to its schools. After a few years in operation, the patriotic motive, the impartial accuracy, and the unerring efficiency of the union should become so well recognized by the Nation as to make penalties against a community rarely necessary. Now for a specific application or two. Let us suppose that in a certain city the status of the teachers is imperfectly recognized; the salaries are wretchedly below normal, working conditions are distinctly unsatisfactory, improper influences interfere with the discipline of pupils, etc. Let us assume, too, that the superintendent recognizes the situation but has ex- hausted his resources in attempts to better it. Then he joins with the teaching body in an appeal to the union. A brief is submitted and re- viewed, let us say by a commission of the union. The commission finds the complaint justified. It then visits the city and in coöperation with the local teachers endeavors to have conditions remidied. First, it employs unobtrusive means, working through official channels, or seeking to in- terest the few influential persons who, if they will, can effect the necessary reform. This failing, it appeals to the public, through press and platform presenting the facts and pleading for such positive action by the citizens as shall remove the disgrace from the name of their city. In the extreme case and after due warning, it can advise the teachers of the land to shun the city as a place of employment and can pillory the city before the public opinion of the Nation. Or let us consider the case where the teachers of a village feel that the superintendent arrogantly and flagrantly violates their official rights so that they are unable to render proper service to their pupils. In accordance with a code of procedure adopted and published by the union, the teachers state their grievance to the superintendent; feeling still aggrieved, they appeal to the school board; the school board failing them, they present their case to the union. In this instance, with the prestige of the union well established, probably a warning to the school board and the super- intendent would be sufficient either to lead the superintendent to mend his ways or cause the school board to get another superintendent. And again, let us assume a situation where a city school board is prov- ing itself recreant to its trust and the people of the city are apathetic. The superintendent finds his authority interfered with by the board, his acts hampered by outside sinister influences, the local press antagonistic to him and his efforts to build up a worthy school system, and the teachers with DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 737 holding allegiance to himself and the schools. In this case it is the super- intendent who appeals to the union, with the result that the apathy of the people is broken, their civic pride is aroused, their enthusiasm for their schools is stimulated, and they arise with a punishing hand for all those who have been betraying them. These instances will suffice to exemplify the general proposition. It is, I realize, far simpler to state the proposition than it would be to make it effective in a live, functioning organization. Yet, if the idea is sound, the all-too-obvious difficulties ought not to deter us from attempting to translate the idea from the language of aspiration to the language of fact. Let us restate and summarize the idea in its logical sequence.. America's schools constitute her first line of defense. An enlightened citizenry is even more essential than armies and navies. The public schools are a National interest. Yet their administration is in the hands of State and local authorities. The result is a widely varying degree of success in handling school affairs in the different communities throughout the land. The schools are conducted in the National interest only when local opinion is earnest and intelligent. But what of those communities where it is not, where the people are either blind to American ideals, un- informed as to the application of these ideals to school administration, or unintelligent as to methods of building up for themselves a creditable school system ? American sentiment is evidently unready to empower the Federal Govern- ment to operate directly on such situations. Who then is to correct the inevitable irregularities and such local shortcomings as menace the National welfare? Is it not up to us to undertake the job ? With all the power of thorough organization, should not the teaching profession stand ready to render this duty to America ? How ? By throwing its full weight of influence against any community that neglects the National interest in respect to its schools. Let the or- ganization say to the careless, the indifferent, the incompetent community : "You are not administering your schools in the interest of America; until you do, you forfeit the service and the support of our profession and, in consequence, the respect of the rest of the Nation." This is not a strike of teachers for personal gain, but a boycott of an un-American school administration on behalf of, and in the name of, America. STUDENT SELF-GOVERNMENT JOHN O. CHEWNING, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE INDIANA The text for this discussion is taken from the list of principles adopted in August, 1923, at Montreaux, Switzerland, by the "New Education Fel- lowship", in which twenty-five countries were represented. Principle IV 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION reads as follows : "The government of a school community as a whole should be organized by the children themselves, in collaboration with their teachers, and that government, as well as the self-discipline which each child must be taught to apply to himself, should be deliberately aimed at rendering external control unnecessary." This discussion is also based upon the assumption that our public schools, maintained by taxation of the whole population, must have as their chief aim a training for citizenship, which will be specific and not incidental , accidental, or indirect. Every activity of the schools, curricular and extra- curricular, must be directed toward the one aim of developing a civic con- science and a better civic behavior. Such a program will, of course, include training for character, so talked and written about nowadays, since good citizenship and good character are fairly synonymous, even though they probably could not be defined in a way to secure unanimous indorsement. Public school systems and schools everywhere are claiming that they train for citizenship, but as yet there is no satisfactory formulation of edu- cation objectives in terms of essential needs of our social life; hence, there is no adequate outline of the methods by which the objectives may be real- ized, and no measuring of the educational results. Granted that an agree- ment could not be reached on the several qualities which go to make up good citizenship and good character, it is, however, likely that most per- sons would unite on the proposition that self-control is the indispensable element of both ideas. Plato uttered in his Laws, "The first and greatest of all victories is the victory over self" , a truth which has been handed down to us uncontradicted. Undoubtedly, self-control by the individual is the key to unlock and solve our civic and social problems. If we can train successfully for self-control, therefore, we shall be on the right road. We further know that the best method of insuring self-control is to provide practice for it. Aristotle said that "action is the only foundation of virtue." "Learn by doing" is also a hoary, venerable, and undisputed pedagogical maxim which may be cited in this connection, to say nothing of the perti- nent support to be obtained from modern psychology. Antiquity and the present alike furnish overpowering authority. And so on, the writer might set forth platitudes ad nauscam . Here is the rub. We verbally accept time-worn or generally approved educational ideas and actually flout them in the schools. We affirm that we are training for better character, but we have denied the children oppor- tunities for vital practice in self-control. We resent the indictment that our schools do not train for citizenship in a democracy, but we have held the boys and girls in a despotism, sometimes benevolent but not always having that recommendation. We acknowledge the importance of self- activity and expression, but we have been satisfied with an outward show of obedience by the children to our directions. We require of them mainly silence and submission, listening and memorizing. With a few exceptions here and there over the country, the public schools are monarchic and autocratic organizations. What opportunity has there DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 739 been for the children to acquire the sense of social responsibility which is the foundation particularly of a democracy, or, for that matter, of proper functioning in any group ? The case has not been stated too strongly against us. Our boys and girls ought to be subjected continually to situations in the schools wherein they are compelled to consider the results of their every act upon society. Children from the kindergarten on through the entire public school system should learn by experience the power of group con- trol. The one question to hold to view is, "What is right?", and the judgments must find expression in acts which come with a freedom of choice. Ex-President Eliot pointed out not long ago that freedom of choice implies the right to make mistakes. Only in this way may an inner control be built up. Our country, and any organized group thereof, will be successful and efficient exactly according to the degree of social respon- sibility assumed by each member. A feeling of responsibility develops through practice in constant and voluntary adjustments to specific situations . In discussing the future study of civic education, Dr. Snedden has stated recently as one of his conclusions on the subject, that we are not justified in expecting any considerable improvement in our civic education until the major objective is clearly differentiated from the other objectives of school education, and is made the primary responsibility of a selected and trained body of specialized teachers and supervisors. That may be a description of the ideal condition towards which we should work, but we cannot and ought not wait until that is brought about. In the interval, it is obligatory upon us to introduce the best possible means and methods available for setting up any specific habits which are useful to the individual as a citizen and as a member of social groups of whatever nature. Following the spirit of our text, therefore, it appears plainly that every superintendent, supervisor, principal, and teacher has no business more im- portant than that of utilizing the abundant opportunities found in every school and classroom daily for placing the responsibility of settling prob- lems of social control, or "discipline", in the hands of pupils. In January, 1917, an experiment in student government was begun by the senior class of Central High School in Evansville. At first, about thirty-six students were involved, and the experiment continued on this small scale for about three years, gathering momentum slowly but rather surely, until in March, 1920, the plan, much extended in scope, was taken over by more than one thousand boys and girls of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. All things did not go well under student government, but by 1922 it had broadened and established itself so thoroughly that teachers were no longer required to do police duty in study halls, corridors, lunch rooms, assemblies, or any other parts of the building, and the principal felt fairly safe in announcing that any of the two thousand students en- rolled who felt that he had not received a just treatment from the princi- pal could appeal the case to the Court of Prefects, the highest authority 740 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in student government, and that the principal would abide by the decision of the prefects . Near the beginning of the spring semester in 1924, word was passed out in Central that some day during the semester the principal, assistant prin- cipal, and teachers would remain away from the building all day and that the entire operation of the school would be in the hands of the students. At the close of school on April 29, the principal notified the teachers that the next day was the "zero hour." The Mayor, members of the School Board, parents, and various citizens who visited the school during the day when the students were in charge were impressed by what they saw. Classes went on as usual, under the direction of monitors chosen by the students, and the general order was equal to that of any day when the teaching force was present. Other instances, equally striking, of the ability of the Central students to exercise self-control could be mentioned, but the success of the "teacherless day" shows that boys and girls can measure up to real responsibilities. On account of publicity which the school received through newspapers and educational periodicals, many inquiries, literally from all parts of the United States, have poured in, asking for the details of the Central plan of student government. It has not been easy to answer in any adequate way these requests because of the fact that the system has no constitution and relies more on the body of practices, customs, and traditions than on any formal scheme. Following are some observations and deductions which reveal the main points: The experiment has proved clearly the ability of high school boys and girls to carry on the government of a school community. No particular form of student government organization is required, but the simpler the form, the better the chance for success. Emphasis should be always on the responsibility of the individual student to control himself at all times for the common good. Public opinion is the controlling factor, and the chief work of the principal and teachers is to stimulate public opinion and a civic conscience. Students take an interest in it because the problems are the most vital ones in their range of interests, but they must be given full responsibilities and actual powers. In Central there was no censorship by principal and teachers of the election of officers . Students nominated and elected the various officials without interference. They had the power to suspend or expel from school. Their trials were not open to any persons except students. Students were held responsible to student government for conduct outside school hours which might bring the school into disgrace or unpleasant notoriety. Student government will succeed anywhere if (1) the principal and teachers have faith in the abilities of boys and girls; (2) if they will be patient, begin on a small scale, and be content to guide and advise, rather than direct and control. Student government trains specifically for at least two definite habits essential for good citizenship in a democracy: ( 1) The students talk over their problems with the common good in mind, arrive at a decision, and DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 7 +1 then see the necessity for abiding by the will of the majority. ( 2) They learn to select suitable representatives for carrying out the wishes of the school citizenry. The need of selecting efficient public servants who will be faithful to their trusts comes home to them in a very vivid manner. There is good reason for one to believe that they will acquire the civic atti- tudes more readily through student government, dealing with important problems of their every-day contacts, than they will through any study of questions of national and international import which are far from the realm . of their thinking. "Education is not a preparation for life, it is life." At different times after the Central experiment got under way, various elementary school buildings in Evansville have experimented with pupi participation. Some of them used a form in imitation of municipalities. The most extensive of these ventures has been in the Fulton School, where, for nearly five years, the principal and teachers have been developing a plan which has enjoyed a marked success. These experiments in all schools had the approval, encouragement, and assistance of Mr. L. P. Benezet, who was superintendent from 1916 to 1924. Since last September we have been at work on a plan of citizenship rating for the schools in the city, which is designed to increase the feeling of responsibility that the individual pupil should have for all of his acts, both in and out of the school. As yet, the rating system has not been completed, but it will include, in addition to the usual ranking for percent- ages of daily attendance, truancy, and tardiness, also a check-up on law ob- servance, as shown by the records of the City Police Court and the Juvenile Court; the use of the public library, to include the two points of number of users, and number of students who disturb, or in any manner hinder, by their conduct at any of the nineteen branches and stations of the Library ; the number of pupils attending Sunday School or enrolled in some school of religious instruction; Boy Scout membership and hours of social service ; regular depositors in the city school savings bank; damage to school build- ings and school property, including the breaking of glass; age-grade prog- ress; standard tests in various subjects; and membership of parents in the Parent-Teacher Associations. These are all matters in which ac- curate data may be had, and the grading is in percentages, according to en- rolments, so that it will be fair regardless of the size of the school. The board of education, patrons, and citizens generally can, by the citizenship rating, see in figures what relative success each school is having in teach- ing not only regular habits, punctuality, industry, respect for law, and achievement in school subjects, but also in encouraging desirable activities and interests outside of school hours. // Already improvements have been noticed in several of these ratings . The percentage of attendance for the city was better every month of last semester than for the semester beginning in September, 1923. A school which always before had been near the bottom of the list in attendance beat all of its records for the last ten years and carried off the semester honors in attendance for the entire city school system. The breaking of glass at 742 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the school buildings has decreased, and the public library reports improve- ment in the attitude and behavior of pupils who use the library. Enough good resultsalready apparent to dicate that there are valuable sibilities in the citizenship rating. Briefly outlined, we have mentioned some of the more or less direct methods now in use in Evansville in training for self-control, the all-im- portant element of good citizenship and good character. There is no at- tempt to standardize the practices over the city. Teachers and principals are developing their own plans with a free hand. The work has only begun. We do not want the impression to go abroad that Evansville has any polished and highly perfected plan or system that may be transplanted bodily elsewhere. Crude and awkward, though, as our attempts may be, we intend to continue until Evansville's part of the public school system of this country meets a little more nearly the expressed educational ideals of the founders of our government. With proper encouragement and guidance, the powers and abilities of the boys and girls for self-control can best be developed, through practice in governing themselves as school communities, to an extent at present un- appreciated and immeasurable. We are working for an era in govern- ment which will prove better than the present that the faith of Jefferson, Lincoln, and Roosevelt, in popular rule, was not misplaced. Gentlemen, if that be treason to any pedagogical tradition, make the most of it. As for us and our household, we have put our hands to the task of a direct training for citizenship in a democracy. CONTROVERSIAL SUBJECTS IN THE SCHOOLS HERBERT S. HOUSTON, PUBLISHER OF "OUR WORLD WEEKLY " NEW YORK CITY When a young Virginia surveyor came out to the headwaters of the Ohio River, on whose banks we gather today, he made the first move toward reclaiming a wilderness. Forty years later, as the first President of the United States, he uttered challenging words as to the place public educa- tion must have in a free country. In all the succeeding generations these words have guided us in building out of that wilderness happy and prosper- ous states. It was none other than George Washington himself who first saw that the school was both the hope and the bulwark of the nation. On the day following the anniversary of his birth, it is surely fitting that we consider whether or not we are children of his great vision. Have we kept the faith that filled his own soul ? Or has the compass we bear across the years veered now right, now left, from the straight course to the pole star? There is fresh ground for hope and reassurance in the fact that this great assembly of teachers from all parts of the nation has come together to con DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 743 sider how the schools of America can best serve American ideals. You still lay your course, it would appear, as did the young Virginia surveyor, by the high triangulation of the stars. As the clear-visioned William McAndrew said in a message, published today on the first page of my Weekly, " Our main duty is not reading, nor writing, nor Latin, nor salesmanship, but the fundamentals officially set forth in the summaries of American principles, with which both the Declaration and the Constitution begin: Equality, Life, Liberty, Happiness, Union, Justice, Tranquillity, Defense, General Wel- fare." He follows this affirmation by the solemn warning, uttered with the deep conviction of a Jeremiah, "To try to instill those principles incidentally as a by-product, to make scholarship the main aim, or self-support, or prepara- tion for leisure, or any other purpose than Americanism, as defined by the Founders, and promised by the proponents of our system of universal taxation for schools, is to evade our plain and honest duty." These indeed are weighty words and they come from one of the bravest men who ever entered an American schoolroom. I well remember my old partner, the lamented Walter Page, saying to me one day a number of years ago, "Houston, a young man named McAndrew has just become the head of the Washington Irving High School. Keep your eye on him, for you can depend on it that he will shake up the dry bones in the schools and make a great place for himself in American education." Today, with this mighty foregathering of teachers assembled here at the call of William McAndrew, I submit that we are in the presence of a prophecy fulfilled. As for the particular part I have been asked to take, as a publisher and a representative of the public, the consideration of the way to present con- troversial questions in the schools, it seems to me that I might quickly dispose of the whole matter by reducing it to a simple syllogism. The Public School exists to develop Americanism. Controversial questions are implicit in Americanism. Therefore, the Public School must consider controversial questions. But I shall admit at once that it is not quite so easy as that. In logic, my syllogism would pass muster, but it would presently become en- meshed in the wire entanglements of everyday educational practice. There is something almost menacing in the word controversial. And to think of it being calmly set forth on the program as a means to the end of "promot- ing domestic tranquillity." But I shall not quail even though my theme bring forth a strange array of combatants, armed to the teeth. And most certainly a strange array could be brought to the firing line, eager for con- troversy. Think of the modern warfare that could be waged by contro- versial questions in religion, in party politics, in racial differences, in eco- nomics, in city goevrnment, in all manner of questions. One can well imagine a teacher seized not only with doubt but with terror at the pros- pect. And well one might be, if controversial questions were to be pre- sented in the schools in a controversial way. 744 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The first thing I would urge is the spirit in which such subjects are to be considered. It should be in the spirit of all true teaching-in the spirit of truth. That is the glory of the school. It was so when Socrates walked in the Athenian groves. It was so when Jesus walked by Galilee. It was so and is so with teachers in all ages. If they are faithful to their high calling they bear the candle of truth. The church or the temple interprete a creed. The press advocates a personal or a party point of view. The home, with all its close ties, breathes into the lives it nurtures the predilec- tions of race and family. But the school stands for truth. Its windows are open to the light of heaven. The air that blows through them is the air of freedom. If you challenge these strong statements by saying that I am speaking of the ideal school, I reply at once that of course I am speaking of the ideal school. But happily, it is not an unattainable ideal. Indeed, it is a realized ideal on every hand. What is even more to be praised, and more to the point of my theme, is that the spirit of truth is practically universal in all the schools. Assuredly the teachers are few who would spread darkness rather than light. Personally, I do not believe that any such exist. Instead, they press forward with the fixed and common purpose of teaching truth . Not a difficult matter, you will say, in mathematics, in geography, in languages, in the sciences. We will all agree that there is a great body of knowledge in those fields that is believed to be the truth. But how about that great, changing field of human relations, civics, politics, sociology. It is here that controversial questions abound. The old idea has seemed to be that they should be left alone. In a general way the argument has run : the public school is supported by taxation of all the people; therefore it should not seek to give instruction as to the views of part of the people. But how about giving a clear and fair interpretation of the views of all the people-at least concerning the most pressing problems that affect the wel- fare of the nation as a whole. Of course, these problems are matters of controversy ; but, if the public school system exists to promote a sound and vigorous Americanism, that is all the greater reason why they should be considered. By having them presented, in the spirit of the search for truth, the open minds of youth, soon to be active in the world outside the school, will be the better prepared to help solve them. I would rest my argument for considering controversial questions on these two broad grounds : ( 1 ) the right of the school to know of the world outside ; (2) the right of the world to look to the school for all possible help and guidance in meeting its problems. When I speak of controversial questions I mean questions that press for public decision here and now-not mere academic questions having only historical interest. And in the name of all progress I would ask, by what rule of pedagogy or principle of psychology is the re-examination of an old question, long since settled, a more stimulating mental exercise than the fresh examination of some pressing public question, whose wise solution will DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 7+5 affect the happiness and lives of the very boys and girls in the schools today ? Is there some subtle alchemy of the human mind that develops greater thought power from considering the causes of the Punic wars than the causes of the present crime wave, from studying the abolition of the corn laws in England instead of the adoption of the child labor amendment in the United States ? Comparisons can be multiplied, but these surely will be enough to show that the past of history cannot be more important, even as mental training, than the living, swiftly changing present that touches us all. Let me hasten to state that I am presenting here no brief against history. Quite the contrary, for I would be even dogmatic in urging the continuity and unity of history. But let us bring its light to bear in solv- ing the great questions that are before the world today. The right of the public school to know present-day history, even if it is controversial, is inherent in the school's primary purpose of promoting Americanism. Because this right exists, it imposes on the teacher a plain duty to see that it is exercised. And here, I admit at once, is the nub of the whole matter. How is that right of the public school to know to be met ? The honest-minded teacher will admit the right and accept the accompanying duty. But discharging that duty is a definite problem and merely stating it doesn't solve it. How is the problem to be solved ? It may be that a recent experiment that has been undertaken by a group of educators will suggest a possible solution. I hesitate to outline their plan in any detail as I am associated with it as a publisher. But as my place on this program is due to the fact that this plan is a serious effort to meet a recognized need in the schools, I may be pardoned a brief and general reference to it. Let me begin by giving you a close-up picture on some friendly discussions that took place last summer in the old town of Castine, Maine. A group of educators had gathered there as a jury to make the Herman award of $25,000 for the best plan to promote world peace through the schools. Here surely was a controversial question and over five thousand solutions in eighteen different languages were offered to meet it. Finally a unanimous decision of the jury was reached and the award bestowed on that great citizen and great educator, Dr. David Starr Jordan. On the jury was the speaker, as an inquiring publisher. He felt as he pored over these myriad plans a great majority of them submitted by men and women actively at work in education that a new vision was touching the schools. They were to become lighthouses, pointing the way to peace. As a preparation for that service the schools were to be brought into close contact with the world, with its hopes, its fears, its controversies, with all the activities that make the swift and turbulent current of life. In nearly all the plans there was one persisting common denominator-the sheer need of having the schools know about the world. Wasn't it Socrates in Athens, far back across the centuries, who said that peace could come only through knowl- edge ? And here in these thousands of peace plans from twenty modern NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 746 countries was the same swelling Greek chorus-the schools , to help toward ce,emu peaTh inge pub stuirhav inq dgeask wleher knolis . ed the educators how this knowledge was to be given to the schools in current form; not in the textbooks alone, for the world was moving too fast . And the uniform reply was that there should be a current text that should relate the school to the world in terms of vivid interest . One of your great educational leaders, Dr. William B. Owen , of Chicago , said there should be a living weekly textbook that should bring together fresh material that could be used in the junior and senior high schools , giving to their thousands of pupils , and teachers too, a true picture of the active, moving world. Dr. Augustus Thomas said the same thing , and so did Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, two other members of this jury of award . To the inquiring publisher, also, the view seemed to be a sound one. If the supremely important but supremely controversial question of world peace could be presented in the schools , why not the other con- troversial questions that are part of the throbbing life of this great democ- racy ? And as on insistent undertone with every question there was always the definite proposal in all these plans that the school should know about the world. Socrates was indeed justified in his dictum that peace would coBu hooug metthr h kno w cou thisdge ld wle . wledge be brought to the schools ? Manifestly , kno the pupils could not be told what to think in regard to controversial ques- tions. If that were attempted the "domestic tranquillity" placed on today's program would become a vanishing dream. But the schools could be told not what to think , but what to think about. So that was the formula adopted for both controversial and non-controversial material. By follow- ing it a clear conspectus picture could be given and the schools could look out upon the world through the eyes of understanding . But a formula is one thing and its application to the subject matter of controversy quite another . The inquiring publisher knew, of course, that the theory must be translated into practice. So he and the group of fifteen outstanding educa- tors, all of them men and women actively facing the problems of the schools in the schools , tackled the job. Here is an illustration of the actual way a controversial question was presented. One of the parties in the last national campaign had presented in its platform a demand that the decisions of the Supreme Court on laws passed by Congress should be subject to review and interpretation by Congress . Here certainly was a controversial question and it was made all the more controversial because of the campaign . You will be interested to know, I am sure, that it was so presented to the schools that the pros and the cons were both satisfied for both had had "their day in court ." And this was done by fairly applying the formula of telling the schools on the printed page not what to think but what to think about. the way the question was stated : This is LVED RESO , that the United States Constitution should be amended so as to provide that if an act of Congress is declared unconstitutional by the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 747 Supreme Court of the United States, the act may become effective if re- passed by Congress by a two-thirds vote. Below the question were printed the salient points that can be urged for the affirmative and for the negative, and then there were arguments in sup- port of each view by acknowledged authorities. The late President of the American Federation of Labor, that distinguished patriot and able man, Samuel Gompers, and Mr. Arthur Warner, one of the editors of The Nation, supported the affirmative ; while Louis Marshall, a famous lawyer and authority on constitutional law, and Mr. Samuel Untermyer, another distinguished lawyer, took the negative. Following the arguments were references, both for the affirmative and the negative, to books and magazine articles that can be found in the school or public library of any fair-sized town. Another question in active controversy that was presented was the govern- ment ownership of railways. This was outlined in much the same way- arguments for and arguments against from recognized authorities in support of each view and then a fair statement of facts and data, about which there was no dispute, followed by citations, for supplementary reading, to books and magazines . You see, it was a careful following of the formula that the schools should be told not what to think but what to think about. It is a pleasure to tell you that this plan is being received with wide-spread favor. Whatever else it is, this at least can be said that it is an honest effort to meet a great need in the schools, if they are to fit the oncoming generation for intelligent and efficient citizenship. You all know of the remarkable work that is going forward in the Denver schools under the direction of Dr. Jesse H. Newlon. Dr. Cody in Detroit, Dr. Davidson in Pittsburgh, and many other educational leaders are bring- ing the schools into touch with active life in the broadest way. In fact, the schools under their direction are not a detached part of their communities but an integral part, full of the pulsing life of the time. And what they are doing is typical of what is going on all over the country. In dividing my theme under two major headings, I said a few moments ago that the school had the clear right, if it was to fulfill its mission of promoting Americanism, to know about the world. I said also that the world had the right to look to the school for all possible help and guidance in meeting its problems. Here is the great obligation that rests on the school. It is supported by taxes from all the people. It must render service to all the people. And what greater service can it render them by training men and women who will be able to help solve the problems of all the people ? Here lies the full measure of return that the school owes to the public which supports it. Three weeks ago I was helping lay the cornerstone of a new chapter house of the Psi Upsilon fraternity at the University of Michigan. At a luncheon that followed the ceremony I heard that noble Roman in the faculty of the University, Professor Francis Kelsey, head of the Department of Latin for a generation, make a powerful 748 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION plea in support of this very point-the duty which the school system of a state, from the primary grade to the university, owes to the public that supports it. And he gave to his plea a most definite and even personal application, saying that the state had the right to expect from those in its schools the most careful respect and observance of its laws, that it had the right to expect enlightened interest and coöperation from the schools in meeting all the problems of the state, concluding his searching appeal by saying that the public schools of Michigan were supported by a common taxation on the washerwomen in the cities and the miners in the upper peninsula and on every man and woman in the State-because of that com- mon support the schools were in duty bound to serve the State by promoting, in every possible way, the welfare of all the people. And Professor Kelsey is right. The public school has a clear obligation to the public. It cannot evade that obligation by saying that it is hard to present controversial questions that affect the public's well-being and even its life. Of course it may be hard. But consider how hard it is on the public-and how unfair-not to make an honest and continuing effort. Here in his home city I want to pay the respect of my deep admiration to the courageous superintendent of schools, Dr. Randall Condon, and to my old friend, Ellery Sedgwick, editor of the Atlantic Monthly, in joining hands with him to present to the public and to the schools that most contro- versial of all controversial questions-the question of moral and religious training in the schools. Here, indeed, is a thorny branch on the tree of knowledge but we all believe that from it will come fruit for the healing of the nation. And it will come without disturbing anyone's religious faith, come from a sound interpretation of the great ethical principles that are common in all religious faiths. But, lest the presentation of my theme appear to stress too strongly the matter of the public's right to look to the school for help, I want to speak briefly of the incomparable opportunity for service that the school has. No other agency has such equipment and capacity for service. The school, especially in the junior and senior high schools where controversial ques- tions can best be considered, is the place set apart for education. It covers the period of youth when the mind is alert and open, ready to receive facts without prejudice. Doesn't it, therefore, bring into conjunction both the place and the time for a real education in citizenship, for acquiring a real understanding of the world ? So the school faces both the obligation of service to the public and the opportunity of service. It is equipped to train men and women to preserve American ideals and to carry them forward in progressive development better than any other agency. Through its open windows can come the things to think about and on the basis of these things will come the ability to think. Right thinking will result in education's ultimate goal, sound character. There need be no fear of consequences from parents or school boards or the public. They welcome the school that meets with a stout heart and an honest mind its obligation to serve the public. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 749 All that need be feared is fear itself. With that cast aside the school can become the great source and center of knowledge in every community, the place where those who will direct the world tomorrow are taught not what to think but what to think about. In this fine old city of Cincinnati, long the home of music, of the arts, of education, and of all those forces that develop broad culture and sound character, I am reminded of a family that has dwelt here for three genera- tions that offers a fitting and final illustration of all that I have been trying to say. Because its members have gone forth from the Cincinnati schools to serve the public as few families have done in all our history, I feel that it is not inappropriate to refer to them in a public address. Of course I have in mind those sterling Americans, the Tafts. The great Chief Justice brings to bear on controversial questions the knowledge of a richly- stored mind that has been trained to think ; another brother is a leader of the New York bar, famous for broad sympathy and upright public service ; another is a great schoolmaster, embodying the spirit of Arnold of Rugby in building character into his pupils, based on the widest knowledge; still a fourth is a powerful editor and publisher, making of his newspaper a great popular educator. These sons o fa famous lawyer and jurist have bequeathed not only a great family tradition but a great American tradition of devotion to our ideals to sons and daughters, who pass the tradition on. As long as there can come from the schools of America such living witnesses of their open-mindedness, of their broad tolerance, of their high courage, the schools of America can be looked upon as the conserver of our ideals and the guarantor of our future. Domestic tranquillity is in the keeping of the schools-schools that recognize their right to know about the world and their duty to serve the world. HOW THE SCHOOLS MAY PROVIDE FOR THE COMMON DEFENSE WILLIAM J. BOGAN , ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS "We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- mon defense, promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitu- tion for the United States." These striking phrases of the preamble of the Constitution provide key notes for the programs of the Convention. At this session the speakers will discuss the relationship of the public schools to the common defense. The phrase "common defense" plainly refers to the defense of all the people, regardless of race, religion, politics, or color. It means, in modern terms, that there should be no favorites, no exemptions, no private shelter 750 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION holes, no profiteering. The common schools, the schools supported by common taxation, are not maintained merely for the benefit of some of the taxpayers labeled "parents," but for the benefit of all citizens children and adults. Furthermore, the benefits of the common schools should be common to all citizens, regardless of the social or economic status of the individuals . The state, like a benevolent despot, insists that taxpayers, tax-eaters, yes, and even tax-dodgers, all alike shall receive educational dividends from the schools, for upon an educated citizenship rests the security of the American type of democracy. The taxation of all the people for the support of the schools pre-supposes that the schools will serve the whole community. What that service should be, the Constitution designates as union, justice, tranquillity, de- fense, and welfare. If, as we believe, the schools should furnish the ammunition to destroy those powerful enemies of the State, ignorance, greed, and political corrup- tion, it is the duty of every superintendent to examine the output of the schools under his direction to discover whether or not they are functioning in accordance with the ideals of the founders of the Nation. It is the duty of the superintendent to eliminate through his leadership the waste which results from slavish adherence to highly artificial culture and out-worn traditions ; in order that time may be found for the teaching of citizenship, the object for which the schools were founded. Must the study of citizenship forever be left to the last half of the last year of the four-year high school course, because time is needed for Latin, or bookkeeping, or Spanish ? Should the school curriculums be cluttered with ancient and medieval history to the exclusion of current social prob- lems ? In Chicago, must we ignore our traction problems, because time is needed for a study of the amours of Cleopatra? No one of sense proposes to reject the entire heritage of the past, but as the past lengthens, its les- sons must be condensed and their emphasis shifted. In our youth, the Pequot War was important and King Philip, but the wise modern knows them not. The pupil who said, "I am glad that I finished history before the Great War broke out" sensed a problem that every educator must face. The needs of the present should not be sacrificed to the past. A fair pro- portion between present and past should be maintained. Is not the study of American ideals worthwhile in America ? Cannot time be found for it? It is said that the teaching of citizenship is incidental to other subjects , from kindergarten to college, but unfortunately incidental is twin brother to accidental, and what little work those precious twins perform, is done in common . We are all agreed that there should be a new formulation of educational objectives . Most educators assent to the proposition that the needs of the great majority should be served by the schools, but when asked to make practical application of their beliefs, they retire within themselves for con DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 751 templation. Our high schools are college preparatory schools, notwith- standing the fact that few of their pupils go to college. Worse than that, by setting up college preparatory standards, the high schools eliminate the great majority who might otherwise receive a better education of another type. The high rate of mortality does not seem to disturb these schools so long as the few pupils who wish to enter college can meet college require- ments. To some principals it seems better for the pupils to leave school than to blot the school record with their failures. As Dr. Brewer says, the schools have discovered and are applying the secret of rough on rats, which "pre- vents them from dying on the premises." Our high school rough on rats is compounded of abstract mathematics, Latin, modern languages, des- sicated literature, and other subjects. Can any one honestly say that these subjects meet the educational needs of the majority ? True, studies of the kind mentioned,"prevent them from dying on the premises," but they do not prevent them from dying on the premises of the neighbors where they become a charge on society. Though we all agree with these sentiments, we know that change will come slowly. Any superintendent, for instance, who tries to give as much time to citizenship in the curriculum as is given to Latin, or modern lan- guages, or English, say three or four years, will face a difficult task. But the task must be faced. The schools must accept some of the responsibil- ity for the lawlessness and corruption of the times. After the Franco-Prussian War, the school histories gave credit to the needle gun for the Prussian victory and during the great war some of the newspapers gave credit to the 75's for nearly every victory, but American educators gave most of the credit to the American schools. The schools deserved the credit, but if they are to be given credit for the good, they should in fairness accept their share of responsibility for the bad. When the schools accept responsibility for the good and the bad in our citizenship . they will find means to provide for the common defense. DEFENSE THROUGH THE EDUCATED QUOTA : THE ALL-YEAR SCHOOL H. C. WEBER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE The first requisite for "Common Defense" is a productive population. Apopulation to be productive of good and goods must be patriotic, healthy, intelligent, industrious, and trained to do the things well which each chooses as his part in the world's activities. It is the duty of the school to develop these qualities, but if all these things are secured for a population and yet the time for production is so limited that the individual leaves the world no richer than he found it, decay must inevitably follow. The history of all republics from ancient times to the present tells the same story. Industry, wealth, literature, ease, and decay complete the cycle of 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION human history to be repeated with the ever-advancing wheel of progress. It is for us to maintain our industry throughout the cycle and thus mini- mize, if not entirely escape, the decadence that inevitably follows the ease begotten by wealth. To my mind it is axiomatic that the longer the time spent or the greater the number engaged in preparation for production without producing, the fewer individuals will be left to produce. The fewer producers thus left can sustain fewer individuals preparing for production but not producing. If a fixed number of producers can support a certain number of non- producers for a long time, then the same number of producers can mani- festly maintain a much larger number of non-producers for a short time. What is true of the whole population is true of the unit-the family. The parent being a fixed number, the longer the children are kept from producing, the fewer such children can the parent support. The intelligent part of our population-the people who care-those who are unwilling to give their children less than what is generally considered necessary for a fair start in life are, through non-marriage, late marriage, and birth control, so reducing reproduction that our population is more and more maintained by classes with no such pride. Vital statistics now foreshadow this im- pending condition. Records kept of the graduates of important institutions of learning for both male and female show accurately and conclusively that that part of our population which is blessed with the opportunities of higher training is not reproducing itself in sufficient numbers to maintain the standard of mentality and efficiency that now exists in this country. Education is not to be completed before production begins. It is the job of a lifetime. It lasts from the cradle to the grave. Yes, man in his infinite aspirations visualizes an endless existence with endless progress. After the fundamentals are acquired, there is no good reason why produc- tion should not begin while learning how to produce better. We do not learn to walk by studying anatomy, not by shaking one's foot indefinitely before taking a step. We learn to walk by walking. We learn to work by working, not by thinking about it. All the study in the world about work without production gets a hungry world nowhere. The first duty of every man is to support himself and rear a family. If he does not do this, he is a miserable failure. Nature did not intend an individual to be able to reproduce himself before he was able to sustain himself. In the same good book in which we read, "Go, multiply and replenish the earth," we find the command, "by the sweat of thy brow shalt thou earn thy bread." Mark you, your sweat, not somebody else's, must produce your bread. Only by the grace of God will he who does not work before twenty work ever after . Education is not information, but it is the ability to use information. The printing press has rendered unnecessary the lumbering up of so precious a machine as the human brain with a lot of information that can be stored more accurately and more permanently in a fifteen-cent book. Education is not found in books alone; indeed, only a small part is to be DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 753 gained there. Education makes one do things better than he would do them without such training. The artisan who can produce a useful thing, sustain himself, and rear a family is a more useful citizen than the most learned professor in the university that fails to make the world richer by having lived in it and fails to leave a line of descendants endowed with superior mentality. It is the duty of the parents and teachers to see to it that every child is taught to think, and is given that amount of information that is requisite for the acquirement of additional knowledge. After the fundamentals, a choice of subjects should be allowed, in order that the child may become a self-supporting individual at such an age as will not prevent the rearing of an average sized family. The average man cannot earn enough to feed and clothe a family of respectable size until each child becomes completely fitted for individual action. The result is smaller and smaller families. More and more has the home unloaded on the schools duties that could best be performed in its own circle. The restless parent is more than glad to be relieved of a pricking conscience for not assuming responsibility for the proper training of his child. This unloading of the curriculum to embrace all things that the person should know has resulted in extending and overcrowding of the course of study, until now it requires more than half the span of human life to even imperfectly go through with it. A fundamental defect in our scheme of education is the abandoning by the home of its just responsibility. No school can teach the child as well as the real home many of the vital things he should know. Instead of the home using its efforts, the school is being used to take the place of the home. The schools are to blame for allowing without protest this un- loading upon them of duties they are ill-fitted to perform. While this constant addition of useful and useless things to the curriculum without eliminations has gone on, the school term has been shortened by hours of the day and months of the year, until now the child has out of school more than seven times the amount of time that he spends in school. If the home will not, or does not, use this spare time for giving the child real training, then the school must perforce assume the whole training of the child and use this spare time. If all the useless matter in the curriculum was elimi- nated and all the waste time of the child utilized, there would be plenty of time for necessary preparation for beginning production at a much earlier age. The lack of wholesome home training has allowed the child to grow without knowledge or appreciation of his responsibility to his fellowmen . He should be conscious of a debt to his parents for providing training for him that he may enjoy the wonders and beauties of the world. He should be taught to realize that he owes the world all that he has con- sumed, even if it has been provided by his parents, for the world's wealth belongs to the world, and the parent is only in temporary possession and can only loan it to him. That debt must be paid if the world is not to become poorer for his having come into it. He should be made to see that 754 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION every added year of preparation before production begins increases this debt, and that the only excuse for delaying production beyond adolescence is the determination to make such use of the time of preparation as will enable him to produce better and more rapidly. If this idea of debt to the world could be inculcated, there would be fewer attending high school and college solely for the purpose of escaping work. If all such pupils were eliminated from these schools there would be room and time and money for the proper training of those who come with a real purpose. As invention increased man's ability to produce, and as this ability to earn has created the means of gratifying a desire for a higher scale of living, the population has largely changed its occupation from agriculture-pro- ducing the necessities of life to manufacturing-providing the comforts and luxuries of existence. Thus the centers of population grew at the expense of the country, and children in these centers or cities were either used at work unsuited to them or loafed during a traditional vacation period. Agriculture was the first industry of every nation, and the growing season, or summer, was the busy time. The home was the first school, and possibly the best that has ever been inaugurated. Later, tutors for families or neighbors were employed. Then was inaugurated the neighborhood or community school, to run when agriculture could best spare the children- that is, during the winter months, and not during the growing season . As education became more and more in demand and wealth accumulated, the winter school of a few weeks grew by degrees until only the short growing season of three or four months was left for help at home. Thus in all climates, from the torrid to the frigid zone, grew the custom of summer vacation, not from necessity for rest for pupil or teacher, but from necessity of an agricultural people. When, in a democracy where the ruled of today may become the rulers of tomorrow, it became apparent that universal education must go hand in hand with universal suffrage, a system of quantity production was de- manded. The graded school system was the answer, just as the factory was the response to the demand for quantity production of materials. In neither case was the quality improved-in fact, in many instances it deterio- rated. This educational factory, partly through agricultural necessity, and partly through tradition, operated during the winter months. Agriculture, in its early development in a new nation, was simple and largely a one-crop system in each community, and help on the farm was needed by all families of a neighborhood at the same time of the year. When agriculture became diversified, one family needed the children's help at one time, and another at a different time. During all this period of a nation's development, while the material factories answered every new call made because of changed conditions, the educational system, or factory, remained largely the same. The people DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 755 knew that the schools did not meet their needs, but they did not know how to remodel this educational factory, while the conservative teacher did not see the necessity for any change, but sat on the tail of progress and holloed "whoa." The graded school is a factory for quantity production of education at such cost as the taxpayer can afford. It is not ideal-it is rigid, arbitrary, and tends to level all to an average. It is the duty of educators to improve the quality while economically keeping up the quantity. The system should be modified from time to time to make it responsive to the changing needs of the community's life. This factory was at its beginning composed of eight years of elementary and four years of high school work. These twelve years were synonymous with twelve grades or steps. It was a moving staircase of twelve steps and it took a year for it to travel the distance of one step. Then all pupils were divided into twelve groups, according to their ability, and each group occupied one step on this moving staircase. Of course, there was just as much difference in the ability among the students of one group as there was between the most advanced of one group and the least advanced of the group one step higher, but this difference was ignored and the individual was sacrificed to the system. All pupils on one step had to advance at the same rate. If some could not keep up, they had to go to the step below-a whole year back-even though a much shorter review might have been necessary. If some could do more work than was prescribed, they were either held back to keep pace with the average, or had to skip an entire year's work on this moving staircase, and take their places on the next step above. The work was laid out for the average pupil, but it was a low average, as results show 80 to 90 per cent were promoted. It is evident that many in this 80 to 90 per cent promoted could have done more work if they had not been chained to the group on this one step. Later this staircase was remodeled so that there were twenty- four steps instead of twelve each step one half year long instead of one year-semi- annual promotions, it was called. This gave twenty-four instead of twelve groups into which to divide the whole number of pupils. It also put twenty-four joints into the cast-iron system, and one half the amount of injustice was prevented. It was proposed that this same staircase be remodeled so as to have forty- eight steps instead of twenty-four, and each step just one fourth of the year in length instead of one half, and that the moving staircase be kept in motion the year round. The increased number of steps would just exactly double the advantage gained by semi-annual promotions, then there would be forty-eight groups into which the children could be fitted, not a perfect fit, to be sure, but manifestly twice as nearly perfect as could be secured with twenty-four groups as at present, and four times as good as was possible when, years ago, there were only twelve steps to the staircase. Then, under this plan, the pupils if not properly classed can either go up or down, as the case requires, one fourth of a year instead of one half year as 756 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION at present, and instead of one whole year, as was formerly the case before it was thought necessary to make the system fit the child instead of cramp- ing the child to fit the system. Under this plan, the work done in nine months of the session would continue to be done in the same nine months, but an additional three months' work would be provided, so there would be one and one third of the present year's work covered in one calendar year. This would not increase the speed of the machinery of this factory, but would only run the factory longer. What man, other than the pro- verbially impractical school teacher, would run his factory only nine months out of the year, when the world was crying for its product and the workers of the factory anxious for continuous work and pay ? Students could pursue the work as at present, by stepping off the moving stair in June and resting for vacation till the next step, three months later, came on the level and could then take up their work right where they left it off. In fact, at the end of any of the three months' terms pupils could withdraw for vacation and return in three months, finding classes beginning just where they left off. Under this system, a family that needed the help at home of one of the older children could have it for any three months of the year without violat- ing the Compulsory Education Law or delaying the child's advancement any more than at present. Here, large families could, if necessary, have a different one of their older children at home all the time to help with the younger ones . Again, if some children endowed by nature with minds and bodies capable of sustained effort wish to attend all four terms, there would be two short vacations of two weeks each one at Christmas and one in July. Such pupils would make one and one-third year's work in one year's time, and, if they did this three calendar years, they would be four years ad- vanced in their work. Thus, some could gain during the entire course one, two, or three years, depending upon how much time their necessities or pleasures kept them out of school. One or two or three years saved at the beginning of life is just as valuable as one or two or three years added at the end of life. There is every argument that a school plant costing millions should not be idle three months each year. The continuous system would dignify the work of the teacher by giving constant employment and continuous pay to all who wished it. It would require ultimately fewer buildings and fewer seatings. If all took advantage of it, it would require only three fourths of the accommodations. True, it would require twelve months' pay for teachers instead of ten, a 20 per cent increase in yearly salaries. But this 20 per cent increase in operating expense would produce 25 per cent in- increase in product, besides the inestimable value of the time saved by those who attended continuously. There is a certain amount of work to be done, and it cannot cost more, but very probably less, to do it regularly than spasmodically. Would any sensible man hesitate in choosing the method DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCË 757 to produce a machine that was to become at completion a profit-making device? This plan grants each individual student his God-given right to advance as rapidly as he can and not be bound down with the dull or the lazy. If the weak or the dull or the lazy or anyone otherwise unfortunately situated does not want to, or cannot, take advantage of this liberal system, he surely has no just complaint at an arrangement which provides for every one to use his talents to the utmost. Here the strong and capable could become productive in the world one, two, or three years sooner than under the old arrangement. The system, which denies the individual the opportunity and the right to progress faster or farther than his neighbor, leads unmistakably to socialism and Bolshevism. The world will not advance by repressing the bright so as to keep up the delusion of all men being equal. All men are born equal only in their right to equal privileges and this very right de- mands that these privileges be available as each individual is ready for them. Repression of the bright does not help the dull. While the whole mass must be lifted as high as possible, if any there be endowed beyond their brothers, these must be allowed to rise even to the stars, and there, learning of the real fatherhood of God and the brother- hood of man, will, as a blessed privilege, reach down a helping hand to their less fortunate brothers and raise the whole of humanity. The same opportunity is not democracy. Opportunity to be equal must be available. Equal available opportunity for all, at any age, at all times of the day or night, all days of the week, and all weeks of the year this and nothing short of it is complete democracy. With these thoughts in mind, Nashville established the all-year school. We were not deterred by the failure of the experiment elsewhere, but firmly believed in the necessity for and the feasibility of continuous all-year training. An intensive study of failures elsewhere was made. It was seen that a summer term of shorter duration than the other terms of the year would be of use to those who failed in grade and who could therefore go over the regular term's work in less time than was required for the first effort, and also, to those of exceptional ability who could do much more work in a given time than was laid out in the course of study. Thus, it was realized that a summer term shorter than the regular one would be of use only to the very dull and the very bright-leaving the large majority without school opportunity for the summer, or else, unwisely rushing them over work poorly done. It was also seen that an all-year school with an all-year course of study, would fit only those who could or would go to school the entire year. In such arrangement, there would be no choice of time for rest or work, but the student would have either to attend con- tinuously, or get out of joint with the course of study. It was further noted that to run some of the schools in a city all the year with an all- year course of study, while some other schools in the same city ran the con- ventional time, would result in an awkward situation for such students that 758 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION move from one part of the city to another, as such pupils would not likely find classes fitted to their advancement. We were fortunate in that our school year was nine months, with a course of study adjusted to that time. Our school year had been for a long time divided into two terms of four and one half months each. This condition rendered it a simple matter to arrange our all-year course of study. The nine months' course of study was divided into three parts of twelve weeks each, instead of two parts of eighteen weeks each, as formerly. There was no more, no less, work in the twelve weeks than in the old course of study for the same length of time. With this subdivision, classes are started each twelve weeks. The summer term of twelve weeks has the same course of study and the child is carried no faster, no slower, than in the other regular terms of twelve weeks each. While our former year's course of study is divided into three parts, the year's time is divided into four terms of twelve weeks each, leaving four weeks for vacation. The terms are so fixed that, as anticipated, two weeks of the four come at Christmas and the other two in the summer. We are completing our first year with the new arrangement . Last June all the schools opened for the extra term of twelve weeks. Any child de- siring to attend could do a regular term's work at the regular speed. This summer term differed in no way from the three regular ones in subjects taught, or in amount of work covered. The hours of the day were changed to the daylight-saving scheme, so that school opened and closed one hour earlier, thus getting the children home before the hottest hour of the day. It was the remark of parents, pupils, and teachers that the schoolhouses with their thick walls and high ceilings were much more comfortable than residences. The medical inspectors visited the schools regularly during the summer just as in any other term. The reports were that they noticed no bad effects from attending the summer term, but on the contrary, the general health was improved by holding the children to regular habits of living. With a compulsory attendance law, the regular winter term enroled 20,000 pupils. The summer term's attendance, which was wholly volun- tary, was 13,000, or 64 per cent of the regular term's enrolment. The per cent of attendance of those enrolling for the summer term was 94 per cent. The per cent of tardiness of those attending was .217 per cent during the summer term. Translating this per cent of tardiness into per cent of punctuality we have 99.78 per cent punctuality throughout the summer term. In the employment of teachers, preference was given to regular ones, and of the 469 working in the regular term, 402 or 86 per cent elected to teach the summer term. With 86 per cent of the teachers working, the 64 per cent of the pupils received more individual attention. The teachers were paid their regular monthly salaries, thus enabling them to receive twelve months' pay and still have two weeks off twice a year. Children and teachers can elect which of the three terms they will work DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 759 in school, and which of the twelve weeks' term, in addition to the four weeks' regular vacation, they will take off for pleasure, or work in other fields of activity. Thus, with a contented set of teachers and with smaller classes com- posed of only those pupils who voluntarily came with a purpose and so bent on its accomplishment that the question of discipline disappeared, it was not surprising to find the results at the end of the summer term most gratifying. Nashville still thinks regular examinations have their place, both as a method of instruction, and as a guide-not infallible to be sure-but when corrected by the teacher's estimate of work done during the term, is the best means we know for determining promotion . The examinations of the summer term were just the same as those of other terms and grades were given as usual. The results showed 84.94 per cent promoted at the end of the summer, or extra term, as against 79.32 per cent promoted at the end of the winter or regular term. Our regular fall term, following this first summer term, opened with a larger attendance than any term of the previous year, notwithstanding the fac: that 13,000 children who had voluntarily attended the summer term were exempt under the school law from attending school for three months. These results confirmed the belief that there was real demand for educational opportunities at all times. That better results through con- tinuous occupation were attained in all those things regarded as of prime importance in the training of the child-regularity, punctuality, attention to duty, contentment, cheerful obedience to authority, health of body, mind, and soul. That it is possible to shorten the time of preparation for pro- ductivity, not only without hurt to the individual but with positive ad- vantage to him, to his country, and to the world at large. That the all-year school will contribute to the "common defense" against impairment of strength and ultimately is destined to be the American system of educa- tion. America will not soften and follow in the path of other great re- publics that decayed from loss of industry through love of ease. She will use her trusteeship of great wealth for the leading, enlightening, uplifting, and helping the whole brotherhood of man throughout the world. FORTIFICATION BY PUBLIC OPINION ERIC C. HOPWOOD, EDITOR , PLAIN DEALER, CLEVELAND, OHIO Ladies and gentlemen: Permit me, by way of introduction, to call your attention to three circumstances. First, quoting from comment by the Na- tional Founders Association : In Madison Square Garden in New York on February 1st, fifteen thousand Reds cheered for the Soviet in America and went into ecstasies over a boy of fourteen who demanded that a death blow be dealt to our present capitalistic rule in the 760 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION United States. It was a memorial meeting for Lenine, the dead tyrant of Russia. In the audience were four hundred little boys and girls who attend the public schools of New York and who were surrounded by men and women waving red flags. We do not know whether the youthful orator wrote his own stuff or not, but what he had to say has been said by the Lenines and Trotskys of the world in their climb into tyrannical office. He proclaimed it to be the duty of the reds to mobilize the children to fight against the capitalistic system, and he extended his arms to Russia with the promise that he and his associates would be ready when the day came to strike. This youth is a product of the public schools of New York. He is probably more, however, a product of his environment, and he is being utilized by the shrewd and tyrannous leaders of the radicals to create sympathy and to poison the minds of other children. What are we doing to offset the teach- ings of the Reds ? How many of our boys filled with the history-the glorious his- tory of these United States are ready to go on the platform and demand allegiance to the Constitution and flag ? Second, let me quote from the excerpt from President Washington's fare- well address which appears on your program : " Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened." And third, I looked over with some care the illustrated course of study issued by a great school system of this country, which I assume is as good or better than the average, and I did not find in it anything directly about making citizens through teaching citizenship. One is told the benefits to be derived from chemistry, knowledge about the interior of automobiles, cooking and canning, electricity, selling, public speaking, art, stenography, music, how to set a pretty table, sign painting, aesthetic dancing, working in molten metal-I might go on. Finally, in the summary of the high school course of study I found that in the twelfth year U. S. history and civics are required subjects, but there was nothing else that I could see to help very much in straightening out the thinking of such rattle-brained little fellows as the fourteen year old boy who went to the Lenine meeting to tell all the world what is the matter with our society and our civilization. To provide for the national defense is something more, I take it, than the catch phrase of a great historical instrument. As those who wrote it intended it should be, it is a fact fundamental to the very existence of the nation. The peoples of the earth were not then nor are they yet purged of greed, selfishness, or lust of conquest. The proving ground of democracy had to have peace for the experiment. It has to have it today if the experi- ment of democracy is to go on and we must look to the dykes that our fathers have left. The interpretation of national defense in the minds of the founding fathers was chiefly in terms of gunpowder and solid shot or, as it would be today, in tanks, Big Berthas, airplanes, poison gas, superdreadnaughts, and submarines. In general, it was a defense planned against attack from without. There is a deal in the constitution about declaring war, granting letters of marque and reprisal, raising and supporting armies, providing DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 761 and maintaining a navy, suppressing insurrections, repelling invasions, the right to keep and carry arms and so on, chiefly against foreign foes. But, despite the fact that the Constitutional Convention never trusted the mob and was sometimes genuinely afraid of it, there is little or nothing, save what is implied, about providing national defense, through education and enlightened public opinion, against the vagaries and violence of people act- ing in masses. The gentlemen who arranged this program have made progress since 1789, as indicated by the statement of my subject, " Fortification by Public Opinion." That implies, does it not, that we shall not put our faith wholly in the strongest battalions, that we shall not proceed wholly by the formula of the Texan who observed that "God made little men and God made big men, but God bless Colonel Colt, who made all men equal." Rather it means that we shall undertake, as we have never undertaken before, to bring rational processes to bear on problems which once left the fields strewn with the wreckage of war and dead men staring at the stars. The dominant idea of those who framed the constitution was, as I have said, to provide a National defense from attacks from without. Gentlemen, this nation has always had need to look within its own borders, as well as beyond them, for elements of danger to the national life. In this day in particular there is no potent enemy beyond the seas to cause us alarm, but at home there are prejudice, ignorance, loose thinking, and latent anarchy. The border land between liberty and license is a narrow one and any nation founded on justice, liberty, and equality risks the danger that its privileges will be turned against it to sap its strength and vigor or perhaps plunge it headlong into the most horrible of excesses. I would not be interested in coming here if it did not seem possible to consider quite frankly whether either one of us you as a schoolman, I as an editor-is doing the job of developing sound public opinion nearly as well as it ought to be done. I suppose you invited me here because my business is to record and, if I can, to analyze current history. But any honest editor will tell you that he is confronted by such amazing conflicts of human im- pulses and emotions, of nobility and meanness, that he begins to question the finality of any judgment, and comes to gaze with amazement and envy at the court which says, so positively, "This is the law," or at the school which says so smugly, "This is the rule," or at the church which says so dogmatically, "This is the truth." But the observing journalist is sure of one thing and that is that the veneer which civilization has gained through all the centuries is very thin and the elemental forces are alarmingly close to the surface. We need not consider the great war, most apocalyptical of all evidences of the truth of this statement. Recall things much simpler and nearer home-such, for example, as the intermittent lynchings of the South, the reversion to mob law in Herrin, the constant disregard for life shown by hooligans and desperadoes in every great city in the country, Loeb and Leopold, flapper 762 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION murders, and similar lack of respect for life and law. Groups conspire to loot their fellow citizens, to strip their country of its vital resources, to take from the disabled veterans who fought for them over seas the fund pro- vided for their rehabilitation. Great multitudes worship strange gods. Some don ascension robes and wait for the end of the world, others follow false prophets, all agog over social nostrums as absurd in every respect as white magic or black. We still have singing at funerals, practice pagan rights at Christmas time, avoid walking under ladders, believe in four- leafed clovers, hesitate to undertake new enterprises on Friday, are ex- tremely emotional in masses, which may lead us to do extremely silly or extremely savage things. " It has been made clear in the last century," says President Angell, of Yale, "that man in his instinctive life is close cousin to the brute. But he has also in his nature the deep grounded tendencies of hundreds of thousands of generations of savage ancestors. Furthermore he carries into adult life many fears, prejudices, likes, and dislikes which trace back to his own infantile and childhood experiences ." In other words, we may as well realize that, after all, society as it exists today tends to be an unstable affair. The colonel's lady and Julia O'Grady are sisters under the skin, and the colonel's lady, Mrs. O'Grady, and the rest of us are uncomfortably close to the common instincts and impulses which dominated pithecanthropus erectus, the Piltdown people, and the rest of our ancestral stock. When we fully realize it, we shall be better off than we are now. Then, perhaps, we shall learn that unstable compounds must be recognized and handled as such. We shall get along better in appraising our efforts toward building a national defense through public opinion if we stop for a moment to con- sider just what, after all, public opinion is, what its powers and limitations are and to correct some popular fallacies about it. I am no philosopher, but I suppose the good of the tribe is still the im- pelling human force just as it was in the beginning. I hope I shall not engage myself with Mr. Bryan or other fundamentalists, but I find it neces- sary to assume, as Professor Sumner says, "It is generally taken for granted that men inherited some guiding instincts from their beast ancestors." Man also inherited the rude method of trial and error, and he developed the faculty of learning by experience, rare among animals. Some ways of doing things were better than others. Some undertakings were profitable and some were not. In many enterprises coöperative efforts proved more ad- vantageous. Certain things were decidedly detrimental to the tribe's inter- ests. The jungle law that "The strength of the pack is the wolf and the strength of the wolf is the pack," became the dim theory of the tribe. What was good for the tribe was sanctioned; what was bad tabooed. Public opinion was born. It fixed habit into custom; custom into rules; rules into laws, and the same forces are at work today as were at work when the chief concern of mankind was in dodging sabre-toothed tigers instead of Fords DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 763 Let me urge you not to forget that public opinion in itself has no morals. It may be good, bad, or indifferent. You will remember that it was active public opinion which sanctioned the drawing of heretics on the rack, which harried Roger Williams into the wilderness. It was public opinion that burned witches at Salem, sanctioned slavery and saw nothing wrong when families were broken up and sold down the river or when shrieking women were dragged to the auction block and knocked down like sheep to the high- est bidder. It was public opinion which sanctioned the saloon, dive, and brothel. But, ladies and gentlemen, it was also public opinion which stopped the drawing of heretics and made it possible for all men to believe as they see fit. It halted persecution of other Roger Williamses. It smothered the torch at Salem. Public opinion said at last that slavery is not good for the tribe and henceforth there were no more bondmen in America, Neither are the saloon and the dive and the brothel good for the tribe and the moment public opinion crystallized, out they went. Just now public opinion is asking why it is that the poor alien who makes himself a cask of wine goes to jail while the fat golf player may have a case or two of contraband in his locker and no questions asked. These are the two extremes in which public opinion manifests itself. Midway there is a time when it is dormant or, as some sociologists say, atrophied. Once hardly anyone defended slavery, even the holders of slaves. The time came when almost no one had a word to say in favor of the saloon. And still slavery went on and the saloon went on because the pendulum of public opinion, though swinging away from these things, had not yet started up the arc. If human society is a very unstable sort of thing which must be handled with care, and if public opinion has no morals and is as likely to sanction bad things as good, those forces which may create, mould, or affect public opinion ought to be very carefully scrutinized. Chief of these are news- papers and periodicals, motion pictures and the stage, the church, the courts, the schools, the spoken word in forums, luncheon meetings and general con- versation, publicity agents and propagandists, and advertising devices of one kind and another. I wish it might be possible in the time at my disposal to say something about the church and the good it does in its unceasing effort properly to direct public opinion, and also, perhaps, to say a well-meant word about the church's tendency to narrowness, to dogmatism, and to a degree of in- tolerance despite all the lessons of the past. Or something about the dangers that stage and screen will completely lose all sense of decency and propriety, that they will fix an utterly false stereotype of a life, forgetting the almost limitless possibilities of their position. Or something about the courts and the law, which after all, are only the creatures of public opinion and will exist only as long as sanction is extended. Or of advertising, the giantsonofold Barter and Trade, and his attendant myriad ofpress agents 764 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and propagandists, or of the legion of meetings, luncheons, dinners, clubs , teachers' associations, and what not, plagued beyond measure by a new brood of Ciceros and Patrick Henrys whose clamor rises to high heaven-I say I would like to discuss all these factors in the forming of public opinion, for they are great forces, but time forbids. I must pass to those things in which you and I, in the confidential precincts of this meeting, are chiefly inter- ested. What are the newspapers doing with their opportunities and respon- sibilities in moulding and directing public opinion in the right direction, and what are the schools ? There are something more than 2,000 daily newspapers in the United States. There are hundreds and hundreds more newspapers which are issued weekly. Magazines and other periodicals are almost beyond count- ing. The number of newspaper readers in the United States is limited only by the literacy of the population. Great modern web presses will produce 36,000 papers per hour, 600 per minute. These presses run hour after hour without stopping, the rolls of paper feeding in from beneath and the printed newspapers delivered in an unbroken stream above. Death, taxes, and the daily newspaper are inevitable. In every nook and corner of the world is a man with a pencil and note- book, a man in whose eyes are both wisdom and weariness, and what he writes in his book is flashed to the great press agencies and by them to every newspaper throughout the land. There the editors take, hurry it to the printers, the presses grind and roar and the message which the thin wire or the waves of the air but recently carried from the utmost ends of the earth is told in Gath and published in the streets of Askalon. There is no greater miracle in all this age of modern miracles than the making of a great news- paper. But here today we are not so greatly concerned with the miracle of its making as we are with its effect, once it is made. I would be the last to assert that the newspaper is the perfect instru- ment. I know that it is not. I know that it is right sometimes and wrong sometimes. I know that it has the frailties of any human institution. I know, better than the rest of you, I think, the difficulties with which it has to contend. Public opinion is a definite thing at any time; individual or group opinion is variable and nowhere is this more acutely reflected than in the press. In the recent election there was a group which believed a victory for Senator LaFollette was the only surcease for our political sorrow and another which believed that some social cataclysm would attend such an event. There were newspapers supporting both groups. In Great isan active public opinion, supported by the press, ir In America there is an active public opin ported generally by the press. One low. Pick up any digest of as wide as the poles. All this comes abou and laws in societ DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 765 The stars in their courses move so definitely upon the same orbits that their position can be calculated hundreds of years in advance. Two parallel lines never intersect. Substances form their crystals according to the same un- changing law. The movements of the tides are established. But there is little that is definite or fixed or certain in the relations of men with each other. That is why I said in the beginning that I envied the bench and the church and the school which dare say with such final authority that this is the law or the truth or the rule. And it seems to me that if I were the church or the bench or the school I would stop to realize that wherever I touched human relationship there is no law or rule or truth except as public opinion makes them so. I believe it is William Dudley Foulke who says : "Public opinion, being a composite of individual opinions, is formed of the same elements : (1) consciousness or knowledge, real or imagined, of certain facts ; (2) feeling and desire which, rather than mere judgment, is the predominant motive for action; (3) volition, the resolve to act." This is as good a starting-point as any from which to consider the news- paper's contribution to the formation of public opinion. What, in the first place, does the newspaper do by way of supplying consciousness or knowl- edge of certain facts ? Ladies and gentlemen, the newspaper's search for facts is relentless. A trained army moves over the world in pursuit of them. It is interested only in facts. Facts are the stock in trade of the newspaper. Never in the history of the newspaper has such complete and accurate information been laid before the public as a basis for opinion. This is due to several things a better type of men, on the average, than used to engage in newspaper work; more speedy communication by mail , by telegraph, by cable, and by radio ; increased willingness on the part of newspaper publishers to spend any amount of money necessary for the most complete new's service; and a growing conviction among editors that there is no partisanship in news, that every side of a question must be fully, fairly and accurately presented. The power of news, the power of the editorial, and the power of the cartoon are engines of tremendous effect in forming opinion, but you still hear it said that the newspaper is losing its influence and that there are no more great editors like Greeley and Bennett. When I look over the files of their papers and see the bitterness, partisanship, vituperation, and abuse which mark their columns, I say, "Thank God!" I believe the influence of the newspaper was never as great as it is now, for it never was so fair or so clean or so honest. It would be more pleasant and effective to lock up some of those who sigh for the simple charm of the past in a medieval castle with all its comforts and sanitary conveniences, with nothing to read but the files of the newspapers of the fifties, sixties, and seventies. No responsible newspaper advocates riots, rebellions, disorders, or social anarchy. Such things as freedom of speech, religious toleration, right of trial by jury, the preservation and expansion of the public school system, 766 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the defense of the constitution of the United States from illogical and demagogic attack are the very fundamentals of the creed of American jour- nalism. Without the aid of the press slavery would not have been abolished, corrupt city governments would not have been purified, better methods of handling problems of charity and philanthropy would not have been possible, the saloon would still be flourishing and the red light district a blot on every city all accomplishments for safeguarding the nation from within. When war came the government turned to the newspapers for the protec- tion of vital information, for the dissemination of necessary publicity on loan, war chest drive and conscription and for the development of a public opinion which would make every man and woman at home stand shoulder to shoulder behind every boy in the field. Not a single newspaper shirked its duty, and the achievement of this country in placing more than 2,000,000 soldiers over seas in eighteen months with 2,500,000 in training camps ready to follow them, all inspired by a common will for victory, is the greatest achievement of any nation anywhere at any time. It is a fair record which the newspaper has to show in recent years, but it is not enough. The average newspaper today is cluttered up with too much trash ; some of them are doing public opinion a distinct disservice by lawless publication of crime and sex news until a man from Mars might think from reading them that crime activity and sex complexes were the chief business and pastime of the human race. Some, again, cannot seem to coördinate the high ideals of their editorial pages with the practices of their news and business departments. Almost all are inexcusably inaccurate in details. But more fundamental than all this is the fact that for some reason or other the newspaper is failing in helping its readers to digest and translate the rich mother lode of material it supplies them every day into the practical doctrines of a sound and stable social and political system . Until the newspaper finds a way to make it clearer to its reader that all the facts assembled for him so painfully from near and far cry for him to inter- pret them wisely and with an open mind, it has not yet found the road to its greatest service. The newspaper goes on day after day gathering facts and explaining and commenting on them editorially, flattering itself that it is making great progress, when, presto, a war blows up in the East, an election comes on, and all the lessons of fact and comment are forgotton and all the newspaper readers are away after other gods. Is it fair to ask again what are you as teachers doing with your respon- sibility in the making of sound public opinion, because it ought to be clear that, with sound public opinion, the national defense will take care of itself. I know it is a great deal. I know splendid progress is being made. And I am not a sound critic of the schools and the teaching profession, because I believe too much in the schools and have too high regard for the teacher to be without bias in my judgment. As I observe the progress of education, there are dangers which teachers will do well to bear in mind and avoid, and they cannot be avoided DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 767 without a proper conception of what, after all, is the great function of the teaching profession. That, to my mind, is the turning out from our schools and colleges not of students and scholars as of socially minded boys and girls and young men and young women. You say in your program, quoting President Washington, that "in pro- portion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened." Have you analyzed that statement of Washington's? It means that without an enlightened public opinion political liberty dare not be entrusted to the people. Where public opinion runs to vagaries, to turbulence, discord, vain strivings for political panaceas-where, in a word, there is no sound public opinion to warrant full self-government, there must be autocracy or tyranny or despotism. The structure of government in extending self-government, which is no more than an expression of public opinion, must depend wholly upon capacity for self-government. The difficulty with the school man too often is that he is lost in a laby- rinth of scholastic detail. He does not remember that the school of which he is the head is supported by taxies levied against all the taxpayers and not alone those whose children attend the schools. He has an obligation to society therefore which transcends any obligation he may have to an indi- vidual. His school must turn out citizenship as its chief product and not scholarship. You know the average course of study in the high schools of the United States better than I. Fine as to Latin, language, mathematics, science, arts, etc. , as I said in the beginning, is it not, but quite out of balance in regard to the science of social relationships. Is it not true that we train and are trained intensively for almost everything under high heaven save citizenship ? And, gentlemen, of all training none is more vital when we shall be called upon to preserve the great works our fathers have left us : "Shall we lie down in the eye of the sun For lack of a light on our way- Shall we rise up when the day is done And chirrup, 'Behold, it is day ! ' Shall we abide till the battle is won Ere we amble into the fray ?" I wish the men at the head of our schools could realize above all things that practically every other agency in the formation of sound public opinion is at their mercy. There is nothing new I can tell you about the plasticity of the child mind, its eagerness for knowledge, its susceptibility to emotional appeal. Nor need I tell you, who are far better psychologists than I, that the impressions made upon the child mind are overcome only with great difficulty in later years, if at all. If your work is well done, ours becomes simple. But if you send the child out into life with an inadequate world picture is it any wonder that leadership becomes almost a hopeless task ? 768 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The intellectual and scientific achievements of our civilization have com- pletely outstripped our advance in the field of social relations. We master the sea and air and space-we make the world our scientific book and our playground. We hold Death himself at a distance, but we have not yet mastered the art or science of living with each other in peace and justice and equity. It ought to be possible, it seems to me, for the school to lay the founda- tion of the first requisite of sound opinion in supplying knowledge of facts, but those facts ought to be those of life in its broader aspects, of social rela- tions, of government, of economics of all that has to do with people con- fronted with the task of living with each other. With the impression of the facts of life which are rational, ought to go an appeal to the desire and volition for sound citizenship with all that implies, for order and control in a social system which shall have for its monuments liberty, opportunity, and justice. Ladies and gentlemen, I can see in this assemblage before me the best safeguard this nation has against the letting go of that unstable compound we call society. If you do your work well there will go out from your schoolrooms a host of boys and girls with minds keen and alert to the responsibilities of their social obligations. They will scatter with the people everywhere and, if the time comes when unrest stirs in the state and some are for putting the torch of destruction and anarchy to all the works which have been achieved by civilization so painfully over so many, many genera- tions, it will be to the boys and girls you have trained that the immediate agencies of public opinion must appeal to avert the final catastrophe. DEFENSE AGAINST ACCIDENTS ZACH C. ELKIN , HEAD OF THE ACCIDENT PREVENTION DEPARTMENT OF THE CHICAGO MOTOR CLUB, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Ladies and gentlemen of the National Education Association: I am to talk to you today on highway accidents and the work of the School Boy Patrol as it is organized in Chicago. Last year in the United States, we had approximately 16,000 fatal auto traffic accidents on our streets and highways ; approximately one third of this number were children of school age, and with the constantly increasing host of automobiles we can reasonably expect a corresponding increase in the number of accidents each year, unless more active steps are taken to prevent them. We need more safety workers, more intelligent effort directed toward accident prevention work, not only to save human lives, but to prevent the hundreds of thousands of accidents which result in injury. You who are interested in civic betterment and the saving of human lives should get behind this safety movement. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 769 The origin of the School Boy Patrol in Chicago dates back to May of 1920. About that time one of the spasmodic efforts of the police depart- ment to reduce crime was under way and in canvassing the situation the Mayor of Chicago found that approximately 500 policemen were detailed to the public schools of the city in guarding the crossings near the schools, helping the youngsters cross the streets through the congested traffic. A means was sought to put these policemen back on regular police duty and the chief of police suggested the organization of the School Boy Patrol or junior traffic officers. This work was turned over to the drillmaster of the police department, who selected half a dozen assistants, outlined the plan to them, and they started in with an organization that has grown from the small number originally employed to a force of over 5000 boys today. This idea of the junior police force struck the popular fancy, was en- couraged by the newspapers, and the motorists pledged their coöperation. The force grew rapidly, and inasmuch as the school authorities are sup- posed to have control of the child from the time he leaves home until he returns after school, it was thought best to put the direction of the School Boy Patrol force into the hands of the school officials, so the police depart- ment turned the organization over to the Superintendent of Schools . Printed instructions for the guidance of the boys were prepared and the Patrol boys were advised that they would have the full coöperation and backing of the police department and the courts in their work. The instructors emphasized the fact that these boys were not to endanger their own lives by going out in the middle of the street, under normal conditions, but they were instructed that if the children were in the act of crossing the street the Patrol boy should regulate the traffic by signaling the driver to stop. The main idea was to hold the children on the sidewalk until a break in traffic occurred where they could cross safely. It was thought that these Patrol boys could be used as an aid to traffic policemen, rather than as traffic officers themselves. The selection of the boys for this Patrol force was left to the principals of the schools. They naturally picked out the boys that were leaders, giv- ing preference to those boys who stood highest in their studies, and we have endeavored to build up a more militant organization among the boys and have tried to make their work interesting. The work does interest them, because it develops new problems each day. The boys are looked up to by the other pupils. They have a feeling of responsibility and take their work seriously. A membership in the School Boy Patrol force is highly prized by the average youngster. You know it is human nature to want authority; we see evidence of it everywhere, and especially when that authority is coupled with the wearing of a badge or uniform. These boys are no exception. After the boys who are to form the Patrol for a particular school are selected they elect their officers-ordinarily one captain and two lieutenants for a group of eight to ten Patrol officers. We believe it is better to let the 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION boys select their own officers rather than have them appointed by the teachers, as it does away with petty jealousies that otherwise might exist. After the force is organized you should make a ceremony of its inauguration into active service. If these boys can be talked to by the chief of police or the mayor of the city and impressed with the importance of their work, the impression will be lasting. As originally organized the force in Chicago were supplied with arm bands to distinguish them from the other children. We found these arm bands were unsatisfactory and that a boy that was going to be a " copper" wanted to have a "copper's" badge and all the regalia that was possible. So we selected a metal badge similar in design to that used by the police departments in some cities. This badge reads: "Safety Patrol Officer," with a number and the words "Elementary School." We keep a careful record of every badge issued to each boy through the number which it bears, and have found this useful, as frequently badges are lost and we have to replace them. If we find the same boy losing his badge frequently, he loses his job on the force. Some consideration has been given to equipping those boys with a hand signal device-a disk with the word "Stop" on it, similar to that used by most of the railroad crossing watchmen, but the motorists in our city rather expect to find these Patrol boys on duty near schoolhouses and we have found that the badge which they are wearing is usually sufficient. While these boys command the respect and attention of the other pupils as a class, we have found it advisable to have a policeman, or some individual outside of the school personnel, visit the schools about once a month, or oftener, to talk to these Patrol boys, keep them "pepped" up, and also to talk to the pupils as a body and impress upon them that they have to obey these Patrol boys when they are on duty. The size of the Patrol force in any particular school must necessarily be left to the discretion of the principal, and it is not advisable to organize a Patrol force in districts where they are not actually needed. This mat- ter is governed entirely by local conditions, the kind and volume of traffic, and where one school will get along with one shift of boys, in another school the work will be so heavy that it is advisable to have two shifts and let them alternate each week. This double shift is also being used in some of the schools to train the smaller boys who will take the place of the older ones as they graduate or grow tired of their duties. In some of the smaller towns in the territory covered by our organization they have selected mem- bers of the Boy Scout organization to do this School Boy Patrol work, but we believe it is better not to confuse the two organizations, as frequently a boy in school may be especially fitted for School Boy Patrol work and not be a member of the Boy Scouts. After the organization is completed these boys are assigned to their stations in front of the school and at adjacent street corners. They are furnished with a report card on which they note the motor vehicle license number and description of the vehicle DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 771 of any motorist who fails to stop when signaled to do so. These cards are turned into the captain of the Patrol, who in turn confers with the principal, and where the traffic violation warrants it a report is sent to the Police Department for action in bringing this particular motorist to time. One of the interesting things we have noted in connection with these report cards is that the Patrol officer constantly has his eye open for other dangerous conditions. During the present winter we had one case where a Patrol boy called up the Club and notified us that some boys were coast- ing down a hill with their sleds and out into the street where there was danger of serious accident. We took care of this through the Police De- partment immediately. In another case one of these boys called up and reported a manhole cover having been removed from an opening in the pavement, where there was grave danger of serious accident. We find that these boys are constantly thinking and working for safety and they deserve the unqualified support of the police departments and courts and of the motorists. A spirit of rivalry exists between the various schools over their accident records, and many a boy who would not otherwise be cautious is careful through fear of marring the record of his school in accident prevention work. The American Automobile Association, through their 700 clubs over the country, are trying to make this a national organization. Visualize, if you can, the effect of this army of junior police officers. They will help cut down accidents in every city and town in these United States. Instead of five, or six, or seven thousand school children per year being killed and countless thousands of others being crippled by automobiles, you will find this list of casualties will rapidly diminish and our streets and highways will become safer. We have noticed another effect of this School Boy Patrol work in Chicago; it has not only improved the morale of the school itself, but has had its effect on the neighborhood "gangs." When the School Boy Patrol officer is out with his "gang" they don't commit so many minor depreda- tions; they don't break so many windows and do all the other devilish things that any good, live boy wants to do. In building up this School Boy Patrol force you are building up a better class of citizens, and to use the Boy Scout term, you are "investing in 'boy preferred' stock." Our force of 5000 boys in the Chicago schools have a direct influence on the half-million school children who are enrolled in our Chicago schools, and their influence is felt by at least one million adults in the homes of these children. The school children see these boys in action, they have to obey them and will gradually absorb ideas of safety that they cannot acquire in any other way. Think what an effect it is going to have on the accident situation of the future if we can get every child of schoo. age thinking of safety, train them to cross the street properly, not to play in the streets and do all the other foolish things that so help to add to this tremendous accident record each year. Accident prevention ideas absorbed 772 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with " reading, writing, and arithmetic" will last all through life. We can build a Nation of traffic safety students. One of the effects of this organization that we have noticed this past year is a reduction of nearly 70 per cent in the number of school children killed in the middle of the block. These patrol boys are eliminating the "jaywalker" among the kiddies. There is less roller-skating and playing in the streets. In order that you may see how these School Boy Patrol officers work, we have taken some pictures which were incorporated in a general safety film which our organization is using in connection with our work in the schools. I will now show this film so you can see these boys in action. SAFEGUARDING PEACE MAJOR F. L. BEALS, SUPERVISOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND MILITARY TRAINING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS That our forefathers had very definite and far-sighted views about the place of education in our governmental scheme is firmly established. For example, within a few years after the adoption of the Constitution, the Congress passed an ordinance declaring : "Religion, morality and knowl- edge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." The evident intention of the founders of the Republic and of our early legislators was that the welfare of the country, the security of the government itself, should rest in the hands of our school teachers . The first specific act by the government toward the founding and support of education was contained in the ordinance of 1787, which provided that two complete townships in each state formed from the public domain might be set apart for institutions of higher learning. The grants under this law have aggregated more than a million acres . The National Government did nothing further of a specific nature for the development of education until seventy-five years later, when in 1862 the law known as the "Morrill Act" was passed. This Act provided for a grant of thirty thousand acres of land to institutions of higher learning, for each senator and representative in Congress. In all, about ten million acres were conveyed by this grant. It must be remembered that this Act was passed at a time when the Nation was in the throes of a great civil strife. As a first step toward insuring or safeguarding the future peace of the Nation, it was provided that any institution coming under the provisions of the Morrill Act shall conduct a course in what, at that time, was called military tactics . Shortly after the establishment of the republic, General Washington recommended to the Congress that provision be made for training young DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 773 men in the military art. It was his thought that this was the greatest possible safeguard of peace. As a result of his constant urgings, the United States Military Academy at West Point was established. This, of course, had for its purpose the training of officers for the Regular Army. We have learned in these modern days that our greatest need is trained officers who may, in case of need, be called upon to serve. Trained leadership has always been our greatest lack. The National Defense Act of 1920 provides definitely for meeting this need. This act provides for the military education of young men by offering an enrichment to the curriculum of educational institutions. The plan is coördinated with our educational scheme, offering the preparatory or basic course in our secondary schools, and the advanced or finishing course in the higher institutions of learning. Traditionally we believe in a small, permanent military establishment, which shall serve as a nucleus around which ouizens may rally in the time of need, and it must be borne in mind that the trained officers of this small, permanent military establishment have supplied the trained leader- ship of the past. So strong is our belief in a small, permanent military establishment in times of peace that the favorite pastime of our National Congress is paring this permanent establishment to the bone. Our National policy for safeguarding peace, then, contemplates maintain- ing the smallest possible military establishment. We depend, in case of emergency, upon the utilization of the citizen man-power of the country. The safety and security of the country, therefore, depend to a large degree upon the efficiency of our methods of instruction. In the Army itself there has been developed, with the aid of some of the ablest educators in the coun- try, what is called the "applicatory method of instruction." In other words, the methods of military instruction have been applied to all of those things that constitute a part of army work. Military instruction is carried on always under the compelling demand for practicability, and an intense seriousness of purpose for the good of the country. By defining objectives, and standardizing tests, the natural motives of competitive interest and pride in achievement are developed. There is still an inclination to interpret military affairs in terms of mere obedience. There is a tremendous difference, however, between mere obedience and loyalty. Loyalty and discipline in the military service imply a sense of duty and an attitude of mind, which will insure each individual doing his own job in conformity with the common plan. The individual has his sphere of action. Within that sphere, he has his responsibilities. His responsibilities impel him to make his own decisions, and to act, when action demands, on his own initiative. Subordination is not subordination of the individual, but, rather, the allocation of the indi- vidual to his own particular part in the general task. We do not train all of our citizens to the tasks of war, as the citizens of Switzerland are trained, under compulsory service. We train those who 774 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION voluntarily enrol in time of peace, and we teach them how to train others. We train our leaders; we train our instructors. Every man who wears the uniform will have to become, in time of emergency, an instructor of those men who do not know the military ways or the military means. The reserve officers training corps is the medium through which military education is offered to our young men. There are some variations to the reserve officers training corps plan, but they are of minor importance. The plan of the reserve officers training corps is to take boys beginning at the age of 14, give them the basic elements of a military education. This basic course consists of interesting drills, of target practice, training in the use of the rifle, the management of the infantry pack, and other infantry equip- ment. The competitions in drill, signalling, rifle practice, and reviews add a zest to the training, while awards for achievement keep each boy striving to his utmost. We in Chicago hear much about direct teaching of citizenship. Our Superintendent said in a recent speech : "The preamble to the Constitution of the United States declares that one of the reasons for the adoption of the constitution is to provide for the common defense. The public schools, as in- stitutions of the people, should and must contribute their share toward preparation for the common defense. The first step in this direction is making good citizens, and any agency that we may employ to this end is justifiable." Let us look at the reserve officers training corps then from the standpoint of its educational value. It gives a boy an activity in which he is intensely interested. He feels himself a part of the U. S. Government, because he wears the uniform of the Army. He feels himself more closely a part of our governmental institutions than he ever would otherwise. That the reserve officers training corps selects from the military training those things that are best calculated to develop and bring out the highest qualities of citizenship should be sufficient warrant for its existence. However, it has behind it the very definite and very serious purpose of producing reserve officers who will fill the places of those men who are already beginning to drop out. We have today some 80,000 reserve officers in the United States, and we need 160,000. In order to maintain even the present number, it is necessary that we train and produce not less than 5000 reserve officers each year . As an illustration of how the Junior and Senior Reserve Officers Train- ing Corps are connected, a survey recently made in the personnel office of the Department of Military Science and Tactics at the University of Chi- cago shows that of the cadets in the Reserve Officers Training Corps of that unit who have received previous military training injunior units, by far the largest number are graduates or former cadets of the Reserve Officers Training Corps of the Chicago high schools. In the number of former high school students now pursuing the senior course, 70 received their initiation into military training in the high schools ofChicago. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 775 To the patriotic young American, eager for responsibility, who enjoys mingling with men, likes outdoor activities, likes variety, and who feels that he owes an obligation to his country, the Reserve Officers Training Corps training is well worthwhile. THE OUTLAWRY OF WAR— THE NEXT STEP IN 1 CIVILIZATION ¹ RAYMOND ROBINS, LIEUTENANT COLONEL, UNITED STATES ARMY, RETIRED CHICAGO, ILLINOIS We do not half appreciate the costs of the Great War. Ten million dead on battlefields, five million permanent cripples, hundreds of billions of wealth destroyed; pestilence, famine and unemployment, world propa- gandas of mass hatred and fear; anarchy and the force-spirit overriding with ruthless violence constitutional liberty and due process of law in all lands-these are some of the visible fruits of the World War . We do not half appreciate the menace of the next war. For the first time in human history, the scientific mind, the trained intelligence of the chemist and the engineer has been devoted to the development of the most effective means for wholesale human slaughter. Each nation is being equipped with invisible and odorless poison gas that is instantaneously deadly; with fleets of bombing airplanes controlled by wireless; and we are now able to destroy whole populations in a night. There are no longer any non-combatants. Old and young, women and little children, animals and the fruitful earth itself, now suffer a common devastation and ruin under the action of modern war. The last war left the nations of Europe bankrupt-victors as well as vanquished. War has become national and international suicide ! The last ten years-covering four years of the greatest slaughter of life and destruction of property in human history, together with the aftermath of six years of an even more terrible so-called peace-have torn the mask from the hideous face of war and revealed the war system as the supreme enemy of the human race. Right-minded men and women can no longer think of war as an honorable profession, nor as the path to true glory or national greatness. Six years after the close of the "war to end war" and to "make the world safe for democracy" there are more armaments and standing armies, more hatred and force and fear in Europe than in 1914- and less democracy than there has been in fifty years and less trust in democracy than there has been for a century. The war system is now known to be the arch murderer of the youth of the nations, the poison in the cup of brotherhood between the peoples of the earth, the forerunner of pestilence and famine, the paralysis of industry, and the suicide of com- merce-the great common oppressor and menace of the human race, crucifying Christ afresh on every battlefield. Abstract of address. 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION What is this monster war ? It is the product of the legal institution , the war system, organized and maintained in every nation of the earth. The war institution is today just as legal as marriage, or the home, as the church, or the school. We tax ourselves heavily to prepare for war; diplomats expect and plan for war; munition makers and imperialists seek war ; territory and toil, honor and fame, wait on the exercise of this war institu- tion-and it is the only method today for compelling a settlement of disputes between the nations of the earth. As long as the war system remains a legal institution we will have wars. Propaganda is the organized lying of the war system, and annexations are the organized stealing of the war system. As long as the war institution remains legal, it gathers force from day to day and year to year ; and when it begins to function, the war system outlaws civil society, betrays and corrects all the principles of Christianity and civilization-and sweeps all the petty devices of mere pacifists and those who seek to regulate and control its ruthless force and destructive violence before its Juggernaut car-as leaves are swept before a cyclone. Wars of liberation-revolutionary struggles such as our own in 1776- are all illegal. Every patriot in revolt against tyranny is guilty of the capital crime-treason. All wars of aggression or conquest are legal. Why was the Kaiser never brought to trial ? Because he is guilty of no crime known to international law. War making is the legal exercise of sover- eignty-"the king can do no wrong." If as an individual citizen I assault and kill a human being I am guilty of murder. If as a king or a diplomat I start a war that kills ten million lads, I am guilty of no crime known to the law of nations . What then is the answer ? Is there no escape from war is this after all a devil's world? Must the nations of the earth, ever so often, engage in the wholesale slaughter of their finest youth and destruction of the fruits of the patient thrift and toilsome labor of long years ? Must civilization finally commit suicide ? Is humanity doomed and Christianity an irri- descent dream ? Humanity is not helpless-this is God's world! We can outlaw this war system, just as we outlawed slavery and the saloon. We can make war a crime under the law of nations, and substitute law for war in com- pelling the settlement of international disputes. Human society has over- thrown other powerful legal institutions that had grown to be a menace to human welfare. Piracy, the international slave trade, the code duello. the slave system, the liquor traffic-all were legal institutions, all were as old as history-all have been outlawed and their exercise made a public crime, in the progress of mankind from barbarism up to liberty and security under law. The history of civilization in the structure of social control has been the history of the invasion of the realms of force and violence by public law. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 777 Always the successful method for the liberation of society from the effects of an outgrown legal institution has been to outlaw the institution and to make its exercise a public crime. Never has the attack been upon causes there are just as many causes for duels today as there ever were, just as many persons who would like to get human labor without paying for it, just as many thirsts for liquor as ten years ago-but there are no duels, no human slavery, and no legal saloon in the United States. In- stitutions that are outlawed and their operation made a public crime die out of the life of the world. That is the verdict of history. This is the answer to the supreme problem and menace of war in our civilization today. The war system and the war institution must be out- lawed by international agreement, and war must be made a crime under the law of nations. This is the first step in the effective "war against war ." Whenever in the history of human progress, a legal institution is out- lawed, if such institution is exclusively performing any necessary function, then that function must be provided for in some other institution. The war system is the only legal method today for compelling a settlement of international disputes. As long as there are increase and diminution in populations, growth and decay in the genius and adventure of nations, new discoveries of natural resources and changes in the routes of travel and trade, there will continue to arise questions between nations that will have to be settled. In six thousand years of human history there have been only two methods of compelling a settlement of disputes between human beings. The one, force and violence-assault between individuals, war between nations; the other, decrees of courts operating under public law. There- fore we demand, as the second step in the outlawry program to realize a warless world, the codification of international law to provide for the legal settlement of all international disputes, and its codification on the principle of equality in justice and right among all nations great and small. The third step in the outlawry program is the establishment of an inter- national tribunal with affirmative jurisdiction under a definite international code to hear and determine all questions that may arise between the nations and that are not settled by conference or arbitration ; each of these steps to be worked out in international conferences and ratified by the people of the nations participating in such conferences. How will the outlawry program campaign be developed ? First: Work to create an informed and definite public opinion in America and throughout the world demanding the outlawry of the war system in all lands. Keep to the main point and do not be diverted by easy by-paths and blind alleys. Always in the struggles to liberate mankind from insti- tutions that have become a menace to human welfare, there have been three types of minds and efforts often in conflict with each other-seeking the same end. a. Those intense individualists who believe that social institutions can be overthrown alone by moral suasion, individual protest, and personal martyrdom. Such persons believe that they could persuade all men not 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to own slaves, or not to drink liquor, and by this means destroy slavery and the liquor traffic. b. Those practical hard-headed men, of little faith, who believed that the institution of slavery or the saloon, by reason of their ancient history, general acceptance, and seeming necessity in the past, must therefore con- tinue indefinitely, and that all that can be done is to ameliorate the evils of such institutions by this or the other improvement in their operation or limitation of their exercise. Such persons thought that slave owners should be required to feed their slaves well, provide sanitary quarters, allow them one day's rest in seven, and give them some moral instruction, that the saloon should be heavily taxed, limited as to hours and days for opera- tion, and restricted to certain localities; and that this was all that could be done to relieve the acknowledged wrongs of either institution. Opposed only by the efforts of these persons and methods, slavery and the saloon grew in wealth and power. c. Those who having studied and understood the power that legality gives to an institution especially when coupled with exclusiveness of func- tion in meeting a social need, have organized the collective power of public opinion and bringing pressure to bear upon the officials of public authority, have succeeded in outlawing the institution, making its operation a public crime, and gathering up its social function into some other institution or in- stitutions that do not menace the public welfare. This last mind and method has outlawed slavery and the saloon, and it will outlaw the war system in this generation. Second: Bring this informed and definite public opinion for the outlawry program to bear upon these officials with power in all governments through votes, demonstrations, letters, and resolutions demanding the calling of an international conference to provide and submit to the people of every nation for ratification : ( 1 ) A mutual treaty outlawing the war system and mak- ing war a crime under the law of nations; (2) An international code for the legal settlement of all disputes between nations based on the principle of equality in justice and right between all peoples great and small ; and (3) A statute providing an international tribunal with affirmative jurisdic tion to hear and determine all disputes arising between the nations in ac- cordance with such international code. Born in the creative mind of a great Chicago lawyer, in collaboration with the foremost international jurist of a Roosevelt cabinet, this outlawry program has now spread to all civilized nations. Senator Borah, the moral and intellectual leader of the Senate of the United States, Professor John Dewey, the philosopher educator of America, and Judge Florence Allen, of Ohio, the only supreme court judge among the women of the world, are some of our outstanding leaders in this great cause. The Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Unitarian, and Congregational churches have joined in their support of this fundamental movement for the peace of the world. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 779 Let us enlist in this great crusade. Two generations ago the slave system was the issue; one generation ago the saloon system was the issue; today the war system is the issue. Christian civilization and the war system cannot both survive. Let us unite to outlaw war and liberate man- kind from the age-long thralldom of the sword, thus proving that the countless dead upon the battlefields of the Great War did not die in vain. DOLLAR FOR DOLLAR CARLETON B. GIBSON , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS SAVANNAH , GEORGIA Where the making of American citizens for an upright American Nation is concerned, honesty, uncommon honesty, is necessary and fundamental . In some relationships and occupations of life, we may cheat and lie and steal under the cloak of respectability and, by soothing our consciences if there be need of soothing, sleep in peace. But in the education of children of the people, by the people, and for the people there must be honest dealing with the children, with the people, and with ourselves as teaching and administrative educators . There is a triangular and threefold obligation on the part of each group-the children, the people, and the teachers-the taught, those for whom they are taught, and those by whom they are taught. The people furnish the dollars, the teachers receive the dollars and do the work, and the children are the victims or beneficiaries. What do the people provide for the making of upright and useful and intelligent citizens and for assuring life, liberty, and happiness to their children ? Last year they provided, all told, $1,800,000,000 for 25,000,000 children, or $72 per child; and they continue to provide approximately this sum each year for several years, about $800 in all. Some communities of people provide $8000 per child, most communities $800, some $80, and a few not much more than $8 for the education of American citizens with equal rights, equal voting power, and equal voice in government. Equal privilege should carry equal responsibility and equal opportunity to meet the responsibility and enjoy rightly equal privilege. The spiritual, civic, and mental value of education is unquestioned. Its money value has been demonstrated. The increased earning and wealth- producing power of the educated boy returns to the people in the body economic in a few years all invested by the people in school life of the boy, and because of his education and consequent superior wealth-creating ability he produces for society many times the dollars provided for his education. The boy not only gives to the people dollar for dollar, but many times the dollars furnished by them. If the people are, in a purely commercial sense, to give dollar for dollar, the annual expenditure for the 25,000,000 children of America would be 780 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION more than $ 10,000,000,000. If in some fortunate cities the costs of public education have really mounted alarmingly high, let it be remembered that in the great majority of cities and in nearly all rural communities the people are in no measure matching dollars fairly with the children. The mounting costs will on the whole never fall, but will steadily mount higher, and they should do so. Occasionally we hear a few people cry aloud for more emphasis upon " fundamentals" and less upon fads and frills, but have not all extensions and developments of education come from the demands of the people ? Kindergartens, adult education, elimination of illiteracy, Americanization, physical and health education, civics and patriotism, fire and accident pre- vention, music, art, industries, household arts and science, commercial studies, foreign languages, open-air classes, special provision for subnormals , visual education, religious education, evening classes, summer schools, speech correction, part time and continuation classes-all have come from the demands of the people, and the demands continue to come. One and eight tenths billions for all this education is little compared with the people's bill for twenty-two and one half billions for luxuries. They tell us that fourteen seventeenths of all the automobiles of the world are owned by Americans. The mounting costs of moving about constitute the real financial irritant of the people. We are in an orgy of spending for auto- mobiles and highways-not for education. Movie stars and prize fighters are paid munificently, not the makers of American citizens and the stabilizers of the American government. Charlie Chaplin's antics have not only made him more money, but had a greater impression on the American people than have all the thinking and speaking and writing of Theodore Roosevelt. The young Georgian fighter, a high school boy, so-called, has an income greater than the combined incomes of a hundred high school teachers. But there is another phase of this financial obligation, a reciprocal responsibility resting upon us to see that added to interest we give the people dollar for dollar. Education costs sometimes run high, because of the peculiar organization of the schools and the amount of time lost in the education of the child. Youth is the period for education. Do we conserve it and use it fully? The earnings of teachers, which constitute the major portion of educa- tion's costs, must support them throughout the 365 days of the year, should support them comfortably and provide recreation, growth, and security in savings, should support them everywhere better than they are now sup- ported. But while we are being supported well or poorly might we not by better organization and the larger operation of schools give more to the children for the dollars of the people. Short daily hours for five sevenths of the week are no longer necessary for the welfare of the child under conditions of enriched modern education. Long vacations of demoralizing idleness DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 781 are injurious to pupils and a handicap to the schools, and often a source of embarrassment to teachers . The expensive school plant unused much of the time is an irritation to the people. A curriculum radically revised and enriched for more than twice as many hours per year of active schoolroom work would, while con- serving and building health, carry the children on to a higher goal of moral , physical, and intellectual efficiency as citizens. We could thereby give more to the children and society for the dollars of the people. HOW WE USE VOCATIONAL INFORMATION W. W. BORDEN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SOUTH BEND , INDIANA During the past few years we have experienced many important develop- ments in our educational progress. One of the most outstanding of these is the recognition of the importance of considering the individual needs of the child. In the program of the modern junior high school much emphasis is placed on the individual aptitude of children. We have come to believe that true education helps the individual to meet and solve the many situations which confront him. We realize that education which trains one to think, which gives one proper attitudes toward his problems and brings together all innate resources for the solution of these problems, is the education which functions. It is the aim of education and the factor of individual differences upon 1 which any program of education guidance and vocational information should be based. In the older day, emphasis was placed on the keynote : "The same educational opportunities for all." Today we say "Educational opportunities according to individual needs, desires, and abilities of the pupil." If we recognize this vital, new principle, then guidance is funda- mental in the organization of any plan of education which is to be adapted to the variable needs of our children . Vocational guidance has been considered by the casual observer as some- thing relating principally to the placement of pupils in suitable employment and of giving advice to pupils who plan to leave school. But it means much more than placement-it is vitally important for all pupils in our educational system, whether planning immediate or ultimate participation in the world's work. Feeling the need of vocational information and educational guidance as a part of our work, we established in our school system five years ago a department known as Vocational Guidance and Information. The per- sonnel of the department consists of the Director, an assistant who has charge of placement, and a clerk. In each of our four junior high schools we have advisers or counsellors who are responsible to the director for the work in each school . 782 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The courses in occupational information are planned as a part of the regular curriculum of the junior high schools. These courses, which form a part of the work of the social science group, are given the following amount of time : Seventh grade, one period a week; eighth grade, two and one half periods a week; ninth grade, one period a week. At the present time a special committee is working out a plan for continuing throughout the senior high school all the phases of guidance begun in the junior high school. Subject-matter-In order to carry out successfully the aims of the course, the subject matter is planned to include the following topics: (1) Educational opportunities. Study of education in relation to suc- cessful living. Children are informed of all educational opportunities offered in the local school system. They are made familiar with the oppor- tunities for discovery of new fields of knowledge provided by subjects given in the junior high schools. Importance of how and why to study, the proper selection of courses, the value of high school and college education receive attention throughout the course. (2) Field of occupations. Study in the field of occupations. A study is made of the main fields of occupations with a special observation of repre- sentative occupations in each field. The student gets an appreciation of the scope of the world's work, the interdependence existing among all workers, and the contributions each group makes to society. (3) Occupational problems. The children are interested in the prob- lems affecting the worker-such as unemployment, labor laws, relation of employer and employee, finding the right kind of a job, etc. Later the pupils will have to meet and help to solve such problems. Frank discussion , under careful supervision, does much to fix proper attitudes and develop respect for the other person's opinions. (4) Vocational ethics and character development. There is no time more favorable than the junior-high-school age for stressing character building. The importance of character education must be placed on a par with other types of education. While character education permeates all subjects and all pupil activities, it cannot be left to chance, but must have a definite time and place on the school program. Purpose-What we try to accomplish through the subject matter pre- sented. (1) We try to train pupils to think by bringing up for discussion such topics as problems (as I have mentioned under subject matter) related to their occupational and civic life. (2) We try to vitalize their school work by giving them a clearer ap preciation of the value of the studies they are pursuing to the varied needs oftheir adult life. (3) We try to teach pupils to appreciate the demands for vocational fitness in the making of a successful worker in whatever field they may DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 783 enter. We try to inspire them to obtain the necessary education to help develop the character and qualities essential to a successful and contented worker. (4) We try through the wealth of the subject matter included in this course to train children that there is a contribution expected and needed from each child each individual-that each person must feel his personal responsibility to society and meet capably this individual responsibility ; that attitudes are as equally important in the successful worker as are aptitudes; that the individual who is continually out of harmony is a useless member of society. We do not spend a great deal of time on the actual details of the various jobs and occupational facts which vary so much. These can be learned later, easily and quickly when the child gets on a job, but if each child leaves school fired with a zeal to use his resources in serving himself and in serving society, he will be a constructive force in his community. In our own school the work has functioned because as time goes on more pupils are seeing the value of school training and are remaining in school after the school-leaving age-in other words, their school work has become motivated with life interests . INTRODUCING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN TO WASHINGTON PUBLIC SCHOOLS FRANK W. BALLOU, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. For six years immediately preceding my election to the superintendency in Washington in 1920, I had been directing educational research in the public schools of Boston. Those most interested in my administration of the schools of Washington naturally expected that I would undertake to inaugurate or develop such work in Washington. It is a real satisfaction to any school superintendent when he can live up to what is expected of him. This brief paper describes the steps taken to introduce systematic educational research into the public schools of Washington. Fundamental difficulties-To appreciate what was done and why it was done in that manner, one must understand some of the conditions under which the school system of Washington is organized and operated. Teach- ing, as well as supervisory and administrative positions, are statutory posi- tions created by law, and the Board of Education in Washington does not, as in most cities, have the authority to create new positions to meet new needs, except as specific legislation and appropriations are secured. More- over, legislation and appropriations are secured from Congress by two dis- tinct and independent routes. Until July 1, 1924, the school system was being operated in a legislative straight-jacket created by a general law passed in 1906. Aside from a few 784 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION limited modifications in the Appropriation Acts, no general changes of that law passed eighteen years ago, had been made until the enactment of the Teachers' Salary Act, on June 4, 1924. What had been done before 1920-Educational research is not entirely new in Washington. Scientific tests were given in a number of the public schools by Dr. Robert M. Yerkes while he was with the National Research Council a few years ago. More recently Dr. L. J. O'Rourke, who is con- nected with the United States Civil Service Commission, has carried on similar work. Moreover, through extension and summer courses, some of the teachers and officers in the Washington school system had acquired a knowledge of, and some skill in handling, research tests. In 1920, it appeared desirable that definite steps be taken to keep alive this interest in research work until such time as systematic arrangements could be made for carrying on educational research under official auspices. In accordance with the superintendent's plan of assigning city wide ad- ministrative and supervisory functions to supervising principals, the superin- tendent assigned educational measurement to two supervising principals, one in the white schools and one in the colored schools. These supervising prin- cipals assumed this additional function over and above their administrative and supervisory duties as officers in charge of a group of elementary schools. The work of these two supervising principals represents the first systematic attempt to carry on educational research in the public schools of Washing- ton under official auspices. Their work was guided by the following gen- eral purposes: 1. To become a source of information for teachers and officers interested in standard tests and scales . 2. To direct and supervise the giving of all standardized tests in the Washing- ton schools . 3. To study and compare achievements of pupils in the Washington public schools with pupils of other cities. 4. To formulate and supervise plans for greater efficiency in educational re- organization and procedure, and 5. To coöperate with outside educators desiring to make research studies in Washington which had been approved by the Superintendent. The scope of the testing work carried on the first year under the direc- tion of these two supervising principals will be indicated by the fact that 43,800 tests in ten subjects or aspects of subjects were printed and used by these officers . Attemptsto create a new position-While educational research was thus being carried on in Washington, systematic efforts were being made by the school authorities to secure appropriations from Congress for the establish- ment of two departments of educational research, one in the white schools and one in the colored schools. Each year requests for appropriations have been submitted by the Board of Education for the salaries of officers to carry on such work. Sometimes those estimates have not been allowed by the District Commissioners. One year such estimates were approved by DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 785 the District Commissioners and by the Bureau of the Budget and the school officials were then in a position to argue before the Sub-Committee on Ap- propriations of the House of Representatives for the establishment of such work in the Washington schools. The argument was apparently ineffective because the Sub-Committee did not make the appropriations requested. How it was done-In view of our inability to secure specific appropria- tions for educational research, other methods of inaugurating such work were considered. Reference has already been made to the fact that super- visory positions in Washington are created by law and appropriations made accordingly. The law of 1906 created thirteen supervising principalships . On the death of one supervising principal in 1914, his position was not filled but his district was consolidated with another district. Under the Act of 1906, as amended, the salary of the Supervising Principal was the ridiculous sum of $2,400. This amount was available for the appointment of a super- vising principal but not for the appointment of any other officer. How- ever, a precedent had been established for assigning duties to supervising principals other than those of administering and supervising a group of elementary schools. The interest of the teachers and officers, together with the interests of some leading women's organizations in Washington resulted in the raising of money for the purpose of supplementing the available $2,400, in order to make it possible to secure the services of a person qualified to carry on educational research . Accordingly, the Board of Education agreed to the appointment of a supervising principal to a statutory salary with the understanding that such supervising principal should receive additional compensation from con- tributions sufficient to make a salary of $4,200 per year. It was further agreed by the Board of Education that such supervising principal should have a small division of not more than three or four schools and should devote the major portion of his or her time to educational measurement . Accordingly, on July 1, 1923, Miss Jessie LaSalle, of Teachers College, Columbia University, was appointed supervising principal and assigned to direct the work of educational research in Washington. Thus began the formal systematic work in educational research in the Nation's Capital. The selection of Miss LaSalle was fortunate. Miss LaSalle brought to her work an unusual background of experience. She had been a teacher in kindergarten and the elementary schools as well as in college. She was thoroughly trained in psychology and when elected in Washington was director of educational research and psychological clinic at the Scarborough School, Scarborough, New York . Miss LaSalle was not unknown to the teachers and officers of Washing- ton. For three years she had conducted extension courses under the auspices ofTeachers College for the teachers and officers of both white and colored schools in Washington. Through these courses in psychology and educa- tional measurement, Miss LaSalle had a splendid reputation among the 786 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION teachers and officers of the schools of Washington. Moreover, through the courses which Miss LaSalle gave, large numbers of teachers and officers acquired familiarity with the principles and practices of educational research. No such salary was available for a corresponding position in the colored schools. A committee of officers and teachers, however, was organized for the purpose of carrying on similar work in the colored schools. It is a pleasure to report that the teachers and officers raised $3,000 for the pur- pose of purchasing tests and material necessary for carrying on the work. The work during 1923-1924 -From the private contributions and with a limited amount of public money, systematic educational research was inaugurated in Washington under official auspices at the beginning of the school year 1923-1924. Naturally, there was much public attention given to it. Much of Miss LaSalle's time was devoted to public addresses and conferences for purposes of furnishing general information concerning the purposes of the work. A limited number of critics appeared during the school year. Some com- plained because they were not informed by Miss LaSalle of the results of her examination of their children. Some of the army officers viewed the giving of psychological tests in the public schools from a background of experience with such tests during the war. Some parents criticized the tests because it was alleged children were not promoted when they should have been; and on the contrary, some parents criticised the tests because pupils were given a double promotion, partially on the basis of the results of these tests. Some of these criticisms of the tests became public during the summer of 1924. Immediately upon the resumption of meetings of the Board of Edu- cation in September these criticisms were called to the attention of the Board. The Board of Education set aside an evening meeting at which time any one was invited to discuss these tests pro and con. The overwhelming sentiment at this three-hour session of the Board was in favor of the tests, with only a few persons expressing general disapproval of them. The Superintendent anticipated somewhat the possible result of the hear- ing by the Board and consequently had prepared in advance a statement for the consideration of the Board. At the close of the hearing it appeared to the Superintendent and to the Board, that formal action should be taken. Accordingly, at the request of the Board of Education the Superintendent submitted his recommendations to the Board which were that the Board of Education should : 1. Reaffirm its belief in the value of the program of educational research which was inaugurated with the appointment of Miss Jessie LaSalle as supervising principal to take charge of such work. 2. Reaffirm its previous position in favor of two directors of educational research, one for divisions I- IX and one for divisions X-XIII, with trained assistants and adequate equipment, all to be provided out of public funds. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 787 In the meantime the Board should continue the work as organized and conducted during the past year and would accept voluntary contributions when necessary for carrying on the work. This is in accordance with the action of the Board taken at the meeting of October 4, 1923. 3. Approve the establishment of opportunity classes for both rapid and slow pupils where possible; if not possible, the Board should authorize accelerated pro- motions when the available evidence indicates the probable success of the pupil in the higher grade. 4. Approve the practice of using the results of tests along with scholarship, de- portment, and effort and other usual factors as a basis for the classification of pupils in the elementary and junior high schools. 5. Commend the hearty coöperation of teachers and officers which has been ex- tended to Miss LaSalle in inaugurating this new work in the Washington schools . 6. Commend especially the professional enthusiasm of teachers and officers in Divisions X-XIII which prompted them to raise money in order to carry on test- ing work in the schools of these divisions during the past school year. 7. Approve the policy of training of normal school pupils in the theory and practice of educational measurement before graduation, in order that said graduates may thereby enter the service as teachers qualified to make appropriate use of standard tests . 8. Endorse and commend the work of Miss Jessie LaSalle in carrying on standardized testing in the Washington schools during the past school year. In view of the nature of the testing work and the limited resources at her command and the difficulties involved by small buildings and salary classifications of teachers , the Board believes her work to have been highly successful. 9. Authorize, finally and in general, the administrative officers to carry on this work during the coming year and to extend it in so far as the resources at the disposal of the Board of Education may permit. This statement was unanimously approved by the Board of Education and during this school year educational measurement is accordingly being de- veloped and extended in the Washington school system. Under the pro- visions of the Teachers' Salary Act approved June 4, 1924, and by virtue of the further fact that appropriations for the schools of Washington are now made in such manner that larger discretion is given the Board of Edu- cation in the development of new lines of work, it is confidently expected that, in the near future, the Nation's Capital will take its proper place among those cities that give appropriate recognition to the systematic, scientific study of its educational problems through a well-organized and well-equipped department of educational research directed by adequately trained professional educators . THE FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL LIBRARY FOR A SCHOOL SYSTEM HENRY C. JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS SAN DIEGO , CALIFORNIA Instructional material-The poverty of the average school in supple- mentary material is the chief cause for the dullness, lack of life, want of interest, and impracticability of so much of the classroom instruction. 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION An inventory of the average classroom will generally give the following enumeration : The adopted textbooks, possibly one for each child, a few supplementary books, some out-of-date maps, a worn dictionary, and forty- five to fifty marred desks. This condition is responsible for the traditional program and the set mass instruction covering so many pages in the assigned textbooks. Recent changes in teaching methods-Individual pupil accounting indi- cates that a large number of pupils leave school because the classroom in- struction fails to interest them and seems of little practical value compared with the everyday affairs of life. The lack of reference and supplementary books and other educational material in the average schoolroom tends to make the study and recitation period superficial, inconsequential, and bar- ren. Unless the teacher has unusual mental equipment and interest in her work, she will resort to mass instruction where every pupil recites from the same text, and the pupils of the class will all be expected to memorize the facts outlined in the textbook. Slowly but surely the classroom teachers are developing a more sane and thoughtful method. If educational material is supplied whenever needed by the individual pupil or by small groups of pupils working together, so as to afford opportunity for more intensive research of topics or projects, then mass instruction will be abandoned and the teacher's time given over to individual guidance. The instruction must fit the individual by leading him on and on at the greatest possible speed. Power to progress varies with individuals, and hence makes lockstep and en masse instruction im- possible without, an enormous waste of time on the part of the great majority of pupils, and it will, in all cases, kill interest and drive children from the school as soon as the law allows them to leave . The project method-The average child will make progress only as he is encouraged to work out vital problems that confront him in his thinking based on his experience and reading. To develop normally and to his best advantage, the child must carry out his ideas and reach conclusions in his own individual way. Then only will he be able to work with the group intelligently and successfully. The important problem before the school is to provide, in great abun- dance, reading, illustrative material, and other forms of educational equip- ment to suit the various needs of the individuals and groups in the class- rooms . Under such conditions teachers and pupils take up naturally the project plan of work. Silent reading-The teaching of reading has been a great educational problem during recent years, and as a result has received careful study and much experimenting by teachers throughout the country. For this reason, reading is no longer confined simply to oral reading and effective expres- sion, which could be taught to the class as a whole by the use of one text. The reading period is now used primarily as a means of extending the experience of the child and stimulating his thinking power. Training in the mechanics of reading is accomplished by drill exercises, and therefore DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 789 it is given only as it is found necessary to develop correct habits of reading . If it is the big purpose of the reading time in school to give the pupil opportunity to collect information that will guide his thinking and develop his judgment and reasoning ability, it is quite evident that this progress is made through silent reading where the pupil is taught to concentrate and to get the ideas from the printed page as rapidly as possible. If this is the important work in reading, it certainly becomes the function of the school to supply an abundance of literature for each individual so as to make extensive reading possible. Enriching classroom work in the way I have suggested can be accom plished economically and efficiently only by centering all such material in one place, organized under the direction of skilled people, thoroughly trained and experienced in library methods and in the selection of material , and then by giving them the necessary equipment and machinery to supply readily the needs of all the classroom teachers who are so intensively en- gaged in directing children in their educational progress that they must depend on this central agency to secure, organize, care for, safeguard, and distribute the material for instruction . San Diego central school library-To carry out this plan, a central library for the school system of the city of San Diego was organized three years ago . This library is ideally located at the center of the school system in Balboa Park in one of the large buildings of the world's exposition. These former exposition buildings, which have been made permanent struc- tures, and the grounds surrounding the Central School Library are now the mecca of many interesting and instructive excursions for both children and adults. The buildings contain the Natural History, Fine Arts, Science of Man, and other museums. Close by is located one of the great zoo- logical gardens of the country. These institutions all coöperate with this Central School Library. The Natural History Museum contributes vari- ous nature study and geography exhibits and mounted specimens. The Fine Arts and Science of Man museums and the Zoological Garden all give free admission to teachers and pupils, and the curators and research workers often serve as instructors. Supplementary material supplied by these fine institutions assists the teachers in vitalizing the course of study. The Library now contains about 70,000 volumes of supplementary books for elementary schools, consisting of the following sections : One section contains books that are sent out to the elementary schools in the city in sets of five to twenty-five to be kept by the teacher as long as needed. Another section is maintained as a special silent reading library, which con- tains a careful assortment of books on a variety of subjects that are sent out at the teacher's request and may be retained for any length of time, or until all the books have been read by every pupil. Great emphasis is placed on this informational literature for silent reading. Aprofessional library section has also been built up during the last three years. The latest professional books, recommended by the teaching force and other educators, are constantly added to this department of the library for 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the use of committees and individuals in improving instruction. Naturally a central library is much more than sets or individual books. All types of supplementary material to be used in any part of the school system, that will help class work, are centered in this library. All requests for library books or supplementary books for any of the schools of the system, senior and junior high schools as well as the elementary department, are sent to the head librarian of the Central Library. Teachers are encouraged in every way to visit it and study the material that may aid them in their classroom problems. The library is also made a center for the supervisory staff. The draw- ing department, with headquarters in this library, has ample space for the exhibit of projects and other school work. As stated before, it receives much help from the Fine Arts Museum located near by. The visual edu- cation department, with headquarters in the building, has all its material and equipment there as a part of the library, organized for the purpose of distributing all types of visual aids: films, lantern slides, stereoscopic views, mounted pictures, photographs, industrial exhibits, nature study ma- terial, motion picture machines, and other equipment necessary for present- ing these visual aids. This department aims to become one of research and production as well as distribution. Every two weeks the library delivers by truck to each school books and the other material requisitioned. The needs of the school and the children determine the length of time this instruc- tional material is kept. The important thing in building up instruction and encouraging teachers to become better students of individual needs has been accomplished by giving them carefully selected books and material for the subject-matter under consideration . This has been done in an economical and effective way through the establishment of the Central Library. A HOME FOR RETIRED TEACHERS OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL 120, NEW YORK CITY In the progress of the National Education Association in development of the cause of education, the work has divided into two broad fields of activity, which may be described as the interests of teaching and the inter- ests of the teacher. These two words, teaching and teacher, include practically every phase of professional progress. The first, teaching, occu- pied the attention of the Association throughout its first years. This was entirely proper, because the subject-matter and method of our profession had to be studied and its importance, its relative values, its materia educata we may call it to parallel materia medica, a similar field in a fellow pro- fession, had to be improved and dignified before the worker could gain respect and attention. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 791 But the second field, that of the teacher, has been for several years now the main subject of our attention. I am rather fond of saying that teach- ing can rise no higher as a profession unless the teacher, the worker in the field, receives consideration and conditions which enable him or her to live and work as a member of an honored profession must . By teacher I mean every rank, grade, and type of worker in the field of education. When the expert theorist in education and superintendent cease to be proud of the title of teacher, they have blocked the progress of professional development. And I believe that every policy of salary, tenure, and pension which we are developing as part of those necessary con- ditions of living as a member of an honored profession apply with equal force to college professor, superintendent, principal, and grade teacher. The point to which I invite your particular attention this morning is a newly recognized need. If I were not myself an unmarried woman, wil- ling to own up to a quarter of a century of teaching, discovering that time and the natural progress of events in family life are likely to leave me myself without any close relative, when old age comes upon me, I might not have had this hitherto unrecognized need of the teacher forced upon my attention. But last year's work in your service as President of the N. E. A. brought innumerable specific cases to my attention. May I digress to tell you some of these stories ? In August of 1923, I happened to be present at a meeting where teachers were receiving their assignments for the new school year . I saw two women of over sixty left without contracts. Both had given forty years of satisfactory service. The State has no proper pension law. Both told me that they were without homes or funds, except the charity of un- congenial distant relatives. One had provided for an invalid father and brought up and educated his two children by a second marriage. The president of the Board of Education in a southern city told me that a large number of old teachers had been discovered in poorhouses and insane asylums of her State. The discovery was made during a legislative investigation of State and county institutions. She did not know of my interest in the old-age conditions of teachers, but was citing the instances in connection with the struggle to prevent salary decreases in that State. Among my personal acquaintance are several horribly lonely old women, to whom few of us give as much attention as our busy lives permit. They have a pension, so that they are in no need of food or clothing or room, but they have outlived all upon whom they might rightfully depend for companionship. Many N. E. A. members have told me of former teachers similarly situated in their own towns. The need of a home in old age is particularly the problem of the un- married woman teacher. The large majority of men have families and look to the grateful care of sons and daughters. The unmarried woman teacher has no such future hope. In addition, her salary has usually been 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION smaller, her opportunities for making "extra" money have been few, and she usually has the support and care of her own parents and aged relatives, being the last one left in the family home. Retirement allowance, actuarily computed and professionally propor- tioned with due attention to the questions of promotional opportunity, merciful provision for the aged, and recruiting for new teachers-this is an essential among the conditions for honored living for the worker. But pension alone does not meet the problem I put before you today. Money alone, no matter how liberal the pension allowance may be, cannot buy companionship and can secure only mercenaries as caretakers. Provision of a home for the lonely, retired old teacher is the rounding out of our activities to care for the teacher's conditions of honored living : Salary, tenure, pension, old-age care. Other occupations have set us the example-actors, ship-builders, sailors. The fraternities have given striking illustrations. The Masonic Order, the Moose and others. Shall we be laggards ? Shall we trust to the accidental claim of a teacher upon a fraternal order ? How great is this need ? Hearken to the figures amazingly beyond any imagination of mine :- The Ella Flagg Young Club , of Chicago, volunteered in February to make a preliminary investigation to demonstrate whether need for any such home actually exists. Miss Isabella Dolton, president of the Club, appointed a committee which began work at once under the direction of Miss Jane Neil as chairman. In June Miss Neil made a report, the substance of which is as follows : How many retired teachers do you know who need companionship and care at present ? 1263. Is it possible that at some future time you may need facilities which a colony or residence for retired teachers would offer ? Total number of teachers to whom questionnaire was submitted-8194. Voting yes-3545 . If such a project were successfully undertaken, would you care to become a resident, granting of course, that the conditions were conducive to comfort and happiness ? Voting yes-2484 . And this was a survey made over a very limited area and in four months' time! Opponents of the old time poorhouse and old style institutional care for the aged are in some parts of our country struggling to pass old-age pension laws in connection therewith planning schemes of boarding out the lonely and uncared for aged men and women. Imagine such a fate for man or woman with the degree of education we have the right to demand in a teacher ! Do you know any teacher's pension which will pay for board in the kind of home an educated woman would desire to live ? Can you calmly consider boarding out an educated man or woman DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 793 with traditions of culture, good English, and good breeding, in the type of house most of our teachers' pensions could afford to pay for ? How can a plan for a home for retired teachers be financed ? That opens up a big problem which will be discussed at a meeting of an advisory council recently selected to meet the issue. Every State in the Union has at least one representative in that advisory council, many have three or four. The members of that advisory council meet this afternoon to decide what methods will be selected. Half a dozen have been proposed-small annual voluntary contributions, bequests, an insurance plan, a loan, a drive, etc. If you will help the cause along, I hope you will write me for the names of your State representatives. My object in coming before you today is to present the need, present my project for meeting that need, and enlist your support. My heart is in this thing. I mean to put it over, even at the sacrifice of every other interest, I have ever had. I urge your sympathetic consideration, and I rely upon your support. BALTIMORE'S NEW SCHOOL BuildING PROGRAM HENRY S. WEST, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , BALTIMORE, MARYLAND In a time allowance of seven minutes I am to tell about Baltimore's twenty-two-million-dollar school building program . Hence I must talk at the rate of $3,000,000 a minute. Baltimore at the beginning of the year 1920 found her school plant in a deplorable condition. Existing school buildings, many of them very old, had been sadly neglected, so that they were dreadfully in want of repairs , and for a number of years there had been absolutely no adequate program of new school construction. An awakened public conscience produced in rapid succession three acts that started the good work of rehabilitating the city's public school plant. First, an "enabling act" was passed by the Maryland State Legislature authorizing the city of Baltimore, by taking the necessary legal steps, to raise on a Public Improvement Loan the money necessary to effect a number of public improvements, including considerable improvements to the public school plant. Second, the City Council of Baltimore passed the necessary ordinances to create a Public Improvement Commission to administer the expenditure of the proposed loan for school improvements and other improvements, and to issue city stock to the amount of $7,000,000 for school improvements, provided the voters of the city ratified this action. Third, the people in the autumn election of 1920 ratified the public im- provement loan by the overwhelming vote of 168,716 for the loan to 8585 against the loan. The schools themselves did much to help put over that 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION school loan, and the public schools' parade for the loan was a memorable feature of the campaign. No sooner had the Public Improvement Commission gotten upon the job of putting $7,000,000 worth of improvements upon the school plant than they realized this amount of money would provide merely a beginning of the school improvement needed. In the meantime the Baltimore School Survey of 1920-1921, directed by Dr. George D. Strayer, produced an estimate of at least $15,000,000 more as the amount necessary for a satis- factory replacement program plus a program for new school construction for the decade 1920 to 1930. Steps were next taken to get another "en- abling act" for a second school loan passed by the legislature of 1922, to get the City Council to pass an ordinance for a second school loan of $15,000,000, and to get the people to ratify this second loan in the Novem- ber election of 1922. All of this went through according to schedule. In that way a total of $22,000,000 was obtained for Baltimore's present school building program, $ 1,000,000 of which was to be devoted to repairs to existing buildings. The $21,000,000 for new construction and extensions is being used "for the acquisition of school sites and additions to existing sites, for the con- struction of school buildings and additions to existing school buildings, and for the improvement and reconstruction of existing school buildings." In the matter of school sites, seventeen existing schools have had additions to their sites, and two additional sites have been secured for future schools. In the matter of building additions to existing schools there are completed or in process, nine additions to existing schools. Three large elementary schools contracted for and started just prior to the passage of our first school loan were taken over and completed by the Public Improvement Commission. The main building program, however, consists of twenty- three projects, including elementary schools, junior high schools, and senior high schools, where completely new schools on new sites have been com- pleted or are in process. This school building program in Baltimore is going to furnish additional accommodations for 33,000 pupils. The new buildings are all carefully designed and built in fireproof construction. The Public Improvement Commission is directing the architects to produce in each case the size of building and kind of building desired by the School Board; and Doctor Strayer has been retained throughout the program as special educational adviser to the architects. Costs upon the projects so far completed have ranged from $345,000 for one of the earliest of the elementary school projects to $1,167,650 for the last one of the high school projects. The building cost per cubic foot has ranged from 27.6 cents to 51.3 cents per cubic foot. On the basis of pupils accommodated, the cost has ranged from $340 to $627 per pupil. As these fine new school buildings are opened in district after district around Baltimore the citizens are learning what a really modern school DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 795 building is, and already there are signs that from now on they will be satisfied with nothing short of the best in school planning, construction, and equipment. THE PERSONNEL AUDIT OF THE TEACHING STAFF E. E. LEWIS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FLINT , MICHIGAN There are two major phases of public school administration. One is the administration of what the French call matériel, and the other is the ad- ministration of the personnel . By matériel is meant buildings, grounds, furnishings, supplies, upkeep, maintenance, money, etc. It includes everything of a physical nature for making the teacher work effectively. By personnel is meant all persons necessary to carry out the functions of the institution. In education it embraces superintendent, assistant superin- tendent, supervisors, directors, principals, assistant principals, teachers, clerks, janitors, and engineers. Obviously, personnel management in public schools is vastly more im- portant and difficult than matériel supervision. The competency of the classroom teacher primarily determines the efficiency of the public school system. The levels within the teaching profession range from the simplest one-room country school to the presidency of the foremost university of the country. In all of these positions the best possible person is none too good. Business and industrial establishments have organized personnel depart- ments. These departments are assigned the duty of both hiring and what is more important adjusting people to their work in accordance with the very best capacities, interests, and abilities for which they are hired. The technique of personnel administration has been developed in industrial and business establishments. In education, school officers have given a great deal of their time to the matériel management of the school system and not enough of their time to the personnel management . There are several fundamental principles that must be borne in mind in the study of the teacher as an individual : First, one individual differs from another in those personal aptitudes and abilities with which she is by nature equipped and which she is able to contribute to her teaching in return for her salary. Second, individual teachers differ widely in interests and motives and respond best to varying stimuli. Third, the same individual changes from year to year in ability and in interest (both in degree and kind) . Fourth, different kinds of work require different kinds of personal ability in the persons who are to perform them. Fifth, granting equal ability, different kinds of work are done best by persons who temperamen- tally are particularly interested in them. Sixth, the work in each position changes as time goes on. Duties are added and taken away. A similar change is apt to take place in abilities and interests of the teacher. Seventh, 796 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION environment-working conditions, supervision, personal and professional relations with fellow teachers, opportunities for advancement and for self- expression exercise a tremendous influence on personal efficiency. The old notion of putting square pegs into square holes and round pegs into round holes is entirely inadequate. The notion of the right man in the right place is little better. These notions regard both the job and the worker as rigid and inelastic. It is a cold, mechanical point of view. The new point of view recognizes that the teacher exercises an influence upon her job and the job exercises an influence upon the teacher. In fact, the job is never the same job when filled by a different teacher. The teacher is never the same teacher when in a different job. The job reacts upon the teacher and the teacher reacts upon the job. Neither the job nor the teacher is rigid and inelastic. This has led to a new conception in personnel administration. The new conception is called the worker-in-his-work unit. When a new teacher is hired we should not think merely of connecting a teacher to a job or a job to a teacher. It is the creation of a teacher-in-her-work unit. The hiring of a new teacher does not reproduce the same teacher-in-her-work unit. A new teacher-in-her-work unit has been created. The transfer of the teacher from one position to another destroys the present unit and creates another new unit. The task of personnel supervision in education is to make every teacher-in-her-work unit as effective as possible. Three factors must be considered in studying a teacher-in-her-work unit : the teacher's capacities, the teacher's interests, and the opportunities pre- sented by the work. One's capacities include a great variety of intangible personal character- istics and concrete abilities, all of which do or do not make for success in any given kind of work. "A list of one's capacities would include such characteristics as physical health, nervous coördination, appearance and manner, judgment, initiative, aggressiveness, thoroughness, disposition, tact, diplomacy, organizing ability, supervisory ability, culture, knowledge, adaptability, and skill along specific lines." "Interest has to do with one's volitional life. We must consider one's wishes, ambitions, conscious and unconscious motives, instinctive and im- pulsive tendencies to act, the subconscious mind and emotional set or trend, the vague yearnings and the restless and ill-defined cravings which are so profound and yet so slightly recognized as a part in human efficiency. Са- pacities and interests must be in harmony for the highest efficiency and hap- piness of the individual." Finally, the requirements and the opportunities of each position must be studied. This requires expert job-analysis. Opportunities include ( 1 ) a chance for the worker to exercise his special capacities; (2) a chance to satisfy his special interests; (3) a chance to advance, and (4) a chance for self-expression, for the "satisfaction of such creative instincts as he may possess, for such growth as he may crave, for the fulfilment so far as possi DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 797 ble of those desires and ambitions of a personal nature (for civic activity, for proper leisure, for family responsibilities) with which he may be endowed." THE SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION AND THE BUSINESS MANAGER OF SCHOOLS—AN ANOMALY GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION , AND DIRECTOR , INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH , TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY The business manager of schools in a large city bought chairs for the kindergarten which were uncomfortable, unhygienic, and structurally un- satisfactory. When his attention was called to the fact that the superin- tendent of schools and the director of kindergartens preferred a better, more hygienic, more comfortable piece of furniture, he proposed that if those charged with the responsibility for developing the work of the kin- dergartens did not like the chairs he purchased, the children could sit on the floor. The business manager in this school system was responsible only to the board of education. He felt that his success depended upon buying the cheapest article available. The physical well being of kindergarten children did not enter into his calculations. But the adequate development of an educational program requires that all business activities, whether they have to do with the buying of furniture and supplies, the planning and construction of buildings, or the development of an adequate system of accounting and budgeting, be subordinated to the development of an effi- cient program of education. It was an anomalous situation which permitted the independent business executive in an eastern city to develop the plans for a large school building without making any provision for a teachers' rest room. His argument that he and the men in his office down town had to go out for lunch and that teachers should have no better provision utterly ignored the importance of a rest period for teachers during the school day. The same office completely responsible for the planning of school build- ings without review of the superintendent of schools and his staff was satisfied with a building which was architecturally acceptable, but in which the daylighting of classrooms had been neglected. In another city the separate business management was responsible for the construction of a school building in which ample space was provided for a medical suite, but which failed to make possible the usual distance for giving an eye test because of the manner in which the partitions were ar- ranged in this part of the building. The schedule of accomodations to be provided in school buildings and the standards which must be kept in mind can be determined only by those who are charged with the re- sponsibility of developing a program of education in the buildings to be erected. 798 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It is interesting to know that in the larger cities which have provided for the independent management of their business affairs the costs of education are as high as in those cities in which the business executive is responsible to the superintendent of schools. The only discoverable dif- ference in cost is in the item of general control where the cost is somewhat greater in the cities which have organized the business office separate from that of the superintendent of Schools. The fetish of the efficiency of the business man has often operated to inter- fere with sound principles of administration. Not only in the adminis- tration of schools, but also in the administration of private enterprises, efficiency demands that there be a chief executive officer to whom all other executives are responsible. In our larger cities the superintendent of schools has been chosen for this office usually after a long period of suc- cessful experience as an executive in smaller cities or in subordinate execu- tive positions in the larger city which he serves. Even though the superin- tendent of schools may not be entirely familiar with all of the details of accounting, purchasing, planning of buildings, letting of contracts, and the like, it seems only reasonable to suppose that he has sufficient executive ability to direct the activities of that part of the school organization having to do with these affairs. To set up a separate business organization with coördinate authority is to propose that the business affairs of the school system can be conducted without reference to the educational program which the schools are providing and in the furthering of which all admin- istrative activities find their real significance. HOW WE OBSERVED EDUCATION WEEK IN HUTCHIN- SON, KANSAS J. W. GOWANS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HUTCHINSON, KANSAS There is a rightful inquiry on the part of the public in all communities as to the reasons for large expenditure of public funds for the school pro- gram. Logical reasons for expenditure usually bring reasonable response from the average community. Since educational demands are so much greater than formerly, the question is frequently asked what is the purpose of teaching a certain subject or group of subjects ? What are the schools trying to do ? Do they really have any certain aims or objectives ? It was felt that with all the prestige thrown around education week by the various coöperating agencies, the Federal Government, the State, the National Education Association, the American Legion, and other organiza- tions, that it furnished an unusual opportunity to place strategically before the public the aims and purposes of education so splendidly stated in the Cardinal Objectives of Education. Weeks in advance we began to pre- pare for the proposed program. Principals' meetings, group, and general teachers' meetings were held so that all teachers had the specific details DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 799 of procedure in mind. The purpose was not to put on a separate pro- gram each day, but to develop in the regular daily class work the particular objective to be stressed showing, if possible, how the objective for the day functioned in the regular school work. The individual teacher sent to her principal the detailed plan for her lessons for each day. This was addi- tional labor, but was thought-provoking since all wished to excel. Building plans were then sent to the central office. Unusual lessons were called specifically to the attention of the general public. The party in charge of grade supervision spent considerable time in analyzing the books used either as regular or as supplementary texts and it was highly illuminating to note the difference in the adaptability of the various texts, some seem to have been built with the cardinal objectives in view; in others they were in decided eclipse. From this analysis much information was gleaned concerning first-hand material in the school texts relating to each subject taught. Bulletins were sent to all the teachers with direct information and suggestions as to plans. However, each teacher was urged to use her own initiative and make her plan as outstand- ing as possible. The schedule for the week was as follows : Monday's objective .... Citizenship Tuesday's objective . Vocational efficiency Worthy Home Membership Wednesday's objective . Fundamental Processes Thursday's objective . Ethical training Right Use of Leisure Friday's objective .. Health Generous publicity was given by the newspapers. Reporters visited the schools and gave first-hand experiences, which made it much more interest- ing than office information. Boxed editorials found a place on the front page along with latest Associated and United Press reports. The pro- gram for the week, the seven objectives, and the objective or objectives for the day were first-page news. Practically every one of the homes in the city of Hutchinson was reached in this way, and for more than a week the reading public had called to their attention each day the fact that there are specific and definite aims in the program for the public schools. The American Legion was much interested and obligated themselves to see that the motion picture theaters gave the proper publicity. For a week at each program in all the moving picture theaters the audience read on the screen the cardinal objectives of education and that a visit to the Hutchin- son schools would furnish evidence of the fact that they were being stressed. The various civic clubs entered into the program enthusiastically. The Chamber of Commerce gave a noon luncheon to its membership in a new grade building. At one o'clock the children assembled in their rooms and the representatives of the Chamber visited the rooms observing the work 800 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION done. On every hand they saw concrete evidences of the objectives of edu- cation. Posters, signs, recitations all told the story of the plans and aims of the public school. Although the kindergarteners did not understand the full significance, they entered into the spirit of the week enthusiastically. One of them volunteered the information that he knew "the seven ob- jections to education." Only a few examples can be given to illustrate classroom procedure. A lesson in worthy home membership was planned by a fifth-grade class in mathematics. The theme of the lesson was Children's Allowances. It was a discussion lesson with simple problems to illustrate the points. The thought was stressed that to be a worthy home member each person must be mindful of the rights of others. They discussed and determined what an allowance for the average fifth-grade pupil should cover. The sugges- tion was emphasized that perhaps a part could be saved each week. The aid of parents was enlisted. The teacher has followed up the lesson in the home and the results have been splendid. The classes in salesmanship in senior high school had an unusual chance to demonstrate the vocational objective. The largest department store in- vited the salesmanship classes to take charge of the establishment for the day. Students worked with the regular clerks as salesmen; others worked in the credit and accounting departments. One group assisted the window dressers, another wrote all the advertisements for the day, incidentally working in the vocational objective in a clever way. The project em- phasized not only the vocational aim, but advertised the program as a whole. In addition to the regular assignment in the composition classes in senior high school each student was assigned a particular objective as his project for the week. He was asked to assemble all material from any recitation or any school activity which had a direct bearing on his objective. He gave an oral report to the class on the day his assignment was discussed, and at the end of the week he handed in a carefully written report of the week's investigation. Some of these reports were illustrated. On Friday one of the junior high schools summarized the work of the week in a pageant given in assembly. The parents and friends attended in large numbers. The objectives were interpreted by posters, signs, and pantomime, no words being spoken. Ethical training and citizenship were portrayed in two plays written by some of the children. They clearly delineated good citizenship and right living by contrast with poor citizen- ship and wrong living; children's productions, but none the less effective . One group of girls from the home economics department demonstrated the making of a kitchen costume and another the preparing of the ingredi- ents for the making of cookies. Mathematical exercises, work in English , and the funeral of poor writing attended with elaborate ceremonies called attention to fundamental processes. The physical training classes proved that health is being conserved . DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 801 A fourth-grade geography class had an interesting lesson on the leisure objective. Two days in advance the pupils were assigned the project of preparing the presentation of a game or leisure occupation of the children of some foreign country. Children from Spain, Mexico, Japan, France, and Greenland appeared before the class dressed in the characteristic garb of the country represented and told stories concerning the games of their native land. It is our belief that the program, as carried out, has had and will have most beneficial results. Some five thousand people visited the schools, see- ing the actual application of the aims and purposes of education and also becoming better acquainted with classroom procedure. Thousands of others followed the program as given daily in the newspapers. Pupils, teachers, and the general public undoubtedly had an enlarged vision of the purpose and plan of public school education. The public school con- sciousness of the community was enhanced, quickened, and vitalized. TAKING THE SCHOOL TO THE PARENTS FRANK E. MATHEWSON, DIRECTOR OF THE TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENT, WILLIAM L. DICKINSON HIGH SCHOOL JERSEY CITY, NEW JERSEY Jersey City has been conducting a publicity campaign in the last few weeks, preliminary to a request for a large bond issue for building of new schools . Last September, Dr. Nugent organized and directed a series of moving pictures taken through the schools, explaining the work through the kindergarten and the high school. These have been shown for the past few months in all public places, in the women's clubs, in churches, and dur- ing the month of March, these pictures will be shown in the moving picture houses in order to show what the schools of today are doing. The reaction has been favorable. People who have criticised the schools are now saying the schools are worthwhile. They knew nothing before of the activities carried on in the schools. This is a fine way to bring the schools before the public. You can have your Education Week and schools open for visita- tion and the results are not so good. Here we are reaching practically all of the parents of the city. Who does not go to the movies, or to church or is not connected with some club? In this way we are telling the people we are trying to do a real piece of work in education. Dr. Nugent is insisting that the credit for the development of this system be given to our former superintendent, Dr. Snyder. We have decided to show two or three reels which will give you a fair idea of this movement at the end of the meeting. If any care to see them we shall be glad to have you stay. 802 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The following reels will be shown: Reel 1. Evolution of the Public School ; Jersey City Training School; and Lower Grades- 1A, 1B, etc. Reel 2. Vocational Classes for Boys; Upper Grades of the Grammar School; and Classes in Domestic Science. Reel 3. Continuation School Classes ; Special Classes for Underweight Children ; Special Classes for the Blind; and Special Classes for the Deaf. Reel 4. The Hospital School ; and The Public School Athletic Associa- tion. Reel 5. Lincoln High School. Dickinson High School. The High School Play. The Commercial Dept. The Library. The High School Lunch Room. Reel 6. Girls' work in the Industrial Dept. Classes in Mechanical Drawing. Classes in Architectural Drawing. Woodworking Classes. Reel 7. Classes in the Machine Shop. Classes in Patternmaking. Mak- ing Molds on the Bench and Floor in the Foundry. Reel 8. Pouring Molten Iron in the Foundry. Industrial Physics Labo- ratory. The Electrical Laboratory. The Chemistry Laboratory. D. H. S. Memorial Day Exercises ; and Snyder Murphy Title. OUTCOMES OF OUR CURRICULUM PROGRAM JESSE H. NEWLON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO Seven minutes is a short time in which to describe in any detail the curriculum program of the Denver Schools so I shall present the brief out- line and then perhaps outline some of the results of the program. We have spent $60,000 which was appropriated for the revision of cur- riculum. This was based upon the principle that the revision of curriculum must be done to a large extent on the ground if the revision is to be effec- tive. It was necessary that the teachers have substitutes when they are chairmen of committees and members of committees so they may spend days or weeks and sometimes even semesters or a year at the administration build- ing working out this revised course of study. We also needed to employ specialists in particular fields to come to Denver for consultation with our committees. These are not for lectures to the teaching staff but for con- sultation with our committees. We needed to employ extra clerks to do the necessary clerical work of revision. All this is under the direction of the administrative staff of the schools. It will be described in more detail later. We are in hopes that this will be a continuous system . Now as to some of the results. I do not want you to think I am from California when I make the claims I am going to make. I am from Colorado. We are making conservative statements as to the outcome . DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 803 I am going to give you the least important outcome first-namely, courses of study embodying the latest research tested in the classroom either of Den- ver schools, or in any State, or any experimental schools. Second, the emergence of leaders among the classroom teachers. Third, direct improve- ment in teaching. Fourth, it is found that the staff is more interested in current educational thought. Fifth, it also results in a staff that is doing far more general reading, reading outside the field of education. Sixth, it is bringing new joys in teaching to the teacher. There are instances of teachers who were not interested in the problems of the work two years ago who have made distinct contributions to our work. The seventh result may seem impossible, but is true. That is, teachers are requesting supervision in the Denver schools, and these are coming not only from the elementary schools, but from the senior high schools. That is more astonishing. Eighth, teachers are appreciating and using better than ever before good equipment and libraries. Ninth, they are getting a better insight into the aims and purposes of education. Tenth, administrative and supervisory staff are recognizing and appreciating the contributions which the teachers can make in the improvement of policies. That is perhaps best of all. Eleventh, there is a better spirit of coöperation between the teachers and administrators. Twelfth, teachers and principals are stimulated to in- creased professional study. Thirteenth, the entire educational staff can better interpret the schools to the public. Fourteenth, we have as a result of our progress, obtained a quickened interest on the part of the public in the schools which resulted in a fine series of articles, written by a well-known journalist and appearing for thirteen days in the Denver News and Times , everyone pertaining to our revision program and having a front page lead. INTRODUCTION WILLIAM MCANDREW, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE We have a Commission on the Curriculum which is attempting to bring about a recasting of the daily exercises of the schools. They are young men; they are specialists; and as one whose years is probably the sum of them all, your president desires to remind them of the mistakes that have been made heretofore in having distinct from the exercises of the school the great American principle of education. It is so easy to state the large American ideals and to have them entirely disassociated from the daily exercises. You see an illustration of this on every hand. Take a commis- sion of men on the curriculum built up of specialists and you will have an excellent citizen going into the great woods of ideas and standing in front of his own particular tree and looking at it so intently and getting so close to it that he illustrates, as do other members of such a commission , what we mean by the old maxim, 'You cannot see the forest for the tree.' 804 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In turning over this meeting to its chairman and in urging upon this commission the avoidance of mistakes of previous commissions, I ask you commissioners and superintendents to see that in the daily work in the management of our schools, we appreciate more than heretofore that great American ideal of producing an outlook that is public-minded and not selfish, running a system of schools that is working for the community, and not for the ornamentation of the few. THE COMMISSION ON THE curricULUM EDWIN C. BROOME, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PENN- SYLVANIA This commission was created by a resolution adopted at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Cleveland in February, 1923. The purpose of the commission, as stated in the resolution, was : "To bring together the elements for the construction of a suitable curriculum for the boys and girls of American public schools." From the outset, therefore, we realized that our function was limited; that it was not to construct an all-American course of study, even if it were possible or desirable; nor to specify the content or the amounts of content in the several branches of study; but that it was our function to serve as an officially constituted central committee to bring together the elements of a public school curriculum, and to offer guidance and assistance in a general nation-wide reconstruction of this curriculum. We maintain that our Nation is not and never was intended to be, a nation of central control ; and that whatever central agencies exist were created for the purpose of aiding and guiding those in whose hands con- trol of right belongs. We believe, therefore, that the proper agencies for reconstructing the curriculum are the superintendents of schools and their assistants in the several communities of the United States . With these ideas in mind, therefore, your commission decided that the most useful service which it could perform would be first, to state the problem; second, to supply the elements; third, to suggest the method ; and fourth, to establish and maintain an assisting agency. The problem is to reconstruct the curriculum so that the public schools of our country shall fulfill as effectively as possible the purposes for which they were established-namely, to promote the general welfare of the American people. The elements which we are supplying in the 1925 issue of the Yearbook are the results carefully analyzed, of nearly three hundred research studies of different phases of the curriculum of the elementary school. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 805 The method which we suggest is that of a nation-wide coöperative effort in curriculum reconstruction by scientific methods by superintendents of schools throughout the country. The assisting agency which we offer is a curriculum commission, to con- tinue as long as your body shall determine, together with a division of curriculum research at the headquarters of our organization. We know that no art flourishes well unless its roots are firmly set in a fundamental science. We know that this is true of the art of medicine and surgery, of jurisprudence, of engineering. In the art of teaching, however, we were satisfied to blunder along for generations by rule of thumb, or by following the doctrines of an a-priori philosophy. Within the last fifteen or twenty years, however, we have begun to study facts and to analyze critically practices which had become traditional in our schools . For example : A careful analysis of writing needs, the experimental de- termination of method, and the scientific measurements of results have revolutionized courses of study and methods in spelling. Courses and methods in reading were also greatly modified by the discovery and recog- nition of the fact that ninety-five per cent of the need of adults in reading is to peruse silently the printed page. Similar research in the fields of other subjects has likewise demonstrated the inadequacy of much of our prescribed courses of study, and the futility of some of our time-honored methods of teaching. Educational research is yet in its infancy, but it has demonstrated its efficiency sufficiently to convince all reasonable educators that the only safe basis of educational practice is science based on research. The members of your commission appreciate the magnitude of the task assigned to them. We also realize the inadequacy of the results of our first year's work that are embodied in the yearbook which we have pre- pared. We recognize also that we have completed only one phase of an important undertaking; and we hope that, with your united coöperation, we may be permitted to continue until our task shall have been substantially completed. THE CURRICULUM : A PARAMOUNT ISSUE CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO , CHICAGO , ILLINOIS There is a sense in which all social progress may be said to be continuous. The orderly procession of historical events is continually producing the changes through which human relations are broadened and liberalized. Those forms of government which do not recognize the individual and his rights serve their day and give place to new forms which in turn are re- placed as the human race moves forward in its evolution. Human progress is an orderly continuously moving procession. When one looks into the details of the historical narrative, however, one 806 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION soon finds that there is another sense in which the term continuous can in no wise be applied to the succession of social institutions. The narrative of human evolution is a narrative of revolutions. Old forms of human be- havior and thinking give place to new only after the most violent struggles. Conservatism isjust as strong and positive a force in social life as is reform . What is true of other social institutions is true also of education. Viewed in the large, education becomes steadily more ample and effective. Viewed in detail, education is a succession of struggles between the old and the new . We are met today in a period when the battle rages around the curricu- lum. We have just left behind a great struggle when the issue was the introduction of measurement into the schools. It is easy to chart the course of that earlier victory and perhaps we shall get a clearer view of the present controversy if we withdraw from it for a little and review the struggle just past. In 1893 and 1895, when the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen made their famous reports there were no methods of exact measure- ment known in education. There was a fairly clear recognition at that time that the school was expanding and that its expansion was not altogether intelligent and well considered. The reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen were prepared by leading educators and expressed in clear and emphatic form the judgments born out of the experience of those who had been responsible for the success of the institutions then in existence. But judgments however conscientious they are cannot long command acceptance when they are based on unsifted and inexact experi- ence. The decade of the nineties was a decade of restlessness. Schools attempted to do what the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen recommended, but there was an increasing lack of confidence in the results secured. Toward the close of this decade and in the early years of the new century came the epoch-making criticisms of school results by J. M. Rice and the criticisms of school administration by such leaders as William Maxwell. These men with their exact facts about the "futility of the spelling grind" and about retardation, raised the discussions of education to a new level . Shortly the collection of carefully organized information was heralded as the newest and most important development in the fields of school organiza- tion and pupil-training. The measurement movement thus auspiciously launched did not, how- ever, establish itself without a struggle. The early stages of that struggle were given over to the perfection of a technique of measurement. Rice published his results in 1897 and 1902. The work of Stone, Thorndike, Ayres, and Courtis did not come into general recognition till 1910 and the years following. There are many here who will recall the meeting of the National Council in 1915 when the forces of conservatism gathered for a last stand and a battle was fought to determine whether measurement of mental and moral traits was to be recognized as permissible. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 807 There can be no doubt as we look back on that council meeting that one of the revolutions in American education was accomplished by that discussion . Since that day tests and measures have gone quietly on their way, as conquerors should. Tests and measures are to be found in every progressive school in the land. The victory of 1915 slowly prepared dur- ing the preceding twenty years was decisive. For a time it seemed to many that the victory of measurements was the final victory necessary in order to provide America with an efficient school system. There were confiding souls who thought that they could lay down their arms and take possession of the promised land without further molesta- tion. So education became a world of tests and scales and graphs and correlations. In the meantime some of the ancient problems which had agitated the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen continued to agitate teachers and school administrators. For example, these two committees had been in profound disagreement as to what should be done with the seventh and eighth grades. The measurement movement did not at first have very much interest in these particular grades, but in due time the proposal for a junior high school emerged from the tests and scales and records of retarda- tion and there were some who said that the seventh and eighth grades were all right and there were others, a small handful at first, who began to buckle on their armors once more and prepare for a new encounter with conservatism. The issue now was an administrative issue and sharp were the blows dealt and received. It turned out in due time that the battle about the seventh and the eighth grades was merely a skirmish and the real battle was still to be fought. That battle is on today in serious earnest. In order that we may understand clearly the problem which is at the fore today we must recall two fundamental facts. First, we must keep clearly in mind the fact that tests and scales are means of diagnosis, they are not forms of treatment. If one finds a boy who cannot read, the test has served a useful purpose, but the test does not correct the defect. Something must be done after the test has spoken. I am disposed to think that some people are unduly disappointed about the measurement movement because it has not suddenly and overwhelmingly transformed the schools into homes of perfection. Some people felt a few years ago that all one had to do was discover how bad a child's handwriting was and that fact would operate to bring about unlimited improvement . The fact is, of course, that a bad record in handwriting is effective for improvement only when some one discovers not only where the pupil is now but also the path out of the present situation. Tests and scales have been enormously revealing. It was distinctly worthwhile to find them a place in schools and to refine their technique. When all this is done, however, the task of real reform is still ahead of us. In the consummation of this larger undertaking we shall profit greatly by the possibility of checking and 808 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION measuring each step of progress. Tests and scales will always be of use but they will not in themselves solve education's problems. I am anxious not to be misunderstood. What I am saying is in no sense of the word a criticism of tests and scales. They are as indispensable as the engineer's calipers and logarithm tables are to the planning of a great engineering enterprise. But calipers will not plan bridges or tunnel moun- tains. There must be behind the measuring instruments a driving aggres- sive intelligence full of initiative and resources if the world is to be trans- formed. I think there is danger in education that many will feel that measure- ment has provided us with eternal salvation. There is a resting on the oars while the boat drifts. There is a formal printing of long tables and a feel- ing that one's whole duty has been done. Against this kind of conservatism, a most vigorous warfare must be waged. Tests and scales will never supply the schools with a new curricu- lum. Before we can have new studies there must be broader inspection of the fields of human interests. There must be a bringing into the school of social knowledge which is not mentioned in any of the scales and tests. In due time these new materials will, as I have said, be tested, but they must first be brought into the schools through the exercise of vigorous constructive thinking on the part of curriculum makers. I said a little time ago that there are two considerations which must be kept inmind if one would understand why the reconstruction of the curricu- lum is a paramount issue in education today. I turn now to the second of these considerations . The curriculum is a battle ground against conservatism, because life is so full of important matters in this modern period that there is no room for instructional material which does not contribute positively and liberally to the equipment of the pupil for his life's work. It is not necessary here to review the familiar facts about the great influx of students especially in our higher institutions of the facts about the increase in knowledge which is characteristic of our times. The world is full of people and of many kinds of new thinking. The schools have undertaken the herculean task of sift- ing knowledge and putting it in such form that it will be helpful to im mature students. In former times when students were few and highly selected, when community life was simple and contacts with nature and men were direct, the curriculum could be rapidly put together. Indeed, there was then a possibility of including here and there elements which were sheer luxuries. But all this ease of simplicity is a matter of ancient history. The kinds of knowledge which fill modern life and condition its success are numerous and they are insistent in their demands for recognition. The school which closes its doors to the influx of modern pupils and modern ideas has no place in a progressive educational system . When one is brought so clearly to the point where the revision of the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 809 curriculum is the obvious next step in educational evolution, one is filled with wonder that there should be any delay in launching the movement. Yetwe all know that there is delay. Let us examine the situation in order to find out if possible what are the causes that hinder the reconstruction of the curriculum from getting under immediate headway. I shall venture to speak pointedly and frankly about two classes of ob- structions. First there are certain aggressive positive enemies of reconstruc- tion. Let us call these the vested interests in the antique curriculum. Human nature is so constituted that we always do most easily what we have done in the past. I suppose we ought not to blame any of our fellow educators for not wanting to change the content of their teaching. Have they not been over the subjects they teach many times, and can they not teach them with a minimum of effort ? Why should they toil in the acquisi- tion of new knowledge? Since human nature thus naturally tends to hold to that which is familiar, would it not be well to be patient about recon- structing the curriculum ? If the old subjects of the curriculum would go quietly to their graves, there would be little disposition, I dare say, to jostle them. But they are not willing to sink out of sight and hearing. They clamor in their last days for recognition. They secure large subventions from educational foundations and spend the money in filling the land with hopeful statistics which a very little examination shows to be nothing but empty propaganda. One can explain these performances as human, but one must oppose them and that vigorously if one is a friend of verity and progress. There is another group of my friends to whom I must pay my respects when I discuss the conservatives, that is the owners of the plates of very successful textbooks. There is a grave responsibility attaching to the posses- sion of enormous influence. The textbooks used in American schools do more than any other agency to determine the curriculum. I ask you whether the textbooks in several of the leading subjects have contributed in recent years to the reorganization of the curriculum. Conservatism appears also in another quarter in a form so potent that I must give it a conspicuous place in my catalogue of vested interests. I refer to the prejudices of parents and boards of education in favor of the kind of instruction which they understand because they profited by these forms of instruction a generation ago. There is nothing more eager than the desire of a parent that his child shall exhibit all of the virtues to which that child is entitled by inheritance. When a teacher comes forward with a recommendation for curriculum reconstruction parents and the board of education are likely to be more than lethargic; they are likely to be aggres- sively in opposition. The conservatism of the vested interests is so influential that it is doubt- ful whether it could have been overcome without the aid of the facts which were collected through the use of tests and scales. As it is, these vested interests are by no means driven from the field, but they are at least weak- ened to such a degree that the prospects of victory seem bright. 810 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There is a second group of forces opposed to the reconstruction of the curriculum which are much more subtle than are the forces of conservatism and more difficult to bring into the open and defeat. I do not know any single name that describes all of them. Let us call them helplessness because of absorption in routine and because of poverty of ideas. This second type of obstruction arises out of the fact that educators are not thoroughly aroused to the need of reconstruction. They do not realize that we have too long been dependent for advances in education on the accidents of individual initiative and energy. The way in which a new idea came into the curriculum in the past was for some teacher to use it with his pupils, tell his neighbor teacher that the idea proved instructive, or write it into a textbook and persuade a publisher to print it and then wait for others to use it. We have had no machinery in our educational administra- tion for keeping the curriculum up-to-date. We have had teachers to dis- pense ideas, but the educational system has not concerned itself with the collection and formulation of new ideas. We have been and are today utterly helpless in revising the curriculum. The favorite method of revising the curriculum is to get some one to do it for us. We know that there is something wrong. Our tests tell us that pupils are not profiting as they should by what we teach. We are hopeful that some one will discover what ought to be done. As for ourselves we confess that we are absorbed in doing what we have always done in the past. If we are asked to work on committees for the reorganization of the curriculum our chief contribution to the movement is a long cry for help. The obstacle of helplessness is much more likely to delay reconstruction of the curriculum than all of the forces of conservatism. It is highly im- portant, therefore, that this body be persuaded to arouse itself and take an aggressive part in the new movement which is at hand. Superintendents must be persuaded that their school systems will have to give some of their energy to the task of collecting and arranging materials for teaching. If every system with ten teachers or more in the United States will give the time of one of its best teachers for ten days to the task of constructive reworking of the curriculum, we can make progress in five years infinitely greater than we can make by our present methods in half a century. Our present methods of revising the curriculum belong to a period in our school history when revision was not expected or sought. Our administra- tive machinery was made up with energy set aside for the examination and employment of teachers, with energy set aside for the collection and dis- bursement of revenues, with energy for the enumeration of children and their instruction in the classroom. There is not now in most systems and has not been in the past any energy for curriculum studies or current im- portations into the schools of the ideas developed by contemporary science and letters. It is this deficiency in our school administration and in our practice which has now come vividly to consciousness. We have been seeing it in negative terms during the past few years. We have felt a need for DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 811 something which we do not have. The ground is now sufficiently cleared of other issues that the curriculum begins to take on a new prominence and importance. It is today an issue of paramount importance. The task of solving the problems connected with reconstruction of the curriculum is peculiarly the task of a great organization capable of draw- ing to its aid agencies from all sections of the country. This is an under- taking requiring the broadest kind of coöperation. In this country where schools have always been isolated and local in their organization, there is a peculiar helplessness in taking up a task which calls for nation-wide co- operation. If we do not set aside some of the provincialisms which grow out of our past history and really discover methods of coöperative attack on the curriculum, we shall continue to be weak and wasteful in our efforts to solve our present problem. The yearbook of the Department, as prepared by the commission and pre- sented to you at this meeting, shows clearly the need of more coöperation on the part of superintendents and teachers. Look, if you will, at the names of contributors to the yearbook. Do they represent a broad co- operative attack on the curriculum ? I call your attention to a fact which seems to me deplorable, the fact that this work is done by specialists who are not of the rank and file. The yearbook shows by its contents that we all see a problem but that American education is without the organized agencies which are needed to cope with this problem. We must introduce a new element into our educational system if we are to take the next long step in advance in education. There is need of social science in every grade of school. There is need of unification of practical education and academic education; there is need of a body of material stimulating to the brightest student and another body of material suited to the slow pupil. These needs can be met only when boards of edu- cation everywhere in the country are persuaded by their educational advisors that the time has come when each and every school system must contribute the discovery of new materials and the organization of these materials into suitable form for presentation. I have tried to show how the period of restlessness during the nineties and the period of testing during the first fifteen years of this century prepared the way for a reconstruction of the curriculum. I then tried to make clear that school expansion which has been going on for a generation has led to a vigorous demand for new materials for instruction. Finally, I have de- scribed the forces of conservatism which oppose innovation and the negative facts of helplessness and dearth of new ideas which hinder and delay the enlargement of the curriculum. The net result of this exposition is, I hope, a conviction that this Department ought to begin an organized coöperative attack on the major problem of the schools, the problem of reconstructing the curriculum. 812 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE CURRICULUM PROBLEM ATTACKED SCIENTIFICALLY ERNEST HORN , UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY , IOWA The thesis which this paper will elaborate in the next few minutes is that the only possible hope of securing a perfected or even a reasonably satisfactory curriculum lies in adequate research. Think for a moment of the achievements which, in the last ten years, must be credited to re- search. Research has produced great quantities of useful data without which many acknowledged improvements in the course of study would have been impossible. But it has done more. It has contributed enor- mously to the successful formulation and to the refinement of the only theory of curriculum making which has so far proved useful or practicable.. I refer to the theory of social utility which so usefully points out the neces- sity of discovering, through the analysis of life's most important activities, the abilities which must be developed in the school. What are the distinctive contributions of research to curriculum making ? First, it produces the objective data-the bricks, out of which the cur- riculum must be built. Second, it eliminates mere personal opinion and individual bias. This elimination is peculiarly necessary in education be- cause of the intrenchment of traditional beliefs. It is even more necessary because of the known ease with which mere philosophizing leads to un- warranted and visionary conclusions.. The use of scientific method implies, however, the use as well of all of the essential techniques and safeguards which are a part of it. Since it is not possible to even enumerate in this paper all of these techniques and safeguards, I shall speak briefly of one that is frequently neglected-the proper utilization of critical judgment. We have failed sometimes to recognize the degree to which critical judgment enters into the work of the scientist. We have too often as- sumed that his work is based in every respect upon data so irrefutable that but one conclusion is possible. But critical judgment enters into his find- ings in at least four ways : First, in setting up the basic hypothesis upon which the investigation is built ; second, in choosing an appropriate method of attack; third, in organizing and interpreting the data; and fourth, in making conclusions or generalizations on the basis of the objective data which have been discovered . The two contributions of research in curriculum making are first, to produce the bricks-that is, the objective data out of which the curriculum must be built, and second, to eliminate mere personal opinion and indi- vidual bias. Let me illustrate for the subject of spelling . Perhaps no other subject has its curriculum so fully established by research. No subject is more amenable to a research attack. The items are small and definite. And yet, even in this subject, research findings have ben conditioned by the quality of the hypotheses which have guided various investigators , DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 813 This can be illustrated in connection with two problems: (a) that of determining what word should be taught and (b) that of determining the success with which these words have been taught. Among the earliest investigations in this field are those which analyzed the vocabulary of children's themes. Obviously, these investigations pro- ceeded on the assumption that learning to spell such words as are found in these themes will prepare the child to spell the words which he will need to write outside the school. An enormous amount of research based on this assumption has so far produced results of little value because the assump- tion turned out to be at fault. There are two reasons for this : First, re- search has shown that the vocabulary discovered in these investigations fails to include a large number of words found in the analysis of the writ- ing done in life outside the school; second, it assumed that the compositions which were analyzed represented the kind of compositions that ought to be written in school, an assumption not admitted even by the friendliest critics of the teaching of composition. For several years most research workers in the field of spelling have agreed that the word list should be made out of investigating the common types of writing done in life outside the school. This again is but an hypothesis . To be sure, it may seem self-evident, but its acceptance re- quires that the general hypothesis be broken up into judgments as to what these common needs are. These judgments have been corrected and refined by having individuals keep for a period of time a record of all the types of writing which they do. Obviously, the relative amount of writing which is analyzed from each type will determine the words obtained from such an analysis. As the result of the analysis of over 5,000,000 running words, ap- proximately 38,000 different words have been found. Suppose the cur- riculum maker decides to include but 1000 words. This would be a poor decision, but suppose, for purposes of illustration, that it is made. Con- sider two possible hypotheses which might be used to select the 1000 most important words : 1. That the words which are most frequently found are most important when teaching spelling ; 2. That there are two factors which must be taken into account in determining importance in teaching spelling: (a) The frequency with which a word is found (b) The difficulty of spelling it It is obvious that the 1000 words selected on the basis of the first hypoth- esis would be very different from the 1000 selected on the basis of the second hypothesis. For example, the word action is found about ten times as often as the word accommodate . It occurs in the first 1000 words while accommodate occurs in the third thousand. If frequency of use is taken as the measure of importance, action would be included among the 1000 most important words and accommodate would not. But action is mis 814 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION spelled by only one eighth grade student in a hundred, while accommodate is misspelled by 61 eighth grade students in a hundred. Taking both use and importance into account, accommodate is more than five times as likely to be misspelled as is action. Using the product of frequency and difficulty as a measure of importance, accommodate would be included among the first 1000 important words while action would not. It is easy to see that the choice of a proper hypothesis influences to a large degree the course of study in spelling. It is no less influential in other subjects. No step in scientific method, as applied to curriculum mak- ing, deserves more careful study. The capstone of research in curriculum making is the discovery of means of measuring the results of each change in curriculum or in method. Let me illustrate again how seriously an improper hypothesis may prevent scientific results. For ten years, it has been almost the universal custom to measure the efficiency of teaching spelling in a school system, in a grade, or in a class by sampling a list of words from one column in some spelling scale. This is usually done without any effort to discover whether or not the words in the scale are also in the course of study. When tests so selected are compared with the course of study in the grades for which the test is intended, it is not uncommon to find that few of the words in the test have been taught in the grade in which the test is given or in any pre- ceding grade. In rare instances, the speaker has found tests, sampled in this fashion, in which not a single word used to test the efficiency of a term's work was in the course of study for that term. On the basis of such absurd tests, individual pupils, classes, and even whole schools have been declared to be below standard. In effect, such a declaration says to teach- ers, "Your pupils cannot have been well taught since they cannot spell the words you did not teach them." Obviously, such a blunder in judgment misses almost all of the values which result from the proper use of stand- ardized spelling scales. It demoralizes both teachers and pupils. This is no criticism upon spelling scales or upon the nature of the research by which they were made. It merely illustrates the ease with which a scien- tific instrument may be misused. The purpose of science is to discover the truth, but clearly such a test as I have described is no measure of the true progress of a pupil, of a class, or of a school. Let me now illustrate the limitations of judgment in arriving at reliable data. For two languages, English and German, we now have adequate data to show what words are most frequently used in reading and in writing. During the past year, the speaker has been interested in asking scholars in these two languages the questions: "What noun is most fre- quently used in German ?" What noun is most frequently used in Eng- lish ?" To neither of these questions was a correct answer given, even when a number of guesses were given. May I ask each member of this audience to decide for himself what noun is most frequently used in English? Is it a concrete noun or is it an abstract noun ? Well, the noun DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 815 most frequently used in English is the word time. The noun most fre- quently used in German is the word zeit . If blunders in judgment are so easy to make in a simple subject like spelling, how much more likely they are to be made and how much more serious the results in more complicated subjects, such as geography, history, or moral education. But do not make the error of concluding that blunders in curricular making are to be laid at the door of scientific method. They are caused either by not using scientific method or by failure to utilize the most fundamental procedures in it. What I have tried to show is that objective data, scientific techniques, and critical judgment must go hand in hand in curricula making. Research does not consist merely in counting and measuring, necessary as are these things. The setting up of proper hypotheses, the critical study of the data, and its interpretation for practical school use require time, scientific ability, and insight into school problems far beyond that which is required in the counting and the measurement which produce the raw data. I do not wish to belittle counting, measurement, and statistical method. There can be no science without these. But the value of data obtained by these pro- cedures depends largely upon the hypothesis which guided them, upon the critical study of their significance, and upon their skillful interpretation for practical school purposes. In curricula making, it is a good plan to be skeptical of the results of measurements which produce data that seem contrary to critical judgment and common sense. But even in such cases, objective data cannot be swept aside by mere argument or by mere philosophizing. Critical judgment may, however, suggest new hypotheses and new techniques to guide further investigations which will validate or refute the findings which have been questioned. In closing, may I urge the recognition of the fact that research in curriculum making cannot be hurried. The work involved in such a pro- gram as this Department of Superintendence has undertaken cannot be completed in a year or two, but it can be begun vigorously at once. Ifthe present enthusiasm for this work is allowed to die out at this time, it is a safe prediction that it cannot be rekindled in years. You cannot afford to let it die out. ADAPTING THE CURRICULUM TO INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY NEEDS JOHN W. WITHERS, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY Everywhere today the public school curriculum is being studied not only within the teaching profession but also outside of it. There is scarcely an important educational meeting that does not consider some phase of it. 816 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The enormous activity in this direction within the past few years is clearly shown in the Yearbook of the Department for 1925, the third part of which is the report of a nation-wide survey of the significant studies that have recently been made to discover valid ways and means of improving the elementary school curriculum and adapting it more perfectly to com- munity and individual needs. This report, which is remarkably well done, contains a digest of more than 300 scientific and semi-scientific studies touching almost every phase of this problem. It, therefore, makes avail- able in simple, untechnical language an enormous amount of valuable material that can be used hereafter to great advantage in curriculum re- vision. Not all the result of the studies described in this report are scientif- ically valid, nor can they all be applied without modification in the revision of any given curriculum. This is not to be expected. Their chief value lies in the fact that they throw a great deal of light on every phase of the problem, stimulate thought, provide a technique, and point the way to a more satisfactory solution. The idea of adaptation implies that every curriculum should contain some factors that are constant or relatively constant and others that are variable. To determine what the constant factor should be is a difficult but at the same time a practical problem. This problem is being generally attacked at the present time in two different ways which are distinguished chiefly by the point of view and the placing of emphasis in attempting to answer such questions as the following: In constructing the curriculum, should we concern ourselves primarily with the means and processes of education or with the results of education ? Should curriculum content be determined and expressed in terms of the activities of children and the means by which these activities are to be stimulated and guided, or in terms chiefly of social needs and social objectives? Should it be the chief aim to stimulate and encourage children to grow by providing for them, through a rich and suggestive environment, activities in which they are vigorously and joyously interested or is it primarily to prepare them for the anticipated opportunities and responsibilities of adult life? So far as these two movements have found expression in present-day curricula it will be noticed that in some of these emphasis is laid chiefly upon processes, in others upon results. In some, the individual pupil with his peculiar growth needs, interests, and activities holds the center of the stage, while in others the needs and interests of society and the future needs and welfare of the individual are matters of chief concern . In the first type, the tendency is to reduce curriculum constants to a minimum and to hold to these tentatively only because they are recognized as essential conditions to the continued growth of children. The curriculum is, there- fore, set up more or less in terms of problems and projects determined by the dominant interests and purposes of the children themselves. In the other type, growth needs are of secondary importance and valued chiefly because they tend to satisfy certain needs of society which are considered DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 817 more important than those of the individual. The curriculum in this type is expressed chiefly in terms of content, in specific abilities and objectives of various kinds. Back of one movement is the pragmatic philosophy of Dewey and James and back of the other the older philosophy of idealism ofWilliam T. Harris and others. Both of these movements are full of suggestions for the superintendent in the practical administration of public education, but at the present stage of our knowledge of the principles that should determine curriculum con- struction it is better not to commit oneself to the use of either method ex- clusively. It is better to appropriate what is valuable in both without be- coming involved unnecessarily in practical difficulties that follow from the use of either alone. The pragmatic point of view which is becoming in- creasingly prominent and which finds the values of education in the here- and-now experiences of children tends to correct certain evils of the older point of view which placed the supreme value in the results of education with little appreciation of the value of the processes by which these results were obtained. This latter way of looking at the matter naturally over- emphasizes the examination and testing of results and has tended to ac- centuate if not to produce certain immoral effects that are too evident in American life-namely, the feeling that it doesn't make much difference how results are obtained so long as they are obtained. It is all right to use any method so long as you can "get by" with it. I am reminded of a statement made by an old neighbor of mine in West Virginia years ago to two of his sons who had become of age and were leav- ing home. He said to them, "The chief concern in life, boys, is to get money-get it honestly if you can, but get money." The college boy taught to hold to this view too often concerns himself chiefly with passing his courses and securing his degree and believes that he is really the gainer if he can do this by deceiving his professor as to what he really knows and by taking all the cuts that he is allowed. The pragmatic philosophy, placing the chief value as it does upon the conscious experiences of children in the processes of education, tends to be an antidote to this evil of the older method. Both the child and his teacher are taught to feel that the values of education must be realized in what the child is actually doing and experiencing in his school life and that work may be a joy in itself and not a necessary evil to be avoided whenever possible. Perhaps the best and most enlightening experiment in curriculum deter- mination from this point of view is that reported in the recent book of Professor Collings, of the University of Oklahoma, entitled, An Experi- ment With a Project Curriculum. This experiment carried on in the rural schools of McDonald County, Missouri, shows conclusively that even the results directly sought by the older type of curriculum are much better secured by the project method that was employed and that in addition to these other extremely desirable effects of education in the attitudes, ideals, 818 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and interests both of the community and of children were also secured. In this experiment no curriculum constants whatever were recognized. The aim was to surround the child with an environment rich in materials and suggestions for promoting purposes of the children, giving them free- dom in the choice of purposes which they sought to realize and guiding them only to the extent that was necessary by the use of criteria in the light of which the purposes selected by them were to be judged. These criteria were of three sorts: First, is the purpose one that genuinely grips the chil- dren ? Secondly, is it a purpose, the satisfactory realization of which is well within the capacity of the children ? Thirdly, is the purpose one that is likely to lead on to other and different activities promoting the growth of the children ? This method of adapting the curriculum to the needs of the children and the local community cannot be practically applied by any city or State superintendent at the present time for three reasons. In the first place, to make this method of curriculum determination a real success requires a training, professional enthusiasm, educational insight, and an all-round abil- ity that cannot at present be expected of all principals, teachers, and super- visors of any school system. In the second place, the criteria used by Professor Collings are inad- equate for the reason that they are confined entirely to the activities and supposed growth needs of children and do not avowedly take social and community needs properly into account. Purposes and projects that are positively harmful from a social point of view could be accepted as worthy when tested by the only criteria which Professor Collings recognizes in his book. It would seem that such a purpose as that of young Loeb and Leopold would successfully pass the test of these criteria. Their purpose was certainly a gripping one so far as they were concerned. It proved to be well within their power of achievement, and had not society interfered, it certainly would have led to other and different activities promotive of growth in the same general direction. To determine a curriculum merely from the standpoint of meeting the growth needs of children without directing these needs with reference to goals that are socially desirable could hardly be accepted as a proper solu- tion of the problem of curriculum adaptation. The essential needs of com- munity life must necessarily be recognized as constant requirements within the limits of the community concerned. Here, for example, is a child of normal mentality, of legal school age, and a bona fide resident of Cincinnati, who presents himself for admission to the public schools of this city. The community provides for the cost of his education and compels the schools to admit him. Evidently the community expects something to result from the education of this child that will benefit the community as a whole, and therefore intends that whatever is required to produce this socially desirable result shall be pro- vided for in the education of all normal children of legal school age. It DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 819 is, therefore, the function and the duty of the school system to determine as far as possible what these community requirements are and make them fundamental objectives in the school curriculum to remain relatively con- stant and be changed only as the social needs out of which they have arisen undergo change. But what are these requirements and what should the schools attempt to do from this social or community point of view in the education of this particular child? We would agree, doubtless, that they should help him to become a worthy and productive citizen of the community, using the word "citizen" in its broadest sense, but this may mean a variety of things. In what sense, for example, is the word "community" to be used? How extensive is the social organization that should be taken into account ? A child is, in fact, a member of a variety of communities to which his life of thought, feeling, and behavior must become adjusted. He is a member of the little community of his classmates, of his school, and of the local neigh- borhood of which his school is a part. He is also a member of the larger communities of city, State, and Nation. The school must help him to take his place as a member and play the part of a worthy citizen in every one of these communities. In doing this it must begin, of course, with the smaller communities of classroom, school, and neighborhood in the common life of which the child's active participation is most concrete, vivid, and real . It is here that the project method and the pragmatic philosophy of educa- tion, by placing emphasis on the participation of pupils in common activ- ities, in the formation and realization of the purposes of pupils, and in the meeting of their growth needs, are very properly revolutionizing the elemen- tary curriculum as well as elementary methods of instruction. This part of the child's education is basic to the larger type of citizenship. To become a worthy and productive citizen of the United States does not mean the same as to become such a citizen of Ohio, and to become a worthy citizen of Ohio is not the same as to become such a citizen of Cincinnati. It is much more certain that as an adult this child will remain a citizen of the United States than a citizen of Ohio, and more certain that he will continue to be a citizen of Ohio than of Cincinnati. The curriculum con- stants, therefore, in which we are fundamentally interested as determined by community needs in this larger sense are those to be decided upon for the Nation as a whole. The list of constants set up for Ohio must include those for the Nation, and again the constants set up for Cincinnati must include those for Ohio. As a citizen of the United States this child will possess certain rights, privileges, and opportunities, and corresponding duties, responsibilities, and obligations that he would not have in the same way and to the same extent as a citizen of any other Nation. The United States as an organized body of people carrying on a common life within its own physical boundaries, is a peculiar community possessing some char- acteristics not to be found elsewhere. Its obvious, therefore, that the United States as an organized society will, for the sake of its own protection and for 820 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the promotion of the general welfare of its people, be interested in the educa- tion of this Cincinnati boy to the extent at least that he shall be equipped and disposed to take full advantage of his rights, privileges, and opportu- nities as a citizen, making the most of these for his own growth and satis- faction, and at the same time that he shall be trained and disposed to meet satisfactorily and fully his duties, responsibilities, and obligations as a citizen of the United States, and finally, that all the outcomes of education necessary to this end shall be set up as fundamental objectives in any cur- riculum that may be planned for him. Everywhere and for all classes of normal children throughout the United States such objectives should be regarded as the irreducible minimum required of all smaller communities regardless of their peculiar conditions and their financial ability to support a school system that will measure up to this standard. Any community that is financially unable to do this must for the sake of national security and the general welfare be helped somehow to do so. The primary con- sideration then in adapting a curriculum to community needs is to deter- mine what this irreducible minimum of objectives ought to be. The Yearbook of 1925 points out one set of objectives that undoubtedly belongs to this group-namely, that the so-called "tool subjects" of learn- ing must be taught and mastered in all elementary schools. To this state- ment doubtless you will all agree, but I think you will equally agree that this group of objectives is by no means all that should be included. Since the elementary schools are as yet the only agencies of education common to all the children of the Nation, there must be laid in them that neces- sary foundation for intelligent, effective coöperation, mutual sympathy, and good will without which worthy and productive citizenship under modern conditions is quite impossible. The knowledges, ideals, dispositions, attitudes of mind, and forms of behavior necessary to this end must some- how be determined and incorporated as a part of every curriculum. As students of education and superintendents of instruction responsible for the administration of public education throughout the United States, it is the duty of this body to use all available means to arrive at a satisfactory decision as to what these objectives should be. Because of the progressive changes and developments that are taking place in American life certain new needs calling for curriculum revision from a national point of view are becoming increasingly clear and unmistakable. In the first place, the more extensive, complex, and intricately related democracy becomes, the greater is the need of a high average of general intelligence and a fuller knowledge of the facts and experiences essential to an understanding of the fundamental interests and activities of our national life. In the second place there is need of greater emphasis upon the mastery of human elements than was formerly given or expected. Originally, and even down to recent times, the problems of American life have been those in which the problematic factors were chiefly physical facts and physical DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 821 forces. It was, therefore, necessary that the intelligence of the people should, for the sake of progress and the common good, be centered on the solution of these problems. We had a new nation with marvelous natural resources to be developed. Our forests were to be cut down, our soil cultivated, our mines opened, our railways and ship lines built, industry and commerce established. To do all these things meant a mastery of problems of space and time and of physical facts and forces. In solving these problems it was possible in many instances to work effectively alone and unaided by others. With the population scattered thinly over a large area, with slow transportation, and the absence of rapid and easy com- munication, it was not difficult to provide in the schools of that day all that was essential to democratic living. These conditions have been profoundly changed in recent years. Prob- lems of life have grown much more numerous, complex, and difficult; the contacts of life have been greatly multiplied, its pace accelerated, and its strains increased; the opportunities and inducements to go wrong as well as to do right have been greatly multiplied, consequently the great prob- lems of life as we now face them are increasingly those in which the im- portant problematic factors are human facts and human forces and rela- tions. The type of education needed for the solution of these problems is very different from what was considered satisfactory in the past. What an individual must now know and be able to do in order to become a worthy citizen at twenty-one years of age is vastly greater in amount and more difficult to acquire than was formerly true. The foundation for all that is essential to this new type of American citizenship must be laid in the early home life and in the elementary schools of the children of America because they cannot successfully be laid elsewhere. The fundamental differences among the peoples of the various nations of the earth are not determined by what is taught in the colleges and higher institutions of learning or even in the secondary schools. National differ- ences leading to serious consequences in international relations do not grow out of any failure to agree on those things which are taught in these higher institutions. Men do not fight over the differences which they hold con- cerning the truths of mathematics or of science. Knowledge of this sort is universal, common to all people and accepted by the human mind every- where when once it is grasped and understood. Those differences among individuals which lie deeper in human personality and essentially determine points of view, standards of value, and ways of looking at the experiences of life are wrought out and written deep through the experiences of the elementary school and the early home life of the children. In the third place, it is clear that the objectives here called for are of such a kind that many of them cannot be satisfactorily attained by methods of strictly individual instruction. The method called for is one that in- volves participation in common tasks, coöperative effort in working out these tasks, the exercise of leadership, followership, and intelligent par 822 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ticipation in common undertakings voluntarily chosen by the children themselves and carried on within the classrooms as well as on the play- grounds of our elementary schools. The energy of superintendents and of special students of education cannot, in my judgment, be centered upon any problem of greater importance than that of determining intel- ligently and successfully what these objectives fundamental to elementary education nationally ought to be and how by continuous study to keep them adjusted to the changing needs of our national life. There is no problem in curriculum construction that calls for sounder thinking and broader educational statesmanship than the determination of these ob- jectives. Passing from the national point of view to that of the State, the Cin- cinnati boy, as we have said, will be likely to spend his adult life in Ohio. In anticipation of this fact the State assumes the responsibility of deter- mining through the curriculum and other requirements the sort of educa- tion that should be required for worthy and productive citizenship within the State. Citizenship in Ohio involves rights, privileges, and opportu- nities and corresponding duties and responsibilities that are peculiar to this State. The people of Ohio are also an organized community with common interests and activities that require that those who seek citizenship in this State shall be appropriately equipped for this purpose. Consequently, Ohio is interested in adding to the irreducible minimum of objectives required by the Nation, certain others that are necessary and desirable for worthy citizenship within this State. So far then as the curriculum may be re- garded as definable in terms of objectives the core of the curriculum for Ohio will be larger and more inclusive than that for the United States, but cannot omit any objective considered essential for citizenship in the United States. When what the Nation requires is provided for, Ohio may add anything it wants and set its standards as high as it pleases, provided it is willing to pay the price necessary to this end. Because of the needs peculiar to a given State some objectives which might be considered as unessential and even as fads in other States may be properly regarded as fundamental in that State. Take Massachusetts for example. On account of the absence of adequate natural resources in the soil of Massachusetts, its people early recognized the necessity, in order to live up to the economic standards which they desired, of importing into the State raw materials and devoting their energy to the converting of these materials into manufactured products that could be sold for profit outside of the State. It was necessary to prepare the people of Massa- chusetts for an economic life that was essentially industrial in character. In time, however, the people of the South who had been exporting their raw cotton to Massachusetts and buying back from that State the man- ufactured product decided that if Massachusetts could pay the cost of transportation of this material from the South and also of fuel for man- ufacturing from other distant States and still make a good profit from the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 823 manufacture and sale of cotton goods the people of the South could do the same thing with much greater advantage and at much less expense. It was, therefore, necessary for Massachusetts, in order to maintain its standards of living, continue its industrial life, and meet this new situation, to discover a way to manufacture a product superior in value to that produced elsewhere. It was seen that this could be done by placing upon this product not only an improved intrinsic or utility value but also an æsthetic value as well. That this might be done Massachusetts did what no other State has yet done. In order to improve the ability of the people of the State to manufacture a superior product and also to increase within the State the capacity and disposition of the people to appreciate æsthetic as well as utility values in manufactured products it was decided to set up and maintain at the expense of the State a normal art school to furnish the necessary training. It is easy to see, therefore, that for Massachusetts the right sort of art education is just as fundamental a part of the elemen- tary curriculum as the time honored "tool subjects" of learning. Consequently, because of these fundamental differences among States it is clearly the duty of the educators of any State to study the peculiar educational needs common to all parts of the State and essential to in- telligent and worthy citizenship in the State. Whatever is thus found to be peculiarly essential to education in Ohio, for example, should be added in setting up a curriculum for this State to the educational constants re- quired by the United States as a whole. Coming back once more to our Cincinnati boy and considering the in- terests of this city in his education the same line of thought that we have been pursuing for the Nation and for the State holds equally true. Cin- cinnati is also a peculiar local community with outstanding interests, activ- ities, opportunities, and needs, that for the common good of the people require certain objectives in addition to those decided upon for the Nation and the State. What are the kinds of information about Cincinnati, its history, its art, music, religious life, recreation, social organizations, com mercial and industrial activities, and its place in the State and the Nation, that every boy being educated in the city ought to know in order that when he reaches maturity and takes his place as a citizen he will be able and disposed to live up to what Cincinnati offers him in the way of op- portunities, rights, and privileges and at the same time will have the disposi- tion and the necessary information to defend by his vote and otherwise all that is finest and best in the life of the city. A study of this problemby the educators of Cincinnati, assisted by leading men and women of all occupations within the city, should be made to deter- mine what these peculiar objectives are which ought to be added to those already determined for the State and the Nation as relatively constant re- quirements for elementary education in this city. Briefly summarized, the foregoing analysis of the problem of adapting the curriculum to community needs indicates four types of studies that need to be made : 824 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. Studies to determine curriculum requirements that are fundamental to the needs of education from the National point of view. 2. Studies to determine the needs of education which are peculiar to a given State and must, therefore, be added to the fundamentals required for the Nation. 3. Studies to determine the peculiar needs of the city or local school system, and, 4. Studies within a given system to determine what adaptations are needed in individual schools and local communities within the system. The individual primarily responsible for initiating and directing or utiliz- ing such studies as these in the actual work of curriculum revision in any system is the superintendent of schools. In planning a program of revision for any system, full use should be made of the materials contained in the Yearbook of the Department for 1925 and coöperative relations should be established with special students of education in colleges and universities. The adaptation of the curriculum to community needs is, of course, but a part of the whole problem of curriculum construction as the superintend- ent of any city or State must face it. Properly understood, curriculum building applies not merely to the determination of objectives, important as this is, but it has also to do with deciding upon the means and activities of education and the relation in which these must stand to the attainment of the objectives decided upon. It is concerned with those activities and processes through which education as a result takes place. The curriculum from this point of view must be looked upon as a general plan covering a period of years and intended for the guidance of teachers and supervisors in providing, selecting, arranging, grading, and presenting the means of education which are considered desirable and essential to the realization of the objectives decided upon. From this point of view the curriculum lists the activities in which children are to engage, points out the sources of available material, and describes for the teachers the means and methods to be used in stimulating and encouraging these activities. In the second part of the Yearbook for 1925, valuable suggestions will be found as to the principles which are to be followed in adapting the cur- riculum to the needs of individuals and groups of children. For lack of time I shall not attempt an extended discussion of this interesting and im- portant part of my subject, but will call attention briefly in closing to several important variables which must be taken into account in the prac- tical revision of the curriculum in any given city. Among these may be mentioned : 1. The attitude of the people toward education and their ability and disposition to support it adequately. This attitude often finds expression through popular criticism of so-called fads and frills and the lack of thoroughness in what these critics consider to be the essential subjects. Such criticism may usually be over- come through an earnest and effective effort to acquaint the people honestly with the more serious aims, purposes, and accomplishments of the schools. 2. Local educational needs and conditions within the community. The factor of local needs and conditions is an important one, which should be carefully studied. The point of view of prominent individuals and influential persons, the key men and women of the community, who are not themselves educators, should not be DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 825 overlooked or undervalued. Adjusting the curriculum to the needs of the com- munity must not be confused with adapting it to the conditions of that community. Neither of these can be safely ignored. Conditions must be taken into account as one determining factor in the experiences of the children outside of the school which affect the work that they can do in school, and the possible assembling of local means of education under the direction of the school. On the other hand, the needs of education may, and usually do, involve the effort to overcome some of the conditions existing in the community. 3. The presence or absence of supplementary agencies of education. The presence or absence of supplementary agencies and activities of education such as libraries, museums, theaters, parent-teachers associations, playgrounds, industrial and commercial establishments, and the like, is a variable factor of great im- portance in planning the activities which should be provided for in the curriculum. This factor should, of course, be carefully studied not only for a city system as a whole but for the individual schools within the system and an appropriate rela- tionship should be established between the schools and these agencies. In this type of adaptation the principal and teachers of the individual schools must be chiefly relied upon. 4. The mental capacity of the children to receive education. Variation in the mental capacity of children is a fundamental factor that can now be determined much more accurately than at any former time through the use of such intelligence tests as are now available. In providing for curriculum adaptation, however, the value of these tests must not be too exclusively relied upon for the proper classifica- tion of children. They are a valuable instrument but not the sole means to be used in grouping children for purposes of effective instruction. The judgment of teachers and the past achievements of the children must also be taken into account. It now seems that the available tests of intelligence have probably been worked out too exclusively to test differences in the capacity of children for abstract think- ing and in the handling of symbols. The consensus of opinion among the best psychologists now tends to recognize three distinct types of intelligence all of which are important in life and should be properly provided for in curriculum planning and school management. These types of intelligence are distinguished by the capacity ( 1) for abstract thinking, ( 2) for dealing intelligently with con- crete experiences chiefly of a physical nature, and ( 3 ) for the mastery of social relations essential to participation and leadership. The curriculum should, there- fore, be so planned as to take full account of the needs of all of these types and to give proper encouragement for the optimum development of each of them. 5. The past education and experiences of the children in school and out of it. These experiences as well as the native capacity of the children have much to do with determining their ability to do school work at any time. Consequently in ad- justing the curriculum to the individual child or to groups of children it is im- portant to ascertain as fully as possible what these experiences are and have been outside of the school as well as those received within the school. In making the proper adaptation required by this factor it is important that a visiting teacher or especially prepared social worker shall be employed to assist teachers, principals, and supervisors to an adequate understanding of the conditions in the home and community life of the children that affect in a material way their progress in the school and the necessary adaptations of the curriculum. 6. The migration of children into the school system and from school to school within the system. In most American cities this is an important factor and cannot be overlooked. It calls for a certain uniformity throughout the system in order to guarantee continuity of instruction and coördination and economy of effort in the work of teachers and children. 7. The ability and attitude of the teaching staff. No one of the variable factors found in any school system is more influential and more important in determining 826 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION what can effectively be done in the way of adjusting activities within the schools to local and individual needs than the ability, professional spirit, and coöperation of teachers and other members of the school staff. Responsibility for making and revising courses of study rests, as I have said, definitely upon the superintendent. However, in preparing any new courses of study and in revising old ones the superintendent must not only utilize all apparently established resuits of scientific study of education but must also utilize extensively every essential point of view and every form of expert judgment to be found within his own school staff. No course of study which involves extensive or radical changes can be successfully put into operation which the school staff as a whole does not thoroughly under- stand and cheerfully approve. No course should go into effect at any time in the determination of which teachers , supervisors, and principals have not had a share. The combined judgment of the staff, including the superintendent, is always better, of course, than that of the superintendent alone. Furthermore, it is immensely conducive to the growth of teachers, supervisors, and principals to place upon each of them individually and in groups definite responsibilities in the preparation, revision, and adjustment of courses of study. When such a plan is followed it is always found that the members of the staff will not rely simply upon their own judgment but will seek to ascertain what other cities are doing and how they are doing it. This is an excellent way to get wide professional experience actually incorporated in courses of study when they are put into operation. Under these conditions members of the staff will seek definitely to inform themselves of the best thought and results of special students of education in the various subjects of the curriculum that can be found in the colleges and universities and in various publications. A great and continuous discussion of the various issues that are in- volved in revising the courses of study in this way is set up and a sharp struggle among the ideas and plans suggested takes place with the almost certain result that the fittest of these will survive in the end. 8. The relative influence and importance of each of the foregoing factors in any given community will condition materially the practical outcome of the curriculum revision. CURRICULUM REVISION : HOW A PARTICULAR CITY MAY ATTACK THE PROBLEM A. L. THRELKELD, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER COLORADO The best treatment that I can give this topic consists in the presenta- tion of the essential features of the Denver program of curriculum re- vision. In so doing I shall organize the content of this paper around what I consider to be the foremost principles in the Denver plan. They are as follows : I. The participation of the local professional corps must be procured as a basis for the entire program. II. Definite administration and supervision of the local corps is essential. III . The most advanced educational thought of the profession as a whole should be incorporated. IV. Curriculum revision should be continuous. I. Participation of the local professional corps-In the last analysis no course of study is any more effective than the extent to which it is actually DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 827 taught in the classroom. Its value cannot be determined merely by an examination of the printed contents as they appear between the covers of the published course, for after all it is education we are after and that does not occur except in terms of pupil growth and development. Getting proper content and technique into a printed course of study is only part of the problem. The teacher must be prepared to see the significance of it all. Or in other words, the teacher must have an intelligence towards that which he is held responsible for teaching. The Denver program takes the point of view that the best way to get this result in the teacher is to involve his coöperation in making the courses of study which he is to teach. Consequently the organization of the Denver plan is based upon a large number of committees. These com- mittees are in the main of two types, commonly referred to as subject matter committees and central organization committees. Subject-matter committees-The subject-matter committees are those which are appointed to cover particular subject-matter fields, such as English, mathematics, science, kindergarten, social science, Latin, modern languages, and the like. There are three sets of these committees, one for the elementary schools, one for the junior high schools, and one for the senior high schools. This division is made upon the theory that such a plan will better insure com- plete participation. In covering all twelve grades by one committee in one subject-matter field there is more likelihood of certain parts of the school system dominating other parts. The same principle holds if one subject matter committee is appointed in each field to cover both junior and senior high schools. The elementary school teachers should make their contribu- tions in an unrestricted manner from the point of view of elementary school education. The same should be the case with the teachers of the junior high schools and with the senior high schools. Three committees in each subject-matter field, providing of course it is a field that extends through all twelve grades, will no doubt provide the best possible physical setting for getting this freedom of participation. Just how the problem of co- ordination of effort is attacked will be presented at a later point. In making up the membership of subject matter committees the primary consideration is to make the participation of the classroom teacher the starting point. This means when followed out that the committees should be so constituted as to offer the maximum inducement to the classroom teacher to enter into the discussions unreservedly. This is not always an easy thing to do if the committees are presided over by administrative officers whose aggressiveness has been highly developed by the nature of their work. On account of this fact and also for other reasons which will be later presented principles, directors, and supervisors in the main have not been assigned to membership on these subject-matter committees. Exceptions to this principle have been made where there was a particular reason for doing so. Only a few such exceptions have been made. Nearly 828 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the entire membership of these committees is made up of classroom teachers. Furthermore, the chairman of every subject-matter committee is a class- room teacher. The committee membership is distributed among the schools as far as it is practicable. Of course it would be impossible to represent each elementary school on each committee, but it has been seen to that each school is equitably represented. For example, if a school does not have a member on the English committee it will have one on some other com- mittee to balance this. Each junior high school has a representative on each junior high school committee, and the same order prevails among the senior high schools. Each committee member is expected to interest his school in the work of his committee and bring to his committee as many contributions from his associates as possible. In some instances the principal has based his faculty meetings, upon this idea and has had committee members report to all of the teachers of the school concerning the work of their several committees. Merely to mention this is sufficient to suggest the possibilities along this line. As stated above principals, supervisors, and like members of the pro- fessional corps are not as a policy given direct affiliation with these subject matter committees. It is understood that these members of the staff are ex officio members of any committee with which their work concerns them, but in the main they are held in a position of general responsibility toward the program as a whole. It is expected that they will help all committee members rather than those of a particular committee. Every principal. is concerned in the work of every committee whose subject-matter field is included in the program of studies of his school. His concern then in the whole program is a real one. It is obviously his big responsibility. He would be in danger of losing sight of his big task if he were to be tied down to the work of a particular subject matter committee. Further- more, he would be in danger of becoming interested in the work of one committee at the expense of losing interest in the work of other committees . The same is true of supervisors whose functions are general, but of course in the case of supervisors of special subjects a different attitude is justifiable to some extent. The directors of home economics, music, fine arts, industrial arts, physical education, and the like have, with the assistance of the curriculum specialists led the work of the committees of their fields. The central organization committees to whom reference will later be made-These are three in number and are as follows : committee on constants in the high schools, committee on organization of program of studies in the high schools, and the committee on classification and guid- ance. Contrary to the policy with respect to subject-matter committees the membership of these central committees is composed of administrators . DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 829 The function of the committee on constants in the high schools is to recommend a program of required courses which must be completed by all who are to receive the senior high school diploma. The committee on organization of program of studies in the high schools is responsible for working out a plan which is to govern the pupils' se- lection of courses, such as the organization of the program of studies into curricula, majors and minors, and the like. The committee on classification and guidance is charged with the task of working out a system of records and other administrative devices which are to be used in putting the entire program into effect. Committees work on school time-All of the committees named above, the subject-matter and central organization committees, are not expected to do their work after having taught a full day in the classroom. This work is anything but a side issue. Several rooms in the administration building are given over to committee work and in accordance with a definite schedule committee members come to these rooms and work during the regular school day with substitute teachers in their classrooms. Curri- culum revision is fundamental to all else and certainly it should not be done at odd times, especially it should not be done by those who have used up their best energies by teaching a full day in the classroom. People who have the curriculum revision work to do should be relieved from classroom duties while they are so engaged. In the Denver situation a whole committee sometimes works on full time for several days consecutively. After the work of a committee gets to a certain point then the chairman is the only one who will work full time consecutively, or the chairman and one assistant may thus proceed. The whole committee is then called in for half day or full day sessions at intervals. The committee and chairman then go over the work to- gether and the chairman starts in on another section of the work. Several chairmen have worked full time for months under this plan. II. Administration and supervision-It is obvious that such an extensive committee system must be carefully supervised. This requires definite or- ganization. One person in direct charge-It should be the special responsibility of one person to direct the administration and supervision of such a program as this. Because of the extent to which such a program works into the whole life of a school system it is important that this person be one having ad- ministrative duties covering the entire system. He is then in a proper position to weigh all values in making decisions and recommending policies of procedure in the curriculum work itself. In Denver the superintendent delegated this responsibility to the assistant superintendent in charge of instruction, who later became the deputy superintendent retaining the curriculum revision program as a special responsibility. Through con- ferences with the deputy the superintendent keeps in touch with the main aspects of the program. 830 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Curriculum specialists for immediate supervision of committee work : No one having the general duties of an administrator can give the definite supervision to committees working in curriculum revision which they need. This is a service which must be performed by those who are specializing in the problems of curriculum revision. To provide this service for the Denver program last year Professor W. D. Armentrout, director of train- ing schools, State Teachers College, Greeley, and Professor L. Thomas Hopkins, professor of education, State University, Boulder, were em- ployed for about one half of their time to supervise the work of the Denver committees. This year Professor Armentrout was not able to return but the services of Professor Frederick L. Whitney, director of research, State Teachers College, Greeley, were obtained for one day per week and Pro- fessor Hopkins three days. Dr. Hopkins has direct supervision of all com- mittees except those in the fields of music and manual arts, which two fields are assisted by Dr. Whitney working in coöperation with the special directors involved. It is at this point that I wish to cover the problem of coördination of committee work to which I referred above . By having one of these men in charge of all three committees in a par- ticular field, such as mathematics for example, a thorough coördinating agency is provided. All three committees are under his leadership. Fur- thermore, he can call joint meetings of committees or joint meetings of chairmen as he sees the need for doing so. One of the best advantages of this plan is that it combines coördination and unity with the maximum freedom of expression. More important yet perhaps, it offers a chance to unite the work of the two or three committees upon the level estab- lished by the most progressive one of them if there happens to be variation in points of view. In other words, with the type of committees here mentioned working in the same subject-matter field, one may immediately take a progressive point of view and proceed to get its materials ready ac- cordingly. When this principle begins to materialize and the results of it begin to show in the work of one committee, it is practically certain immediately to influence the work of the other one or two, as the case may be. In other words, it provides a natural entering wedge for progress especially when there is the provision for supervision which has been here described. If anyone assumes that because the Denver plan has one set of com- mittees for the elementary field, one for the junior high, and another for the senior high, that the principle of coördination and unity of effort is being overlooked, he is not in touch with the situation. This value is being definitely provided for, and better still it is based upon the idea of getting this coördination and unity upon the level established by the most pro- gressive elements of the local staff with definite organization in the first place for evolving the points of view of these elements to the highest point possible through freedom of study and discussion. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 831 Clerical staff-A program such as the one here being described calls for a great deal of stenographical, typing, mimeographing, and clerical work of all kinds. The Denver program provides a secretary to have charge of this phase of the program. This secretary has from two to six or more assistants who give all of their time to taking care of this work. In ad- dition to what this staff can do much clerical work is done by the regular clerical staff in the administration building. Committee members are not expected to type their own reports. They hand in rough drafts which are typed and in many cases mimeographed for distribution among com- mittee members and for various purposes. Stenographical notes are taken in committee conferences with specialists and as far as possible the com- mittee member is relieved of the burden of clerical work. Professional library-An organized method of getting all of the avail- able reports of research, recent books, and articles dealing with curriculum revision and problems of teaching which must be studied in such a program as I have been describing is exceedingly important. In Denver this need is met by a professional library in the administration building, which library is in charge of a person who is highly trained in education and in library administration and occupies the position in the school system of supervisor of school libraries. All such materials as I have just referred to are purchased through this library as needs arise. They are administered according to library methods so that committee members have only to go to the library and call for the reports or articles which they may want to use and the librarian provides them. This library is a key point in the program. It would be extremely wasteful of energy and time if there were not a definite way of providing the committees with the materials which are necessary for their work. Department of tests and measurements-City-wide standard achieve- ment tests are given before old courses of study are displaced, and then the new courses are checked up later by the same method. Perhaps the most significant contribution from the department of tests and measurements lies in the working of tests into the courses of study. The director of measurements in coöperation with the committees and the specialists in charge of committee supervision is working out a series of tests for each of the new courses. These tests are worked out in the light of what the courses actually assign. Their purpose is to offer definite means for checking up on content and method and also to enable the teacher better to analyze the teaching problem. III. The most advanced educational thought must be incorporated- The local staff with the special type of supervision that has already been presented is able to capitalize a great deal upon the research work which has been carried out in many of our colleges, universities, and experi- mental schools. It is able to bring before the committees the best articles dealing with educational method and the like. A relatively high point in the assimilation of the best our profession has to offer up to date can be 832 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION reached through the initiative of such a local organization. But there comes a time in the work of a committee when it is extremely helpful to have present in person some outstanding specialist in the particular field of that committee's work. This idea is carried out by bringing many of the leading research specialists of the country to Denver for definite personal work with the committees. They do not come for general lectures nor for general discussions, but they come at a time when the committees have their problems defined, when committees are able to state issues clearly and to ask definite questions about them. The outside special- ist does not have to "sell" himself in this situation for his need has already been recognized, and those with whom he is to work are looking to him for specific assistance. He stays several days, depending upon the particular need of the committees with whom he is working. Before his coming he is informed of the progress of the committees up to date and after he leaves manuscripts go back and forth through the mail in a process of criticism and development toward the point where the first printing will be deemed advisable. Last year fourteen such specialists were brought to Denver and a like number is scheduled for this year. Parenthetically, let me remark that all of the expense of the special services I have referred to up to this point-namely, substitute teachers to take the places of committee members while these members work on curriculum revision, the services of Professors Hopkins, Armentrout, and Whitney, the special clerical staff, and the outside specialists are pro- vided for in a special appropriation made by the Board of Education during each of the last two years. The appropriation for the two years is a little more than fifty-five thousand dollars. This is for the special ser- vices I have mentioned and it does not include the time given to the program by regular members of the corps. IV. A continuous process-In order to make adjustments to new social conditions as rapidly as such adjustments need to be made today a curricu- lum revision program in its initial stages has to take on the nature of a drive. Such a program has to be organized for the purpose of making up for lost time. This would not be true in any situation in which there had always been a curriculum revision plan capable of meeting changes as they arose, but as far as I know no such organization has ever existed. We generally let things drift for a few years and then put on a drive to bring school work up to the changes in social conditions. We look upon our present organization in Denver as a means of making adjustment to new conditions in the quickest possible time, realizing that the present hour is an extraordinary one due in large part to the effect of the recent war. But after this initial stage is gone through with there should be a definite plan for keeping courses of study revised year by year in order that steady consecutive progress can be effected and thus the need for drives eliminated barring unforeseen radical social disturbances. Change in our social life today is a continuous process and our schools must recognize this prin- ciple if they are to do better than to sit on the tail of progress. This DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 833 requires a continuous curriculum revision program. It should be as definitely a part of the administration of a school system as any of the departments that we now recognize as established. A department of curriculum revision, after the drive stage to which I have been referring has been gone through with, could by perennial revision keep the courses of study in the classroom reasonably appropriate to the needs of the hour. Any extensive program of curriculum revision such as the one I have been describing which fails to get this permanent result must be mainly a dis- appointment. It is hoped that this year will practically complete the initial stage in a continuous program of curriculum revision in Denver. At the end of last summer the following courses were given their first printing and are now in the classroom-junior high school Latin, junior high school general science and biology, junior high school social science, junior high school commerce, elementary arithmetic, and kindergarten. The following are now in the classroom in mimeographed form for trial and experimentation. After revision they will be printed for general classroom use next September : Elementary school-art, industrial arts, and home economics; junior high school-art, industrial art, home eco- nomics, mathematics, French, and Spanish; senior high school-art, Latin , home economics, French, and Spanish. In addition the following will also be ready by next September : Ele- mentary school English, science, reading, physical aducation, visual edu- cation, music, and social science; Senior high school English, physical edu- cation, commerce, and certain units in the field of mathematics. Biggest outcome-But the most significant results will never be re- duceable to printed form. Teacher growth in terms of insight into the significance and wonderful possibilities of his profession, which insight is attendant to the development of a scientific attitude toward all problems ; pupil growth along the same lines ; and a quickened community conscious- ness on the subject of education are the big results. And such outcomes through a program of curriculum revision are possible only in that situ- ation in which all sources and types of intelligence bearing on the problem are given opportunity to participate in its solution. There is no better criterion by which to measure the worthwhileness of that which is going on in any school system than the state of morale running throughout the professional corps . High morale comes from the feeling on the part of each that he is en- gaged in a great work under a plan which enables him to see the best of his own life expressed in it. Service to a great cause is the source of life. Curriculum making is the great work of our profession. All else that is done in a school system must, in the last analysis, come to bear as a means to the solution of this problem. Certainly the cause is big enough. It is as significant as life itself. Give every member of our profession a chance to do his best for it and the results need not be feared. This is a chal- lenge of curriculum making to every community. 834 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A COÖPERATIVE PLAN FOR curricuLUM REVISION Z. E. SCOTT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD , MASSACHUSETTS The continued development of the public school system of America is a problem the difficulty and importance of which challenge the highest intelli- gence and training possessed by the body of people responsible for its im- provement. It is true that each year gives evidence of improvement in many phases of school work. The success of our program of public education is one of America's real achievements. School men and women everywhere should appreciate this achievement, and they should not hesitate to be encouraged by the results . But the improvement made, the success achieved, are but marks along the educational highway. Improvement and success are relative terms, depending upon the state of society in which they are gaged and measured. We cannot be content to remain where we are. We must continue to meet the demands of a rapidly changing society. The task of coöperative curriculum revision is of great moment in our educational program. For adequate success it will be necessary to utilize all the educational resources of various communities. In our research and endeavor we have reached some important conclu- sions : That the curriculum can have many common elements or factors and still not be uniform; that the curriculum is not static; that the best curriculum is improvable; that either a poor or a good curriculum very materially influences teaching, supervision, and administration. Today we place more emphasis upon "teaching materials" than ever before. The end and aim of education cannot be successfully achieved unless a worthy effort be made to include in any public school curriculum such a range of teaching materials that through their use the objectives of education are reached. There are certain major factors in the success of any school program. They are the teachers, including supervisors, principals, and administrators ; the philosophy of education held by teachers, supervisors, and principals ; the method or plan of work followed ; buildings and equipment; the attain- ments such as skills, habits, attitudes of mind, character, etc. Equal in im- portance to any of these is the curriculum, that factor in a public school program by which is determined what is taught, how much is taught, when it is taught, and with what results. It is an educational fact that a poorly made and administered curriculum means a poor school system; that a well made and enriched curriculum means a good school system; that a progressive and cumulatively improved curriculum means a constantly improved school system. It is from this point of view, then, that I present an outline, a way by which curriculum revision may become a better organized and more scien- tific procedure. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 835 The outline. formulates a practical way by which the very important con- tributions in curriculum revision and enrichment may be made available to the school systems throughout the country. It attempts to eliminate loss of time and effort. It attempts to foster research and professional coöperation. It hopes to stimulate and encourage, likewise, local interest and endeavor in the very important work of curriculum revision. Curriculum revision: a constant and continuing problem-The work of curriculum revision involves both the preservation of that which is best from the contributions of the past, and the selection and organization of the most important values of the present day. In one sense, the public school curriculum is a reflection of the life and progress of society. Its revision, therefore, will occur as often as progress occurs. A static school is not possible in a dynamic civilization. The present-day developments, for example, in science, art, industry, etc., are sufficient to give new life and color to curriculum from kindergarten through high school. Certain definite factors enter into the solution of this problem such as : (1) the work of the local school system; (2) the work of individual special- ists; ( 3 ) contributions of individual school systems ; (4) provision for effec- tive coöperation; and (5) certain techniques for carrying out a coöperative plan. Can a local community adequately and economically solve the problem of curriculum revision?-The resources at the disposal of the typical school system are inadequate for the complete solution of this intricate problem.. The local community should be responsible for definite work in general curriculum theory, and for that portion of the curriculum which answers its own particular needs. For each local school system to attempt to solve the great common problems affecting all schools means a loss in time, energy, and funds. Can the work of individual specialists solve the problem?-The specialist confines his work to a limited field. His work is minute and exact rather than comprehensive. He lacks the facilities for coördinating his work with that of other specialists, for disseminating it, and for securing its practical use. The specialist can make his best contributions by coördinating his very important research work with that of curriculum committees from various school systems. How may the contributions of individual school systems and curriculum specialists best be brought to bear in the revision of the curriculum- Economy can be effected if duplication of effort by various school systems can be reduced-if the results of the work of other school systems and curricula specialists can be made available for individual cities. This pre- vention of waste and the coordination of effort could be brought about by an agency set up for that particular purpose. To accomplish this result is a worthy undertaking. Under what auspices can such coöperation be effectively provided?- Curriculum revision is an immediate problem in practically all school sys 836 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tems throughout the country. The Department of Superintendence is the natural agency which should set up the machinery for the coöperation of superintendents, principals, and teachers in curriculum revision. The De- partment should be able to secure the benefit of the best thinking of all groups. "The best course of study in any subject is possible only by pooling the skills, the enthusiasm, the leadership in that subject." What will be the technique of such a coöperative plan? A. What will the individual school system do ? 1. Machinery for work in the individual city should be well organized. Teachers, supervisors, principals, and superintendents-all should be ex- pected to contribute. ( Helpful suggestions for the organization of local communities for curriculum revision appear in Chapter II of the Second Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence.) 2. The city working on particular curriculum problems should furnish the Department of Superintendence with the name of the person or persons responsible for the program in a given city. 3. A statement of the work under way in the revision of the curriculum in any system should be sent to the Department of Superintendence. Ocса- sional reports of progress should be made. 4. The persons directly responsible for curriculum revision in a co- operating city should, from time to time, furnish the Department of Super- intendence with clear statements of the concrete difficulties encountered in the revision undertaken . 5. In so far as facilities permit, each coöperating city should be repre- sented at round table and committee conferences at the summer meeting of the National Education Association, and at the winter meeting of the De- partment of Superintendence. By this plan, those engaged in curriculum research and revision may personally recount the results of their practical work and hear the results obtained in other cities . 6. Definite plans could be worked out by which completed curriculum units are put into tentative form for distribution within a school system. 7. Conference of teachers, principals, and supervisors should be called to consider, discuss, and improve the units of the curriculum after experi- mental try-out. 8. It should be the responsibility of the executive and teaching staff of a school department to see the work of curriculum revision through to com- pletion. B. What can curriculum specialists and curriculum research agencies do? 1. They can coördinate their research, continuing to work in committees along the lines successfully adopted by the sub-committees in the prepara- tion of the Third Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. 2. They can re-state the unsolved curriculum problems in their particular fields. They can clarify and define the problems which local school systems discover. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 837 3. They can submit problems for the consideration of graduate classes in representative universities. These classes should be responsible for report- ing their research and findings . 4. They can encourage students to undertake the solution of unsolved curriculum problems in the preparation of theses, or in whatever way op- portunity may permit. 5. They can offer advice to individual cities as to the setting up and solution of problems-the cost of such service to be borne by the individual city. C. What can the Department of Superintendence and the Division of Research do ? 1. The Department can receive, classify, and give publicity to the reports of curriculum revision from the coöperating cities. 2. The Department can call into conference small groups of superin- tendents, principals, and teachers who have been engaged in curriculum revision for the purpose of receiving from them a critical analysis of methods of procedure. 3. It can bring together the most important findings and reports of progress in the 1926 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. 4. It can call round-table conferences at both the summer meeting of the National Education Association and of the Department of Superintendence in 1926, for the discussion of such concrete and practical problems of cur- riculum revision as most urgently require the personal exchange of views. 5. In so far as facilities and funds are available, the Department can provide for the coördination, interpretation, and dissemination of the work of curriculum specialists and curriculum research agencies that may be applied to the solution of practical difficulties encountered by school systems . 6. When special needs arise, a representative of the Department of Super- intendence can make extended trips to consult with the curriculum group at work in individual school systems. Thus, through personal contact, out- standing pieces of work can be located and brought to the individual cities to encourage the workers concerned. 7. Further contributions of the Department : a. Arrange for the exchange of outstanding courses of study. b. Furnish revised bibliographies. c. Compile reviews from time to time of the best articles bearing on the cur- riculum. d. Supply information as to the issuance of special reports and studies by special- ists and curriculum research agencies. e. Establish at the national headquarters a library of Tentative Outlines and Courses of Study. Such materials should be available in sufficient number for circulation throughout the country. f. Compile statements of the outstanding and common problems in the field of curriculum revision. g. Prepare definite and concrete statement of the method whereby curriculum problems may be scientifically attacked and solved. 838 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The plan as outlined implies leadership of the highest type; coöperation with vision; constant growth and enthusiasm in the teaching, supervisory, and administrative staff; and finally, worthy curricula for our public schools. Education cannot be likened to competitive industries at work to produce the best car at the lowest possible cost. Engineers and research agencies in such endeavor must depend for much of their success upon the secrecy with which their experiments are carried out and the possibility of their placing a manufactured product upon the market before competing concerns have fulfilled and carried out similar plans. Our endeavor for curriculum revision is not comparable to the foregoing illustration. In a real sense, it is a non-competitive enterprise. We, of various school systems, are not competitors in curriculum making. We are sharers and users of all that each one has to contribute to the other. Before this vision of coöperative endeavor can be realized, we must learn that duplication of research and of effort in teaching or supervision is poor economy. An important contribution will be made when we better learn how to make use of research and findings in all fields of education-when we so capitalize these that all engaged in the work may share in the results. The plan is a forward looking one. It is difficult to carry out, it is true, but the results to be achieved are so important that the difficulty is but an added reason why we should undertake the task and follow it through to successful completion. THE FUNCTION OF THE UNIVERSITY WILLIAM LOWE BRYAN, PRESIDENT OF INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMING- ΤΟΝ, INDIANA The discussion of a hundred contributions of the university to the public schools I shall leave to others in order to emphasize one. The chief function of the University, as I think, is to supplement common sense by the revelation of forces which to common sense are invisible. I offer three illustrations of this view : 1. First from the field of technical science. It would be superfluous to urge the necessity of supplementing common sense by technical science in agriculture, engineering, sanitation, war, et cetera, if it were not that so many millions of our people and so many of their leaders do not believe this. Distrust of the expert is a characteristic American attitude. The hardest problem of the agricultural college has not been to make two ears of corn grow where one grew before, but to induce farmers to adopt the better way even when they saw the double crop. A well known New England congressman not long ago expressed to me his belief that the United States Department of Agriculture and the agricultural colleges had done almost nothing of value. He stated that for his own part he relied for agricultural advice upon the old farmers in his neighborhood. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 839 A few years ago a millionaire manufacturer of Chicago was making vehement attack upon the universities, including especially the schools of engineering. Young men expecting to become mechanics or manufacturers should, he said, avoid those useless or fraudulent institutions. They should instead go straight to the shops and learn under the eye of foremen who had learned in the same way. Our people pay in taxes for the education of engineers competent to make roads as good as those of France and Germany. But as soon as we have educated the men to do this thing, they are called highbrows. We dis- trust their practical sense and we seldom use them as France and Germany do in the public service. We build our roads-thousands of miles, mil- lions of dollars' worth-by what we call horse sense. Horse sense ! I think of that when I see horses pulling automobiles out of the holes in those roads before the roads have been paid for. Many of our people distrust the expert in war. We know that a town-lot baseball nine can not, by donning professional uniforms, win against the New York Giants, but we think that they could win against Hindenburg. Before our part of the Great War began I read speeches from two men who have been candidates for the presidency of the United States in which they say in substance that we could raise an army of millions within a few months that could defend our country against any other nation in the world. When they say that they are thinking of Washington's army at Yorktown and Sherman's army at Atlanta and Grant's army at Appomattox. They are forgetting at what fearful cost those armies were developed. Distrust of the technical expert was common in England before the Great War. A few years before the war an Englishman wrote a book with the indecorous title, The Damned College Professor. He meant by that title to represent the typical English attitude toward the technical expert. He was trying to make his countrymen see that Germany was beating England in the markets of the world because German manufac- turers were using common sense plus science while English manufacturers were relying upon common sense minus science. Since the war began, Lord Haldane, arguing in Parliament that England should at last take a lesson from Germany in this respect, said that there were single manufac- turing plants in Germany which used more technical chemists than were to be found in the whole of England. They say it was the German school- master who won at Sedan. In the same sense, it is the German chemist who threatens to conquer the world. A list of reasons might be given for the obstinate hostility to technical science-the normal inertia of men against innovations, the important successes often achieved without technical science, the futile proposals of theorists who lack practical sense, the deceptive proposals of professed ex- perts who lack common honesty. Whatever the reasons for that hostility, the important fact is that our people are being converted inch by inch away from it to belief in the necessity for applied science. 840 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The war hurried this conversion. England and America know now that good old rules of thumb can not win against German chemistry either in the wheatfield or on the battlefield. The truth is we live in an ocean of force of which common sense knows a little and of which technical science knows a little more. Itis the University which reveals this little more which in our day is essential in order that we may have fuel, food, health, defense-in order that we may survive. It was technical science which made the submarine. It is technical science which must destroy it. 2. Further removed from the eye of common sense is the contribution of the university through pure learning, including what President Wilson called pure science and pure history. I have heard lately of a government disbursing agent who inspected a research station of the United States Fish Commission, and finding the men working on various remote biological problems, stated that he could not conscientiously sign their salary war- rants unless they could show him some definite promise of more fish to fry. There is within the University a world of pure learning which makes no promise of fried fish or of any conceivable utilitarian value. The practical world looks on the men of that impractical world as Dean Swift looked on the scholars of his flying island of Laputa. Swift's description of the scholar whose life was spent in extracting sunbeams from cucumbers illustrates his scorn for all such men. The ultimate defense of pure learning is not its actual or possible utility. Its defense is that given by Aristotle. Curiosity, wonder are in- stincts as deep and right as hunger. We want to know. We want to comprehend the universe of which we are a part. In pure learning nature rises toward knowing the truth about itself. No greater thing happens in the world than this. Meanwhile pure learning has another defense. The study of things as unpromising as cucumbers often does in time lead to results as precious as sunbeams. For example, in the last century in England lived Clerk Maxwell, mathematician, whose writings only a handful of men could read. Much of them was as remote from the practical world as Swift's flying island. But one learns that certain of his studies in the mathematics of light and electricity led to the experimental studies of Herz, which in turn led to the studies of Roentgen, which in their turn gave us the X-rays with their incalculable practical values. What our hard-headed American must learn is that when his life is saved by help of the X-ray picture, his debt goes back one step to Roentgen, two steps to Herz, and three steps to Clerk Maxwell, master in pure mathematics. In a word, the ocean of force in which we live is one. All truth about it is potentially practical. 3. Yet further removed from the view of common sense are the forces which exist for a long time potentially before they appear actually so that they can be seen. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 841 I once heard an eminent scientist speak from the text, "The real things are the invisible things." He was not advocating mystical vagaries. He was speaking as a scientist about the facts of evolution. He meant for ex- ample that the acorn which you can see is not so important as the oak and the forest of oaks into which it will grow. Or for another example, that the plant life which was to be seen on the earth before the age of animals was not so important as the future world of animal and human life somehow potentially there. Or for a third example, that at any date in the history of civilization the most important thing is not society as it is then and there established but the hidden forces which are there creating a new society for the future. For illustration consider the world of twenty-five hundred years ago pic- tured in the second part of Isaiah and what has grown out of that acorn. What Isaiah saw in Babylon was a world of men held together by their lowest interests-greed, lust, and terror. Especially by terror of copri- cious, crul, lustful gods whom they imagined from the capricious, cruel, adn lustful kings and priests with whom they must make terms in order to live on the earth. Isaiah, the slave, saw that horrible, regnant Babylon -and did not believe in it. He believed in another world nowhere then visible. He said : "The spirit of the Lord God is upon me ; because the Lord hath anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent me to bind up the broken- hearted ; to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound ; To proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord, and the day of vengeance of our God; to comfort all that mourn ; To appoint unto them that mourn in Zion, to give unto them beauty for ashes ; the oil of joy for mourning, the garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness . Arise, shine; for thy light is come, and the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee. For, behold, the darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the people. But the Lord shall arise upon thee, and his glory shall be seen upon thee. And the Gentiles shall come to thy light, and kings to the brightness of thy rising." Isaiah's vision must at that time have seemed to common sense insane . But in truth, the fortresses, temples, priests, kings, and gods which then seemed the only realities are vanished and forgotten while now millions share the hope and passion of the slave who dreamed. The real things are the invisible things. The real things are the invisible things. This is the supreme message of the university to the school and to society. WHAT THE COLLEGES CAN DO FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS E. G. DOUDNA, SECRETARY, WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION MADISON, WISCONSIN For many years, the maladjustment of secondary school and college has been recognized and various remedies have been proposed. The mortality 8+2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the freshman year in college approaches forty per cent, and it is growing. A survey made by the United States Bureau of Education of the seniors in the high schools of Massachusetts stated explicitly that fifty per cent of the graduates would be unable to do college work and that twenty-five per cent more were doubtful. In other words, even though the high school graduate jumps the entrance requirement hurdles he has less than an even chance of success after he enters the freshman class and passes from the status of "high school student" to "college man." Up to this time the failure of the freshman has been regarded as an indictment of the secondary school, and the efforts to effect a reform have usually been through the secondary or "preparatory" school. Perhaps this is not the real solution of the problem. Since 1893, American education in the elementary and secondary school has undergone startling and radical changes not unlike those that brought about the political and industrial revolutions a century earlier. The public schools have set up clear and explicit objectives where before they stated their aims in meaningless generalizations ; they have reëxamined the philos- ophy of education; the curriculum has been modified and is now the center of educational inquiry; scientific testing of results and controlled experi- mentation are giving us a science of education that is professionalizing teaching in the public school. The colleges with a few exceptions are still thinking in terms of the report of the Committee of Ten, if indeed they have moved from medieval- ism up to that point. Apparently they still regard the secondary school as a preparatory institution and treat it as such. "But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all. " The literature of college education is exceedingly limited and beautifully indefinite. Mostly it concerns itself with the "hordes of incompetents " who ask for its training. It states its objectives naively as preparation for leadership, even when it bothers to state them at all. With the modern democratic theory of education it is little concerned. When it does con- descend to discuss it, it sneers at "educational leveling," at "the pedagogy of gush, " at the "imbecility of interest" and so on ad nauseum . Contrast the policies of the public school and the college. One finds that the modern school has its objectives clearly and explicitly defined; that it centers its thought on pupil development; that it demands good teaching and requires professional training of its teachers; that it stresses the im- portance of individual differences; that it aims to arouse pupil activities by methods which require a maximum of pupil thinking; that it places less and less dependence upon final and formal examinations, but the tests it does use are impersonal, objective, and to a reasonable degree standard- ized. Procedures are tested and pupil failure is not met with the querulous statement "that the pupils are not prepared," but by an examination of the school and its teachers. The public school cannot ignore its responsibil- ity-it has no desire to do so. It takes the pupils from where they are as DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 843 far along the road that they should go as it can reasonably be expected to do. It recognizes education as a dynamic process-as a transforming process- and it can't take time to whine about its raw material. The college has not stated its objectives clearly in terms of a modern democratic society. It is still a subject-centered institution; it places but little emphasis upon good teaching and requires no professional preparation of its instructors. That the schools of education in most universities have made and are making important contributions which could easily be learned by some of the other professors in the liberal arts colleges, is apparently still unknown to the scholastic gentlemen who continue to laugh at "pedagogy" and to repeat "if you know your subject you can teach." The college still uses the lecture method-if it is worthy of being called a method-it prefers mass instruction, the pouring-in process which Page exposed almost a century ago. Poor freshmen, herded into a great class- room, are assigned a number and sit meekly while a bored and indifferent professor delivers himself of a fifty-minute discourse, which is usually scrappy, ingenuous, disorganized, uninteresting, and unheeded. An in- structor-heaven knows why such a title is used by one who does so little instructing-checks attendance, gives tests, and marks papers. There is a stone wall of indifference between teacher and student. The wonder is that half of the freshmen adjust themselves to the new situation. They, of course, do not see that knowledge is being passed on for its own sake- that the pursuit of knowledge has become as inhuman as the miser's pursuit of money. Acquisition, not activity-receptivity, not thought, are the rule. Personal and subjective examinations and tests are used to measure the student's success. They are too frequently general, vague, and unstand- ardized. This abject reliance upon examinations has long since become ancient history in the modern public school. A study of the progress made in education in the public schools as com- pared with that of the college makes it reasonably clear that the lack of adjustment is a fundamental one and must be met honestly by the colleges as well as the high schools. It seems clear, however, that the higher in- stitutions might come down from Mount Sinai and spend a little time in Doubting Castle. Their objectives, procedures, standards, and organization could well be restated in terms of modern education. Not forever can they remain alone on the heights and cry Excelsior to the toiling ones below. We are not now concerned with the upper classes nor with the graduate school, but we are immensely concerned that the present death rate in the first year be lowered and that the educational determinism which seems to doom the beginner to failure shall be tested by modern standards. The cynical reference to "sore-eye specials" which take the student home to a broken-hearted mother, an irate father, and a gossipy neighborhood in- dicates a mental attitude that is not creditable to those making it . There are at least two things the colleges can do at once to improve their relationship with the public schools. They can set about a reorganiza 844 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tion of their first two years into junior colleges somewhat analogous to the junior high school which has done so much to break down the fence that once stood between the eighth and ninth grades. This does not mean merely setting apart two years and calling the new group a junior college, but a complete reorganization with trained teachers, definite curricula, intelligible requirements, and some measurable standards. Entrance re- quirements would be less important than now, and the junior college would be another step in our educational system. This unification is coming-some colleges and universities now recognize their weaknesses and are earnestly and sincerely attempting to find a solu- tion. The universities of Chicago, Minnesota, and Pittsburg have made definite advances. They are pointing the way. Antioch, Columbia, Am- herst, and other colleges are carefully exploring their field and offer some hope to the secondary school. Their experiments will be useful. Others must do likewise. But beyond reorganization and above any readjustment of curricula, the college can do the public schools the greatest service by recognizing that teaching is a profession, that it is as important to discover a human soul as to discover a new star or to divide an atom. The time has not yet come when college teachers can set before a group of students an intellectuai dish which has lost all its flavor and expect it to be eaten by an eager stu- dent body. That time never was. Paul once wrote to Timothy, "The things thou hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also. " We need great emphasis on the ability to teach others also . The college and the graduate school have contributed to our knowledge of the world. Research has abundantly justified itself, but the world needs also interpretative scholarship. Productive scholarship we have rec- ognized, rewarded, eulogized, and almost sanctified. The discoveries of the research men must be translated into life, must be carried over into the world where people are living. This is an obligation of the college to the world which it has not sufficiently recognized. If the results of scientific investigation in the social field, let us say, were made available to the masses through clear and concrete exposition, perhaps we should see a decline in political error. Perhaps the newspapers would discover that important matters can be reported accurately and interestingly. Certainly those who possess knowledge owe it to the world to follow the example of the Clerk of whom Chaucer said, "Gladly would he learn and gladly teach." The teacher has been underrated by the college. He has been underpaid. The man who can write books, who can contribute even a microscopic ad- dition to any field of knowledge is promptly and gladly honored. He who interprets, who stimulates, who energizes is forgotten or is held to be "merely a teacher." In 1837 Emerson in his "American Scholar" declared his belief in the in- tellectual independence of America. He pleaded for the scholar ; he im DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 845 mortalized the man who could contribute to human knowledge. His ad- dress has been heeded. American scholarship is recognized, it is honored, it has been rewarded. Today we need another Emerson who will plead for interpretation, who will write of the American teacher that he may be dignified, exalted, glorified. The college can reward the great teacher- Arnold, Mark Hopkins, Huxley, those who can draw youth toward the stars, who open the eyes of the blind and the ears of the deaf. Their service cannot be measured. The college must recognize and reward the teacher . The public school would like to welcome the college into its fellowship, it would like to meet on the level, it would like to coöperate to make a better world. The teachers of the public schools are willing to contribute of their knowledge of youth and education to make a better college. They ask for democracy in education-not feudalism. The college, they think, might examine itself, might study the public schools with a view of learn- ing-might become more sympathetic. It might humanize its activities. It should reorganize its first two years, it should dignify teaching, should remember that the meek shall inherit the earth. The National Education Association has a platform; one of the planks could well be reworded to read: "A competent, well trained teacher in hearty accord with American ideals, in every college classroom." WHAT THE COLLEGES CAN DO FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FRANK D. BOYNTON , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ITHACA , NEW YORK Every school superintendent today is fully aware that the college expects something quite definite of the secondary school. He may experience some difficulty in determining in any particular year and in the case of any particular institution exactly what that something is, but Alma Mater has been sufficiently critical of her sons and of their work in the field of sec- ondary education, and sufficiently articulate in her criticism to leave no doubt in their minds that she expects something from them. But it is a poor rule that doesn't work both ways. It may be that we secondary schoolmen have been infected by our close association with the rising generation, whose destinies we are trying in some measure to guide, with something of their tendency to question authority. However that may be, we feel impelled, while assuring Alma Mater of our love and reverence for her and our gratitude for what she has given us, to question the validity of some of the standards she has set for us and some of the demands she has made upon us and in all humility to ask her to consider with us some of the conclusions to which our experience has led and to help determine whether there may not be certain modifications of pro- cedure, certain changes of method, perhaps certain transformations of ideals, that the schools in the service of democracy like themselves may justly ask of the colleges. 846 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION For more than two centuries, the colleges have been sending forth their graduates by hundreds and by thousands to do the work of the world. And these graduates are found in every walk of life as the leaders of thought and action. They have been called back to the colleges themselves to organize new courses, to build new colleges. They have changed old colleges and added new until the campus of even the most conservative can hardly be recognized by its alumni of a short generation ago. Ex- change of thought between college authorities and their alumni in charge of the schools, recommendations from the schools for further improvements which would a generation ago have been regarded as a colossal impertinence, may now be freely offered and as freely accepted, save possibly by the few who have withdrawn from human contact to dwell in the rarefied atmosphere of intellectual asceticism, cherishing an idle dream of an intel- lectual aristocracy. By what right does such a dream persist at all in America? We have been taught to believe, until it has become a fundamental article of our national faith, that this nation was founded upon the right of all its citizens to equality of opportunity; and the Fathers made it clear that to their minds this necessitated the provision of educational opportunity for all. Before the Constitution was written, Hamilton was working out his plan for the University of the State of New York. Washington, Franklin, Madison, Jefferson, Marshall, Jay, Clinton, repeatedly dwelt upon the necessity for public education as a national safeguard, while Webster defended the right of the state to taxation for public education upon the ground of its police power. Back, however, of this recognition of the necessity for education as a guarantee of safety for the state, lay in all their minds a recognition of the individual's right to it as an indispensable means of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, an essential pre-requi- site for what Spencer later defined as the aim of education-namely, com- plete living, which depends upon the ability of the individual to respond to his environment-to interpret, to modify, and, to some extent, to control the conditions which hem him about. No other nation cherishes so unwavering a faith in education as do we Americans. No other nation has shown itself so willing to pour its money and its energy into all sorts of educational experiments. We believe pro- foundly that the strength of the nation is measured not by armies and navies and fortifications, but by schools-schools for all the children of all the people, adapted not to one type of mentality but various enough to meet the needs of all, yet constituting a single system, open to all worthy aspirants from top to bottom. Ezra Cornell's utterance : "I would found an institution where any person may find instruction in any subject," states in one clear, short sentence the ultimate aim of American education. If America means anything, it means that the individual shall have secured to him his inalienable right to development through education of whatever talent he may have been endowed with, regardless of the quality or the quantity of the endowment. There can be no other meaning to DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 847 education in a democracy. Any kind of aristocracy, even an intellectual aristocracy, meaning by that the selection for higher training of one certain type of mental ability, is snobbish and un-American. The statement that too many are being educated, however rich and powerful and however respected educationally may be the foundation from which it emanates, is simply not true. There never will be too many attending schools and colleges. If such a statement has any meaning at all, it means simply that our schools and colleges are not meeting the needs of the people. Today, for example, the teaching profession is in need of a hun- dred thousand more college graduates. Many there are, no doubt, who are attending the wrong kind of school or college. There may even be a few for whom no sort of educational salvation is possible, but when the proportion of rejected candidates for admission to college and the number of "casualties" at each examination period reach the startling percentage shown in many of our colleges today, it becomes not only a right but a duty to insist upon a careful examination of an educational procedure which consigns the un- fortunate candidate to his fate as a hewer of wood or a drawer of water, and without more ado slams the door of opportunity in his face. To a higher intelligence reviewing our conduct of educational affairs we must seem incredibly stupid and unforgivably wasteful of the precious human material entrusted to us; no technique in the art of buck-passing will suffice. If the history of education in this country proves anything, it proves that not for long will the people tolerate any policy in education other than the "open door" to opportunity. When the English grammar school, which the colonists brought with them, and whose function it was to prepare a highly selected group for higher education along literary and mathe- matical lines, failed to respond to changed conditions with a changed educational program, the American people provided itself with a more acceptable substitute in the form of the academy, itself a private school, but with a much broader program of secondary education, and the old grammar school passed into the limbo of forgotten things. And when the academy, after more than a century of service, counting its alumni by thousands and its endowment by millions, refused to respond to the popular demand for a still more democratic program, the public high school rele- gated it to the scrap heap. Any institution that sets itself up as a place where only the intellectually gifted or the children of a certain par- entage may attend is riding to a fall; and no camouflaging announcement that it has set out to conserve American traditions and ideals can save it. Since when were American traditions and ideals limited to certain classes and nationalities ? The public high school of today is the fullest response yet given to democracy's demand for democracy in education. It is of the twentieth century, the greatest movement. Within my own lifetime public high schools have multiplied from a score to more than 15,000, and attendance on them has risen from a few hundreds to over two millions. Theoretically 848 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION at least, the goal of free public secondary education for all, regardless of social or economic status, has been reached. In the field of secondary educa- tion we are beginning actually to realize the democratic ideal of equal opportunity for all. It is not Utopian to predict that higher education for at least one or two years will be similarly provided within the present century. In fact, this movement has already begun, as witness the system of junior colleges in Missouri and in California where these colleges con- stitute a part of the public educational system. Equality of opportunity does not, however, necessarily mean the same opportunity. It does mean the giving to every individual his opportunity, through education, to develop whatever capacities he may possess. The highly selected class along old academic lines we still have, and ample pro- vision for their training will continue to be made; but the public high school, and ultimately the American college and university, has a larger function to perform than the preparation for life of any one class, how- ever choice. Their function is the preparation of all classes to the end that each individual may live his life and live it more abundantly. Recog- nizing the wide difference in endowment, the secondary school has multi- plied its courses and increased its equipment. To this spirit of service higher education has responded in a measure, though somewhat slowly and reluctantly. That it will still further respond by increasing the number of higher vocational schools in the newer fields of professional activity may be predicted with confidence. There is probably no point at which the assumption, widely prevalent in the academic world, that the great majority of the candidates for admis- sion to college are unfit, comes so sharply to the fore as in the matter of entrance requirements. There must be some method of determining which candidates for higher education are capable of profiting by it, but to us who deal with the present system and its administration the query naturally presents itself whether it represents the best that the intelligence of the colleges can achieve. Most, if not all universities set no general entrance requirements, leaving to each college within the university to determine its own. Thus it happens that a candidate admitted to one college may be rejected by another in the same institution, a condition entirely justifiable where the content of the curriculum in a given college is such as to require special preparation in particular subjects. But so wide is the divergence, not only between colleges of different types within the same institution, but between colleges of the same type in the same or different states, that one wonders whether college entrance depends upon a sound educational basis of essential secondary studies necessary for higher study or upon the personal opinion of some individual or group in an isolated institution. So carefully is this idiosyncracy guarded that a student in one college, no matter how thoroughly he may have proved his capacity for college work, may not transfer to another college of the same type until he has made good the special entrance requirement of the second. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 849 These statements are not unwarranted conclusions from isolated in- stances. They are based upon the experiences of schoolmen in every State of the Union. A few specific instances gleaned from my correspondence with more than two hundred representative school men will prove inter- esting. A candidate coming from a large city high school where every teacher is a college graduate and where this candidate has won distinction, presents a notebook in botany admirable in every respect; but he is de- nied admission because the fungi studied were not the specific fungi pre- scribed by the professor of botany in that particular institution. Again , a state scholarship student is denied admission because in one study of a four-year course a state examiner had given a rating of 74 per cent, while the college required 75 per cent. That is to say, a scholarship candidate is rejected upon his failure to meet 1/100th of 1/15th or 1/1500th of a requirement fixed by local idiosyncracy. Another, a man old enough at entrance to have been a graduate, is admitted with a condition. Three years pass and he has proved his ability to do college work by the only certain method, namely, by doing it. Then some one remembers that back in the high school this scholarly, mature man had failed to pass something and he is summarily dropped. These are not exceptional cases. Similar sacrifices to inflexibility are happening all about us, and wherever the ap- plication of entrance requirements is entrusted to persons who are guided by the "letter that killeth" rather than by the spirit that takes into account the elements of the human problem involved, we may confidently expect their continuous repetition. Nor is this confusion and uncertainty about college entrance require- ments confined to candidates for admission. It exists in college faculties. It is not surprising, therefore, that college alumni teaching in high schools distant from college centers should be unable to keep pace with their rapid mutations. To the candidate, the results are frequently little short of tragic. The schoolboy's conception of college is usually derived from some alumnus, whose knowledge, dimmed by years, has given place to a childish and fictitious reminiscence of a glory that never existed. His going away to college may be his first venture into the great world outside his native town. To his friends, probably none of them college graduates, he may seem a person of distinction. They may have given him a dinner and accompanied him to his train. In his heart is the same confident regard for his school that the college alumnus feels for his Alma Mater. Did not the paid college professor who made the commencement address speak of its known excellence ? He approaches the secretary's office with confidence and is told, to his amazement, and chagrin, that he cannot enter. What is he to do ? He is among strangers, his funds are limited. One superin- tendent who went with his candidate to an Eastern university writes that boys by the hundred met this fate that year; that he saw them break down and weep, boys who would not run away from physical danger. In the preparation of this paper, I have been in correspondence with ninety-four 850 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION colleges. Nine of these refused admission to 7942 candidates during the past four years. So long as college courses continue to be developed over a comparatively narrow field and so long as college authorities continue to assume arbitrarily that the only fit candidate for higher instruction is the one who has completed an arbitrarily set number of units from an ar- bitrarily designated group of studies, little relief can be expected from the above conditions. Fitness to pursue a college course ought to be, it would seem, less a matter of meeting quantitative requirements than of possessing a high level of intelligence, superior facility in reading and in oral and written speech, good habits of study and thought, and earnestness of pur- pose. Finding satisfactory methods for testing these qualifications is admittedly a more difficult task than adding up units of work. Excellence in scholarship in the secondary school is not always an index of ability or worth. Two boys from the same high school enter the same college. One without scholastic honors, the other at the head of his class. One is gradu- ated without ever having taken a single scholastic honor; the other has been ornamented with all the keys and scholarships within the gift of the college. Ten years later, the man without college honors is the general manager of a concern in which the "intellectual aristocrat" earns his daily bread by count- ing the firm's cancelled checks. The finding of satisfactory tests of fitness ought not, however, to be indefinitely impossible. Having crossed the Rubicon of entrance requirements, the candidate finds himself committed to a no less hazardous enterprise. The schoolboy of June becomes the college man of two months later. Probably there is no other single period in his life where the change is so marked. From the closely supervised life of the home and the school with its well-defined and largely prescribed courses of study he passes at a jump to the almost un- limited freedom of the college, to confront the necessity of choice between a wealth of courses, knowing little about himself and his capacities, and still less about the possibilities toward which these courses may lead him. From small classes he passes to crowds ; from the individual recitation to the lecture. College "life" thrusts itself upon him unsought. He is in the midst of a multitude of temptations entirely new, temptations which, if indulged in, consume his time, corrupt his morals, reduce his energy, and squander his money. It is borne in upon him at every turn that only the "grind" studies, that there is time enough for study when "finals," the one thing that counts in college, begin to loom up. He is probably introduced to some of those persons to be found in almost any college community, who, because of faulty college organization, have in reality become the real purveyors of instruction. He is told that to be a good sport one must be "prominent" in college " life," a thing quite apart from organized study. He is alone, inexperienced, young, among strangers who appear to be doing these things. Here is where "a fellow needs a friend" and not a manikin model; a human being who takes a personal interest in the individual ; who shakes hands DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 851 without putting on his gloves ; a social worker for the time being with the most worth-while group of youngsters to be found. It has been ably argued that these conditions are an inevitable part of college life and that unless the candidate for higher education can find him- self in them and adjust himself to them successfully he is not to be counted among the worthy. Granting that this argument has validity it only empha- sizes the more the necessity at this stage of the educational process that the colleges should follow the generally established pedagogical principle that the younger and less mature pupils require the more experienced and skillful teachers. This principle the colleges seem to have reversed. Freshmen are being taught by tutors, by instructors, by graduate students working for an advanced degree, sometimes by undergraduates with no degree, entirely inexperienced in many instances and almost universally without professional training. Under such conditions freshmen fail, and a wail goes up from the colleges over the inadequate preparation provided by the secondary schools. Let it be freely admitted that some freshmen are poorly prepared. This fact admitted, another fact still remains-namely, that the indefensible mortality among freshmen is due far more to the poor teaching they receive in college than to faulty preparation. A superintendent, five of whose pupils failed in one department, writes that he received notice from the college that unless his pupils did better in the future, the certificate "privilege" would be cancelled. He examined the school record and, find- ing that all five of these boys had been in the upper fourth of their class, he then wrote the head of the department to advise him as to th ecause of the failures. A second letter brought a three-page reply which the superintendent reduced to these facts: the boys absented themselves from class and because of this absence they didn't know what the lesson was and couldn't recite when present. In other words, the school was to be publicly penalized, not because of the poor work of its students, but because these boys had had the misfortune to be members of a class in college in- structed by an invertebrate creature lacking in the organizing ability and instructing power that would compel attendance. Some years ago, I attended a conference of high school teachers. The teaching of English in secondary schools was under discussion. The speaker was a well-known college professor of English and the author of a then popular high school English text. Basing his argument upon the work of freshmen in his college, the professor established his thesis that the teach- ing of English in high schools was bad. His argument was clear, definite, conclusive, couched in terms well calculated to furnish models of English expression. It happened that the principal of the high school in the home city of the professor's college was present. When the chairman asked if anyone had anything to add to the discussion, this young principal arose and said that he had. 852 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Granting that what the professor had said might be true, he argued that it was germane to the discussion to place the responsibility. The professor had placed it upon the secondary schools. "In my own school," he con- tinued, "the course of study in English is the one laid down by the associa- tion of colleges, the chairman of whose committee on English is the speaker to whom we have just listened ; the textbook which we use to interpret that course of study is written by our speaker; and the teachers whose results are so unsatisfactory are the certified graduates of the professor's college. It would seem, therefore, that not all of the poor teaching in English can be charged to the high schools." This young high school principal laid the axe at the root of the difficulty. If our colleges, which have been the predominating influence in determining the academic program for secondary schools for three centuries by setting specific quantitative entrance requirements, by determining the content of the courses leading up to them, and by providing textbooks for the inter- pretation of the courses thus determined, have failed to train teachers to use both textbooks and courses in such a manner as to produce satisfactory results, it would seem that the initial responsibility for poor teaching in secondary schools rests with the colleges. Nor is the poor teaching in our colleges greatly to be wondered at. The wonder is rather that there is so much good teaching in view of the fact that so little effort is made by way of supervision to eliminate or improve the poor teacher, and that so little incentive is offered in the form of professional advancement as a reward for good teaching. Academic scholarship is the sole basis for entering upon college teaching. Professional training in the art of teaching is practically never required, and in some college circles, laughed at. Academic advancement depends not upon teaching ability, but upon so-called "productive scholarship," that is, upon published research. Productive scholarship has its unquestioned place in the university, but in the undergraduate school, emphasis should be laid upon teaching and superior ability in teaching should be made the basis of professional reward, leaving to the graduate school the function of productive scholarship. Not long ago I attended the history classes in an Eastern college. The professor was eminent in his own right and the son of eminence. An office opened out of the large lecture room and into this we entered. At my request, I passed into the lecture room a little before the hour of the lecture. When the door opened men by the hundred filed into the room; they came over the tops of the benches and, at the close of the lecture, returned by the same route. On the stroke of the clock, the professor entered the room without apparently seeing anyone and for one hour read a most inter- esting manuscript, and left the room on the stroke of the clock. The professor told me that whatever was necessary would be done by his assist- ant, a graduate student studying for an advanced degree. He said that he had no time for the individual student; that he knew nothing of their prob- lems and cared nothing; that he was a professor of history and not a social DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 853 worker; that his classes were so large that knowledge of the individual was quite impossible, anyway ; and then he had so many other things to do. As his guest, I had opportunity to guide the conversation and in this manner to learn several things which I desired to know. He showed me his library and how he wrote books ; we talked about lecturing of which he did much for large honorariums ; he showed me his work as a surveyor of a school system. On my own investigation, I found that the number of students registered in that institution per member of the instructing staff was nine, which made large classes merely a matter of professorial con- venience and not a necessity ; my host lectured five hours per week, or less than one school day; he said that he used the same lectures from year to year bringing them up to date when necessary ; that he arranged his teach- ing so as to leave him several days free each week; that he sometimes arranged these so as to bring his teaching at the last of one week and the first of the next which arrangement gave him double free time; and yet, this distinguished professor had no time to be human as a teacher; he could find no time to become interested in the men whom the public innocently and trustingly supposed he was working overtime and endangering his health to train, in order that they might be filled with the necessary knowl- edge to assume the problems of the great democracy of which they were parts. I have no objection to a teacher's being an author. I have no objec- tion to his being a lecturer or a surveyor of other schools, and I recognize that productive scholarship is indispensable if civilization is to advance. But these activities, important as they are, should never be permitted any- where at the expense of teaching, which is the superior of them all and as such should form the basis for promotion and reward. To all this must be added that college courses in cultural subjects, both in subject and content, are arbitrarily determined by individual professors. This statement is made upon information obtained from the colleges them- selves. Whether the subject is Shakespeare or Mother Goose may depend upon the professor's breakfast. Not only does he determine the subject and content, but he sets his own final examinations for advancement from term to term and upon his own rating of the answer papers the student remains in or leaves college. In those rare cases where he is required to submit his courses to the department in which he works, it is generally a perfunctory formality without meaning ; and instances in which the whole college faculty seriously considers the courses to be set and their content are still more rare. In a word, the college professor is a despot, benevolent or petty as the case may be, not infrequently using scholarship grades as a means of dis- cipline. So far is this independence of the individual instructor carried, that where, because of heavy registration in a given course, it becomes necessary to divide the class into sections under different instructors, it is no un- common thing to find the instruction varying in objective to such an extent that with difficulty and only with the aid of the college catalog is one able 854 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to connect the different sections with the same course. That there is a science and art of teaching seems not yet to have become a part of collegiate knowledge. The policy seems to be : Each instructor for himself and let the final examinations clear the way for a new start. Finally, there is the fetish of "residence." A few years ago, a high school girl, having completed the four-year course in three years, entered the state scholarship examinations and received upon state authority not only the highest rating in her district but one of the very highest in the state. But the head of the board of award was an eminent classical scholar who had had it drilled into him in college that "residence" was important. Not- withstanding that on the basis of superior scholarship this girl had won, she was denied the $400 scholarship on the ground that she had not spent the required four years in the high school. In another instance, a young man had planned to spend some time with his father in the last term of his senior year, and for this purpose had run several hours ahead of his course. In the middle of his senior year he had 115 of the required 120 hours for graduation as set down in the college catalog. And then came from the dean's office this senseless letter : "Mr. Blank: It will be necessary for you to make twelve semester hours this last term or you will not be graduated." In no other field is industry and ability penalized and a premium put upon dawdling. Rightly or wrongly, the college has come to be recognized by the public as the head of our educational system, a belief which has been encouraged not a little by the colleges themselves through the part which they have played in shaping secondary school courses, writing school textbooks, pre- paring teachers, making school surveys, manning educational commissions, and the like. From the earliest beginnings, first the colonies and then the states, and later the Federal Government, have aided and encouraged educa- tion. Vast properties used for higher educational purposes, have been and are exempted from bearing any of the financial burdens of government, and countless acres of the public domain have been set aside and appropriations made for higher education. To consider as a "private" institution any American college endowed as they have been with no thought of class distinction or private gain by public-spirited citizens from funds accumulated from profits which in the last analysis the public has paid, and attended as they are by students from every state in the Union-to call such institutions "private" would be funny if it were not socially so pernicious. The vested right of the public in all of our colleges can no longer be questioned. Within the last few years the public has been stimulated to spend large sums of money "surveying" local and state school systems. With a few notable exceptions, these surveys have been limited to public school systems, and beyond doubt have resulted in an improvement of public education . And there is little reason to doubt that the public would be equally bene- fited by similar surveys of all higher institutions. It is time that the clouds DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 855 which have hidden Olympus and obscured the action of the gods should be cleared away. If they be really gods they can only be made more glorious by the white light of publicity. What can the colleges do for the schools? They can assure the open door of opportunity by the provision of higher training for a much wider variety of mental endowment and by rationalizing entrance requirements and their application; they can give a square deal to freshmen by providing expert teaching through a proper recognition of teaching for professorial advancement; they can and should provide supervision and correlation of college courses such as will free them from professorial caprice and make them in subject and content a part of a well-rounded system of education leading to definite objectives suitable for the perpetuity of a democratic state; and lastly they can and should join in the recognition of all higher educa- tional institutions, whether endowed or state supported, as public institu- tions, whose operations are legitimately subject to review in the form of a survey by properly authorized and adequately qualified representatives of the public interest. LIFE, LIBERTY, AND HAPPINESS THROUGH ART EXPRESSION ANTOINETTE B. HOLLISTER, EDGEWOOD SCHOOL , GREENWICH CONNECTICUT Not long ago a five-year-old boy was seized with a desire to make a cart. He went to his teacher and said : " Mr. Sangster, I should like to make a cart with four wheels." "Very well," said Mr. Sangster, "take this rod and saw off four sections for the wheels ." The boy went to his bench and sawed and sawed, but the rod was hard and the wheel did not come off. At last he laid down his saw and went to find Mr. Sangster. "Mr. Sangster," said he, "I think I would like to make a two-wheeled cart." "Very well," said Mr. Sangster, "saw off two wheels." The boy went back to his work, but after an exhausting session he returned to his teacher. " Mr. Sangster," said he, "I think I should like to make a wheelbarrow." It would be interesting to hear the plan of Franz Cizek, of Vienna, discussed by a great psychologist. We must be content today, however, with a very simple description of the work of this devoted educator. We can achieve nothing more than a wheelbarrow. Bernard Shaw says that education is what is left after one has forgotten all one has learned in school-a few points of view perhaps some knowl- edge of the sources of information and perhaps some literary standards. The things we find lacking most conspicuously in this educational residue are a cultivated imagination, a habit of free and independent thinking and genuine creative ability. As a nation perhaps we seem to be creative be 856 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cause we can point to the achievements of a few great inventors, builders , and artists. This does not indicate, of course, that the people as a people are creative . If we were creative and had aesthetic standards we could not build ugly towns. We could not cover large areas with factories which are ugly, but might be beautiful. If we had a habit of free and independent thinking, would we allow some one in Paris to tell us what we should wear. Could we have war if we had imagination enough to penetrate below the gold lace and military music to the naked reality of war ? Christ rose above his fellows partly because he had imagination enough to see another's point of view and imagination enough to make it possible for him to believe in the power of gentle means. It requires no imagina- tion to believe in the effectiveness of gunpowder, but it requires a great deal to believe in the power of human kindness. Now if we as a people are ever to develop imagination and creative ability we must begin with the children-and therefore it is not strange that the work of Franz Cizek, of Vienna, has been welcomed with such enthusiasm by the art teachers of this country. He seems to suggest a way to lead without dominating and to inspire without inhibiting. Art expression he says is not a matter of sight but of insight-not a matter of technique but of vision, and he devotes himself to inspiring the children, reading to them, talking with them, till he has stimulated the imagination and then he leaves them to express in their own way. Professor Cizek is an art teacher in one of the industrial art schools of Vienna. He has taught in a more or less conventional way for years. Always however as he has been teaching he has said to himself, "Here are children at the imaginative age who ought to be doing wonderful things and they are doing exceedingly stupid things." He finally decided to open a Saturday afternoon and Sunday morning class where children could come who wish to work in freedom. There are always sixty children or more of all ages and at all stages of skill in this school. When a new boy comes in Prof. Cizek gives him ma- terial and tells him to go to work. He then waits patiently for days, if necessary, till the boy takes the initiative, and begins his drawing. Prof. Cizek says that teachers in this country become nervous and anxious if a child is doing nothing and say to him "Wouldn't you like to do this or that ? " Whereupon the child fumbles and gropes in an effort to express the idea of another person and that person a grown person. This results in mental confusion and the child accomplishes nothing. The children in this school range in age from five to fifteen. At sixteen he asks them to go. "Springtime is over," he says, "and it only comes once." He regards it as a great advantage to have children of varying ages in the same class. An American child put into a French family will in a few weeks acquire a speaking knowledge of French-getting a word here and a word there. In the same painless way Prof. Cizek believes that a child will acquire a drawing vocabulary. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 857 The small children in his school work at a drawing until they can go no farther and then they prowl about the room looking to see how other and older children have solved the problems that trouble them. This, Professor Cizek says, is normal and right. It is the imposition of a childish idea and ideal upon a child and not that of a grown person . Moreover, Professor Cizek believes that the child should be allowed to seek help when he feels that he needs it, and it should not be forced upon him . The question is often asked do these children often become artists ? They do of course in some cases, but whether they do or not, Professor Cizek says, " I have given them wings which will always help them to rise out of the dusty realities of life-I have given them an opportunity for free and independent thinking and that will carry over into any problem they may attack in later years." The question is also asked, "Can our children in America do such work as this, given the same conditions ?" There is of course only one answer to that-"We must try it out." We undoubtedly have much undeveloped talent among our children. It is one of the nations' assets, surely as well worth developing as the coal mines and forests. We know what may be done in a community if there be only one or two creative people in it: what might be done if a whole com- munity had aesthetic standards and a developed imagination. Perhaps the best example in history of what might be done in this direction in a community is the story of the rise of the Florentine guilds . Let me recall to you some of the facts in this history. Florence in the early days was by way of being a crossroads. A fine Roman road came up from the South and was crossed by the Arno on which boats plied back and forth between Genoa and Venice, Venice being at that time the gateway to the Orient before the Suez Canal was built. The Florentine people in those days knew practically nothing of the crafts. Even the cloth they wore was imported from what is now Germany. This cloth was strong and substantial material but it was ugly in texture and color. Florence even at this early day must have been exceedingly beautiful lying as it did in the valley encircled by the blue Appenines, and this beauty must have penetrated to the soul of at least one man of Florence. This man could not bear to wear the ugly imported cloth and he set about improving it. He steamed and pressed till the texture was beautiful, and then he found beautiful native dyes and dyed the material. This cloth began to attract attention. Other men wished to make their clothing more attractive and there was finally established the first guild of Florence- the "Calimali ." At this stage another group in Florence became interested and said "Why not raise the wool and spin and weave the cloth ?" They went to the peasants and encouraged them to raise sheep, and many new flocks began to appear upon the Tuscan hills. A new guild was established called the Wool Guild. 858 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This was followed by the silk guild, a group of weavers who imported the crude silk from the Orient and wove and dyed it. Finally the silk guild induced the peasants to raise silk worms, and the silk was produced in Florence. Next door to the silk weavers were some gold and silver workers and they began to spin gold and silver. This spun gold and silver, the silk guild incorporated with the silk and the first gold and silver brocades appeared in Florence. Most of the royal families of Europe wore those brocades. So much of this beautiful cloth was exported to England that the Eng- lish King becoming alarmed, issued an edict providing that no more goods might be imported from Florence except what could be brought each year on the backs of eleven mules for the use of the royal family. The pros- perity and happiness that came to Florence as a result of this was not all that happened: Creation was in the air; more and more creative people gathered there; a galaxy of writers-Dante and Boccacio and Petrarch- and artists-Michael Angelo, Donatello, and Fra Angelico. All of this hap- pened because one man could not bear ugliness. He not only helped to create a beautiful city and to bring about general prosperity but he added to the sum of human happiness. Creative people are happy people. The art teachers of this country are eager to try the plan of Professor Cizek in this country believing that only in this way can art be made a vital thing in the lives of all of the people. We must have aesthetic standards if we are to choose successfully a tie, or build a house, or build a city. It would be worthwhile if we considered only the contribution it would make to the happiness of the world. If this project is to be carried out it will be because the superintendents of this country believe in it. If they do and are willing to second the efforts of the art teachers we ought to see the dawn of a new era in the teaching of art to children and a substantial addition made to the sum of human happiness. THE GOSPEL OF BEAUTY¹ LORADO TAFT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Deploring the lack of interest shown in art and expressing the hope that some day within the near future the aesthetic sense of the public will com- mence to see the finer qualities of it and cultivate them, Lorado Taft, of Chicago, Illinois, noted American sculptor, addressed a large and enthusi- astic audience at Music Hall on "The Gospel of Beauty." The meeting, which was the climax to the busy convention of the National Education Association, at which policies of education were shaped, excoriated, and applauded, was in keeping with the theme on which Mr. Taft spoke. 1As reported in the Cincinnati Enquirer, Friday morning, February 27, 1939. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 859 A chorus composed of 750 girls and boys from the high schools, assisted by the combined orchestras from the high schools, rendered six selections, which were roundly applauded. The rendition of "Zion Awake," by Costa, came as a fitting climax to the meeting. The audience became so enthusi- astic with its presentation that the chorus was forced to repeat it. Housing of sculpture decried-Mr. Taft drew from his vast reservoir of experience a beautiful analogy of art and interspersed it with comments drawn from his observations in art galleries of the world. He said he did not like the method of housing sculpture in the museums as now obtains, and recited an observation made recently in a southern State where he found the statue of Venus de Milo covered with dirty marks and acting as a welcoming committee to those who entered the museum. While speaking to the American doughboys in France, as they waited in the mud and muck of the seaport towns to be sent to their native homeland, on the beauties of the cathedrals and art that surrounded them in France, he said he was amazed at the lack of interest shown. He said he had gone to France to preach the beauties of the environment to the soldier boys, but found them uninterested except in a few instances. His remarks served as a bridge which he crossed into the profession of art instruction in schools. He voiced the belief that the lack of interest shown in the cathedrals in France could be traced back to the school days of the soldiers during which time they apparently were not told of the finer things embodied in art. Seeks art rooms for schools-" It is a dream of mine that some day every schoolhouse will have a sky-lighted art museum on the top of the building where the great ages of Europe will be typified in sculptured art," he said. "I cannot forget the visit I made to an Indiana town where I spoke to an audience in a school auditorium. After the meeting I was taken to the roof where the lights were turned on and before me was presented a beau- tiful natural lighted art gallery with the paintings of a few masters and the statues of the early European ages . "The architecture of our western towns and villages is appalling," he said. "It would be considered a blessing to humanity and art of some of the architecture of the dark ages could be made to glow upon those western communities where now exists only galvanized architecture." A COÖPERATIVE PLAN FOR curricuLUM REVISION¹ This outline is an attempt to formulate a practical way by which the very important contributions in curriculum revision and enrichment may be made available to the school systems throughout the country. The plan attempts to eliminate loss of time and effort. It attempts to foster research and professional coöperation. It also aims to stimulate and en- This report was printed and distributed at the Cincinnati Convention, February, 1925 . 860 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION courage local interest and endeavor in the very important work of cur- riculum revision . I. Curriculum revision-A constant and continued problem-The work of curriculum revision involves both the preservation of that which is best from the contributions of the past and the selection and organization of the most important values of the present day. In one sense, the public school curriculum is a reflection of the life and progress of society. Its revision, therefore, will occur as often as progress occurs. A static school is not possible in a dynamic civilization. The present-day developments, for example, in science, art, industry, and the like, are sufficient to give new life and color to the curriculum from kindergarten through high school. II. Can a local community adequately and economically solve the prob- lem of curriculum revision?--The resources at the disposal of the typical school system are inadequate for the complete solution of this intricate problem. The local community should be responsible for definite work in general curriculum theory and for that portion of the curriculum which answers its own particular needs. For each local school system to attempt to solve the great common problems affecting all school systems means a loss in time, energy, and funds. III. Can the work of individual specialists solve the problem of curric- ulum revision?-The specialist confines his work to a limited field under controlled conditions. His work is minute and exact rather than com- prehensive. He lacks the facilities for coördinating his work with that of other specialists, for disseminating it, and for securing its practical use. The specialist can make his best contribution by coördinating his very im- portant research work with that of curriculum committees from various school systems. IV. How may the contributions of individual school systems and cur- riculum specialists best be brought to bear in the revision of the curriculum? -Economy can be effected if duplication of effort by various school systems can be reduced-if the results of the work of other school systems and cur- riculum specialists can be made available for individual cities. This pre- vention of waste and coördination of effort could be brought about by an agency set up for that particular purpose. To accomplish this result is a worthy and vast undertaking. V. Under what auspices can such coöperation be effectively provided?- Curriculum revision is an immediate problem in practically all school sys- tems throughout the country. The Department of Superintendence is the natural agency which should set up the machinery for the coöperation of superintendents, principals, and teachers in curriculum revision. The De- partment should be able to secure the benefit of the best thinking of all groups. "The best course of study in any subject is possible only by pooling the skills, the enthusiasm, the leadership in that subject." VI. What will be the technique of such a coöperative plan ? A. What will the individual school system do ? DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 861 1. Machinery for work in the individual system should be well or- ganized. Teachers, supervisors, principals, and superintendents-all should be expected to contribute. (Helpful suggestions for the organization of local communities for curriculum revision appear in Chapter 2 of the Sec- ond Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence.) 2. The school system working on particular curriculum problems should furnish the Department of Superintendence with the name of the person or persons responsible for the work in their system. 3. A statement of the work under way in the revision of the curriculum in any school system should be sent to the Department of Superintendence. Occasional reports of progress should be made. 4. The persons directly responsible for curriculum revision in a co- operating system should, from time to time, furnish the Department of Superintendence with clear statements of the concrete difficulties encoun- tered in the revision undertaken. 5. In so far as facilities permit, each coöperating system should be rep- resented at round table and committee conferences at the summer meeting of the National Education Association and at the winter meeting of the Department of Superintendence. By this plan, those engaged in curriculum research and revision may personally recount the results of their practical work and hear the results obtained in other systems. 6. Definite plans could be worked out by which completed curriculum units are put into tentative form for distribution within a school system . 7. Conferences of teachers, principals, and supervisors should be called to consider, discuss, and improve the units of the curriculum after experi- mental try-out . 8. It should be the responsibility of the executive and teaching staff of a school department to see the work of curriculum revision through to com- pletion. B. What can curriculum specialists and curriculum research agencies do ? 1. They can coördinate their research work, continuing to work in com- mittees along the lines successfully adopted by the sub-committees in the preparation of the Third Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. 2. They can re-state the unsolved curriculum problems in their particular fields. They can clarify and define the problems which local school sys- tems discover. 3. They can submit problems for the consideration of graduate classes in representative universities. These classes should be responsible for re- porting their research and findings. 4. They can encourage students to undertake the solution of unsolved curriculum problems in the preparation of theses, or in whatever way op- portunity may permit. 5. They can offer advice to individual school systems as to the setting up and solution of problems the cost of such service to be borne by the indi- vidual school system . 862 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION C. What can the Department of Superintendence and the Division of Research of the National Education Association do ? 1. The Department can receive, classify, and give publicity to the re- ports of curriculum revision from the coöperating systems. 2. The Department can call into conference small groups of superin- tendents, principals, and teachers who have been engaged in curriculum revision for the purpose of receiving from them a critical analysis of meth- ods of procedure. 3. It can bring together the most important findings and reports of progress in the 1926 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. 4. It can call round table conferences at both the summer meetings of the National Education Association and the Meeting of the Department of Superintendence in 1926, for the discussion of such concrete and prac- tical problems of curriculum revision as most urgently require the personal exchange of views. 5. In so far as facilities and funds are available, the Department can provide for the coördination, interpretation, and dissemination of the work of curriculum specialists and curriculum research agencies that may be applied to the solution of practical difficulties encountered by school sys- tems . 6. When special needs arise, a representative of the Department of Su- perintendence can make extended trips to consult with the curriculum group at work in individual school systems. Thus, through personal contact, out- standing pieces of work can be located and brought to the individual school systems to encourage the workers concerned. In this way, the Department will rapidly build up the personal contacts that are essential to any program of effective coöperation. 7. Further desirable contributions of the Department : (To be undertaken so far as facilities permit ) a. Arrange for the exchange of outstanding courses of study. b. Furnish revised bibliographies. c. Compile reviews from time to time of the best articles bearing on the curriculum . d. Supply information as to the issuance of special reports and studies by specialists and curriculum research agencies . e. Establish at National headquarters a library of tentative outlines and courses of study. f. Compile statements of the outstanding and common problems in the field of curriculum revision. g. Prepare definite and concrete statement of the method whereby cur- riculum problems may be scientifically attacked and solved. Department of Teachers Colleges OFFICERS , 1925-26 President-ROBERT H. Wright, President, East Carolina Teachers College Greenville, North Carolina Vice-President-J. L. JARMAN, State Normal School for Women .......... Farmville, Virginia Secretary-Treasurer-H. C. MINNICH, Dean, School of Education, Miami University Oxford, Ohio Historical note-The Department of Normal Schools was formed at the Cleve- land meeting, August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the American Normal School Association which had been organized in 1858. See Proceedings of 1870, page 176 ; Proceedings of 1906, page 524. In 1924, it was voted to appoint a committee to discuss the possibility of combining with the American Association of Teachers' Colleges. See Proceedings of 1924, page 614. In 1925 the combina- tion was effected. See Proceedings, 1925, Report of Committee on Revision of Departments . It was arranged that the National Education Association would take over the publications formerly issued by the American Association of Teach- ers Colleges , including its yearbook, in 1926. [863] Department of Visual Instruction OFFICERS President-ERNEST L. CRANDALL, Director of Lectures and Visual Instruction, Public Schools .. New York City Vice-President-DUDLEY Grant Hays, Director of Visual Education, City Schools Chicago, Illinois Acting Secretary-DAVID GIBBS, Superintendent of Schools . Meriden, Connecticut Historical Note-The Department of Visual Instruction was organized at the Oakland- San Francisco Convention in July, 1923. See Proceedings of 1923, page 85-A. This Department meets once each year, in June. The department held two meetings, on June 29th and June 30th, at 2 P. М., both in the Emmerich Manual Training High School. In addition to the papers read and the business transacted at these meetings, the latest examples of educa- tional film were shown at both sessions. Monday Afternoon, June 29, 1925 This session of the department was in the nature of an experience meeting, hav- ing been announced in the general program as a Round Table on the Growth and Development of Visual Instruction to date in various educational centers, to be conducted on the plan of a roll-call by localities. Many who had hoped to be present and report for their communities were unable to come, nor was it pos- sible to hear from all present at the first day's session. However, by continuing this feature also on the second day, a fair conspectus of the progress being made in the east, in the middle west and on the Pacific coast was obtained. The meeting was opened by the President, Ernest L. Crandall, Director of Lec- tures and Visual Instruction in the schools of New York City, with a brief address . Reports were made by: Rita Hochheimer, Assistant Director of Visual Instruction in New York City schools . Dudley Grant Hays, Director of Visual Instruction in Chicago schools. A. G. Balcom, Associate Superintendent of Schools in Newark, N. J. Mary Mooney, Director of Visual Instruction in schools in San Francisco. Mrs. Grace Ramsey, of the American Museum of Natural History, New York City . C. F. Hoban, of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. W. W. Whittinghill, Assistant Supervisor of Visual Instruction in schools of Detroit. The balance of this session was devoted to the showing of films. Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 1925 Two formal papers had been announced for this session ; and in addition this was the regular annual business meeting of the department, for the election of officers and other business. Hon. Frederick A. Wallis, Commissioner of Correction of New York City and formerly U. S. Commissioner of Immigration, who was to have spoken on "The Use of Visual Aids in Immigration," had announced some time in advance that he would be unable to attend; and Miss Olive M. Jones, former President of the National Education Association had agreed to take his place on the program. Un- fortunately, at the last moment, Miss Jones could not come either, owing to the demands on her time by the Finance Committee of the National Education Associa [864] DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 865 tion. It is only fair to Miss Jones to add that at considerable inconvenience to herself, she did attend the Visual Instruction breakfast, which was held at the Hotel Lincoln next morning, and spoke most inspiringly, urging especially the get- ting together of all the forces interested in visual instruction under the aegis of the National Education Association and the laying out of a definite program of constructive work. The visual instruction breakfast has now become virtually an annual affair. This time the thirty guests present represented virtually every phase of both the professional and the commercial side of visual instruction ; and practically everyone present participated in a lively and informal round table on recent developments and immediate prospects in this field. Accordingly, the speaker of the day was Professor George D. Strayer, of Teach- ers College, Columbia University, New York City and a former President of the National Education Association. Dr. Strayer spoke on "The Administration of Visual Instruction . " At the conclusion of Dr. Strayer's address, which was enthusiastically received by the delegates present, the formal business of the session was transacted as recorded in the following minutes : President's Report. Besides the work of preparing an annual program, the de- partment through committees should be active in the field throughout the year. Two such committees have been organized and are ready to function : one on the evaluation of film, of which Mr. Balcom is chairman, one on the greater avail- ability and increased distribution of lantern slides. The appointment of a third committee on teacher training is recommended. Nominating Committee. -Appointed by the President. C. F. Hoban, chairman, Director of Visual Education, Department of Public In struction, Harrisburg, Pa. Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Assistant Curator, American Museum of Natural History, New York City. W. W. Whittinghill, Asst. Supervisor of Visual Education, Detroit Michigan. Howard J. Hanna, Head of Physics Department, Los Angeles High School. A. Haven Smith, Principal High School, Redlands, Calif. Nominations made by this committee reported by Mr. Smith- President-Ernest L. Crandall, Director of Lectures and Visual Instruction, New York City. Vice-President-Dudley Grant Hayes, Director of Visual Instruction, Chicago, Illinois. Secretary-Treasurer-Miss Rita Hochheimer, Assistant Director of Visual In- struction, New York City. Members of Executive Committee-A. G. Balcom, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, Cal. Moved, seconded and carried that these officers be unanimously elected and that the Acting Secretary cast one ballot for the slate. At the conclusion of the business meeting, the roll call of the previous day's session was resumed and the following persons reported : Mr. Murray Dolman, Department of Research of the Indianapolis schools and in charge of Visual Instruction. Mr. Howard J. Hanna, Los Angeles High School. Roll Call by Localities. In pursuance of the meeting as announced and outlined in the President's open- ing address, directors of visual instruction from various communities were called on to report for their respective localities. Owing to the absence of several di- rectors who had been expected, the five minute rule was waivd and each speaker given as much time as he required. An abstract of these reports follows : 866 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Miss Rita Hochheimer, Assistant Director of Visual Instruction in New York City schools, described the method of conducting curriculum film courses in that city. Twelve such courses have been organized, the films having been selected and in part edited by committees of experienced teachers, principals, and superin- tendents . Each course applies to some specific school subject, as taught in a given grade, such as biology ninth year, physical geography eighth year, civics seventh year, nature study fourth year, etc. Each course consists of approximately twenty showings of two reels each, one showing a week for a semester, the entire pro- gram embracing more than two hundred separate topics, all definitely related to the school subject in which used. Both films and operators are furnished under contract with the board of education. Outlines are provided for the teachers of all classes involved and the pupils are mentally prepared in advance and examined after the showing. While the films are shown to large groups in the auditorium, these groups are strictly homogeneous, and both preparation and follow-up are in the hands of the individual classroom teachers. Miss Hochheimer used numer- ous slides to illustrate the blank forms and other devices employed in scheduling these courses in the various elementary, high, and junior high schools. She ex- plained that the work thus far had been regarded as experimental, reaching only a fraction of New York's immense school system, but the Board of Education has evidenced the intention of extending it rapidly to the rest of the system. Dr. Dudley Grant Hays, Director of Visual Instruction in the Chicago schools, explained that thus far in that city they had merely dabbled a little with motion pictures, not having attempted as yet their systematic application. The bureau had, however, purchased a number of films and furnished these to the schools, as requested. They had, however, worked intensively in building up a comprehensive slide library, the use of which in the schools was growing by leaps and bounds . The most notable achievement Dr. Hays had to announce, and one which roused the meeting to great enthusiasm, was that he had at last persuaded the Chicago educational authorities to embark definitely upon a five year equipment program, so that at the end of the five year period every school in the city would be com- pletely equipped for every type of visual work. Initial appropriations were already forthcoming, and steady progress assured. One of the key notes in this equip- ment program was a provision calling for one stereopticon for every five hundred children in a school. Dr. Hays emphasized the fact that slides, and such other visual material as his bureau controlled, are furnished only upon the requisition from the school when and as needed, without any attempt to dictate from the central office . Dr. A. G. Balcom, Associate Superintendent of Schools of Newark, N. J. , in exclusive charge of visual instruction there, reported for the entire State. He related at some length the unwonted interest manifested in visual instruction at the last meeting of the New Jersey State Teachers Association. There was a marked tendency throughout the State, he said, to recognize this work as a separate activity and establish bureaus or departments for its promotion and supervision, citing the recent case of Bayonne, N. J., where Miss Agnes Jones had been appointed to take charge of the work. Dr. Balcom gratefully acknowl- edged the coöperation and excellent work of the Newark Museum, in the visual field in that city. Referring to the physical obstacles that often have to be over- come before visual instruction in the modern conception of the term can be even undertaken, he said that it had taken years to accomplish it, but the city of Newark now has an electric base plug in every class room, ready for the attach- ment of a stereopticon or portable motion picture projector. Miss Mary Mooney, recently appointed director of visual instruction, in the schools of San Francisco, explained that there the work was in its infancy. They felt they had much to learn from other cities and she had been privileged to inspect the work in the principal centers from coast to coast. She had been DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 867 especially impressed and imbued with the necessity of supervision from the pedagogical standpoint. The backbone of her proposed program would consist of work in the training schools and with teachers actually in the field on correct methods of using both slides and films. Mrs. Grace F. Ramsey, of the American Museum of Natural History, explained how that institution had made a practice for years of distributing slide lessons and natural history collections to the New York schools, until the demand had grown far beyond their financial ability to meet it, although the bureau of visual instruction of the city school system generously allotted a portion of its appropria- tion to their use, rather than attempt to re-duplicate their work. She explained that since the establishment of a definite bureau of visual instruction in New York, the Museum had worked in the closest possible coöperation with that bureau, its latest contribution being the organization and distribution of definite sets of slides correlating directly with each of the film lessons in the bureau's curriculum film courses . Dr. C. F. Hoban, of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, was called upon and made the enheartening announcement that he had just been named director of visual in- struction for the State of Pennsylvania. He said he believed firmly in the help- fulness of discussions and expositions such as the present meeting. He proposed, he said, to organize the work in Pennsylvania in such a way that teacher train- ing in the methods of visual instruction should not be overlooked, and hoped to be back next year and report great forward strides in Pennsylvania. Mr. W. W. Whittinghill, assistant supervisor of visual instruction in the schools of Detroit made an exhaustive report on the workings of the bureau of visual instruction in that city. The bureau operates in close conjunction with the supervisory forces of the educational department. It both purchases and rents films, in addition to borrowing commercial films, maintaining a department film library, from which films are routed over a regular schedule and also loaned on request. Films are not only pre-viewed before shown, but carefully rated. Detroit is making a study of the relative cost of purchase and rental. A slide library is also maintained by the bureau, the slides being organized into sets in accordance with the suggestions of the other supervisory officers of the department, and loaned on request. Much use is also made of the Keystone 600 sets in the schools. The bureau has prepared visual instruction exhibits for use at con- ventions and school meetings, not only at home but as visual instruction propa- ganda in other cities. The bureau not only supervises directly the use of films and slides in selected schools, but has been instrumental in having a regular re- quired course in visual instruction embodied in the curriculum of Detroit Teach- ers College. Mr. Murray Dolman, of the Department of Research of the Indianapolis schools, and in charge of visual instruction there, described the attempts to reach the teachers through group conferences and the exhibition of special visual instruc- tion units prepared by his department. Some of these units were displayed for the inspection of the delegates, in the vestibule of the meeting hall. These con- ferences were invariably followed by requests for the collections, which were distributed over a regular schedule, as required. Each collection consisted of one or more films, slide sets, stereographs, with stereoscopes, photographs, flat pic- tures, story material, and what Mr. Dolman described as "close up" still pictures , being drawn by hand and, especially below the sixth grade, attractively colored. Special stress was laid in this material on dissected botany. Mr. Howard J. Hanna, of the Los Angeles High School, reported that the work in that city is making rapid progress. The bureau of visual instruction works in close coöperation with the producers of educational films and film strip, both editing and pre-viewing. The bureau maintains both a film and a slide library, routing its material over a definite schedule, on request, and is making systematic 868 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION efforts to adapt the material to the course of study. Mr. Hanna cited as an example the work done by him in the making of film strip for use in physics classes, that being his particular field and spoke enthusiastically of the help this material afforded to pupils in grasping abstract relationships. The balance of the session was devoted to the showing of films. In connection with the film showings, Prof. Irving N. Countryman, of Yale Uni- versity, described quite elaborately the methods by which the historical photoplays of the Yale University Press were built up ; and Mrs. Elizabeth R. Dessez out- lined the series of educational films being put out by Pathé, on food, clothing, and shelter. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS-ABSTRACT ERNEST L. CRANDALL, DIRECTOR OF LECTURES AND VISUAL INSTRUCTION IN NEW YORK CITY The keynote of this meeting is growth and progress. Nothing could more strikingly illustrate the growth of visual instruction in the past few years than the type of program that has been arranged for today. We are to listen to a roll-call of localities ranging from New England to the Pa- cific coast and extending as far south as Texas, each response coming from some school official directly charged with the supervision of visual in- struction in his school system. Five years ago this would not have been possible. These supervisors, something like a dozen of them, are here to tell us specifically of the growth of visual instruction in their respective com- munities. If I mistake not, the conspectus of the general field of visual instruction which we shall thus obtain, will disclose three major items of progress. The first of these is indicated by the very nature of this program, which, as I have intimated, reflects a wide and ever increasing official recognition of the value and importance of the visual method. The fact that States, municipalities, universities all over the country are appointing supervisors, or directors, of visual instruction, the fact that special appropriations for this work are growing, slowly but perceptibly, and the very fact that the National Education Association has recognized this phase of educational practice by the creation of a special department, all testify to an encourag- ing degree of official recognition; which in turn rests upon the apprecia- tion of a broad and ever widening circle of principals and classroom teachers who are awakening to the fact that the visual method, despite the acknowl- edged limitations which must inhere in any method, is first and last a greater economizer of time and energy, for both pupil and teacher, a more effective vehicle for the imparting of certain possibilities in certain fields than almost any other teaching device ever conceived. The second item of progress that I should expect to hear stressed here today is the vast improvement in the technique of visual instruction that has been evolved during the past five years . Thanks to the patient en DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 869 deavor of devoted pioneers, we are marching forward with a surer step. We know better how to handle our materials, so as to extract from them full teaching value. Taking the motion picture as an illustration, five years ago we scarcely knew what we wanted in the way of motion pic- tures, even if we could have had them for the asking; we were by no means clear as to what subjects they were best adapted to illustrate ; and above all we certainly did not know how best to present them, how best to utilize them as a teaching tool. In all these aspects of the subject we have made great strides. While the stereopticon slide and other visual aids were perhaps better understood five years ago than the motion picture, I think it may safely be said that in that period the number of teachers who have ceased to regard any of these devices as toys or entertainment and have come to look upon them as vital classroom necessities has been enormously multiplied. In consequence, the technique in their use has not only become more widely understood and applied, but has become steadily more exact and effective. The third item of general progress that seems to me worthy of mention consists of the rich and manifold accessions and additions to the materials with which we work. Projection apparatus of every sort has steadily improved in accuracy and efficiency, new projection devices are coming on the market every day, slides and posters are being multiplied on a large scale and their subjects drawn from fields never before invaded, and finally the educational motion picture, while some still insist that it even yet has not arrived, has advanced so far toward the goal of cheap abundance and perfect adaptability to its task that in a city like New York we can main- tain a dozen film courses, in specific school subjects, with weekly showings, to the enthusiastic satisfaction of teachers and pupils and under a financial arrangement that makes the cost per pupil, per subject, per year, consid- erably less than forty cents. Much of this we owe not alone to the enter- prise but to the loyal and devoted zeal of many of the members of the commercial organizations which manufacture or distribute various types of visual aids. Such is the fascination of this method that all who handle even its materials in any way tend to become touched with the vision of its beneficent ministrations to the child mind. Indeed, there are many among them who have been educators, at one time or another, and who are still such in a very true sense. We owe them a very real debt of gratitude for their helpful, understanding and resourceful coöperation. 870 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE ADMINISTRATION OF VISUAL EDUCATION- ABSTRACT GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The administration of visual education must be considered in the light of the relationship of this activity to the whole program of education. If, as many of us believe, visual aid should be provided for teachers in prac- tically all fields, then we must consider the job to be done as having to do with the introduction of a method of instruction rather than in the actual administration of any unit of the school system. The director of visual education should work in coöperation with principals and supervisors, with heads of departments in high schools and with individual teachers. He is essentially a staff worker who should be assigned from time to time to any part of the school system in order that he may help to develop the use of visual materials in particular situations. He most certainly is not a line officer who is placed in a position of control or responsibility with respect to some particular division or unit of the school system. His work is comparable to that of the director of research, of the director of the psychological clinic, or of the director of health service in the school system. We need further investigations with respect to the most economical and efficient method of assembling, distributing, and using pictures, slides, stereographs , and films. The method of distribution now found in various communities suggests in many cases that these visual aids are thought of as supplementary to the real work of the school, rather than of fundamental importance as we ordinarily think of books. Some indication of the an- swer which we may expect to develop finally to this perplexing problem is indicated by our organization of classroom and school libraries as op- posed to the dependence upon a central library. The director of visual education must in coöperation with specialists throughout the school system provide for the training of teachers in serv- ice. We cannot hope to achieve the results that are predicted through the use of visual materials without training teachers in this new technique. Our teachers colleges and normal schools may be expected to include work in this field in their courses of instruction, but for the teachers already in service it is essential that demonstrations of the efficient use of visual ma- terials be provided and that courses of study be revised to provide definite instruction to teachers for the use of those materials. In the administration of visual education, especially as visual aids are used to improve instruction in the several school subjects rather than to provide entertainment, the classification of pupils with respect to their previous training and abilities is as essential as for any other type of school work. The herding of children into large auditoriums in order to ex- hibit a film which may have little or no relationship to the work which DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 871 most of them are doing or the use of the stereopticon slide or stereograph merely to occupy time has done much to delay the development of this most important technique in our public school systems. If we mean to take visual education seriously, we shall have to think in terms of equipping every classroom with a proper electrical outlet for the portable stereopticon that we plan to use in the classroom. We shall just as certainly need to build our auditoriums small enough to make it pos- sible for a group of children of the same grade to work comfortably with the teacher in those subjects in which the slides or film may offer an important aid to instruction. We shall have to provide in the classroom, in the auditorium, and in the central storage space for the proper hous- ing of the materials which are to be used in the particular building. Many other administrative problems wait upon more extensive investiga- tions than have yet been undertaken. It is important that we discover just how much it will cost to provide the adequate visual aids for all sub- jects in which they can be used to advantage throughout the school system. We need to discover how the courses of study in individual schools may be adjusted so as to provide for the use of particular materials at varying periods during the year. We must learn to discriminate among the visual aids that are now being provided in order to use those which will bring the best results in each particular situation. We must seek to discover to what extent we should vary the use of visual materials in relation to the intellectual capacities of different groups of children. These are some of the issues which must be considered by the director of visual education. The extent of his inquiries and the validity of his findings will have much to do with the development of this important method in education. Department of Vocational Education OFFICERS President, JOHN N. GREER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Minneapolis, Minn. ::::: Secretary, J. D. BLACKWELL, State Director, Vocational Education ......... Baltimore, Md. Historical note-The Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts was organized as the Industrial Section at Minneapolis, Minn. , August, 1875. See Proceedings of 1875, page 100. The name was changed in 1890 to the De- partment of Industrial and Manual Training. See Proceedings of 1890, page 758. In 1899 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Training. See Proceedings of 1899, page 904. In 1909 the Department was merged with the Department of Art Education. See Proceedings of 1909, pages 598-9. In 1913 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Arts and Vocational Edu- cation. See Proceedings of 1913, page 556. In 1914 the name was changed to the Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts. See Proceedings of 1914, page 565. This department coöperates with the National Vocational Guidance Association and with the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of the National Vocational Guidance Association for 1925-26 are : President, Dorothea de Schweinitz, Junior Employment Service, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Secretary, Anne S. Davis, Director, Vocational Guidance Bureau, Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois . This Department meets twice each year, in February and June. CINCINNATI PROGRAM Tuesday Afternoon, February 24, 1925 Measurements as Applied to Practical Arts and Vocational Education ADDRESS-H. A. Toops, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. USES AND LIMITATIONS OF STANDARDIZED TESTS IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL INDUSTRIAL ARTS-A. H. Edgerton, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. DISCUSSION-Leader, J. J. Seidel, Baltimore, Md. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SHOP TRY-OUT COURSES IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS C. A. Zuppann, Minneapolis, Minn. AN ANALYSIS OF A STUDY OF GRADUATES OF AN INDUSTRIAL ARTS COURSE OF THE TOLEDO HIGH SCHOOLS- Carl T. Cotter, Director, Industrial Education, Toledo, Ohio. Wednesday Afternoon, February 25, 1925 THE RELATION OF MEASUREMENTS TO VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE-C. E. Myers, State College, Pa.; Discussion led by W. H. Lancelot, Ames, Iowa. MEASUREMENTS AS APPLIED TO HOME ECONOMICS-Viola Bell, Ames, Iowa, and Emma Conley, Supervisor of Vocational Education for Girls, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. OBJECTIVES IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION-M. M. Proffitt, Specialist in Industrial Edu- cation, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. BUSINESS MEEETING. [872] DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 873 THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION HERBERT A. TOOPS, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Measurement in vocational education is not a new thing. Its beginning may be traced back to remote antiquity. In attempting to trace the history of an academic movement, we always go back to the Greeks or to the Romans. In vocational education we are always privileged to go back far- ther than that to the time when the rude savage was first learning to bend a bow and to scrape out the inside of a log for a rude kind of boat. SavageA finding the tree too large for him to handle alone, looked about for another to help do the job. If he had the good judgment with which we credit him, he chose savage B, a man with strength and skill, or as a fair substitute, a repute for skill and judgment, to whom, by grunts and ges- tures he indicated his desires. To pass the pages of history rapidly, we come soon to our own American Indian, who had ascended one step in the scale of judging his coöperators in industry. The idea of degrees of skill had developed greatly. When desiring to make a canoe he now sought for the assistance of a "beaver-canoe maker," one with a high degree of skill, ability to use tools to perfection, and possessed of knowledge of how to go about the job; or for a bear-canoe-maker," one with much brute force but possibly clumsy ; or, if no other helpers were available, he may have had to content himself with a "hoot owl-canoe maker," one with much talk and feathers and but little solid meat ! It is a long step from the naming of human virtues, by ascribing the names of the animals supposed also to possess them, to the present-day prac- tices in educational measurement. The difference in viewpoint is funda- mental and cannot be overemphasized. In the transition, we are about to discard qualitative (naming) measurements and insist upon the use only of quantitative (measured) measurements. We are abandoning the use of such qualitative terms as : "expert, journeyman, apprentice" in favor of much more scientific and quantitative statements such as : "Given the proper wire, tools and batteries, he can hook up two dry cells in series in 83 seconds according to the standard specifications for such set-ups," or "given the timber, steel square, pencil, and slopes he can lay out the corner rafter of a hip roof in 2½ minutes, " and so on. It may be noted that this involves a change in our psychology and philosophy of vocational education, and in other kinds of education as well. Instead of spending time in attempting to inculcate skill of eye and coördina tion of hand, we are beginning consciously to do the job which we appar- ently were doing all the time-namely, teaching the boy to use a plane ac- cording to the "best method," to use a hammer after the best fashion of expert hammer-users, and to solve frequently recurring situations which come up in the finished tradesman's life, such as, "whenever starting to plane a used board, look it over carefully, and if any nails are sticking up, either 874 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION pull them out (specific uses of a certain kind of hammer) or drive them beneath that point where the finished surface will be (specific use number 2 of hammer and involving in addition the use of a nail set, or of such alternative or substitutive procedures as the use of a nail in place of a nail set) . The problem in vocational education does not thus differ materially from that of the academic teacher in its conception. The modern teacher of arithmetic is no longer hoping that she will teach her pupils to "master the art of thinking" or to inculcate in them as the greatest value for her efforts a " conception of the orderliness of the universe." She will be immensely gratified if such should be the outcome of her work, even in a small per- centage of her students ! The new viewpoint does, however, give her a place from which to get started to work; she knows that the first aim of her work is to get each pupil as quickly and with as little effort, and with as small as possible an amount of learning which must later be unlearned, up to a point of high efficiency in such unromantic operations as "whenever I say 8 plus 9, you must answer 17; "whenever I say 8 x 9, you must answer 72." The teacher knows that there are only 55 of such combinations as , 8 minus 6, 10 minus 4, 9 minus 3; she also knows that whenever she has completed those 55 combinations she has finished the job; she further knows that combinations such as 9 minus 8, 9 minus 2, etc., (the later tables as the 7's, 8's and 9's) seldom happen in life and so need to be practiced much more than 4 minus 2, 4 minus 3, 4 minus 1; she further knows about how frequently children of a given grade, in answer to the question "9-8" say 72, and she knows what is wrong when a child says 72 to this question. If we analyze the above situation in arithmetic, and state our results, not in terms of arithmetic, but in terms of vocational education, we may state that (or perhaps it will be the historian of 1930 who will do it) the vocational edu- cator has: 1. Largely given up his concept of transfer of training, and has now begun to state specifically the skills which he is attempting to teach. 2. He is training these skills in terms of tools, jobs, operations, and quantitative measures of results . 3. He no longer assumes that errors are chance happenings, but assumes rather that an error is an honest attempt to make an adequate response to an incorrect understanding of the situation. 4. He attempts (or as I shall later point out, he wishes the pupil himself to at- tempt) to point out the cause of the error in order that the pupil shall be "wise" to the cause of his errors and shall correct them himself. 5. He knows how much practice is required, on the average, using the best method of doing the operation, to come up to a given degree of skill. 6. He knows what operations are involved in a job, what jobs are involved in an occupation, what occupations are involved in an industry, and proceeds to begin at that beginning-not which is logically first or chronologically first in the practice of the occupation-but rather at that beginning which by pedagogical and psychological experiment has been shown to be pedagogically first, and proceeds thenceforth in a definite psychological order throughout. The two main con- siderations in this order are the difficulty of the task, and the arrangement and selection of jobs such that there will be the right amount of practice and of review, so as not to result in underlearning anything or of wasting time by overlearning DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 875 it. Overlearning means merely practicing it more than necessary to be able to remember it whenever desired. This new viewpoint, or philosophy of vocational education if you wish to call it such, does not discard interest in the welfare of the individual pupil, but rather intensifies it. Instead of blandly talking about "equal op- portunities" we are making it more certain that each child will surely have equal opportunities. The philosophy of the best vocational guidance pro- grams is retained. This means that the needs of the individual are para- mount above the temporary demands of industry or employer; that voca- tional guidance speedily becomes educational guidance, the problem of which is the creation of an environmental situation which shall be suitable for maximally developing capacity. It is the task of measurement to assist in telling when that environmental situation is maximally suitable for de- veloping capacity. The introduction of quantitative measurement means far more than giving grades of A, B, C, D, and E, which in most cases are not quantitative at all. Quantitative measurement has much to say about when marks and examinations shall be given, who shall give them, what shall be done with them, what kind of marks shall be given. All quantitative measurement has at least four important aspects, which have been technically named : validity, scoring reliability, statisitcal reliability, and appropriateness. These may be defined or illustrated as follows : Validity-A test is valid when it measures what it purports to measure. Validity thus always presupposes a definite aim for giving that examination. As applied to vocational education, it assumes that the aim of vocational edu- cation is truly vocational-that is, training in a vocation for the purpose of self-support by later practice of the vocation. The concept of validity gives us as many varieties of tests as we have separate and distinct purposes in giving them to would-be or actual vo- cational pupils, such as: Aptitude or promise tests; entrance, classification, or sectioning tests; progress or school promotion tests; first proficiency or graduation tests; progress or promotion tests in industry; and readjust- ment tests, etc.¹ Any test, used for the specific purpose of measuring, say, aptitude for a given school course, is poor or good, non-valid or valid, ac- cording to the degree to which the scores on the test really pick out the differing potential degrees of success in the occupation. Evidently the onl way to find out whether the test is valid is to give the tests to all pupils who propose entering a school before entrance, and then await developments. If after a time, when we check up on the degrees of success of the students we find that those students who made low scores on the tests practically all failed and that the students who made high scores on the tests practically all made high success in school work, and that the people who made inter- mediate scores on the test made only for the most part average success, then the test is a highly valid test for the specific purpose of detecting or measur- Reference in Bibliography on page 880 contains careful definitions. 876 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing promise of success, in that particular vocational school, taught by the methods of that school. In this follow-up process we must determine the different degrees of success of the different students. Quantitative measure- ments say that these must be numerical measures, such as can be stated, preferably, in terms of lengths, widths, thicknesses, time and number of units of product. The necessity for these success measures, or criterion scores as we technically call them, means that measurement contributes to clarifying our aims in vocational education. What really is a "good" stenographer ; and what a "mediocre" one and what a "poor" one ? Which of these two stenographers, A and B, is the better one; A, who has a speed of 45 words per minute and 1 error ; or B who has 70 words per minute but two errors : or which of these two is the better; C who has a speed of 80 words per minute and spells all words correctly, or D who has a speed of 100 words per minute but misspells two words ? There is obviously no categorical answer but rather a specific teaching problem brought to the fore by each attempt to combine these different aspects of success into one criterion or success score. It should be noted that what test is a valid test is the result of experi- ment not of armchair philosophizing or a priori reasoning. We may illus- trate from a different field of education. The physical education people have been developing standard ways of giving track and field meets. They reasoned thus : "The fat boy of a given age or grade, having more flesh to carry, should be given the advantage of the boy who is thin, and the thin boy should consequently have relatively an extra yard or so to run. " That is armchair philosophizing. Experiment, on the other hand, has shown that in this case the boy who is heavy for his age is better developed physically and so is on the whole apt to be longer-legged than the thin boy, and consequently well able to run faster than the thin boy. Hence the "fat" (well developed) boy should be relatively set back a few yards if anyone is to be handicapped, and not the thin boy: The common measure of validity is technically known as the validity coefficient and is the correlation coefficient between the test scores and criterion scores. Anyone wishing to experiment in this field must become capable of understanding and carrying out experiments of the types schematized in references 2 and 3. Scoring reliability-This second requirement of any test, measurement, or examination has to do with the elimination of subjective judgment as to a pupil's success in an examination or in an operation, and the substitution therefor of objective judgment. This means the use of the same kinds of units as are used in the physical and chemical sciences insofar as possible, or in their absence, analogous ones. It means the discard of much of our qualitative terminology, and the substitution therefor of quantitative ter- minology. Its practical tests are always two in number: 1. Will two teachers independently scoring the pupil's performance report the same identical mark for it? 2. If the same identical mark is reported by two teachers, will they mean the same thing by it? DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 877 We need do little more here than to remark that if a test is low in scoring reliability we have always a ready means of improving the situa- tion-namely, to discard that kind of test and adopt another kind of test which can be scored the same by two teachers without conference. Statistical reliability-This third requirement of any measurement comes about by reason of the fact that, even though the test is valid, and though the test is objective and scoringly reliable, the pupil's performance usually varies from day to day. There are various factors which produce statistical unreliability-sickness, worry, fatigue, fear, etc. , due mostly to organic con- ditions within the student's body. Statistical reliability is measured by the extent to which the marks received from two alternative forms of the exam- ination agree. Alternative examinations are examinations, differing in con- tent, but alike in difficulty, appropriateness, plan of test, and adequacy of sampling of the content which they cover. If two examinations do not agree-and so are not statistically reliable-we can always improve them by making the examinations longer. Few commercial tests are long enough to give a reliable rating of the student. Most commercial tests would be statistically reliable if they were three hours or more in length. As an alter- native we can always average the results from two or more such tests given perhaps on subsequent days. And, in progress tests, we can give such tests or examinations far more frequently than formerly and average the results of all. This procedure has much to recommend it from the incentive angle, as it keeps pupils up in their daily preparation. Appropriateness-This fourth requirement has mainly to do with diffi- culty. Are the test questions too hard or too easy ? Do the questions owe their difficulty to intrinsic difficulty of the trade process, or is the diffi- culty an artificial one, and due perhaps to legibility difficulties, language difficulties, or vocabulary difficulty? To most people the most startling finding of measurements in this regard is that, in final examinations, or in examinations designed to determine the pupil's readiness for promotion, the best examination is one in which the intrinsic difficulty is such that the average score of the class is only 50 per cent of the total number of ques- tions attempted. This means that usually we give too easy examinations as well as examinations which are too short. Research has also shown that there is a surprisingly large technical vocabu- lary which a pupil must often master in vocational work. Dr. Pressey has published a vocational vocabulary list, obtainable from the Public School Publishing Company, which contains several hundred technical words, and is not exhaustive. A critical survey of available tests and test methods-With this by way of introduction of the requirements for tests, judgments, measurements, and examinations in vocational and other work, I shall now proceed to dis- cuss the half dozen typical kinds of tests which will be of use in vocationa! education, and shall attempt in each case to elucidate the principles in- volved. The amount of discussion devoted to each will not necessarily be proportional to the importance of the test field, but rather will be an indi- cation in part of the amount of work already done in the field. One new 878 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION field which promises much by means of additional research in the near future will also be discussed at length. Aptitude tests-Aptitude tests aim to tell us which persons will fail in a particular line of endeavor and which will be able to succeed, to indicate, in other words, the probability of success in the work if it should be attempted. We have above pointed out that in their construction no amount of a priori reasoning will take the place of: Tests given experimentally before entrance to the occupation to all who wish to enter, with a subsequent check-up by criterion scores of the degrees of success of all the entrants, and a statistical comparison, by the method of correlation, of the test scores with success scores . In this last process, Test A is excellent; Test B is worthless; Test C has perfect validity and is priceless. The validity coefficient for A is .80 ; for B, zero ; and for C, 1.00. TABLE 1. APTITUDE TESTS [Test A] Number of persons on Aptitude Test A Occupational success Total Below Above average average Above average occupational success . 10 90 100 Below average occupational success . 90 10 100 Total.... 100 100 200 [Test B] Number of persons on Aptitude Test B Occupational success Total Below Above average average Above average occupational success . 50 50 100 Below average occupational success . 50 50 100 Total. 100 100 200 [Test C] Number of persons on Aptitude Test C Occupational success Total Below Above average average Above average occupational success . 0 100 100 100 Below average occupational success . 0 100 Total.... 100 100 200 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 879 We have many aptitude, prognostic, or promise tests. Invariably all are much less valid than we should like them to be; in all of them some people will be found in the N. W. and S. E. quadrants of such a table as for Test A above. In many occupations it is much easier to construct a test which will be more valid than its present competitor, the subjective judgment of "someone who thinks he knows" whether the person will succeed or not. Such tests will never be so valid as the time-tried test of "try him out on the job and see whether he fails or not." It is obvious that trying out, either with or without failure, takes time, and in case of failure, wastes time that could have been profitably used in trying out an occupation in which the student would have been more successful ; nor has anyone so far successfully demonstrated that failure is in itself a desirable thing. This brings us at once to the heart of the question, Why have tests? The answer is simple. If tests can be made to yield in a few hours as good pre- dictions of ultimate success as could only be obtained by a much longer actual tryout in school or industry itself, then every argument is in favor of the tests. The results of such tests as are now available have not enabled us any better than formerly to measure the relative influences of environment and heredity. With all our intelligence tests, we know little more than we did ten years ago how much of academic school achievement is due to heredity and how much to opportunity. But, we have learned this: even genius requires adaptation to its environment in order to succeed ; and for a given heredity, the greater will be the school progress, say, if the pupil possessing that heredity has an adequate school environment, including, of course, adequate instruction, material, methods, incentives, and the like. For vocational education this means that we cannot by armchair philoso- phizing demonstrate what are the limits of improvability of any child. In fact, the development of good mechanical aptitude tests has done more than any other one thing to demonstrate to us that the failing pupil in one kind of school may, if the proper teaching methods are used, become the genius of a second kind of school. I refer to the Stenquist Assembly tests, reference 12 of the bibliography and more particularly to reference 13. "The Case for the Low I. Q. " The vocational school in its historical development is a differentiation of our public school to meet the need of pupils who were failing to profit by the one-track system established by our forefathers, and of those pupils who were undesirous of so continuing. Sad to say, with the multiplication of schools and the multiplication of teachers, many of whom must needs be drawn from academic circles, that early viewpoint is too often lost, and with it the truly vocational character of the school. The highest type of human service is carried on by at least one type of vocational school, which has not yet lost its vocational character. The service carried on by such a school can best be typified by the word, "salvage." What I mean can perhaps be best illustrated by Table 2. Suppose we have two good vocational apti 880 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tude tests, one a good intelligence test which is valid in predicting degrees of success of eighth-grade graduates should they go on to high school, and another which I shall call a mechanical assembly test which is valid in predicting ability to learn a trade. It is desirable that these two tests be as nearly unrelated to each other as possible, that the correlation between them be as nearly zero as possible. If so,¹ we may obtain such a distribu- tion table as Table 2. TABLE 2.-THE RELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO MECHANICAL ABILITY Number of persons making Mechanical test scores Below Above Total average average intelligence intelligence scores scores Above average scores on mechanical test ...... 20C 30D 50 Below average scores on mechanical test. 30A 20B 50 Total... 50 50 100 If we define high chances of success in either venture-high school or trade respectively-as " above the average scores" in the tests respectively, it is evident that: 1. The 30 people in Box D who are above average on both tests will succeed well in either high school or trades. (Perhaps the armchair philosopher would say they should become engineers, but this does not necessarily follow! ) 2. The 20 people in Box B who are high in intelligence but low in mechanical ability will succeed well in high school, but will probably fail in trade work. 3. The 30 people in Box A, who are low in both tests, will probably fail in both endeavors, and so much look to other occupations as ap lace where they will fit. 4. The 20 people in Box C, who are low in intelligence but high in mechanical ability will probably fail in high school, but in spite of that, will, if properly taught, succeed very well in learning a trade. It is the peculiar function of one type of trade school to salvage these people who have this type of specialized talent, who are good in mechanical work but are poor in academic work. This, in brief, means that under no consideration should entrance to such a vocational school be based upon intelligence tests. If intelligence tests are to be used, they should be used only after the pupil has entered, and the results should be used to section the pupils into sections according to their ability to grasp the instructions of their teacher. Perhaps the brightest pupils can be given to the poorest teacher, for they will not suffer so much in his hands as will those of slower understanding. It can thus be readily seen how much to be deplored is the growing tendency to raise the minimum entrance academic and intelligence standards of our vocational schools. (It is obviously desirable for pupils to be well 1The correlation for Table 2 is +.20, which is about the expected correlation for 14-year- old boys. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 881 prepared in the best of the content which the elementary school can give, but such preparation should not be a sine qua non.) Some one needs to carry out the experiment of picking out a few hundred grade school failures, who are nevertheless high in mechanical ability, enroll then in a vocational school, give them adequate opportunity for learning trades by adapting the course of instruction to the intelligence level of the pupils, and note the result. I thought some two years ago that we should see the results of such an ex- periment. The supervisor of a district in a large city picked out over one hundred girls who were in the seventh grade, who were failing in their school work, and who scored low on intelligence tests. The plan was that a certain trade school would give a fair tryout in trade courses to a number of them who showed high mechanical ability. We gave the mechanical tests and impatiently awaited results. A recent check-up showed that the school apparently had been skeptical of the experiment (perhaps we should say unwilling to adapt its methods, although I cannot say as to that) and so allowed only 12 of the group to enter. The interesting fact, however, is that eight of the twelve graduated. They took more time to graduate than the average student? Of course ! But some one will say, "That means that we will get all the dull pupils!" My only answer is, "See what tradesmen now possess in the way of in- telligence and education-those flesh-and-blood tradesmen who are doing the manual work of the world. Less than 20 per cent of them even started high school work; a somewhat higher percentage of course completed the eighth grade. Over a fifth of them have a sixth-grade education or less. Then ask yourself: Is my vocational school attempting to train the people who will work at trade work, or is it attempting to train executives and clerical workers or to give an academic or cultural training under the guise of being vocational ? Although a modification of teaching procedure may be able to salvage from blind-alley occupations people of good mechanical ability and low intelligence, it does not follow that unintelligent people are more likely to be mechanical than are intelligent people. The above diagram indicates in fact that the majority of the unintelligent are non-mechanical, and we shall need to make other provision for such people. It is the highly me- chanical non-intelligent minority whom we are interested in salvaging from blind-alley jobs. There are many other interesting questions raised by measurement and experimentation in connection with aptitude tests; such as, the mechanical ability of women; the improvability through practice of mechanical ability ; the specificness of mechanical skills. The first two of these are treated in reference 16 of the bibliography. We shall now state a few more principles found in this field. Aptitude tests should be performance tests, not paper-and-pencil tests, since perform- ance tests are, of the two, the only ones likely to have the salvaging power above referred to. Paper tests generally correlate all too highly with each other and with intelligence. 882 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Another interesting principle which measurement has helped to bring about is a new viewpoint of vocational interest. Interest is not now so much regarded as the sine qua non of success or mystical thing without which you positively cannot succeed. Rather we know that interest is about as frequently a successor of successful effort as a predecessor of it. This leads us to distinguish between true interests, acquired by experience, and superficial interests, or more properly enthusiasm, acquired by reading or by hearsay. True interest is thus looked upon as an indication that one has had some success, however small, in one's inquiry into, or particularly in doing, details of that occupation. Such interest then should be measurable by giv- ing the supposedly interested person amateurish questions of that occupation to answer or amateurish jobs to do. Failure, in such tests, by no means precludes the possibility of the pupil's later becoming interested in the oc- cupation if he attempts it. The use of the interest test is thus somewhat doubtful for perhaps a majority of pupils. The partial destruction of this time-honored concept makes favorable the conditions for determining ex- perimentally the limitations of training. At worst, it gives us an argu- ment with which to answer the lazy boy, who says, "I am not interested in," a certain occupation, when we have reason to believe this statement is merely his way of saying, "I don't want to work so hard," or "I haven't that much ambition." In the matter of aptitudes, the war taught us many things; such as, women can learn trades which hitherto only men have entered; trades. which tradesmen hitherto have said could only be learned by years of work can be learned, average well, by people of sufficiently high aptitude in as little as two weeks of concentrated and effectively devised vocational educa- tion ; and that, in general, there are just as many and just as wide individual differences in vocational aptitude as in academic aptitude. In learning the trade of mechanical dentistry, where the student could take as long or as short a time for his instruction as he desired, I have found that the most rapid student did in less than 300 hours what it took the slowest student over 2900 hours to do. Where will you find a greater difference in academic work? In our aptitude tests, we are overlooking the potential value of obtaining norms for everyday play and hobby interests of life. Who can say what is the vocational value of being able to throw a standard baseball 100 feet ; or who can even say whether that is a good or poor performance for an eight-year-old boy? What is the significance of being able to harness a horse to a buggy in three minutes; of being able to hook up two batteries in parallel in two minutes; of being able at the age of 12 to chin yourself ten times; of being able to build a kite which will rise 200 feet in the air? See bibliography, reference 15. Adequate tests for aptitude purposes require much research work. It is not so surprising then that we have allowed the best work in these fields to be done by endowed research bureaus. Two of these are worthy of special DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 883 mention. One of these, the Institute of Educational Research of Teachers College, has devised and given a large number of vocational guidance tests to 3000 children in New York City. The careers of these children will be followed up for a period of years to see how well their success bears out the predictions which might have been made by the tests years earlier. The preliminary report, dealing with the construction of the tests is given in reference 14 of the bibliography-"Tests for Vocational Guidance of Children, 13 to 16." We may eagerly await the follow-up reports inasmuch as they will give the results of the first real vocational guidance test work done under well controlled conditions with follow-up study. The second of these endowed researches is a vocational guidance test inquiry being con- ducted by the Department of Psychology of the University of Minnesota, which is seeking to go still further into the question of just what is mechanical and motor ability. The results are quite promising. This research is now nearing the completion of its second year and the former is now nearing the end of its fourth year. Entrance, classification, and grading or sectioning tests-These have been but little used in vocational schools and are comparatively undeveloped. Some of the problems which they may help solve are : 1. After admission to a vocational school, what course should the student pursue, machine shop, electrical, bricklaying or what? 2. How can the school effectively use the training and experience in mechanical work which the pupil already has ? Many an entrant to the carpentry course, for instance, knows more about carpentry at entrance than some others know upon completion of the course. 3. How shall we section our pupils if we have a great many, in order that they may make the most rapid progress ? 4. If we admit that the task of education is to make a well-rounded personality, then is it not the duty of the school system to attempt to teach mechanical things to those intelligent people who have no shame in admitting that they do not know how to fix a shade roller which will not roll up ? Is it not, from this viewpoint, our greatest duty to teach mechanical principles to those who make low mechanical assembly test scores, for instance ? 5. How shall we establish control sections in order that we may experimentally determine which of two proposed methods of teaching a trade is the better ? In all these problems, the use of intelligence tests promises us practically nothing for the expenditure of our time and money. It would seem far better at the present time to attempt to develop many new manipulative tests for such purposes, and of such a length as to be statistically reliable. Progress, diagnostic, and school promotion tests-This field, which we are now entering, is of far more present interest and worth than any save perhaps the aptitude test field. Only a fair beginning has yet been made. The results are so promising, however, that I anticipate it will not be long before we have a number of workers in the field. The philosophy of progress tests can be summed up in five statements : 1. Vocational education, as to technique, means furnishing the pupil with voca- tional situations of a difficulty such that by effort he can comprehend them, and which, with the tools and equipment supplied, he can master step by step. 884 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2. The pupil having comprehended the problem, and having made an error, in all probability made the error in good faith in the belief that he was doing the right thing. 3. The pupil should be led to discover his errors in the most effective way for producing interest and learning, and be thereby induced to correct the errors-to "learn from his sad experience." 4. Attempts should be made to have the pupil generalize as much as possible of his experiences, so that he will have, not had merely a number of unrelated or unrelatable techinques, but so that he, instead, will be able to meet effectively new vocational situations . 5. The pupil should be kept motivated in his school work, by being able to note his progress to date, which is most effectively done by frequent attempts to recall (review) the progress already made. In common with the academic people, we are interested then in estab- lishing by the most effective means possible, what, for want of a better term, I shall call "workmanship character." This is the ability to see through a novel vocational situation, to take pride and actually to do only the best grade of work, to be able to recognize the difference between a good and a poor piece of work, to be willing to turn a deaf ear to en- treaties to do the work just good enough to pass inspection, etc. The Committee on Special Training in the army hit upon one of the techniques requisite to building up this trait-namely, training the boy in careful observation and planning of each job before he begins it. The final report of this committee is No. 31 in the bibliography. They utilized the idea of asking the boy a number of questions about the technique which he proposed to use on the job. The questions might be answered after the job was done, however. Nevertheless, if answered, the answers made meaningful to the boy the processes which he had just gone through with. He then knew not only how to do the job, but just why he did it in the way he did. He did not necessarily have to make any decisions in regard to which of two alternative ways of doing a job is best. Now we have reason to believe that the formation of workmanship character is not greatly unlike the formation of moral character. A strong moral char- acter is not built in a monastery away from the world's temptations. In- stead good judgment, and what we may term strength of character, come from making good decisions in situations (comparable to a temptation ) wherein the outcome is ambiguous or uncertain until carefully examined in the light of all the ascertainable facts. Consequently in the research section of the E. and R. schools of the Army, at Camp Grant, Illinois, this lack of pupil judgment was overcome by the simple expedient, of hav- ing the student make a job-analysis of his job before beginning it. First he checked on a list containing all the operations of the trade those op- erations which were necessary to be done on this particular job. He then arranged these operations in the chronological order in which they were to be done on the job, and secured the instructor's approval before beginning the job. If necessary, the instructor then pointed out the better method, allowing first the student to attempt to determine a better order of the operations. This called sharply to the student's mind DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 885 the question of the best way of doing a job, and made him balance one method against another. The principles derived at Camp Grant are given in Prof. Selvidge's recent textbook, reference No. 23. The products of the work at Camp Grant were instruction manuals in some 22 trades, far superior to anything hitherto existing. These are referred to as reference 26. At Camp Grant also, experiments were being conducted looking toward establishing final proficiency tests, and some twenty, more or less, were so constructed. Due to lack of Congressional appropriations, this excellent work was discontinued. It is still being carried on in smaller scale and with improvements in method in the Signal School at Camp Alfred Vail , New Jersey. In the work at Camp Vail, the improvement of incorporating into the instructor's manuals, progress tests for measuring the progress of the stu- dent is a noteworthy one. In a recent publication, Reference 27, this work has taken a second big forward leap by the introduction of diagnostic progress tests. Methods have been devised for pointing out to the student wherein are his weaknesses, in order that he may strive to improve on those aspects of his work which are weak. A scale for lettering points out to the student how the careless making of his hand-printed letters affects his value as a radio operator. An ingenious mechanical device gives a permanent graphic record of the length of each dot and dash in his send- ing of code messages. The use of Ediphone records dispenses with a great many of the hitherto routine duties of the instructor and makes uniformly good instruction for each student possible. I commend to your attention Reference 27-Radio Operator, Code Practice. These are truly notable achievements of measurement in the improve- inent of vocational education. Yet we have not done all that can be done, even in the case of the radio operator. The clue for what I have reason to believe will be another improvement comes to us from academic edu- cation, Reference 21. Mr. Chou, a graduate student at Teachers College, Columbia University, discovered that in certain Chinese students the ability to judge compositions correlated with their ability to write compositions above .70. If this means anything, then surely it means that, at the stage of practice which these students were when measured, the most promising thing to have children do in order to improve their ability to write com- positions was to have them grade compositions, both good compositions and bad, to discover errors, and to judge and quantitatively evaluate the good and the bad features of each. Acting on this hunch, Mr. R. E. Smith, instructor in manual training shopwork at Ohio State University, has during the past quarter experi- mented with having college students in the course in patternshop score their own work according to a mimeographed set of directions. In these directions a certain number of points were given for a perfect score on each aspect of a given product, and from the perfect score deductions are made if the pupil fails to come up to the perfect standard. The pupil measures his product at each angle, corner, and length, or makes judgments of a 886 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION very few items such as finish, and writes down a score for each such corner, angle, etc. The sum of the scores on each of the aspects of the project is a score for the product. Every product or project is likewise scored. The sum of the scores on the several projects gives a score indicating the stu- dent's success in the course. In addition to this experimental group, which rated itself, a second group, or control group, were rated by the instructor and received their scores, but did not rate their own products. The re- sults seem to indicate : 1. The group which judged its product made a significantly higher average score on the final examination than the control or non-judging group. 2. The judging group turned out a better product than the non-judging group. (In rating the pupil's work, the instructor never knew whether he was rating the product of the one or of the other group, and as above stated, nearly all his scores were the results of scale and caliper measurements . ) 3. A student who is good on one woodworking project is not necessarily low on all projects; technically stated, the correlation between projects is low. 4. Students, grading in each case their own projects for the course, and assign- ing themselves their letter grade of A, B, C, D, E on the basis of only four projects , would in no case have differed from the instructor by more than one letter grade. 5. Within a group of 25 students there will usually be found some student who will consistently overrate his work in spite of early conferences with the instructor, and some student who will consistently underrate the quality of his work. Such cases apparently respond to this treatment. 6. A student grading his own projects agrees with the instructor on four or five projects combined (that is on the total score of all four or five projects) as well as two instructors agree in regard to the score on a single project. This is due to the fact that the score on four or five projects represents not only the improve- ment in consistency of judgment which we believe this method inculcates, but also irons out the effect of more or less chance over-judgments and under-judgments. If a student overestimates his first project he may chance to underestimate the second, so that his total score on the two will agree fairly well with the instructor's total score on the two. The average score given a product by three of a pupil's classmates is apparently as reliable as the score given by one instructor. The results of this study are so promising that the next step logically seems to be as follows : If judging one's own product is so worth while, the judging of other's products ought to be equally worth while. It ap- pears that the judgment of three students is equal to the judgment of an instructor as to what score to give a product. It should be a small ad- ministrative matter to arrange it so that each student in addition to mark- ing his own project should score the same project of two of his classmates ; then, on the second project he should score his own product and also the products of a different group of two classmates, in each case being himself ignorant of whose products he is grading. I see no inherent difficulties in the road of allowing the composite score of one's classmates under the conditions described, being used as the semester grade, and thus relieve the teacher of the irksome burden of scoring products, and free his time for more constructive work. Teaching will not be so irksome a job if we can turn our marking burdens over to the students with such unusual promised benefits to them. On the printed direction sheets for scoring DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 887 products we make much use of the slogan, "Skilled Workmen Are Good Judges." The above experiment leaves much to be desired in the way of solving the problems : Will the results be secured a second time, and a third time ? Just in what way is judgment beneficial ? Why are students not as good judges as instructors ? Why do they not improve more rapidly in judging ? Why do they improve as rapidly as they do ? And so on, and so on. A superficial analysis of why a poor judge is a poor judge reveals the following plausible or possible causes : 1. Perhaps he does not understand the directions for scoring the product. 2. Perhaps he cannot read the blue print to which the directions sometimes refer. 3. Perhaps he cannot read accurately the measuring tools used. 4. Even if able to read the tools accurately, perhaps he cannot handle the meas- uring tools or instruments in such a way as to take off the correct measurement of a product. Nos. 3 and 4 can be fairly readily tested. The writer is preparing for early publication a test of "reading measuring instruments," in which instruments have been photographed or drawn to represent various settings of the tool. A probably more important test has been devised by Mr. Cecil Ward, graduate student in the department of psychology, at Ohio State University and teacher in one of the Columbus manual training schools, which attempts to test the student's ability to make carefully designated measurements on a product which is already completed. It consists of ten blocks of various shapes and designs on which certain measurements have been carefully indicated on the blocks themselves by arrows. The first block requires merely a scale to measure the three di- mensions of length, width, thickness. The tenth block is much more complicated, requires more measuring tools, more complicated measuring operations of the maximum difficulty of "making measurements between two places inaccessible to direct measurement" so that the correct meas- urement must be compounded from other measurements. Mr. Ward will determine by experimental tryout the best method of giving the test. He has made the test in five forms, with the dimensions slightly different in each form, so that it will be readily possible to retest the pupil for verifica- tion of the statistical reliability of the test, and to measure progress in learning to make scale-and- caliper measurements. To summarize the progress in these developments of vocational edu- cation: 1. The committee on special training in the Army attempted to test the pupil on his understanding of his projected job by means of questions. 2. The E. and R. Schools of the Army moved the process a step farther by having the student test his judgment of the operations to be involved and the sequence of the operations against the instructor's judgment. They also intro- duced final proficiency tests to be standardized on journeymen in industry. 3. The signal school at Camp Vail introduced progress tests. It also introduced progress tests of a diagnostic type, by means of which the instructor advises the pupil of his weaknesses. 888 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 4. Mr. Smith aims to teach the boy to improve his own judgments of product and so to lead to self-motivated improvement. His next step is to seek further to improve a pupil's judgment of product by having him judge the products of his classmates. 5. Mr. Ward seeks to discover by diagnostic tests why the poor judges are poor, and why some fail to improve rapidly in judgment. In passing, we should not fail to note the excellent work of Mr. Castle with mechanical drawing tests, reference No. 19 in bibliography. Final proficiency tests-Little has been done in this field. The army constructed trade proficiency tests for over 100 different trades, reported in references 20 and 24. Most of these are not suitable, without severe adaptation, for trade school use. Some possible principles of proficiency testing may be of interest. A trade school graduate, if entering industry as a full-fledged journeyman should reveal on tests that he is the equal of a full-fledged journeyman. As a suggestion of what the future may hold forth, we may see diplomas abolished in favor of certificates which will state specifically what tools, operations, and jobs the pupil can do or handle and with what degree of efficiency. The employer of such a pupil, if he has a mind to do so, can dovetail instruction within his plant on to the in- struction of the school with a minimum of loss of time and duplication of effort. Vocational tests for promotion on a job These are substantially prog- ress diagnostic tests. We have one account of them in the literature, published by A. W. Kornhouser in the Journal of Personnel Research. Reference No. 22 . Tests for readjustment on the job-Many a man, who at 16 entered a job which at the time was a good one for him, finds by the age of 23 to 30 that he is at the end of the ladder, and so wishes to make a change. Tests will be an efficient aid in this problem of readjustment. Proficiency tests may reveal what are the man's vocational assets. Intelligence tests and executive aptitude tests (if we can develop them) will give some inkling as to what to advise; for, be it noted, only the man of intelligence and ambition can be both expert on his job and dissatisfied with what it has to offer in the light of the known prospect of the better job offering more responsibility and harder work. With this account I have covered in rambling fashion the field of measurement as applied to vocational education. The members of this group can further the much needed research work in measurement of vocational education, either actively, by taking part in any of the attractive investigations outlined above, or passively, by being sympathetic toward such work-tolerant of its mistakes and appreciative of its successes. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 889 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON VOCATIONAL TESTS Especially Important References are Starred A. General Principles: *1. Brewer, J. M., Mental measurement in educational and vocational guidance. Harvard Bulletins in Education, Number 10, 1924. 46 p. (Bibliography. ) *2. McCall, William, How to measure in education. Macmillan, 1922. 516 р. *3 . -, How to experiment in education. Macmillan, 1923. 281 p. 4. Otis, A. S., The selection of mill workers with mental tests. Jour. of Appl. Psych. , Volume 4, Number 4, 1920. pp. 339-341. 5. Pressey, S. L. , Introduction to the use of standardized tests. World Book Co., 1923. 263 р. 6. Robinson, E. S., The analysis of trade ability. Journal of Applied Psychol- ogy, Volume 3, No. 4, 1919. pp. 352-357. *7. Toops, H. A., Tests for vocational guidance of children 13 to 16. Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 136, 1923. 159 р. *8 . , Some fancies and facts about human abilities and their significance for trade education. Ungraded, Volume 9, Nos. 1 and 2, October and Novem- ber, 1923. 9. —, Trade tests in education. Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 115, 1921. 118 p. Bibliography. ( See General Considerations in Test- ing and Training for Proficiency and Promise in the Trades. pp. 96-115.) 10. Toops, H. A., and Pintner, R., Educational differences among tradesmen. Journal of Applied Psychology, Volume 3, 1919. pp. 33-49. B. Aptitude and Interest Tests : * 11 . Brewer, J. M., Mental measurements in educational and vocational guidance. Harvard Bulletins in Education, No. 10, 1924. 46 р. ( Bibliography. ) * 12. Stenquist, J. L., Measurements of mechanical ability. Teachers College Con- tributions to Education No. 130, 1923. 101 р. *13. , The case for the low I. Q. Journal of Educational Research, November, 1921. pp. 241-254. *14. Toops, H. A. , Tests for vocational guidance of children 13 to 16. Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 130, 1923. 159 р. *15. , The need for norms in vocational guidance. The Vocational Guidance Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 3, December, 1924. pp. 87-90. 16. , Some fancies and facts about human abilities and their significance for trade education. Ungraded, Volume 9, Nos. 1 and 2, October and Novem- ber, 1923. 17. —, Determining the trade skill and knowledge of the shop teacher. Voca- tional Education Magazine, Volume 2, No. 1, September, 1923. pp. 53-56. 18. Vocational Guidance Bulletin. National Vocational Guidance Association. (Many measurement articles are appearing in this bulletin. ) C. Proficiency or. Progress Tests: *19 . Castle, D. W., Mechanical drawing tests. Vocational Education Magazine, Volume 2, No. 9, May, 1924. pp. 756-758 . 20 Chapman, J. C., Trade tests. Holt, 1921. 435 p. *21 . Chou, H. H. C., The measurement of composition ability. New York Colum- bia University Library, 1923. (Relationship of ability to judge composi- tions to ability to write them. ) 22. Kornhouser, A. W., A plan of apprentice training. Journal of Personnel Re- search, Vol. 1, 1923. pp. 215-250. 890 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION *23. Selvidge, R. W., How to teach a trade. Peoria, Illinois, Manual Arts Press , 1923. 111 р. ( Only unified account available of the excellent work done in the E. and R. Schools of the Army in divising superior methods of trade instruction.) #24. Toops , H. A., Trade tests in education. Teachers College Contribution to Education, No. 115, 1921. 118 p. (See particularly pp. 1-76. ) 25. U. S. Army, Signal School at Camp Alfred Vail, N. J. Training Manuals . No. 10 Carpentry. Part 1. Carpenter Helper. No. 11 Carpentry. Part 2. Basic Carpenter. No. 12 Carpentry. Part 3 . General Carpenter. No. 13 Carpentry. Part 4. Master Carpenter. No. 14 Carpentry. Part 5. Instructor's Guide. No. 20 Basic Signal Communication. Students' Manual. No. 21 Basic Signal Communication. Instructors' Guide. (Contains meth- ods of divising proficiency tests.) No. 22 Telephone Switchboard Operator. Students' Manual. No. 23 Telephone Switchboard Operator. Instructors' Guide. ( Contains Instruction Tests .) No. 30 Automotive Starting, Lighting, and Ignition. 26. U. S. Army. E. and R. schools, about 22 manuals on trade on trade instruc- tion, each with questions. *27. U. S. Army, Signal School, Camp Alfred Vail, N. J. Training Manual No. 27, 1925. Radio Operator, Code Practice, 71 p. ( Shows what psychological science can do for vocational education by measurement.) 28. , The Army's Contribution. Vocational Education Magazine, Volume 2, No. 10, June, 1924. pp. 854-855. 29. Vocational Education Magazine. (Articles on measurement are beginning to appear with some regularity.) 30. War Department. Committee on Classification of Personnel. The Personnel System of the U. S. Army. Two volumes, Washington, 1919. *31.- . Committee on Education and Special Training. Final Report of the National Army Training Detachments. Washington, 1919. 179 p. 32. Wylie, A. T. , Army experiments with progress and proficiency tests. The Educational Record, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1924. pp. 254-267. (Experiences at Camp Vail .) USES AND LIMITATIONS OF STANDARDIZED TESTS IN JUNIOR high scHOOL INDUSTRIAL ARTS A. H. EDGERTON, PROFESSOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN , MADISON, WISCONSIN The topic I have been asked to discuss implies that ( 1) tests are of some importance in offering instruction and guidance in junior high school industrial arts, and (2) tests, as now used, have certain limitations which should be kept in mind in interpreting their results. Perhaps no educa- tional movement has had more critics, both destructive and constructive ones, than this development in tests and measurements. For this reason, if for no other, it behooves us to take an open-minded attitude in our at- tempt to scrutinize and evaluate just what assistance may now and later be expected from this recent movement. Please keep in mind that the construction and administration of DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 891 psychological tests is considered as a highly specialized activity which, in my opinion, should be entrusted mainly to a group of specialists. Many large and small cities are now provided with more or less expert leader- ship, and the larger city usually has a staff of specialists to serve the whole school system. In such cities it is assumed that the special testing needed for instructional and advisory purposes can be most advantageously done in coöperation with the psychological department or clinic. However, this discussion will assume that teachers of industrial arts might well be, at least, sufficiently familiar with the testing movement to avoid unneces- sary misrepresentation of recorded test results. In other words, this ac- quaintance with testing materials should do much to avert many difficulties which invariably arise when teachers, counselors, and placement workers are permitted to use amateurish and even pseudo-control of techniques which must be considered not only as highly specialized, but also as decid- edly experimental. Those who have direct responsibility for practical arts instruction should be interested in the results of tests of general intelligence as a basis for in- structional classification, but they also should recognize the importance of interpreting these records of a general measure as only one of the many factors resulting from testing pupils' abilities and interests in various ways. While promising psychological scales and tests have been devised for purposes of revealing measures of so-called general intelligence, mechan- ical aptitude, general knowledge, and occupational skill, it is still believed by many that the discovery of aptitudes and capacities for the kinds of experience represented in the school likewise should involve considerable observation of those successes and failures which result from each division of work and study. Beginning with the seventh grade, simple but effective cumulative records are now being used not alone to record the results of all tests, but also those inferences which teachers and others have based upon school performances and activities carried on outside of school. To be most helpful the records should include tangible evidences of the pupil's abilities as well as his likes and dislikes . Does the junior high school need the assistance of tests and measure- ments? The broader conception of the junior high school is based on a philosophy of better occupational adjustment and happier social welfare. Our social and economic needs of today would seem to call for instruction and guidance which aim (1) to challenge and develop the pupil's present interests, aptitudes, and capacities, and ( 2) to train and educate him for the many-sided demands which the future is expected to make upon him. These needs assume that each public school system is obligated to assist all of its pupils by means of suitable curriculums for aiding those who con- tinue their school work to plan their programs more wisely in secondary and higher education, and also for helping those who might find it advis- able or necessary to leave school with a minimal amount of preparation to choose their respective procedure more thoughtfully. The school must continue to impart certain so-called fundamental skills 892 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and knowledge to each pupil; however, its obligation does not end here. It must anticipate the time when the pupil shall have completed his school- ing and taken his place in the workaday world. It must strive to see that the educational offerings are such that the pupil may be helped to con- tribute his best to society by means of desirable attitudes, habits, apprecia- tions, and powers, and by so doing, secure for himself the greatest hap- piness. This desired result is too significant to be left to chance. It can come about only by causing the pupil to consider his own assets or capabil- ities and the various opportunities for developing them. The school, there- fore, must conscientiously and definitely make provision in its curriculums for accomplishing this result. During the past few years marked reorganization has been noted in secondary schools throughout the United States. As a result of this ten- dency, decided changes are found in the purpose, content, and method of the activities now provided both in industrial courses as a means of general education and in classes for preliminary industrial training. It should be noted that school preparation for industrial occupations should always be supplemented by definite instruction on the job, if the best results are to be had. The adolescent, or so-called "self-finding," period seems to de- mand appreciative insight into a sufficient number and variety of rep- resentative experiences to help pupils explore, discover, and develop varying amounts of capacity for achievement. Such tests for negative and positive accomplishments would preferably include both understanding and doing of industrial work, as well as some elements of management and super- vision of similar situations. Unfortunately, the terminology for these different courses lacks general acceptance and universal adoption, consequently certain obvious confusion has resulted because of the different designations used in various school systems. However, those persons who are charged with the responsibility for developing the separate courses for general educational purposes and for certain limited values in wage-earning preparation, are well aware that these new developments in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades are gradually forcing the discontinuance of similar objectives and activities on the high school level, where accepted junior high schools exist. In answer to the challenge, several senior high schools, aside from separate trade and technical schools, have arranged specific plans of part-time coöperation through vocational departments for those who expect to enter industrial callings rather than colleges. On the other hand, increasing numbers of teachers and administrators in large and small school systems are insisting that adolescent pupils need to "explore," to gain knowledge of a reasonably wide range of industrial and allied activities. Their diversified courses often provide firsthand in- formation and experience in important aspects of manufacture, transporta- tion, and commerce as a general foundation and, to some extent, for guid- ance in their life work. In a recent report of the Committee of the Na- tional Society for the Study of Education, it is found that the activities provided by 379 junior high schools have the following order of importance : DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 893 Activities provided. Junior High Schools. Number. Per cent. Offering vocational placement for part time and full time employment 286 75.5 Offering specific vocational training courses and programs ..... 248 73.4 Assisting individual pupils in choosing vocational possibilities .. 231 61 Surveying local occupational opportunities and requrements .... 194 51.3 Testing pupils' abilities and interests in various ways ......... 158 41.6 Studying results of occupational survey data and other reports of investigations 130 34.4 Activities for which we have standardized tests or measures-The fol- lowing so-called types of ability may now be measured to some extent : (1) General intelligence, (2) mechanical aptitude, (3) general knowl- edge or information, (4) trade knowledge, and (5) skill . For obvious reasons the trade knowledge and skill will not be discussed in this paper. In general intelligence and mechanical aptitude, it should be recognized that we are attempting to measure something without being entirely clear as to its exact nature. Contrary to the reasoning of some persons, it does not necessarily follow that we should use and measure only those things of which we have complete, or fairly complete understanding. If this were true electricity, of which so little is known even today, would not have been used and measured in the various forms which have become indispensable in everyday life. Of more concern in this discussion is the importance of the particular ability or factor which the test in question is attempting to measure, as it matters little how well the test measures the designated quality if it is found to have comparatively little or no bearing upon the solution of the problem at hand. Possibilities of tests of intelligence-In attempting to measure what the layman had come to call intelligence, Dr. Pintner, a well-known psycholo- gist, tells us that he is measuring "the ability to learn"; the ability to profit by experience. It is now quite generally accepted in most psychological cir- cles that intelligence is only a single factor entering into that complex thing we call success. Dr. Edward Thorndike, of Columbia University, be- lieves that there are three main types of native or innate intelligence- namely, intelligence for words and abstract ideas; motor intelligence, or skill with the use of the hands; and social intelligence, or the ability to get on well with one's fellows. These three types are all related but not necessarily to a high degree. The second and also the third would be ex- tremely desirable in many of the industrial callings. Dr. Link, an authority on industrial tests and the psychologist in the United States Rubber Corporation, considers that a"mental test is a device, similar to a measuring instrument in any of the sciences, by which certain mental activities can be accurately measured." Determination, persistence, reliability, ability to lead, and the like are qualities apart from innate in- telligence which no one can ignore in the struggle for success. One pos- sessing a high degree of intelligence may not use this capacity to secure corresponding achievement, if he is handicapped by laziness, unsteadiness, 894 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and willfulness. These qualities and characteristics are regarded as vari- able quantities; they may be cultivated as they are largely affected by the environment in which one is placed. In brief, mental testing is important, in that it is helping to classify pupils for instructional purposes upon a more efficient basis. It aids in selecting pupils and prescribing types of training programs which lead them toward those life activities for which they are best fitted. As already indicated, other measures are needed because of the limitation in this or any other single measure. Mental testing was attempted in industrial pursuits through examinations conducted in the United States Army and in industry during and since the war. In general, the results showed that general relationships seem to exist between intelligence and occupations, indicating the futility of expecting to train workers and hold them in a given trade, unless their mental abilities are fairly well fitted to the task athand. The use of mental measurement in education has pointed the way to better methods of coping with the problems of correct guidance for all pupils. It has helped to define the significant factors which affect a pupil's progress. It will isolate and precipitate for study, traits of character mani- fested by certain types of pupils. In this manner social maladjustments which frequently play havoc with human relationships may often be reached and even removed. However, the use of mental measurement in industry continues to offer many puzzling problems and even some dis- concerting results, which can be satisfactorily explained only by taking into account all of the factors which affect human behavior. In time these may be satisfactorily analyzed, but at present our data is too meagre to think of offering practical solutions. Without question one of the most obvious values of the mental or intelligence test at present is to show in a general manner both the upper and lower "safety limits" in so-called in- telligence by which a pupil may be guided into, or away from, a given occupation. Likewise in industry it should assist in determining if the person in question has enough mental ability to succeed at his chosen oc- cupation. Possibilities of special aptitude tests-Dr. Baker, clinical psychologist for the Detroit Board of Education, makes the following significant state- ment about aptitude tests : After a period of feverish experimentation with intelligence tests as a cure-all for educational ills, the scientific study of tests of special aptitudes was undertaken. With its inception has been initiated a new series of tests which promises to be as far-reaching and comprehensive as the application of standard tests within the past decade, and possibly as important as the development and use of intelligence tests in the past five years. As you know, Dr. Stenquist has devised two forms of mechanical apti- tude tests particularly suited to boys. Test I consists of six exercises with ninety-five operations involved. In pictorial forms are shown parts of bicycles, telephones, radio sets, autos, and a large variety of mechanical DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 895 devices. These are presented in small parts in disarranged order, and the subject is to indicate how the parts are related by matching the various pairs of objects. For example, an auto tire pump labeled "3" is matched with an auto tire labeled "A." The "3" and "A" are matched together in the column provided at the right of the page. This test has a work limit of forty-five minutes. "T" scores and percentile norms are provided for ages 10 to 15, inclusive, for both tests I and II. Test I is well adapted to pupils of limited mental ability or even to cases of language difficulty, as well as to normal American children, since it is pictorial and constructed upon simple principles. Test II consists of three exercises. Exercises I is similar to Test I. Exercises 2 and 3 consist of complete mechanical units, such as an electric door bell and a job crane. The various parts of these units are labeled with letters and the subject is required to answer written questions about the various functions of the different parts of the unit, such as, "What part is the electro-magnet?" Reading is necessary although the terms and vocabulary are as simple as possible. The author reports a correlation of r = .84 between scores and shop and science teachers' estimates of general mechanical aptitude. Performance on the tests is not affected very greatly by shop experience, since general aptitude for mechanics has stimulated an interest in mechanical devices which reaches far beyond the work bench in the schoolroom. The author has reported further that there is little or no correlation between scores on the aptitude tests and scores on in- telligence tests. This makes the test more valuable for measuring this other thing which Dr. Stenquist has seen fit to call mechanical aptitude. These tests are an outgrowth of the author's experience in developing the well-known mechan- ical construction tests which are likewise useful but necessarily expensive. In summary, it may be said that all of his tests are well planned for their intended use, and that the process of standardization is most commendable. From all reports, they are filling a long-felt need as far as the testing of the situations represented is concerned. Time does not permit us to note similar efforts in related fields . Possibilities of general information tests-The general information tests which are not so well standardized, are too numerous to mention at this time. Perhaps for our purpose it will suffice to refer to only one of these ; namely the Partrick Industrial Arts Tests. The one which has been used most in Mr. Partrick's attempt at standardization is the so-called Di- versified Activities Test. This consists of one hundred questions which have been selected for testing of boys in grades seven to nine as to their general information about wood work, concrete work, electricity, printing, and the like. 896 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Samples of the Questions Are as Follows : 1. Radius refers to : (1) square (3) cube (2) circle (4) rectangle 26. The hardest wood among the following is : (1) oak (3) cypress (2) chestnut (4) basswood 59. A flux is used in : (1) soldering tin (3) mixing concrete (2) squaring lumber (4) plastering walls 77. Pica is now known as : (1) 6 point (3) 12 point (2) 30 point (4) 4 point 83. Stocks and dies are used for (1) measuring lumber (3) cutting threads (2) staining wood (4) soldering tin In a recent study, Mr. Partrick attempted to determine whether boys having high intelligence quotients are in possession of more industrial in- formation than boys of low intelligence quotients who are in the same grade or of the same age. 167 cases and 168 cases were used respectively, for the age and grade studies. The results indicated that in each case the average score made in the Industrial Arts Test is lower in the same grade or for the same age by the city boys with low I. Q.s than that of the city boys with high I. Q.s. As this is a group study, it does not follow that all city boys with low I. Q.s are low in the amount of industrial information possessed. The study only indicates the tendency in terms of the average. If Mr. Par- trick's conclusions are correct, we are not justified in expecting boys with low I. Q.s as a group, to profit more in the industrial arts work than boys with high I. Q.s, at least in so far as this industrial information is concerned. The general information tests are still being developed and refined for use in industrial arts and related courses. They not only assist in testing the information which pupils acquire in these courses but are also used in some secondary schools to ascertain what knowledge is possessed before as well as after the related information is imparted. Promise of prediction or prognosis tests-A recent contribution on tests . of special aptitudes in a closely related field has been made by Dr. Toops, of Ohio State University. The tests are divided under three heads: (1) ability with ideas, the I. E. R. Arithmetic-Reading Test or any stand- ard test of general intelligence; (2) ability with things, the Stenquist Assembly Tests for boys and the I. E. R. Assembly Tests for girls ; (3) ability with clerical items and procedures, (a) higher level, the I. E. R. General Clerical Test, C-1, (b) lower level, the I. E. R. Test C. 2. In DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 897 his introduction the Author says : "One of the greatest services of voca- tional guidance to children from thirteen to sixteen, is to direct away from commercial high schools, business colleges, and office work, those who have little or no chance of usefulness and happiness there. It will be much safer to do this by means of the clerical tests than on the basis of an in- telligence test alone." The extent to which correlations and other sta- tistical devices were brought to bear upon the test results show how thoroughly Toops has attempted to isolate and evaluate single factors, which speaks highly for the importance of his investigation. Dr. Thurston, of the University of Chicago, has also devised tests whereby he is able to chart a profile of one's aptitudes. He claims to be able to determine the relative ability or capacity of a boy in a division of engi- neering for example. His profile chart which is made available to high school pupils at a cost of $25, includes things which it is found the boy is likely to do best, things in which he is mediocre, and things in which his aptitudes and abilities are negligible or not very pronounced. The ques- tion might well be asked as to whether or not Prof. Thurston is justified in commercializing this particular phase of aptitude testing, especially by means of the correspondence method at a time when these data are quite meagre and decidedly experimental. Dr. Hull, of the University of Wisconsin, is now dealing almost entirely with predictions by means of regression equations. He believes that the refinement of these equations is the only reliable way by which predictions or forecasts can be made. These equations merely give the weighted scores in batteries of selected tests, for the purpose of determining the ability or aptitude of the child in the subject in question. For example, there may be a battery of tests to predict ability in shorthand, another battery of tests to predict the ability in typewriting, still another to predict the ability in divisions of industrial arts, free-hand drawing, and the like. In short, he believes that a battery of tests may be devised to predict the ability and the degree of ability in each subject or vocation. For example, Mr. Limp, who is associated in this work, has worked out the regression equation for a battery of five tests for shorthand and typewriting. With this battery, predictions have been made with approximately 95 per cent accuracy for some 300 students that is, the error of prediction was about 5 per cent. The value of such an equation is thought to be that it can tell beforehand which students are likely to fail in the course, if taken, which students will do fair in the course, which students will make a high grade in the course, and which students are especially fitted for this work. After following through such detailed studies in these related fields of practical arts one can scarcely be otherwise than optimistic that the possibili- ties of trustworthy prognosis are gradually being realized. In fact, even the most skeptical person must admit that the day of their realization now promises to be much closer at hand than even the most enthusiastic person could have hoped for or believed possible a few years ago. However, much is yet to be done before these tests can serve our present needs. 898 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In conclusion, I wish to point out the urgent need for careful study and better evaluation of the testing materials in each of the divisions to which I have referred. Each one of us should take a scientific attitude towards those tests which are based upon analysis and experimentation, in order that more suitable tests may be encouraged and that the less desirable ones may be discontinued. At present we need better as well as more tests. THE RELATION OF MEASUREMENT TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE CHARLES EVERETT MYERS, STATE COLLEGE , PENNSYLVANIA Agricultural education workers have been measuring from the beginning. The Federal authorities say that the State of X is putting over a wonderful program of vocational education in agriculture; the State Director says his agricultural supervisor knows his business and is most efficient; and in turn the various teachers are informally rated and individual students are graded. States are measured according to the number of dollars spent, the number of teachers employed, the number of students enrolled, and the project returns per dollar expended for teachers' salaries. The ques- tion at stake is not measurement but what kind of measurement? Shall a measurement which gives a different result for each individual-the same thing being rated good by one and poor by another-continue to dominate, or shall a series of measuring instruments be developed whereby any one thing will always be given approximately the same value regardless of who uses the measuring instrument ? Shall Texas, Illinois, and Ohio be compared with Rhode Island, Dela- ware, and New Jersey on the basis of dollars or the number of teachers ? Shall we have misleading measurement or valid measurement; measure- ments, the result of which depends upon the subjective judgment of an individual, or measurement giving constant results according to an estab- lished objective standard ? Objective measurement always depends upon an instrument to give con- stant results. Any number of persons who have developed skill in using the instrument will all get approximately the same result. Absolutely the same result is seldom attained except in certain limited fields of mathematics. The foot rule is a measuring instrument of high objectivity but not one housewife out of fifty can measure a window accurately enough for a glazier to rely upon her measurement. Most persons can guess an open- ing which requires an 8 by 12 pane of glass within two or three inches of its actual size. The rule will reduce the zone of subjective judgment from two to three inches to one inch or less, while for a glazier the zone of subjective judgment is not more than one-sixteenth of an inch and that after he has made a standard allowance, the standard allowance being technical trade knowledge. But a mistake of one sixty-fourth of an inch DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 899 without the proper allowance may double the cost of repairing the window. Hence, objective measurement is a relative term and implies that the zone of subjective judgment is reduced to a certain minimum for persons qualified to use the measuring instrument. Agricultural education will become a science and an established pro- fession to the extent that it develops and uses valid and reliable measuring instruments. Agricultural education cannot justify itself, even to continue its present status, unless it can show objectively what it is, how much of it is being done, how well it is done, and whether it is worth what it costs. To justify adequate expansion to turn out 325,000 farm operators each year and call for an expenditure of from $100,000,000 to $200,000,000 annually, it will be necessary to go a step further and show that the processes by which agricultural education is disseminated are known and can be controlled. The determination of these processes calls for con- trolled experimentation which, in turn, is dependent upon measuring instru- ments. From the point of view of science there is little of the present professional agricultural education program that can be justified. The professional aspects of agricultural education are at present supported by a certain philosophy and by certain educational theories. In these respects agri- cultural education is not lonesome by any means, but with its special finan- cial support, favorable organization, and its peculiarly objective nature, it should be expected to make rapid strides toward a scientific profession. The foundation stone for sound measurement and the scientific develop- ment of agricultural education is the demands of the farm. There is a vast amount of scientific, semi-scientific, and traditionally established data on this level which are available. Vocational education in agriculture can begin here. Accept the conclusions and findings of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations as a working base upon which to build a scientific and professional program for agricultural education. The emphasis upon Federal, State, and local organization and administration, which has char- acterized the past six years, should give way to emphasis upon : "Who are receiving training ?" What happens to those who are trained ?" "What does the teacher do ?" "Just how does he do it?" "What happens as a result of each phase of his work ?" "What does the teacher-trainer, State supervisor, etc., do and what happens as a result of each phase of their work ? " As soon as results are objectively measured, practices can be changed and progress controlled. Granted that the general development in agricultural education in the past has been according to a high grade educational philosophy and con- trolled by men with the best intentions ; from the point of view of science, agricultural education has not made commendable progress. The men in control have (of necessity ) been good politicians and naturally have been more inclined to philosophize on the basis of traditional experience and to do the popular thing which was apparently sure of success, rather than to experiment and search for valid measures of efficiency. In fact, scien 900 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tifically controlled experimentation has been almost completely neglected and objective measurement has been actively discouraged by some promi- nent workers. The argument against objective measurement of results takes the form of a contention that the work is too young and hence a com- plete measure is not possible. The contention is every whit as reasonable as the action of a house builder who will not permit a rule, square, level, or plumb on the job until the house is complete. As a result, agricultural education as a science finds itself in about the same condition in which it began six years ago with this one important exception : There are several thousand more broadly educated men with rich agricultural teaching ex- periences and a widespread realization of the need and necessity for measur- ing instruments. The writer knows of about 25 capable men who are earnestly working to develop measuring instruments. A number of these widely scattered over the country have been surprised to find that they were not lone pioneers in the field of developing standard tests of agricultural information. So far as the writer knows, three tests of agricultural information have been published : Poultry by Arthur D. Wilson, of Pennsylvania, Vegetable Gardening by C. E. Cronemeyer, of New Jersey, and Dairying by Sher- man Dickinson, of Missouri. There are probably over a dozen informa- tion tests in mimeographed form. No less than 15 experienced teachers are working upon a wide range of agricultural tests which they are pub- lishing through a partnership under the title of National Agricultural Tests. The Poultry and Vegetable Gardening Tests mentioned above are the first of the National Agricultural Tests to be published. Farm Crops, Farm Management, Dairying, and Farm Practice for Diversified Farm- ing are in mimeographed form. Tests or scales for farm skills, teaching efficiency, teacher-training, and a State program for agricultural education are well under way, while tests for guidance and teaching devices are much alive problems . It is only a short time until a fairly complete battery of measuring instru- ments will be available to agricultural workers, but it will take several vears of use to refine, scale, and standardize them . The question which is causing the writer more concern than the prepara- tion of valid and reliable measuring instruments is : How thorough a job of measuring will the leaders in agricultural education support ? With usable information tests here, and with a test of supervised farm practice (including the project) in sight, a practical measure of teaching efficiency can be had. Will a litmus test tax the patience of supervisors, or will they use a complete quantitative analysis ? Either can be had for the asking. A carpenter probably ses about one fifth of his time to measure his work- will the agricultura teacher use 1/100 part of his time and the State supervisor 1/10 part of his time to measure results ? The writer would say that all the time that is necessary must eventually be given to measure- ment; but agricultural education may continue to exist in the realm of tradition, personal opinion, and philosophy for a few years before driven DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 901 to that necessity. If agricultural education will not take up objective measurement until forced to do so, it may lose much of the ground it has occupied in making the adjustment. Beginning now and working over- time, there is reason to hope that the handicap which inaction during the past has imposed upon the present may be overcome.. As soon as States will support professional salary schedules based upon measured quantity and quality of vocational teaching service rendered, they can reduce the present expenditures for teacher-training by $500,000 annually or else train five times as many men for the same money and increase efficiency at the same time. It would be preposterous to think of expanding agricultural education on the present basis to make it univer- sal. It would require over $500,000,000 annually, or half the Nation's present budget for all education. It is true that there are other factors determining the development of agricultural education as a science and as a profession than the money, authority, and technical knowledge at the command of persons in control . Public opinion, provincialism, tradition, and the limitations of the general school system are all influential factors. In many respects agricultural edu- cation has set the pace for general education and has far outstripped cur- rent practice in the training of teachers and the use of well established principles of psychology in teaching such as are suggested by the terms : home project, supervised study, socialized recitation, etc. Standards and regulations backed by personal opinion and untested theory were necessary in the beginning as emergency measures . It is neces- sary now to check up and take an accounting. Emergency plans and rul- ings need to be scrutinized and put to test, even if they have been the most captivating and the most precocious of children. The feeble minded at twelve years of age might have been the most promising of babies. The promoter of the future will need to seek the findings of science and put them to work. School men and the public will need to accept the findings of educational science as they do the statements of astronomers that the moon will eclipse the sun at a definite time, or as they do the recommenda- tions of engineers that a certain bridge must be built according to definite specifications . A failure to do so will mean continued political domination and slow, expensive progress . The most pressing problem limiting the development of agricultural edu- cation is that of securing and applying scientific information. Such informa- tion can be obtained only through controlled objective measurement. The widespread interest in measuring instruments now in its infancy is develop- ing the tools which will make it possible to develop an effective and eco- nomic program to give all beginning farmers vocational training. 902 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE USE OF MEASUREMENTS AND OBJECTIVE TESTS IN HOME ECONOMICS EMMA CONLEY, STATE SUPERVISOR OF HOME ECONOMICS ALBANY, NEW YORK The great weakness in home economics education is that no concerted effort has been made to standardize and differentiate instructional material for pupils in grades, junior high schools, and senior high schools, and little has been done to check effectiveness of instruction and to suit the material to the mental age and educational ability of the pupils. The charge is too frequently made that practically the same lessons are repeated in every year of the work. This may be due to poverty of subject-matter or to lack of knowledge of what is given in previous years. A study of examination questions formulated for various courses shows that the teacher does not hold the pupils to definite knowledge of a specific subject, but the favorite form of question seems to be "Discuss the composition, production, and nutritive value, " or " Describe the manufacture of cotton cloth," or " Name three materials suitable for a wool dress." These are poor questions be- cause each student could answer the question in a different way and the mark given would depend on the subjective judgment of the teacher. Questions so vague or so general cannot check effectiveness of instruction. The same thing may be said concerning instruction in the continuation school. Pupils between the ages of 14 and 18 enter the part-time or continua- tion school from any grade from sixth to senior high school. Instruction, based on the course of study, is the same for all students entering the first- year class, regardless of school age, or individual needs. Instruction plan- ned in this way may be a repetition of the distasteful work which the pupil left school to escape; it may be more advanced than the pupil can under- take with profit ; it may be so elementary that it arouses no interest. Before the work of the part-time or continuation school can be planned to meet the needs of any boy or girl, it is necessary to determine what he or she already knows. According to modern educational procedure this can be determined only by accurate testing of students. This will include the giving of the Terman, Haggerty, or some other intelligence test, and such achievement tests as Curtis arithmetic tests, Lewis English composition tests, Ayres spelling tests, or others equally good. Excellent scientific information tests and tests for skill in home economics subjects have been worked out for homemaking classes in Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity and in the University of Chicago, in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minne- sota, and New York. Both intelligence and educational tests are needed for proper classification. Intelligence tests measure the native ability of the pupil and indicate what rate of progress we may expect from him ; achievement or educational tests show the school age of the pupil and serve to indicate in what class or group the pupil would derive the greatest benefit from class instruction. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 903 For example, instead of giving all girls who enter junior high school the same elementary sewing problem, usually the making of a simple apron, why not find out first what the girl already knows about sewing. It is barely possible she needs no sewing instruction, she may be ready for ad- vanced dressmaking work, or she may not know how to hold a needle or use a thimble. Standardized tests would show what processes the pupil has mastered, what skill she has acquired, and what speed she has attained. Her first clothing problem would then be planned so that she may use what knowledge and skill she already has to guide her in solving a problem which requires additional skill and knowledge. At least two of the objective tests in home economics which are obtain- able may be used as intelligence tests, rather than as educational tests, be- cause they test the interests, abilities, and aptitudes of girls rather than an organized body of subject-matter. These tests are especially valuable in showing what information and knowledge girls of a certain age acquire outside of the regular channels of class instruction and they show what instructional material may be omitted and what should be stressed in class work. Objective tests in home economics serve as a basis for the classification of students after tests have been given. They serve as a means of testing the effectiveness of instruction and of measuring progress; they also serve as a means of standardizing instruction and re-evaluating courses and of determining the educational value of what is sometimes considered essential in developing subject-matter. Short Completion, Right and Wrong, or Alternate Choice tests should be used when a unit of instruction is completed, so that a teacher may know whether she has attained her objective and whether minimum essentials have been mastered. Such tests may be given in five or ten minutes while the old type of essay test would take an entire class period and no definite standard of attainment can be measured by an essay or a subjective test. The use of objective tests in home economics has furnished many sur- prises to interested teachers. It leads to an entire re-evaluation and re- organization of courses of study. Teachers are finding that courses may be condensed and elaborated in unexpected places because they are finding out what students learn at home, through their associates, through their readings, and through other school subjects and they are also finding that many things not formerly stressed must be considered important material for class instruction. Several instances could be given to show how courses of study were revised as a result of giving the same home economics tests in seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth grades and determining grade medians. The same results have also been attained in reading, arithmetic, and other school subjects. It opens the question, which cannot be discussed here, as to whether group and individual instruction must supplement or supplant class instruc- tion if we are to teach the pupil and not a course of study. 904 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Several types or forms of objective tests have been found valuable in testing home economics instruction. The easiest to prepare is the one which has been called True-false : Right-wrong; or Yes-no. The state- ment is formulated and the pupil is asked to state by writing the word yes or no or checking whether the statement is right or wrong. Some writers prefer the statement in form, so that it may be answered by yes or no because they do not like to place an incorrect statement before a pupil. This precaution need not be taken with high school or college students and the form of test is valuable because it requires thought on the part of the student to come to the right decision. It is sometimes said that some objective tests test the memory rather than the reason. All right-wrong, yes-no, false-true tests are scored by subtracting the number of wrong answers from the number of right answers. This is to minimize the chances of rewarding good guesses. A second form is what is called the alternate choice. A statement is made and several answers are given, only one of which is correct. The multiple answer is similar to the alternate choice except that two or more answers must be selected from the group of possible answers . Both of these forms are well suited for home economics tests and are rated as thought-provoking questions rather than memory questions. A third form is the completion test. A sentence or statement is for- mulated and some of the "key" or important adjectives or nouns are left out. The student is required to supply the missing words. Care must be exercised in writing this type of test or the teacher accumulates a vast store of information regarding synonyms, and possible answers which may complete a statement. The following is a sample: The best oranges are those that are in texture. The missing word was supplied by seventh grade pupils as fine, firm, smooth, and even. It is difficult to formulate a key for scoring a completion test unless it is used as a memory test or unless the statements are very carefully prepared. In scoring the alternate choice test, naturally each question will score one when correctly answered. The score is determined by subtracting the number wrong from the total number of questions. In scoring the multiple answer test, each part counts one, so that a question containing five parts would score five. The score is determined by counting the number of parts to each question and totaling them. Subtract the num- ber of errors from the total score . In scoring the completion test count the number of blank spaces, sub- tract the number of errors from the total number of blank spaces. Scor- ing is the easiest part of the objective test type of examination. Many teachers find difficulty in determining the grade average and in translating test scores to school marks. To find the class median or av- erage, arrange all scored papers in order with the highest grade first. Place scores in a column and find the score which is equal distance from the top and bottom of the list. The middle score is called the median for the class . If school marks are recorded as A. B. C. D. E., the middle score DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 905 would grade as C. and it is easy for the teacher to arrange the scores, so that they will correspond in value with A. B. D. and E. grades . Tests should not be too easy or too difficult. They should be arranged in order of difficulty, the easiest first. No pupil should grade zero and none should attain the highest score possible. After the test has been given, all papers should be collected and never returned to the pupil. A teacher should study the questions missed to determine whether each ques- tion is poorly expressed, faulty in construction, or whether it was missed because of learning difficulties. Most teachers are greatly concerned be- cause pupils do not score high in objective tests. A test in which high scores are made is a poor test, as it is unnecessary to test what one is sure students already know. All teachers should study the objective tests which can be obtained, not for the purpose of giving those tests to their students, but to learn how tests are constructed . Those tests which serve as intelligence tests are best to purchase if one desires to give those already prepared. Tests used as examinations must be based on the course of study or on the subject-matter covered during the semester or year, and until courses of study are more nearly stand- ardized it will be necessary for each teacher or supervisor to construct her own tests. This is an argument for standardization of home economics courses, because a formulation of standardized objective tests is the first step which must be taken to place home economics on the same plane with other subjects where attainments can be measured. When this is done it will be possible for colleges to recognize certain high school courses in home economics as equivalent in educational value to other courses required for college entrance. OBJECTIVES IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION M. M. PROFFITT , SPECIALIST IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION , UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION , WASHINGTON , D. C. Industrial education, as I shall use the term in connection with this dis- cussion, is to be interpreted in a broad way and is meant to include all those courses offered in industrial schools and classes for the purpose of giving training in manipulative processes and the acquisition of trade and technical knowledge, similar in kind to that required for performing pro- duction, service, and technical jobs in the trades and industries. This definition of industrial education courses is meant to include not only trade education courses but also such courses as may be designated under the head of manual arts courses, sometimes classified as industrial or mechanical arts courses, provided the content of training for all such courses is based upon manipulative processes and technical information drawn from the trades and industries and given for the purpose of developing skill and trade and 906 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION technical knowledge. I am, therefore, not dealing in this paper with any types of industrial or manual training courses that may be given purely as courses in general education. The theory underlying this conception of industrial training is to the effect that there is some activity of life having to do with the production or use of some trade product or service, for which there is a social need and a consequent demand and for which some individual can be trained by one who already knows how to do the job. I make, intentionally, the qualify- ing statement that the activity of life for which the training is given must have to do with the manipulative processes and trade knowledge, involving the use of trade skill and experience. This thought is in line with the modern theory of scientific curriculum-making. The objectives to be set up for these industrial education courses are best defined on the basis of function. What contribution does the train- ing offered in one of these courses make toward qualifying one to perform any of his life activities that require, on some level, trade skill and knowl- edge for its performance, is the first question to be raised in determining what courses shall be offered and to whom they shall be offered. We must ascertain in a definite way the use to which such training is to be put when the course is completed. Is the course to prepare the student for produc- tion in a particular line of trade work, or is it for the purpose of preparing him to perform the necessary trade and technical jobs encountered in the intelligent and efficient use of such products ? In short, is the course to be given from the standpoint of the learner becoming a producer or from the standpoint of his becoming a consumer of the trade product or industrial service ? At this point a criticism may be raised to the effect that it is not always possible to know whether a student should take industrial work given from the viewpoint of his becoming a producer or whether he should take a course given from the viewpoint of his becoming a user, for the reason that it is not known whether or not the student will become a producer or user, or whether he will become either. My answer to such a criticism would be that it is a dangerous proposition to set up two objectives for the same course, each to be considered of equal importance and to receive equal emphasis . Too frequently in such situations we fail to accomplish either sufficiently well for it to function as fully as it should in connection with life activities. If a flock of wild ducks rise before my gun, I may desire to bring down two fowls, but the experienced and successful hunter will first make sure that his gun is aimed true for one and hope that another fowl may come within the range of the shots. The best the hunter can do is to select for his definite aim one fowl that is in near proximity with another one. So it is with these objectives for training in industrial educa- tion. We must conceive of them as being either for training for produc- tion purposes or for training in use, and admit students to them with regard to the objective set. up. Again, I am excepting any industrial education courses given for purely general education purposes. For those students DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 907 who desire some industrial training, but do not know whether they will become industrial workers or not, there must be made, as is done in many instances in life, a chance decision. If the decision proves correct, well and good; if it does not, we can only hope that some worthwhile life activities that the student will perform have come within the range of the course. So far we have viewed industrial education as offering training either for the purpose of producing or for the purpose of using industrial products or service. If the purpose of an industrial course is to give training in some specific trade for the purpose of preparing the individual to enter advan- tageously upon profitable employment in the industry, and upon the par- ticular occupational level of the trade-training given, the objective is voca- tional. If the purpose of the industrial course is to give training in trade manipulative processes and trade knowledge needed for the efficient use of an industrial product or service the objective is non-vocational. In addition to the strictly vocational type of course whose objective was defined above there is another type of course, also given from the viewpoint of offering training in the production rather than in the use of a trade product or service, which is for the purpose of offering some training ex- perience to pupils who are either too immature to carry on specific trade training at an occupational level or who have not as yet arrived at a decision relative to a life occupation. Because the pupils taking such courses may later take up some specific trade training course, they may be considered as pre-vocational courses and the objective thought of as the pre-vocational objective in industrial education. Courses with such an objective are for the purpose of giving preliminary or propaedeutic training in some par- ticular line of trade or technical work, or for giving some training ex- perience in a variety of industrial work, such training in each instance to be characteristic of a particular trade. In the first instance the experience acquired is for the purpose of giving elementary, fundamental training as a basis for later vocational training. In the second case, where a variety ) of work is to be offered, the major objective is trade finding through ex- ploratory work, such as is found in the general shop. The field work covered by the first objective-namely, the vocational one, is now quite well defined and many specific courses, having for their single and unqualified objective training in a specific trade for entry upon employment, are now universally offered. It is the objective forming the basis for vocational courses reimbursable under the Smith-Hughes Act and administered by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. With regard to the objectives for industrial courses other than those of the strictly vocational type, much confusion exists and it is with these that I desire to be critical. There is a great need for clarification of aims . Some good clear thinking is demanded. I am doubtful if clear thinking alone will be sufficient to solve the problems involved. In some instances there probably will be needed some scientific research work to determine just what does or does not function sufficiently in life's activities to warrant its inclusion or exclusion in an industrial course . For example, how are 908 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION we going to determine what should be included in a home-mechanics course? If such a course is to be of real use to the individual in helping to make necessary adjustments to his home environments, it is essential that the course include those things which the individual will be called upon to perform. What these definite activities are have not been determined. Moreover, there have been developed no definite methods and technique for attacking the problem. There is the same general lack of knowledge with reference to specific objective and content material for courses that are to be set up for users of mechanical products and service. What is to be in- cluded in a course for car owners, for individuals who drive their own machines, is an important problem for those who are trying to develop industrial courses that will function in the non-vocational activities. The same questions might be raised with reference to many other industrial courses, such as woodturning, forging, and printing. Some studies must be made in a scientific manner before such questions can be satisfactorily settled. Their solutions will certainly come through the development of ways and means for determining the specific activities in life that can be efficiently and economically trained for in a formal course of study. Amoment ago I said that a great deal of confusion exists with reference to objectives for courses other than the strictly trade ones. Let me cite you a few illustrations : Mr. Lynn E. Stockwell, of the University of Minnesota, has done some research work, reported in the current number of Industrial Arts Magazine, with reference to the aims for industrial arts courses in the junior high school. A canvass of the writings of experts in the junior high school field shows that the most commonly accepted ob- jectives ranked in order of their popularity by these experts are as follows : First, for the purpose of giving general training, which "means the training for general educational purposes. This aim deals with, not the training of skilled workers but with the general training of the boys to increase their outlook and broaden their development." Truly such an objective would not be for vocational industrial education. However, I doubt if the most commonly accepted objective for the industrial arts courses in the junior high school should be for general educational pur- poses. There certainly should be some course whose first and major objective is to give preliminary training for later specific vocational work and courses for vocational guidance-trade-finding courses, if you please ; possibly some of the non-vocational type including certain levels of home- mechanics courses and courses for consumers or users of products and service requiring some trade skill and knowledge for their efficient use. The second most commonly accepted objective is listed as vocational training for a specific vocation. An explanatory statement is made to the effect that the "need for more practical training is being recognized." Surely we will all agree that there is need for more practical work in the junior high school, but I would raise a question, owing to the immaturity of the student, of carrying on much specific vocational training in the junior high school. The fact that the objective as vocational training DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 909 ranks second as to general acceptance by this group of experts seems to me to bear out the statement that there exists much confusion as to these ob- jectives. Especially does this seem to be true when we consider the first objective, the one most commonly stated, was that of general training for general education purposes. From that as first choice we are jumped clear over to the other extreme-namely, objectives of specific vocational training for second choice. No middle ground, no objective closely related to first choice, is acceptable for second choice. The third most commonly accepted objective is summed up in the word \ exploratory, which gives opportunity "to try out several lines of work." This certainly is a commendable objective for junior high school work. While it is realized that but few of the many vocations can be represented in tryout courses, some first-hand direct experience in manipulative processes as applied to the most commonly used materials and equipment in industrial plants seems desirable. I refer to such materials as iron, steel, wood, concrete, and to such equipment as electrical and mechanical , the use of which the boy may have some opportunity to learn. The fourth most commonly accepted objective is that for preliminary vocational training. " This means the preliminary work leading up to the specific vocation the boy has in mind." Certainly we will all agree that this is a definite aim to be served by the junior high school and a most worthy one at that. The fifth objective is given as industrial information. "This means teaching the industrial subjects for the informational values and not for the skills which could be derived from the work." I see no reason for neglecting the development of skill in connection with industrial courses that give trade knowledge and industrial information in any particular line of manual work. The sixth aim is given as physical development. The physical educa- tion department has this as its major objective. I would question the advisability of setting this up as the major aim for any industrial course. Even if an industrial course could effectively accomplish this aim, which is doubtful, there are other departments whose work is more specifically along this line . The seventh objective is the development of appreciation for manual labor. Such an aim is worthwhile but probably not a major objective for an industrial education course. The attainment of this aim would come as an accompaniment along with the training given for the purpose of fur- nishing experience in the doing of the tasks. The aim falling in the position of eighth choice is recreation, or hobby . Training for leisure-time occupations or avocations is of growing im- portance, especially with the shortening hours of labor. Tasks requiring 4 specific forms of skill and trade knowledge are frequently performed during one's leisure time. The ninth aim is relaxation . " Manual training is a reaction from the 910 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION overemphasis upon book work." This, again, I would assume as not a sufficient objective for manual courses in the junior high school. Mr. Stockwell has reported in the same article the results of a question- naire with reference to objectives for manual arts in the junior high school, sent to 166 teachers of this subject in various schools throughout the United States. The objectives as selected by the teachers, listed in order of greatest frequency, are : 1. General training 2. Industrial information 3. Appreciation of manual labor 4. Exploratory 5. Preliminary vocational training 6. Vocational training Three others, physical development, training for recreation or hobby, and relaxation, are listed, but the writer says they were chosen by so few teachers as not to be significant. On the face of the returns it looks as though the teachers have done a better job of it than have the specialists. They have at least put their extremes in their relative positions. The extreme objective, that for merely general training, is in position of greatest choice, and the other extreme objective, that of vocational training, is placed in position of least choice. They have recognized a middle ground between these two ex- tremes of choices, including therein the objectives of industrial information, exploratory work, preliminary vocational training, and appreciation of labor. Why should we trouble ourselves as to definite objectives anyway ? may be asked. My answer would be: First, In order that we may choose the right kind of content material for the course. Material should be chosen for a definite purpose and so organized. Second, For the purpose of determining where emphasis of instruction shall be placed. Third, In order that proper methods for instruction may be selected. With the exception of the manual work of the grades or such manual arts courses as have for their chief purpose general training-that is, having general education objectives which must be justified on the basis of general education needs, I would say, in summarizing, that industrial edu- cation courses may be classified as of three distinct types, serving three distinct purposes : First, those courses whose objective is training in some specific line of trade or industrial work for the purpose of entering upon employment on the occupational level represented by the training; second, the prevocational industrial education type which gives exploratory work in the selection of vocational inclinations, or for preliminary training previous to taking up trade work in a particular line ; third, the non-vocational type of course offered to train the individual for some of the activities of life, similar in kind to vocational work but with the view to making the learner a user, not a producer of trade and industrial service. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 911 MINUTES OF THE INDIANAPOLIS MEETING The Department of Vocational Education, an allied organization of the National Education Association, held two interesting sessions during the Indianapolis meet- ing, June 29 and 30. In the absence of the President, John N. Greer, Minneapolis, Harry E. Wood, director of vocational education and manual arts, Indianapolis , presided. The theme of Monday's meeting in the auditorium of Emmerich Manual Training High School, was "Part-Time Continuation and Coöperative Schools and What is Being Accomplished by Them in the Conservation of Youth." "The crowning s'n of most of us is that we are too 'teacherish, " declared Omar H. Day, associate professor of vocational education at Purdue University, La- fayette, Indiana, in opening the discussion on part-time education. Mr. Day described the aims of the continuation school and named the qualities that a good continuation school teacher should possess. "We continuation school teachers," he continued, "know too little about things outside our classrooms , and we do not care to know more. We need to have some manual training injected into our teacher training courses . The continuation school teacher should get a large part of his training, working at jobs, not in positions . I should like to see written into every continuation school teacher's contract, no matter what his grade, subject, standing, or term of service, a clause that would require him periodically to leave the classroom and earn his living outside. He thus would get understand- ing and sympathy with the continuation school child." Teachers in the part-time schools, Mr. Day said, must be masters of their trade, must be persons whose skill is not questioned, and must be able to make a living by their trade outside teaching. Mr. Day was followed by Mr. A. B. Mays, Associate Professor of Industrial Education, University of Illinois. "Part-time education expresses the claim of the school on the boys and girls who are out of school trying to adjust themselves to the economic and social life of our great industrial nation," Mr. Mays declared. "It is an effective step in the direction of universal education, and toward equal as opposed to identical opportunities for all children. "If our schools are to express the American ideals of democracy they cannot continue to neglect our employed children. Notwithstanding the fact that the principle of democracy has been the dominant factor in the creation and support of the public system of education, the practices of our schools have fallen far short of democracy. Too great an effort has been made to force all children through the same experiences under identical conditions and by identical methods . Many boys and girls can be more effectively educated under a system of part- time work and part-time school "Large groups of children do not seem able to make progress beyond a certain point in their school careers. Many such boys and girls later in life, astonish their teachers and critics by achieving success in their chosen fields of work. For such young people, the vigorous, competitive life of the commercial and industrial world is necessary for their best development. The regular type of school may be even a positive hindrance to growth. "The oft- repeated plaint of men who early left school to work that, ' I wish I had more education,' suggests, however, that the school after all may have much of real value for the boy and girl who do not seem to profit by its experiences . It is one of the functions of the part-time school to reconcile these two conflicting conditions. This is accomplished by sifting out of the great mass of school material, those things which are known to be of real value to the average man, and so organizing and teaching these things as to make them definitely relate to the occupational world in which so many boys and girls are interested. "There are young people who profit immeasurably by the school training of our wonderful full-time schools, but for those who for any reason do not so profit by the regular type of school the part-time school is performing a most important service." 912 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The theme of Monday's meeting was continued Tuesday afternoon at the second and final session. The principal speaker at this meeting was Mr. H. G. McComb, State supervisor of industrial education for Indiana. Mr. McComb spoke on the part-time coöperative arrangement which is being carried out between the schools and industries of Anderson, Indiana. For the past two years there has been in operation in Anderson, a coöperative scheme of education similar to that worked out in a few other centers. The plan at Ander- son, as far as it has been developed, includes 28 boys-fourteen in school and fourteen in industry. These two groups of boys alternate weeks in school and in industry. The plant has set aside a shop for the school work, and has employed a man to supervise the work done in this shop. After a period of one year the industry says it is a paying proposition. At the beginning of the period, the boys are furnished with a set of tools, worth $50. The money for the tools is taken out of the boys' weekly pay-$ 1 a week until the tools are paid for. If the boy remains with the plant for a period of two years, the $50 paid for the tools is refunded, and he is given the tools. Mr. McComb pointed out the following advantages to the boy and to the employer: Advantages to the boy: 1. Gives some boys, who would not otherwise be able to go to school because of economic reasons, a chance to earn while they learn. 2. Gives opportunity for practical application of school work to employment. 3. Gives opportunity for students to get a background in industry, of science, economics, and citizenship. 4. The try-out values involved, give opportunity for failure to offer opportunity for readjustment and ultimate success . 5. Gives an educational background for an engineering course. Advantages to employer: 1. Makes possible more scientific methods of employ- ment. 2. Gives industry a chance to develop a spirit of loyalty. 3. Production is cheaper. Mr. McComb concluded by making the following statements as to the results of the experiment: 1. Industry is looking to the school for further training, in the form of ( a) trade extension training, and ( b) foreman training. 2. A most cordial relationship has been developed between school and industry. 3. Other employers of Anderson are going to the school authorities, asking for assistance from the school . At the business session following Mr. McComb's address, the following officers were elected for the year : President, O. H. Day, associate professor of industrial education, Purdue University, La Fayette, Indiana ; Vice-president, Howard L. Briggs, director of vocational education, Cleveland, Ohio ; Secretary, H. G. Mc- Comb, State supervisor of industrial education, Indianapolis, Indiana. WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS OFFICERS President-AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, State Commissioner of Education .......... Augusta, Maine Vice-Presidents-P. W. Suo ..... Shanghai , China E. J. SAINSBURY . .Ditton, Surrey, England Secretary -C. H. WILLIAMS, University of Missouri .... ..... Columbia, Missouri Program Monday, July 20, 1925 2 P.M.-Delegate Assembly, U.F. Assembly Hall. Presidential address by Dr. A. O. Thomas . 8 P.M.-Welcome meeting, Usher Hall, Lothian Road. Chairman-Sir John Gilmour, Bart., D.S.O., M.P., Secretary for Scotland. Tuesday, July 21, 1925 10 A.M. to 12-Group meetings, Assembly Hall and College Classrooms. A- Pre-school Education. Chairman-Lady Leslie Mackenzie. B-Elementary Education. Chairman-Mr. R. Leipins, Latvia. C-Secondary Education. Chairman-Mr. W. C. Wing, Portland, Maine. D- Character Education. Chairman-Mr. T. Komatsubara, Japan. E-Illiteracy. Chairman-Mrs . Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Kentucky. 12.15 to 2 P.M.-Luncheon to Delegates ( A Company) , Music Hall. 2.30 P.M to 4.30 P.M.-Group Meetings. F-Adult Education. Chairman-Sir Michael Sadler, Oxford. G-Teacher Training. Mr. E. J. Sainsbury, Vice- President of the Federation. H-Health. Dr. James Kerr, London. 5.15 to 6.15 P.M.-Concert by pupils of Boroughmuir and Broughton Secondary Schools in Usher Hall . 8 P.M. Civic Reception, Edinburgh College of Art. Wednesday, July 22, 1925 10 A. M. to 12-Group Meeting. H-Health. Chairman-Sir W. Leslie Mac- kenzie, LL.D. I-Universities. Chairman-Sir Donald MacAlister, Bart., Principal of Glasgow University. 12.15 to 2 P.M.-Luncheon to Delegates ( B Company ) , Music Hall. 2.30 P.M. to 4.30 P.M.-Group Meetings . A-Pre-School Education. B ( Synod Hall) -Elementary Education. C- Secondary Education. D- Character Education . E-Illiteracy. 5 P.M. to 6 P.M. - Recital of Choral Speaking by Miss Marjorie Gullan's Verse Speaking Choir, Usher Hall. 7 P.M. Concert by the Glasgow Orpheus Choir, Usher Hall. Thursday, July 23, 1925 Whole Day Tours. 3.30 Garden Party, Craiglockhart House. Friday, July 24, 1925 10 A.M. to 12 Noon-Group Meetings. A-Pre-School Education. B-Elemen- tary Education. C-Secondary Education. D- Character Training. E- Illiteracy. 2.30 P.M. to 4.30 P.M.-J-International Relations. K ( Synod Hall)-Adolescent Education. H- Health. I- Universities 7.45 P.M.-Masonic Meetings. [913] 914 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Saturday, July 25, 1925 10 A.M. to 12 Noon-Plenary Session, Assembly Hall. 2.30 P.M. to 4.30 P.M.-Plenary Session, Assembly Hall. 8 P.M.- Public Meeting, Usher Hall . Sunday, July 26, 1925 11 A.M.- Special Services in St. George's U.F. Church and St. Mary's Cathedral (Episcopal Church ) . 3 P.M.-St. Giles' Cathedral-Official Service. Preacher-The Right Rev. James Harvey, D.D., Moderator of the U.F. Church. 8 P.M. - Hymn Festival ( Community Singing) , Usher Hall. Conducted by Sir Walford Davies . Monday, July 27, 1925 10 A.M. to 12 Noon-Delegate Assembly, Assembly Hall . 2.30 P.M.-Valedictory Meeting, Usher Hall. CONSTITUTION OF THE WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS Adopted at San Francisco, California, July, 1923 As revised at Edinburgh, Scotland, July, 1925 PREAMBLE. Whereas, educational aims are universal, there should be devised some suitable and effective means to bring into closer coördination the various agencies which have to do with education throughout the world and also to bring the 5,000,000 teachers into more fruitful and sympathetic relations with one another. THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED : That this Conference form a permanent federation of education associations and that a constitution be adopted as follows : ARTICLE I. Name-The name of this organization shall be the World Federation of Education Associations . ARTICLE II . Objects-The objects of this Federation shall be to secure interna- tional coöperation in educational enterprises to foster the dissemination of infor- mation concerning education in all its forms among Nations and peoples, to culti- vate international good will, and to promote the interests of peace throughout the world. ARTICLE III. Membership-The following organizations shall be entitled to mem- bership in this Federation : ( a) Full membership : Any Nation-wide educational organization or association of persons directly connected with education whose ap- plication shall be approved by the executive authority hereinafter mentioned : ( 2) Any organization of educators in a country not possessing a Nation-wide organi- zation, which shall make application for membership to the executive authority of this Federation and whose application shall be approved by said executive au- thority ; ( b ) Associate Membership : Individual institutions or associations whose chief function is education, but which are ineligible under sub-sections ( a) or ( b ) shall be admitted as Associate Members on the approval of the Board of Directors. The representatives of such institutions or associations shall have full right of dis- cussion in open assembly but no right of voting in the Delegate Assembly. WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 915 The associate representatives from the individual universities and recognized institutions of higher learning of any country shall have the right to elect from among their number, one delegate or more as may be provided in By-laws, who shall have full membership and voting privileges in the Delegate Assembly. The association representatives from the individual education authorities of any country shall have the right to elect from among their number one delegate who shall have full membership and voting privileges in the Delegate Assembly. ARTICLE IV. Organization-Section 1. There shall be a board of directors con- sisting of fifteen members elected by the Delegate Assembly. At each biennial meeting a nominating committee, consisting of one member from each organization having full membership, shall be appointed to make nominations for vacancies upon the Board of Directors for the consideration of the Delegate Assembly. The members of the Board of Directors shall be elected for a term of four years with the proviso that at the first election, in 1925, seven shall be elected for a term of four years and eight for a term of two years. The Board of Directors shall be the executive authority of this Federation. The executive shall have power to add three members to its number, in case it be necessary to provide for unrepre- sented interests. The Board of Directors shall have authority to create a board of trustees to care for any trust fund which may come into the hands of the Board and provide proper means for safeguarding this trust. The Board of Directors shall have power to adopt such By-laws as shall be necessary for their proceedings. SECTION 2. ( a) There shall be a president, chosen by the Board of Directors from within or without their own body, and three vice-presidents, one from each section ( as outlined in article 6) to be chosen by the Board of Directors from within their own body. The president and vice-presidents shall be honorary offi- cials. The president shall be the chairman of the Board of Directors. (b) Term of Office. The term of office shall be two years. The officers shall be eligible to reëlection. SECTION 3. The Board of Directors shall elect a secretary-treasurer who shall be a paid official. SECTION 4. Representation in the Delegate Assembly shall be fixed as prescribed in the By-laws. ARTICLE V. Headquarters-The headquarters of the World Federation shall be in the country of the president until such time as permanent headquarters be established. ARTICLE VI. Meetings-A world conference shall meet in full session every alter- nate year, but a meeting of sections ; one in Europe, one in America, and one in Asia, may be held in each intervening year. Other countries shall decide which group they will join. ARTICLE VII. Fees-Affiliating associations having full membership shall pay a subscription fee per annum of one cent per member ( U. S. currency) , provided that the fee of any affiliating association shall not be less than $25, gold ( U. S. cur- rency) , while the maximum contribution for any organization shall be $1000, gold (U. S. currency) . Associate members shall pay a fee of from $ 10 to $ 100. ARTICLE VIII. Amendment-This constitution may be amended at any biennial meeting by a two-thirds vote of the Delegate Assembly, provided that any amend- ment to be considered must be submitted to the secretary-treasurer of the World Federation at least three months before the biennial meeting. BY- LAW9 1. Representation in the Delegate Assembly shall be fixed as follows : One delegate for each organization entitled to full membership and one additional delegate for each two thousand members or 916 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION major fraction thereof, with a maximum of fifty delegates for any one organization. 2. The Board of Directors shall have authority to fill any vacancy in its own body ad interim. The vacancy shall be filled from the country in which the vacancy exists. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE REVISION OF THE CONSTITUTION RELATIVE TO THE ADOPTION OF THE HERMAN-JORDAN PLAN The committee on Revision of the Constitution of the W. F. E. A. recommends to the Delegate Assembly that it approve Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7 of the Herman- Jordan Plan. It recommends further "That the appointment of committees at this time, as recommended in Sections 3 and 4 of the Herman-Jordan Plan, be deferred, inas- much as the educational aspects therein contained can be dealt with by the com- mittees provided for in the subsequent sections." RESOLUTIONS OF THE WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS The importance of the efforts made at San Francisco in 1923 and again at Edinburgh this year to gain world outlook for teachers cannot be exaggerated. The coöperative powers of peoples throughout the long sweep of history have been limited by the breadth of their attitudes and the fund of ideas which they have held in common. Every effort to gain the attitude which applies the golden rule to all humanity, every effort toward wider areas of coöperation deserves the support of teachers, who daily look into the future through the eyes of children and who are in a position to appreciate what the great war chests would accomplish if spent constructively on universal education. Reports of the biennial con- vention of the World Federation of Education Associations at Edinburgh indicate that much progress was made toward realizing the aims that emerged at San Francisco. The resolutions adopted by the plenary session on July 25, 1925, follow : General ( 1 ) That the World Federation of Education Associations appoint standing committees on pre-school, elementary, secondary, and higher education whose function shall be to coöperate with affiliated asso- ciations in furthering the objects approved by the Federation, to make studies and reports upon such matters as the Federation may commit to their charge, and to prepare the program of their sections at each ensuing biennial . (2) That special committees on health and on the removal of illiteracy be appointed by the World Federation of Education Associations with functions similar to those of the standing committees in the respective fields . Pre-school education ( 3) In view of the supreme educational im- WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 917 portance of the first years of childhood, provision should be made in every educational system for a type of education suited to the needs of that period. Such education, whether given in the home or in special groups, should include the formation of desirable physical habits, mental attitudes, and character traits in an environment conducive to freedom, health, and joy of living. (+) That such pre-school education should be in charge of persons specially trained for the purpose in both mental and physical ways and should be carried on when in special groups in close coöperation with parents. Public funds should be available for such education and every encouragement should be given to research in this field. Elementary Education (5) That the World Federation of Education Associations affirms its belief in the potency of Goodwill Day as a factor in creating and fostering international understanding among the children of the world, and that it recommends that affiliated associations secure where necessary or desirable national or official sanction for the observance of such a day from their government and education authorities; and, further, that steps be taken in each country to prepare for the teachers an outlined pro- gram as a suggestive guide. (6) That the World Federation of Education Associations affirms its belief that geography, history, and training in citizenship should be taught not only from a national point of view but also from a modern sociological and international point of view. (7) That the World Federation of Education Associations endorses movements and committees which establish international contacts among school children through correspondence, exchange of school work, and inter- change of pupils of suitable age between countries. To promote the more economical exchange of materials, the World Federation of Education Asso- ciations shall use its best efforts to secure accommodation in the postal rates. (8) That textbooks descriptive of child life in all lands and setting forth in brief and simple form the best that each nation has achieved be prepared for the elementary schools of the world. (9) That in view of the fact that it is of the utmost importance that teachers of all nations should themselves possess the international outlook the World Federation recommends the encouragement of special courses in teacher training institutions and strongly recommends to its affiliated associations the promotion of plans for travel and interchange of teachers. Secondary education ( 10 ) That the World Federation of Education Associations encourage coöperation with affiliated associations in the pro- motion of such aids to education as universal biography, visual instruction and the use of motion films particularly when of educational and scientific nature, literature and language study particularly in the modern field, æsthetics, and training for citizenship as possessing great potentialities for the development of an international outlook. (11) That the World Federation of Education Associations prepare a 918 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION statement of the ideals which should obtain in history and history teaching. Such statement should emphasize the necessity for an impartial treatment of international intercourse. A frank admission of shortcomings should accompany the claim of services rendered to the cause of human welfare in each country. In proceeding from national to world history emphasis should be laid upon the progress from conflict to conciliation. Higher education- ( 12 ) That resolution 7, 1923, of the World Fed- eration of Education Associations be amended to read, "That the World Federation of Education Associations utilize and advance inquiry into uni- versities-their history, contemporary developments, possibilities and to investigate the question of the establishment of a world university." (13) That resolution 4, 1923, be amended to read, "That the World Federation of Education Associations inquire into the interrelations and increasing unifications of the various fields of knowledge and research and towards the fuller and clearer coördination of subjects of instruction accord- ingly, with endeavor to bring about a greater unification of scientfic terminology. (14) That resolution 6, 1923, be amended to read, "That the World Federation of Education Associations encourage the establishment of a uni- versal library office and inquire into methods of bibliography and their pos- sible advances. This office may ultimately be connected with a world or international university." (15) That the recommendations of the national office of French uni- versities and schools be referred for further study, the World Federation of Education Associations affirming its approval of the objects which these resolutions are designed to obtain in an easier, more efficient, and more economical interchange of scholars, whether professors or pupils. International relations-( 16) This conference of the World Federa- tion of Education Associations is of the opinion that it is the function of teachers to help their pupils to realize that the world is a unity, that nations and peoples are interdependent economically and otherwise, and that true nationalism is not inconsistent with true internationalism . (17) That the World Federation of Education Associations coöperate wherever possible with international organizations and other organizations pursuing similar aims. Character education ( 18 ) That the World Federation of Education Associations affirms its belief in the importance of character training in edu- cation and refers the subject to appropriate committees for future considera- tion in all sections of the Federation conferences. Health education-(19) That the World Federation of Education Asso- ciations refer to an appropriate committee the detailed recommendations of the conference on health education with instructions to carry forward in coöperation with the affiliated associations the steps recommended so far as these may be approved by comptent authority. The World Federation of Education Associations affirms its sense of the importance of the plan pre- sented and affirms its belief that health education is the fundamental basis of all successful education . WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 919 Teacher training-( 20) That the World Federation of Education Asso- ciations gather and collate information upon the systems of training of teachers in the countries represented by delegates to the conference of 1925 and that such information be made available to all who desire it, special attention being given to ascertain the steps taken to secure the fitness of entrants to the profession. THE PRESIDENTIAL MESSAGE TO THE DELEGATE ASSEMBLY OF THE WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS¹ AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS , STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION AUGUSTA , MAINE Members of the Delegate Assembly of the first biennial meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations, Greetings : This message will be more like that of the president of a business con- cern to its stockholders. It will be its purpose to deal with questions and policies which confront the federation at the present time and to detail briefly the general trend of its activities. First, however, I wish to mention the pleasure of the Association in coming to this historic city to hold its first biennial meeting, not only because Edinburgh is one of the most remarkable cities of the world but because of the high quality of its schools and its sympathy for the move- ment we represent. It is interesting also, to meet on British soil, because the British people have interests in every part of the world and have come more directly in contact with all peoples than any other nation. Their business interests have necessitated a sympathetic policy in dealing with peoples of other lands and the spirit of coöperation has necessarily been one of the chief features of these associations. Personally, it is gratifying inasmuch as the beginnings of my own country are traced in origin to the soil of this great country. I must voice the sentiment of the dele- gates assembled from many nations when I express our pleasure in the acceptance of the Educational Institute of Scotland to make Edinburgh the place of meeting. The Scottish committee efficient-The joint committee made up of local educational and civic organizations and headed by George C. Pringle as secretary deserves special commendation for the efficient manner in which it has made arrangements for this meeting which bids fair to be one of the outstanding and most important events of the generation. The committee has not only raised generous funds with which to carry on its work but has looked after the details in connection with the pleasure and comfort of the delegates. It is no small task to find world-wide educational contacts; to make known the purpose of this organization and to secure delegates who will 1Address at Edinburgh, July 21 , 1925 . 920 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION undertake at their own expense the long journey necessary. The San Francisco meeting in 1923 demonstrated, however, that educational work- ers in all lands are liberal in their views and anxious to promote the general interests of the teaching profession. They believe that education is the moulding and directing force of civilization and that the time and means required to attend such a meeting are well repaid. During the preliminaries of that first conference more than one thousand contacts in all the countries of the world were hunted out and established . These are becoming more easily reached year by year and within a short time will constitute a very satisfactory means of communication, especially in securing delegates. The work carried on this year by the officers of the federation and the local committee will make it easier when the call comes for the second biennial meeting to arouse an interest and to secure the same high class of delegates who make up this conference . Influence of conference of 1923-The conference of 1923 established a definite program of procedure calculated to secure international coöper- ation in educational enterprises ; to foster the dissemination of information concerning education in all forms and among all peoples; to cultivate international goodwill and to promote the interests of peace throughout the world. It recommended, first, that an educational attaché, who shall be a recognized educational expert of the highest rank, should be pro- vided for each embassy or legation. Second, that the various governments, universities, schools, and other educational organizations of the world be requested to appropriate a reasonable sum available for scholarships for mature graduate students of education desiring to study in foreign countries, and that these stu- dents should especially devote their attention to international civics, eco- nomics, and comparative education, reporting the results of their studies and research to their respective governments, universities, schools and other educational organizations. Third, that this conference form a permanent federation of education associations and that a temporary constitution be adopted, the name of this organization to be the World Federation of Education Associations. Fourth, that steps should be taken to bring about a greater unification of scientific terminology. Fifth, that the World Conference on Education undertake the organ- ization of a permanent bureau of research and publicity, whose duties it shall be to publish an International Digest of Education and to furnish information concerning the publications on education of different coun- tries in order to facilitate the exchange of periodicals and articles. Sixth, that a universal library bureau be established which might ulti- mately be connected with a world or international university. Seventh, that a representative committee be appointed to investigate the question of the establishment of a world university. Eighth, that the International Education Association undertake at once a study of ways and means to assist national educational bodies to see WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 921 that the preparation of textbooks and other methods of instruction em- ployed by their own countries is governed by fairness and goodwill. Ninth, that the World Conference on Education request the proper educational body of each country to outline for its own schools a system of training that will cultivate in children attitudes of mind and habits of thought and action appropriate to effective membership in this world community, such outlines to be presented to the next world conference for comparison, discussion, and publication throughout the world. Tenth, that this conference adopt in outline a basic plan of character education to be worked out in detail by each coöperating nation. Eleventh, that a universal aim in teaching the history of a country should be to teach the social, economic, and political development of the nation and to show the relationships of these three lines of activities to similar lines of development in other countries . Twelfth, that as a means of promoting the spirit of international good- will, a day in the year, to be designated "Goodwill Day," be observed in the schools of the world. The 18th of May, which commemorates the opening of the first Hague Peace Conference the first gathering of the nations in time of peace for the consideration of means of settling international differences by peaceful methods-is an especially appropriate day for concentrating upon the ideals of justice and world friendship. Thirteenth , that aid and encouragement be given as far as conditions and resources may permit for the improved professional training of teach- ers and leaders in health education, by the offering of scholarships for study and training in countries which may provide desirable facilities for such professional training. Fourteenth, that an international commission on illiteracy be appointed, consisting of representatives from every nation, to work toward the re- moval of illiteracy from all countries as soon as possible. Fifteenth, that public provision be made for training in the specific vocations for all persons who may profit therefrom, regardless of age or condition. Sixteenth, that in the several countries where sufficient opportunity for the higher training of women does not exist the attendance of women upon state and national institutions of learning shall be permitted. Seventeenth, that this conference generally endorse all movements which tend to improve the educational opportunities for all rural children. Eighteenth, that special state or national aid be given to communities lacking the financial resources to maintain efficient schools. Nineteenth, that suggestions be formulated for the most effective use of all forms of visual education in the promotion of international justice and good will. Twentieth, that the conference endorse the development of international school correspondence and the appointment of an educational representa- tive in each country to coöperate with all agencies equipped to work with the schools in the promotion and execution of similar programs . 922 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The outstanding achievements in the intervening two years based upon this program are, first, an awakening in the relief of illiteracy; an added impetus to international correspondence among school children; a bene- ficial study of world contacts; some nations have already appointed edu- cational attachés in connection with their embassies, Mexico being the first to act upon the suggestion of the World Conference of 1923 in this respect. May 18, International Goodwill Day, has been celebrated to some extent in practically all lands and the beginning has been made of a collection of textbook materials, the dissemination of educational information through magazine articles and the exchange of periodicals. We have, however, been handicapped to some extent by lack of funds, which handicap in due season will be overcome and more progress can be made. Committees have been appointed to consider the idea of a world university and a world commission on illiteracy has been established. Reports on these subjects as upon others will be made during this confer- ence and plans for pursuing work considered. Our aims must not be side- tracked-As time goes on the federation must necessarily accept many avenues of service and must come into vital contact with the educational advancement in many forms but it can never lose sight of the first principles under which it operates. It must never be allowed to become entangled with political contentions nor must it allow itself to become partisan in regard to religious questions. It must occupy a broad plain of universal truth and must steer clear of those rocks upon which nations split. Purely educational problems of all phases may be courageously discussed and fearlessly advocated. It must be under- stood at the outset that this is no attempt to break down national lines and to reduce the love of country which citizens of each nation must feel. Our whole purpose is to build a type of civilization and to develop those civic virtues which commend themselves to the patriotic citizen and with it to develop a patriotism upon service and love of country rather than upon hatred of other peoples . Peace and war-Perhaps universal and perpetual peace is the greatest issue before the people of the world. Our generation has suffered the clash of arms to greater destruction than any other generation. War is a hang-over of barbaric days. It is not an art of civilization. War as a means of settling disputes between nations is an index of the degree of development of civilization. It is liable to continue for generations yet to come, but this generation which has had its lesson should do all in its power to advance the time when the "spear shall be beaten into pruning hooks and the sword into plough-shares." The last war cost the destruc- tion of nearly two hundred billions of wealth and settles a debt almost as large upon the necks of the nations. This debt may be a bone of con- tention for generations to come, but more appalling is the loss of human life. If the dead of the past war could be marched ten abreast with the ranks two seconds apart, it would require forty-six days for the columns of the dead to pass the reviewing stand. We as teachers must do our best WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 923 to develop in the hearts of the rising generation the spirit of brotherly love and the attitude of the good neighbor. We must practice the Golden Rule among nations as among individuals . We are the keepers of the young and can direct their interests and their attitudes. We should support the nations in their attempt at mutual reduction of arms until such time as arms may be laid aside, but disarmament alone will not bring peace. We might conscript wealth and materials as well as fighting men and still not prevent war, but these will help. War is of the heart. We must believe with Ella Blair Jordan that, "In hearts too young for enmity, there lies the way to make men free ; when children's friendships are world-wide, new ages will be glorified. Let child love child, and strife will cease, dis- arm the hearts, for that is peace." Amend our constitution-At San Francisco we adopted a temporary constitution under which we are now operating. It has many short- comings. It will be the duty of this convention to make such amendments as will facilitate the work we are attempting to do. As president, I have appointed a committee who will report at this meeting on the revision of the constitution, but the appointment of such a committee does not interfere nor hinder others who have ideas as to the organic structure of the federation making beneficial suggestions. First, there should be a board of trustees made up not alone of educators but of men of affairs well known for their business integrity and their successful han- dling of investments. The committee should be large enough to safe- guard the interests of all. It should have charge of the raising of funds for a definite financial foundation and to some extent of the organization. In addition, there should be an executive committee made up similar to that now provided by our constitution and should have charge of activities. We should have, first of all, a delegate assembly made up of a definite number of members from each member organization. This assembly should not be too large, not less than five nor more than ten. If ten members should be selected and all nations should have organizations, we would eventually have a delegate assembly of six or seven hundred members . This might make a rather unwieldy organization but for the present it would not be too many. There should be one organization of national scope whose delegates should sit in the delegate assembly. But this is not sufficient. It is necessary for us to come into contact with the whole teaching force world-wide, the five million teachers teaching the quarter of a billion of the world's children. Therefore, there should be admitted all educational organizations probably as associate members whose delegates would have the right to participate in the several units with the right of participation in all affairs aside from those which are constitutional. There should also be participation representatives from all kindred or- ganizations which are interested in the work we are doing. In addition to these, there should be sustaining members and patrons of the federation . Whether or not these patrons should be allowed to vote in the general assembly is a question for this meeting to determine. 924 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There should be, first, a delegate assembly, second, a plenary session which would act as a sort of lower house and, third, the groups or units open to institutions and the individuals who would be interested in assist- ing the federation in its deliberations . Finance-The very nature of the work we attempt will require generous financing. It is not too much to undertake to place the federation on a permanent financial basis of at least ten millions. This cannot be secured immediately but eventually it is a possibility. Until the foundation is laid, however, there should be a definite program of temporary finance of at least one hundred thousand per year. I am satisfied from my contact with people of means that this program is not too much to undertake and that we can secure through the direction of a board of trustees sufficient funds to carry our work. Education is fast becoming recognized by diplomats and by business men as our surest means of progress. We cannot content ourselves with merely coming together occasionally and discussing ways and means, educational methods, educational proceedings, and educational attitudes, all of which would be well and somewhat worth while, but we must offer a definite and constructive program of educational work to the work if we are to justify our existence to the fullest extent. To carry on the work of the various departments, to provide a suitable staff of workers and to pay the necessary expenses , the amounts specified above do not seem unreasonable. This session of the federation should definitely authorize its officials to undertake this financial foundation. We already have prospects of realization to a gratifying degree. The Herman-Jordan plan-After the world conference in 1923, Mr. Raphael Herman, of Washington, D. C., offered a twenty-five thousand dollar award for an educational plan calculated to produce world concord. The jury on award, made up of fifteen distinguished men and women, accepted the plan presented by the veteran educator, Dr. David Starr Jordan, president emeritus of Leland Stanford University. The Jordan Plan, instead of hurrying headlong into immature procedure, calls for the appointment of a number of committees to undertake as best they can scientific and educational study for the purpose of marshalling a definite body of reliable facts upon which to develop a definite plan of procedure. This is wise and no one who is interested in the broad outlook of the profession can well find fault with it. These committees assume at the beginning unprejudiced and open-minded attitudes for the study of various problems coming under their dominion. These committees may report to the federation from time to time for definite action and guidance. If we put together the wisdom of the profession in the several countries, there is no doubt in my mind, and I trust not in any, as to the value of such a program. This plan will supplement the work already undertaken and the work which may be developed in the several fields by this con- ference held here in Edinburgh and should be accepted and put into oper- ation as quickly as possible by the federation. This plan has been printed WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 925 in agenda form and distributed among the delegates so that all may study it and understand its importance. Such a plan should further world un- derstanding, world friendship and advance the cause of peace. The present program-As you have observed the present program deals with many phases of education affecting all sections of school work, be- ginning even with the pre-school child and continuing through the com- plete course of education. It attempts to deal only with those principles which may be universally applied and with those programs, processes and attitudes which may be accepted by all peoples. It involves a program of universal education through the relief of illiteracy, the development of a program of character education, the health of the world's children, to- gether with the attempt to find means of utilizing the opportunities af- forded by the various subjects taught in the curricula of our schools. Out of the discussion should come some definite, cardinal principle upon which we may build more satisfactory results. The next meeting place-That the World Federation is looked upon as a permanent force in world education is indicated by the number of cordial invitations for the next meeting. I have in my possession invitations from Berlin, Germany ; Toronto, Canada; San Diego, California; United States; and Honolulu, in the midst of the Pacific. Tentative invitations from several other important centers are also indicated. It may not be possible for us to determine at this meeting, owing to contingencies, just where the next meeting may take place, but it is assured that we shall have a suitable meeting place backed by a strong spirit of coöperation on the part of the city and country in which we meet. Message to The King-Since the first biennial meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations is meeting here in Edinburgh, Scot- land, the ancient capital of His Majesty, The King, and knowing well His Majesty's deep interest in the cause of education and his faith in its virtues and knowing also His Majesty's desire to promote good will and friendship among Nations of the earth this organization, representing, as it does, nearly all nationalities, should send His Majesty a message of cordial good will and respectful homage. In conclusion-It is the purpose of this great organization to effect a closer unity of organized educational forces throughout the world, to stabilize so far as education can the trend of the future, to provide a sane and courageous leadership in directing the advancement of the human race. It will be its mission to comb out of the world civilization those virtues which lend themselves to happiness and progress and foster and cultivate them, and to make determined war upon those elements which retard or misdirect and which are hang-overs of primitive days. We do not seek to standardize education in the different countries nor to pull down what has been solidly built up. We should keep the organization faithfully to its task and steer clear of the rocks upon which nations may split. Only those materials, methods and means of more universal application should 920 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION receive attention. We must keep faith with the self-determination of Na- tions and the various social gifts which have added to the sum total of human advancement. We must keep unprejudiced and impartial, and the good of one must be exemplified and extended to the good of all. Education has become a cause. Its purpose is the same in all countries. Truth and the materials of education are universal. They are bounded by national lines. Each adult generation is the custodian of the one which follows it. If we would have a thought of the well-being of the future, we must weave the right sort of environmental influences around the chil- dren and teach them the virtues the world most needs. Whatever we would have appear in the life of the Nation, we must first put into our schools. While we each of us are vitally concerned in the advancement of our own country, we must of necessity be interested in the advance- ment of all. Just as invention and discovery have brought the world into small compass and developed a community more highly sympathetic, so we must establish and abide by international, social, commercial and diplomatic traffic rules. This necessitates an international attitude or mode of thinking which we call the "international mind." The peoples of the earth must now live together and we, the teachers of the world's children, must prepare them for these new relations. This does not mean that the new world citizen must be unmindful of his own country ; that his patriotism must be discarded any more than by making a man a good neighbor would require a man to forget his own family. We have come into a day when human interest, human sympathy, human love can know no bounds and no national lines. The radio message leaps all boundaries. It will further a broader language study which will make for good will. The great foundations are working for the relief of human distress, disregarding difference of language and of race. They count men and women everywhere human beings and worthy of relief from suf- fering. International Rotary, Kiwanis, Red Cross, the Church and other great movements all indicate a new era and bring new viewpoints and new responsibility. It is our mission to further this. Education must stand at the helm with the guiding hand. Education, tempered with wisdom, is the ladder of the ambitious, instrument of the successful, spur to enterprise. dispeller of ignorance, enemy of fear, destroyer of superstition, giver of truth, director of purpose, patron of invention, mother of science, essence of hope, guide of life, moulder of human destiny and the hope of the race. The greatest problem before the world and the aim most devoutly to be wished is universal and perpetual peace. In order to achieve this, it is not sufficient that Nations disarm. This is important but arms once thrown down may be quickly taken up again. A Nation could secretly prepare for war just as Nations have done. There is a great importance to be attached to mutual disarmament, but peace is of the "heart" and until we have developed a sense of justice and the spirit of good will, we shall be disappointed now and then. In this, education seems the hope of the WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 927 world. Education would be a "slacker" were it not willing to do its part . Both business and diplomacy have failed to keep the peace of the world and business is wont to coin the blood of the soldier into gold. The con- scription of labor and wealth on an equal footing with fighting men will remove a cause. Disarmament will make war more difficult but justice and friendship will make war impossible. The World Federation at this convention must rewrite its constitution and make it permanent. It must make provision for a permanent financial foundation of ten million to twenty million dollars and provide temporary means of approximately one hundred thousand dollars per year for a period of five years or until the permanent foundation is laid. There should be a board of trustees in charge of the funds and a board of directors in charge of operations, with a full-time staff of officers and assistants. This will give opportunity to promote the program begun at San Francisco and to carry on the work set in motion here. Associational Records and Information 1857-1870 THE NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PURPOSE To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes- sion of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States . The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association." 1870-1907 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to " National Educational Association," by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven- tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled : SECTION 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc- tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorpora- tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: *Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, John W. Lan- List of singer, of Pennsylvania ; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama ; Arthur Incorporators J. Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, *George B. Cook, of Arkansas ; *Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California ; *Aaron Gove, Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado ; * Deceased . [929 ] 930 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION *Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut ; *George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; *J . Or- mond Wilson, *William T. Harris, *Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Colum- bia; Clem Hampton, of Florida ; *William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, *Charles I. Parker, *John W. Cook, *Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois ; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana ; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs , Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa ; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, *A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas ; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky ; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts ; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan ; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi ; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri ; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana ; George L, Towne, of Nebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada ; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; *James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey ; * Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, *William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hick- ham, of Oklahoma ; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon ; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina ; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota ; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas ; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont, Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia ; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robin- son, of West Virginia ; *Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin ; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii ; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands ; and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Education Association of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succes- sion with SEC. 2. the powers, That limitations, the purpose and restrictions and object of the saidherein contained. corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro- mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following depart- Purpose and ments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to-wit: The Departments, first, of Superintendence ; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elemen- tary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education ; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction ; fourteenth, of School Administration ; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education ; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws. SEC. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be . •Deceased ACT OF INCORPORATION 931 sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction , to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or re- Powers of ceive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any Corporation real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation ; and to accept and admin- ister any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation, SEC. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all per- sonal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce Property to be income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from Tax-Exempt taxation; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corpora- tion; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. SEC. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members-viz., active, associate, and Members corresponding-whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. SEC. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, Officers a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board ofTrustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each State, Territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association . Board of The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Directors presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respect- ive terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body ; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. Executive The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to Committee act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who 932 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Board of Association, at which they were elected, they shall elect one Trustees trustee for the term of four years . All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. SEC. 7. That the invested fund now known as the " Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the Permanent safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other Fund funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommenda- tion of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expendi- ture has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organi- zation of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment Duties of of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the Trustees President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Asso- Election of ciation, who shall also be Secretary of the Executive Committee, Secretary and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. SEC. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, D. C.; provided, That the meetings of the corpora Location of tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and Office that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. SEC. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by-laws shall be adopted ; and Acceptance of that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Associa- This Charter tion shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association. then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or ACT OF INCORPORATION 933 are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Education Associa- tion of the United States " ; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities , funds, books or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro- vided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia ; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corpora- tion of the District of Columbia . SEC. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, Rights of or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, Creditors be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. SEC. 11. The Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, Amendments or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual to Charter right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. SEC. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment to its by-laws , that the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meeting in the election of officers and the transaction of busi- Creation of ness shall be vested in and exercised by a representative as- Representative sembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov- Assembly erned in accordance with the provisions of the by-laws adopted by said corporation. Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa- tion Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educa- tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 934 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BY-LAWS (Complete as amended at the Annual Business Meeting of the Representative Assembly, Indianapolis, Indiana, July 3, 1925. Amendments made at the Indianapolis meeting are in italics. ) ARTICLE I-MEMBERSHIP SECTION 1. The membership of the National Education As- Membership sociation of the United States shall consist of three classes, Defined Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. SEC. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work at the time of their becoming members . SEC. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2.00, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several departments, to receive The Journal free, and, on application, to secure all publications of the Association at a price fixed by the Publication Committee, which Obligations and shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues Privileges of $5.00 an active member shall receive, in addition to The Journal, without application or other condition, the volume of Proceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, including re- ports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all Life Members and the rights and privileges of active members without the payment Life Directors of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. SEC. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not actively engaged in the profession of teaching, but interested Associate in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate Members member shall be the same as the dues of an active member, and he shall have the same rights and privileges excepting the right to vote and hold office. SEC. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be Corresponding elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. Members The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. SEC. 7. The membership year shall be from September 1 Membership to August 31. All membership dues paid during the mem. Year bership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. SEC. 8. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Payment of Secretary on or before November 1. An active member failing Dues to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and after being in arrears one half year be dropped from the list of members. SEC. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each Membership member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him Card to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the charter and by-laws of the Association. SEC. 10. The right to vote shall be limited to active members of the Associa- tion whose dues are paid. The right to hold office in the Asso- Right to Vote ciation or in any department shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Each active member shall have one vote. BY-LAWS 935 ARTICLE II-ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS SECTION 1. The election of officers and transaction of busi- ness at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Election of Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov- Officers erned as hereinafter provided. SEC. 2. At the first Business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the following officers shall be made : President, Vice-President, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the States. On the firstday of the annual meeting of the Association, the delegates of each State, terri- tory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Rep- resentative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the States. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candidates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 A. M. to 6 P. M., at such place or places as the Presi- dent of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each State, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vice-President receiving the highest num- ber of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall ap- point tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. SEC. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a State, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa- tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a State unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Affiliated State to representation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter Associations provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Association shall be $10 for each delegate to which said State shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 4. A local educational association or teachers' organization within a State, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Associa- tion shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to represen- Affiliated Local tation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter provided. Associations The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condi- tion, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the 936 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued . SEC. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both State and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup- port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members in so far as such interest Relationships : come within the purpose and object of the National Education National, State, Association as set forth in its charter. The Secretary of the and Local National Education Association shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual coöperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sxc. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its mem- bers, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association, up to five hundred such active members, and there- State Delegates after one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. SEC. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one Local Delegates hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. SEC. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the election of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Selection of Affiliated Local Association. For determining the apportionment Delegates of delegates, an active member may be counted in two affiliated associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. SEC. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter and the State. Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each State, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Repre- Ex Officio sentative Assembly. The President of the Association shall Delegates preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. SEC. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso- ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days before the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such informa Delegates; tion thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Asso- Credentials; ciation. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge Voting; of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have Freedom of equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meetings of the Floor Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative Assembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and by- BY--LAWS 937 laws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for paying the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. SEC. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for business purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III-DUTIES OF OFFICERS SECTION 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall pre side; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the Duties of the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the President Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Com- mittee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Associa tion and of the various departments not definitely fixed by these by-laws , and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or author ized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Di rectors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become First Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. SEC. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Asso- ciation as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by- laws, and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall Duties of the be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the Secretary absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Asso- ciation and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his posses- sion belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor dis- tribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Publica- tion Committee. SEC. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Asso 938 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ciation; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the Association and the Chairman of the Duties of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession Treasurer exceed five hundred dollars ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty- first day of May of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July 1, and when approved by said com- mittee they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association . SEC. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 6 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Duties of Board of Trustees ; shall recommend to the Executive Com- Board of mittee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Associa- Directors tion, the Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under au- thority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive Com- mittee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and pro- vided for at the annual business meetings, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honor- able institution. SEC. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special com- Duties of mittees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may Executive have been suggested by the National Council or by the active Committee membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments ; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treas- urer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Com- mittee thereon, to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. BY--LAWS 939 SEC. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful per- formance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee not later than Further July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which Duties of report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Trustees Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. It shall choose annually its own Chairman and Secretary. ARTICLE IV-THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SECTION 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques- tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Execu- tive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for in- Function of vestigation and research; have a report made at its annual National meeting on "Educational Progress During the Past Year" ; Council and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. SEC. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member Membership of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and in Council each member shall be elected for six years and until his suc- cessor is elected. In addition to the 120 members thus selected from the active membership, the National Council may in its by-laws provide for the admission to membership of representatives from the several departments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department. SEC. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota Election of of members. No State, territory, nor district in the United Committee States shall have at one time more than seven regular mem- Members bers in the Council. SEC. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Time of Meeting SEC. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi- nated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of at- Loss of tending the regular sessions of the Council and participating Membership in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. SEC. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vice-President, a Secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the Council duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Officers Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for pub- lication. SEC. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by- laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of in- corporation or the by-laws of the Association ; provided, That By-Laws and such by-laws be submitted to and approved by, the Board of Powers of Directors of the Association before they shall become opera- Council tive . 940 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SEC. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association ; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V-DEPARTMENTS SECTION 1. The following departments are now ( 1924) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Adult Education; second, of Business Education; third, of Classroom Teachers ; fourth, of Deans of Women; fifth, of Educational Publi- cations; sixth, of Elementary School Principals ; seventh, of List of Kindergarten Education ; eighth, Library ; ninth, of Music Edu- Departments cation ; tenth, of Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges; eleventh, of Rural Education; twelfth, of School Health and Physical Education ; thirteenth, of Secondary School Principals ; fourteenth, of Science In- struction; fifteenth, of Superintendence; sixteenth, of Visual Education; seven- teenth, Vocational Education. There is also the National Council of Education. SEC. 2. Each Department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the department; provided, Active members of the Association, Members of and no others, shall be eligible to such department member- Departments ship, and provided also that all active members of the Asso- ciation shall be permitted to attend the professional programs and discussions of any department. SEC. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the meeting of the Association, except as the Executive Committee may approve other arrangements . SEC. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro- grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective Presidents in confer- ence with, and under the general direction of, the President of Object of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two Department sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by Meetings the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. SEC. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a President, a Vice- President, and a Secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Officers of Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President Departments of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other depart- mental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the de- partment. Any department may provide for the creation of an executive committee and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the department, and the charter and by-laws of the Association. SEC. 6. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary Department of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings Headquarters of the department for publication. Provided, No department shall establish an office outside of the general headquarters of the Association without the consent of the Executive Committee of the Association. BY-LAWS 941 SEC. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the excep- tion stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and Rights of shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each depart- Departments ment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws. SEC. 8. A new department may be established by a two thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the Board, or by a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any annual business meeting ; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meet- How ing of the Board next preceding the one at which action is Established taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least two hundred fifty members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the in- terest of which the department is purposed to be established ; provided, That no group shall be admitted to departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A department already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two thirds How vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting Discontinued of the Association ; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. SEC. 9. Any department, by a two thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the department who shall transmit them monthly Fees for to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added Department to the department's allowance from the Association and shall Members be used for the work of said department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed . ARTICLE VI-COMMITTEES SECTION 1. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the president shall appoint an Auditing Committee con- sisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee Auditing shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together Committee with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of the Representative Assembly. SEC. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the State and local delegates from Delegates meet each State shall select one member for each of the following com- by States mittees: Credentials, Resolutions, and Necrology. The Com- mittee on Credentials shall receive the official list of the delegates from the Secre- tary and report thereon to the Representative Assembly. SEC. 3. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meet- ing of Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This Resolutions committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall 942 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. SEC. 4. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the Necrology published Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year accompanied by me- morial sketches whenever practicable. SEC, 5. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do business as expert accountants ; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, paper, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Examination of Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, Accounts and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE VII-MEETINGS SECTION 1. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Com- Meetings to be mittee acting for the Board in accordance with these by-laws. Held Annually An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. SEC. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin on the second day of the annual meeting at 9.00 A. M. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10.30 А. м . The first regular meeting of the new Board of Meetings of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty- Assembly four hours after the close of the last session of the annual Directors, and meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in Trustees the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately fol- lowing the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII-PROCEEDINGS SECTION 1. The proceedings of the Association, the Council, the departments, the commissions and committees, shall be published at the dis- Publication of cretion of and under the direction of a committee appointed by Proceedings the Executive Committee, provided, That in the opinion of the Executive Committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. SEC. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before Absence of the Association or any of the departments in the absence of the Author author, without the approval of the President of the Association, or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Publication Committee. BY-LAWS 943 ARTICLE IX- QUORUM SECTION 1. Representatives from twenty-five States and terri- tories shall constitute a quorum in all meetings of the Represent- Quorum ative Assembly and of the Board of Directors. ARTICLE X-APPROPRIATIONS SECTION 1. Unless otherwise ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meetings, not less than 10 per Limit on cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be Investigations set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI-AMENDMENTS SECTION 1. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly if the alteration or Amendments amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual to By-Laws business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. 944 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers ; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by- laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Presiding Officer IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Educa- tion Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907 ." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or- ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress . Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem- ber 4, 1907. CALENDER OF MEETINGS 945 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857-PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) 1865-HARRISBURG, PA . S. S. GREENE, President. JAMES L. ENOS, Chairman . W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. 2. RICHARDS, Treasurer. 1858- CINCINNATI, OHIO 1866- INDIANAPOLIS , IND. Z. RICHARDS, President. J. P. WICKERSHAM, President. J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. S. H. WHITE, Secretary. A. J. RICKOFF, Treasurer. S. P. BATES, Treasurer. 1859-WASHINGTON, D. С. 1867-No session. A. J. RICKOFF, President. 1868-NASHVILLE, TENN . J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. J. M. GREGORY, President. C. S. PENNELL, Treasurer. L. VAN BOKKELEN , Secretary. 1860-BUFFALO, N. Y. JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Treasurer. J. W. BULKLEY, President. 1869-TRENTON, N. J. Z. RICHARDS, Secretary. L. VAN BOKKELEN, President. O. C. WIGHT, Treasurer. W. E. CROSBY, Secretary. 1861 , 1862-No session. A. L. BARBER, Treasurer . 1863- CHICAGO , ILL. 1870-CLEVELAND, OHIO JOHN D. PHILBRICK, President . DANIEL B. HAGAR, President. JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Secretary. A. P. MARBLE, Secretary. O. C. WIGHT, Treasurer . W. E. CROSBY, Treasurer. 1864-OGDENSBURG , N. Y. W. H. WELLS, President. DAVID N. CAMP, Secretary. Z. RICHARDS, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION , 1871-1907 1871- ST . LOUIS, MO . 1883- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. Ε. Τ. TAPPAN, President. J. L. PICKARD, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. W. E. CROSBY, Secretary . N. A. CALKINS , Treasurer. JOHN HANCOCK , Treasurer . 1884-MADISON, WIS. 1872 -BOSTON, MASS. THOMAS W. BICKNELL, President. E. E. WHITE, President . H. S. TARBELL, Secretary. S. H. WHITE, Secretary . N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. JOHN HANCOck, Treasurer . 1885-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. 1873-ELMIRA, N. Y. F. LOUIS SOLDAN, President. B. G. NORTHROP , President . W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. S. H. WHITE, Secretary . N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. JOHN HANCOCK , Treasurer . 1886-ΤΟΡΕKA, KANS. 1874-DETROIT, MICH. N. A. CALKINS, President. S. H. WHITE, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. A. P. MARBLE, Secretary. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. JOHN HANCOck, Treasurer. 1887- CHICAGO, ILL . 1875-MINNEAPOLIS , MINN. W. E. SHELDON, President. W. T. HARRIS, President. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. М. В. Аввотт, Secretary. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. A. P. MARBLE, Treasurer . 1888-SAN FRANCISCO , CALIF. 1876-BALTIMORE, MD. AARON GOVE, President. W. F. PHELPS, President. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. A. P. MARBLE, Treasurer. 1889- NASHVILLE, TENN. 1877-LOUISVILLE, KY. ALBERT P. MARBLE, President. M. A. NEWELL, President. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. J. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer. 1890-ST . PAUL, MINN. 1878-No session. J. H. CANFIELD, President. 1879- PHILADELPHIA , PA. W. R. GARRETT, Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, President. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. 1891-TORONTO, ONT. J. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer. W. R. GARRETT, President. 1880- CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. Е. Н. Соок, Secretary. J. ORMOND WILSON, President. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. 1892- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. TAPPAN, Treasurer. Е. Н. СооK, President. 1881- ATLANTA, GA . R. W. STEVENSON, Secretary. JAMES H. SMART, President. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. 1893-CHICAGO , ILL . E. T. TAPPAN , Treasurer. (International Congress of 1882- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. Education.) G. J. ORR, President. ALBERT G. LANE, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. H. S. TARBELL, Treasurer. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 946 1901-DETRESOIT, MICH . JAM M. GREEN, President. 1894-ASBURY PARK, N. J. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . ALBERT G. LANE, President. L. C. GREENLEE , Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . EAPO NNLIA 1902-MIWIL LIS , MINN . J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. M M. BEA RDSHEAR, President . 1895-DE NV NIC ERAS HOL , COMULO RR.AY BUTLER, Pres . IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary . CHARLES H. KEYES, Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. I. C. MCNEILL , Treasurer. 1903-BOSTONS, MASS . OT sident CHARLE W. ELI , Pre . 1896-BUNE FFWT ONO,C.N.DOY. AL UGHERTY, President . IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary . IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . W. M. DAVIDSON , Treasurer. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. 1904-ST. LOUIS , MO. 1897-MICHA AUSKEE, WI LWRLE S . R , President . JOHN W. COOK , President. R. SKINNE IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary . MCHENRY RHOADS , Treasurer. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. 1905-ASBURY PARK AND OCEAN 1898-WASHINGTENW ON , D. C. OOD , President. GROVE , N. J. J. M. GRE WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, President . IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary . I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. JAMES W. CRABTREE, Treasurer. 1899-LOS ANGELES , CALIF. E. ORAM LYTE, President. 6 sion IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. -LO AN . LES , CALIF . 1907-No Sses GE 19 I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER , President . 1900-CHARLESTON , S. C. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. OSCAR T. CORSON , President. J. N. WILKINSON , Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary . CARROLL G. PEARSE, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES , 1908- LAND , ORE. 1917-PORTERT ROB J. ALEY, President. 1908-CLEVE LAND , OHIO DURAND W. SPRINGER , Secretary. EDWIN G. COOLEY, President. THOMAS E. FINEGAN , Treasurer . IRWI N SHEPARD , SecRL retary . ARTHUR H. CHAMBE AIN , Treas . -PITT 1918 SBURGH, PA. MARY C. C. BRADFORD , President . 1909-DE NV LO REER COLO NZO, D. . EY, President . HARV J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary . IRWINURSHEPARD , Sec retary. A. J. MATTHEWS, Treasurer. ARTH H. CHAMBERLAIN , Treas . 1919-MILWAUKEE , WISR. ON, MASSER GEORGE D. STRAYE , President . 1910-BOJA ST JOYN . , President . MES Y. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. IRWINURSHEPARD , Sec retary. A. J. MATTHEWS , Treasurer. ARTH H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treas . 1920- SALT LAKE CITY , UTAH 1911 - SAN FRANCI SC O , CALIF . JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON , Pres . ELLA FLAGG YOUNG , President. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. IRWINNDSHEPARD , Sec retary. A. J. MATTHEWS , Treasurer . DURA W. SPRINGER, Treasurer . 1921-DES MO INES , IOWA 1912- CHCA IC OLO RRAG L.ARSE , President. , ILPE L G. FRED M. HUNTER , President. EPARD, Secretary. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary . IRWIN SHE CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer . KATHERIN D. BLAKE , Treasurer . 1913-SALT LAKE CITY , ILUT AH 2 192 -BOCHA ON , MASS . STRL EDWARD T. FAIRCH D , President . ORMOND WILLIAMS , Pres. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary . J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer . 1914-ST. PA UL , MINN, 1923-OAKLAND - SAN FRANCISCO JOSEPH SWAIN , Presid ent . WILLIAM B. OWEN , President. DURAND W. SPRINGER , Secretary. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer . AND , CALIF. 1915-OAKLern 1924-WASHINGTON , D. C. (Int ational Congress of OLIVE M. JONES, President. D at VIuc ion J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary . DAEd STARR) JORDAN , President. CORNELIA S. ADAIR , Treasurer . DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. GRACE M. SHEPHERD , Treasurer. 1925-INDIANAPOLIS ,ONIND. JESSE H. NEWL , President. 1916-NEW YORK, N. Y.N J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary . DAVID B. JOHNSO , ERPresidentary . CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer. DURAND W. SPRING , Secret . GRACE M. SHEPHERD , Treasurer. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 947 National Education Association Officers 1924-1925 JESSE H. NEWLON ...... President.. ..... Denver, Colo. J. W. CRABTREE ... Secretary .Washington, D. C. CORNELIA S. ADAIR ....... Treasurer .. Richmond, Va. Executive Committee JESSE H. NEWLON .President .. Denver, Colo . OLIVE M. JONES :::: Vice-President . New York, N. Y. WALTER R. SIDERS Chairman, Board of Trustees . Pocatello, Idaho CORNELIA S. ADAIR .... Treasurer . .Richmond, Va. IDA CHRISTINE IVERSEN ..... Member by Election .. Los Angeles, Calif. Board of Trustees WALTER R. SIDERS Chairman, Supt. of Schools . Pocatello, Idaho JESSE H. NEWLON President, Supt. of Schools ... Denver, Colo. AGNES E. DOHERTY Teacher, Central High School . .. St. Paul , Minn . THOMAS E. FINEGAN ... President, American Education Service .. New York, N. Y. CARROLL G. PEARSE ... 3104 Wells Ave., Apt. 410 .. Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-Presidents OLIVE M. JONES, Principal, Public School 120 ...... .New York, N. Y. ALBERT S. COOK, State Superintendent of Schools . :::::::: .Baltimore, Md. HAROLD W. FOGHT, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. Dak. JOHN M. FOOTE, State Rural Supervisor, State Department of Education, Baton Rouge, La. FLORENCE M. HALE, State Agent for Rural Education . ..Augusta, Maine J. O. MARBERRY , University of Wisconsin ... Madison, Wis . MARY F. MOONEY, Director, Department of Texts and Libraries, Office of Superintendent of Schools . San Francisco, Calif. HELEN B. SHOVE, Principal, Longfellow School Minneapolis, Minn, R. M. SEALEY, State High School Inspector .. Tallahassee, Fla. A. A. SLADE, Superintendent of Schools .. ..Casper, Wyo. CORA STEELE, Supervising Principal. Terre Haute, Ind. F. E. WEBB, Superintendent of Schools . Globe, Ariz. Board of Directors Directors ex Officio JESSE H. NEWLON, President, Denver, CORDELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer, Rich- Colo. mond, Va. OLIVE M. JONES, First Vice-President, WALTER R. SIDERS, Chairman of New York, N. Y. Board of Trustees, Pocatello, Idaho J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary, Washington, D. C. Life Directors ALEY, ROBERT J. , President of Butler College .. .Indianapolis, Ind. BICKNELL, THOMAS W. , 207 Doyle Avenue . Providence, R. I. BRADFORD, MARY C. C., 1735 Bellaire Street.. .Denver, Colo . BROWN, ELMER ELLSWORTH, President of New York University .. New York, N. Y. BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY, President of Columbia University . New York , N. Y. CLAXTON, P. P. , Superintendent of Schools . Tulsa, Okla. CORSON, OSCAR T., Patterson Avenue ... Oxford, Ohio ELIOT, CHARLES W., President Emeritus of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass . GRAHAM, H. A., East Broadway .. ......Mt. Pleasant, Mich. HUNTER, FREDERICK M. , Superintendent of Schools .. ..... Oakland, Calif. JOHNSON, DAVID B., President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College. Rock Hill, S. C. JONES, OLIVE M., Principal, Public School 120 ... New York , N. Y. JORDAN, DAVID STARR, President Emeritus of Stanford University .... California JOYNER, JAMES Y ....... Raleigh , N. C. MARSHALL T. MARCELLUS . Stouts Mills, W. Va. MOORE, ROBERT C., Secretary, State Teachers Association ... Carlinville, Ill . OWEN, WILLIAM B. , President of Chicago Normal College. ... Chicago , I11 . PEARSE, CARROLL G. , 3104 Wells Ave., Apt. 410 ... Milwaukee, Wis . PRESTON , JOSEPHINE CORLISS, State Superintendent of Public In- struction . Olympia, Washington SKINNER, CHARLES R., Librarian, Legislative Library, Capitol Bldg., Albany, N. Y. STRAYER, GEORGE D., Teachers College, Columbia University . .New York, N. Y. SWAIN, JOSEPH .. Swarthmore, Pa. TAYLOR, A. R., 225 N. Fairview Street .. Decatur. I11 . TIGERT, JOHN J., U. S. Commissioner of Education . ....... Washington, D. C. WHITE, CHARLES G ...... Menominee, Wis. WILLIAMS , CHARI ORMOND, National Education Association . Washington, D. C. 948 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State Directors Alabama..P. W. HODGES, Secretary of Certification and Placement, State Department of Education ... Montgomery Alaska . LESTER D. HENDERSON, Commissioner of Education .. Juneau Arizona . SUTTON H. MARTIN, Superintendent of Schools ..... Prescott Arkansas . ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, Primary Supervisor, Public Schools ..... Little Rock California .. W. P. DUNLEVY, Teacher, San Diego High School .. San Diego Colorado . H. B. SMITH, Secretary, Colorado Education Asso- ciation... Denver Connecticut . ..E. E. CORTWRIGHT , Superintendent of Schools .... Bridgeport Delaware .. .H. V. HOLLOWAY, State Superintendent of Public In- struction .... Dover District of Columbia HARRY ENGLISH, Secretary, Board of Examiners . Washington Florida... ..W. S. CAWTHON, State Superintendent of Public In- struction . Tallahassee Georgia KYLE T. ALFRIEND, Dean, Bessie Tift College....... Forsyth Hawail. WILLARD E. GIVENS, Superintendent of Public In- struction . .Honolulu Idaho . ELIZABETH RUSSUM, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .. Boise Illinois . SARAH L. THOMAS, High School Teacher, 401 Kish- waukee Street .. Rockford Indiana . H. L. SMITH, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University.. ٠١٠ Bloomington Iowa . .T. R. ROBERTS, Superintendent of Schools ... Independence Kansas. .M. E. PEARSON, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City Kentucky . .R. E. WILLIAMS, Secretary, Kentucky Education Asso- ciation.. Louisville Louisiana LORETTA Doerr, Principal . .New Orleans Maine. JOSIAH W. TAYLOR, State Agent for Secondary Educa- tion. ...Augusta Maryland. ..WILLIAM BURDICK, State Supervisor of Physical Edu- cation. Baltimore Massachusetts ......MARY MCSKIMMON, Principal , Pierce School... Brookline Michigan . THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Schools.... .Lansing Minnesota W. H. SHEPHARD, Teacher, North High School ... Minneapolis Mississippi . .H. V. COOPER, Superintendent of Schools . Kosciusko Missouri .. THOMAS J. WALKER, Missouri State Teachers Asso- ciation . Columbia Montana . A. H. DOUGLASS , 820 W. Mercury Street . .Butte Nebraska M. C. LEFLER, Superintendent of Schools . Lincoln Nevada. MAUDE FRAZIER, Deputy, State Department, Fifth District . Las Vegas New Hampshire .... FLORENCE HEWITT, Teacher, High School ..... Portsmouth New Jersey . CHARLES B. DYKE, Superintendent of Schools .... Short Hills New Mexico . ISABELLE L. ECKLES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Santa Fe New York .... JACKSON GALLUP , Concord School No. 18 ........ Rochester North Carolina .....ROBERT H. WRIGHT, President, East Carolina Teachers College.. Greenville North Dakota ...... M. E. MCCURDY, Secretary, State Teachers Association ... Washburn Ohio .. R. J. KIEFER, Superintendent of Schools .. . Niles Oklahoma . A. C. PARSONS , Superintendent of Schools .. Oklahoma City Oregon W. L. VERRY , Teacher, Lincoln High School ....... Portland Pennsylvania .......J. H. KELLEY , Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Teachers Association . Harrisburg Philippine Islands .. LUTHER B. BEWLEY, Director of Education . Manila Porto Rico . JUAN B. HUYKE, Commissioner of Education ..... San Juaa Rhode Island ...... WILLIAM O. HOLDEN, Head, Commercial High School . Pawtucket South Carolina .....GEORGE HARRIS WEBBER, Superintendent of Schools . Beaufort South Dakota . HAROLD W. FOGHT . President, Northern Normal and Industrial School Aberdeen Tennessee . .S. L. SMITH , General Agent for Rural Schools, Julius Rosenwald Fund . Nashville Texas . CATHERINE GORBUTT, Principal, Aoy School .. .El Paso Utah... W. KARL HOPKINS, Superintendent of Schools....... Ogden Vermont . ERNEST A. HAMILTON , Superintendent of Schools ... Newport Virginia. .S . A. MCDONALD, Principal, Ruffner Junior High School. Norfolk Virgin Islands ..... ARTIIUR E. LINDBORG, Director of Education .... St. Thomas Washington .. MRS. JENNIE M. FRENCH, Principal, Point Defiance School....... Tacoma West Virginia ..... J. H. HICKMAN, Superintendent of Schools .... Hinton Wisconsin ..... JOHN F. SIMS , President, Stevens Point State Normal School . .Stevens Point Wyoming .......... A. A. SLADE, Superintendent of Schools ... .Casper OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 949 HEADQUARTERS STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. Directors of Divisions HELEN T. HIXSON, Director of Accounts HAROLD A. ALLAN, Business . and Assistant Treasurer . CHARL O. WILLIAMS, Field and Legislative JOY ELMER MORGAN, Publications . Secretary. AGNES WINN, Classroom Service. T. D. MARTIN, Records and Membership. JOHN K. NORTON, Research. S. D. SHANKLAND, Administrative Service and Secretary, Department of Superintendence. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President .. ........ J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools ... San Francisco, Calif. Vice-President . HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean of School of Education, Indiana University ...Bloomington, Ind. Secretary ... ..ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Federal Board for Vocational Education Washington, D. C. Executive Committee .... DAVID B. CORSON, Superintendent of Schools (term ex- pires 1925) .. ..Newark, N. J. A. J. MATTHEWS, President Normal School of Arizona (term expires 1926) ..Tempe, Ariz. ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal Lincoln School (term ex- pires 1927 ) ...... .Denver, Colo OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Adult Education President ..... CHARLES M. HERLIHY, Supervisor of Adult Alien Educa- tion, State Department of Education Boston, Mass. Vice-President ......... FLORA D. SMITH, Director of Americanization .... Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary ROBERT C. DEMING, Director of Americanization, State Department of Education... Hartford, Conn. Treasurer ELLA THORNGATE, Supervisor of Americanization ...... Omaha, Nebr. Business Education President. ROBERT H. WRIGHT, President, East Caroline Teachers' College... ..Greenville, N. C. First Vice-President ..... J. L. JARMAN, State Normal School for Women ... ... Farmville, Va. Secretary- Treasurer .. H. C. MINNICH, Dean, School of Education, Miami University ..Oxford, Ohio President ... L. L. JONES, West Commerce High School .... Cleveland, Ohio Vice-President IRVING R. GARBUTT, Director of Commercial Education and Penmanship, Woodward High School ...... Cincinnati, Ohio Secretary ... J. O. MALOTT, Commercial Department, Yeatman High School..... ...... St. Louis, Mo. Classroom Teachers President ..JULIA A. SPOONER, BOX 188, R. No. 3, Lents Station Portland, Oregon Vice-President ......... EULA F. HUNTER, 1324 E. Morphy Street........ Fort Worth, Tex. Secretary ROSE M. BURMASTER, 2172 W. Main Street ... Muncie, Ind. Other members of the Executive Committee ..JULIA A. SULLIVAN, 9 Marion Street ... Charlestown, Mass. ANNA M. THOMPSON, Haddon Hall, Care of Linwood & Tracy .... Kansas City, Mo. JEAN L. SOULES, 2003 W. First Avenue ... Spokane, Wash. Deans of Women President ..............AGNES E. WELLS, Dean of Women, Indiana Univer. sity Bloomington, Ind. Secretary MARTHA DOAN, Earlham College . ..... Richmond, Ind. Treasurer ..MARY HOOKER JOHNSON, 512 W. 123d Street .......... New York City Educational Publications President ................ W. SEARSON, University of Nebraska... Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary ...... C. W. TABER, Western Manager of Lippincott & Co...... Chicago, Ill. 950 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Elementary School Principals President ....... MRS. JESSIE M. FINK, Principal, Palmer School..Grand Rapids, Mich. Ist Vice-President ....... SARA L. RHODES, Principal, Public School 28. Brooklyn, N. Y. 2d Vice- President ........ JOHN MERRILL, Principal, Lingemann School ......... Detroit, Mich. 3d Vice-President ........ H. B. NORTON, 7922 Underwood Avenue ..... Birmingham, Ala. Secretary ... IDE G. SARGEANT, Principal, Public School 10 ........ Paterson, N. J. Treasurer .. COURTLAND V. DAVIS, Principal, J. E. B. Stuart School .. Norfolk, Va, Executive Committee .... MARY MCSKIMMON, Principal, Pierce School (term ex- pites 1925) .... Brookline, Mass. ANNA LAURA FORCE, Lincoln School (term expires 1926) , Denver, Colo. LUISE KRAUSS, Gratton School (term expires 1927) ..... San Francisco, Calif. W. T. LONGSHORE, Greenwood School (term expires 1928) . ..Kansas City, Mo. Kindergarten Education President ....... EDNA DEAN BAKER, President, National Kindergarten and Elementary College .... .Chicago, Ill, Vice-President .. ..... MARGARET HOLMES, Assistant Director of Kindergartens . New York City Secretary .......... FANNIE A. SMITH, Principal, Fannie A. Smith Training School .... Bridgeport, Conn. Music Education President .... ERNEST G. HESSER, Director of Music, Public Schools , Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary .... ADA BICKING, Supervisor of Music.... ........... Evansville, Ind. Rural Education President MACY CAMPBELL, State Teachers College Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President ... .... N. SEARLE LIGHT, Department of Education .. Hartford, Conn. Secretary .... MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity .New York City Treasurer •MARY E. HOWE, Detroit Teachers College ........ Detroit, Mich. Executive Committee .... M . S. PITTMAN , Normal College .. Ypsilanti, Mich. JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH , Cornell University. .. Ithaca, N. Y. NORMAN FROST, George Peabody College . Nashville, Tenn. MAY TRUMPER, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion ... Helena, Mont, C. G. SARGENT, College of Agriculture .. Fort Collins, Colo . CHLOE BALDRIDGE, Superintendent of Nance County Schools .... Fullerton, Nebr. JOHN M. FOOTE, Department of Education . Baton Rouge, La. CORA PEARSON, County Supervisor of Elementary Schools Montgomery, Ala. J. S. HOFFMAN, Superintendent of Hunterdon County Schools Flemington, N. J. RICHARD J. LIBBY, Department of Education ...... Augusta, Maine ERNEST BURNHAM, Western State Normal School . Kalamazoo, Mich. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, Legislative Secretary, National Education Association. Washington, D. C. LEE L. DRIVER, Department of Public Instruction .... Harrisburg, Pa. KATHERINE M. COOK, Bureau of Education .. Washington, D. C. J. L. MCBRIEN, Department of Rural Education, State Normal School ..... Terre Haute, Ind. School Health and Physical Education President .......... CHARLES H. KEENE, Director, Health Education, State Department of Public Instruction .. ..Harrisburg, Pa. Vice-President ......... MELVILLE STEWART, State Supervisor of Physical Educa- tion Wheeling, W. Va. Secretary- Treasurer ..... Dr. KATHARINE H. K. WOLFE, Director of School Health, Board of Education... .Lincoln, Nebr. Science Instruction President ...... ..W. L. EIKENBERG, State Normal School ... E. Stroudsburg, Pa. VicePresident .... GEORGE W. HUNTER, Knox College ..... ...... Galesburg, Ill. Secretary ....... EMMA M. GRIEBEL, Head of General Science Depart- ment. Lincoln High School .. .Portland, Ore. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 951 Secondary Principals Acting President ........ MILO H. STUART, Arsenal Technical High School ....... Indianapolis Superintendence, 1925-26 President .. FRANK W. BALLOU, Superintendent of Schools .... Washington, D. C. Ist Vice-President ..... WILLIAM MCANDREW, Superintendent of Schools ....... Chicago , Ill. 2nd Vice-President ..... E. E. LEWIS, Superintendent of Schools .. .. Flint, Mich. Secretary . S. D. SHANKLAND, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W... Washington, D. C. Executive Committee .... NORMAN R. CROZIER, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1929) .Dallas, Texas C. B. GLENN, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1926) Birmingham, Ala . F. D. BOYNTON, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1927) Ithaca, N. Y. M. G. CLARK, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1928) Sioux City, Iowa Visual Instruction President .. ERNEST L. CRANDALL, Director of Lectures, Public Schools New York City Vice-President ..... .. DUDLEY GRANT HAYS, Director of Visual Education, Public Schools. Chicago, Ill. Secretary ....... A. W. ABRAMS, Chief of Visual Instruction, State De- ment of Education . ..Albany, N. Y. Other members of the Executive Committee ..A. G. BALCOM, Assistant Superintendent of Schools .... Newark, N. J. H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of Schools ......... Berkeley, Calif. Vocational Education President ..........JOHN N. GREER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools ... Minneapolis, Minn. Vice-President ..... BENJAMIN W. JOHNSON, University of California ..... Berkeley, Calif. Secretary .......... J . D. BLACKWELL, State Director of Vocational Educa- tion .... Baltimore, Md. 952 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HEADQUARTERS STAFF FROM JUNE 1, 1924, THROUGH MAY 31 , 1925 Divisions Arranged in the Order in Which They Were Created PERMANENT1 TEMPORARY Secretary's Office J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Bertha Hendricks Harriett M. Chase Florence Metcalf Rose M. Gaist Division of Records and Accounts Mrs. Helen T. Hixson, Director Jeannette King Bibby Suzanne C. Wright Pauline Ballenger Katherine Swan Eva W. Cummins Dorothy D. Cragg C. Hellen Hanford Nora Brown Goldie L. Hazard (Virginia Hereford) Mary L. Rawlings (Marjorie Goldsmith) Mary P. Smith Aurora E. Larson Division of Field Service Charl O. Williams, Legislative Secretary J. O. Engleman, Field Secretary. ( Resigned July 31, 1924) Callie Waldran Martha Lavisson Division of Business H. A. Allan, Director (Ruth Judd ) Leetha G. Troxel (Nelle Ketchum) Ethel L. Saunders Grace L. Nelson Addressograph Section Edith Nielsen Catherine C. Bateman Ella Ulrich Marian Ulrich Alice S. Werner Ethel Dwyer Julia Reynolds Henrietta Baltzell Hazel Behrens Bessie N. Degges Pauline Miller Mailing Section (W. P. Reily) James Dyer (W. L. Christian) Elizabeth Woodward Harriet M. Thatcher Multigraph Section Frank Bradley Permanent employees receive salary by the month. Temporary employees receive pay by the week, and for only part of the year. Many on temporary list were employed for short periods. Parentheses indicate two or more persons serving in same position. HEADQUARTERS STAFF 953 Typing Section Mabel E. Wheelock Louise Crown May Herriman Rebecca Silber Rebecca Norris Eva Johnson Clyde Chapman Edna Sands Elizabeth Johnston Mabel Nicholson Marion Killian Elizabeth Donelson Blanche Knopp Thelma Anderson Flora Lavisson Hilda Arken Lena Liff Ethel Ballenger Virginia Lipop Anna Bowman Jasefa McCormack Susie Burns Virginia May Caro Margaret Chenay Louise Quinlan Dinah Cohen Lulu Redmiles Cathleen Deakins Ella Roberts Alma Doyle Jennie Reynolds Mary Dunbar Carroll Shannon Pauline Elms Rae Silverman Florence Free Audrey Smith Edith Gloss Helen Warfield Laura Goodnow Bess Wood Grace Hager Janitor Service Moses Poles (Jennie Croft) (James Poles ) (Ivan Poles) Division of Publications Joy Elmer Morgan, Director Bessie B. Barkley Jessie M. Robbins Margaret Wills Bertha M. Robbins Elizabeth Trunnell Helen Moore Gladys Cockerille Division of Research John K. Norton, Director Gladys E. Harlow Margaret M. Alltucker Isabel S. Deshler Ada B. Boyd Margaret C. May Frances Bradley Margaret R. Sullivan Pearl Jones Marie H. Edwards (Marguerite Smith) (Lillian Williamson) Division of Classroom Service Agnes Winn , Director Elizabeth Hand Department of Superintendence and Division of Administrative Service S. D. Shankland, Secretary Anna C. Somdal Division of Records and Membership A Division of Records and Membership was created by action of the Executive Com- mittee in February, 1925. Theodore D. Martin assumed duties as Director of this division May 15, 1925. COMMITTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1924-25 COMMITTEE OF ONE THOUSAND ON CHILD LABOR (Authorized by the Executive Committee) John F. Sims, Chairman, President, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. The membership of this committee consists of from fifteen to twenty representatives from each of the States. COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON CLASSROOM TEACHERS' PROBLEMS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Anna Riddle, Chairman, 217 North 13th Eleanor Baptist, Central High School and Street, St. Joseph, Mo. Junior College, Kansas City, Kans . Zola Hall, 1716 Jefferson Avenue, Ensley, Eula Bridger, 1720 Central Avenue, Kansas Birmingham, Ala. City, Kans. , Instructor, Junior High Bess Evans , 1005 McGowan Street, Little School) Rock, Ark. Julia E. Davis, Grade Supervisor, High Anna Morris, 402 Reserve Avenue, Hot School Building, Topeka, Kans. Springs, Ark. Ella Lewis, Graded and High School, Leitch- Mata Dexter, 117 North Pleasant Street, field, Ky. Prescott, Ariz . Mrs. Ottie Nickell, Board of Education, Edna White, 148 Ronada Avenue, Piedmont, Ashland, Ky. Calif. Annie T. Bell, Louisiana University, Baton Bernice Baxter, 2558 Pleasant Street, Oak- Rouge, La. land, Calif . Mrs. Frances Boyd , River Side Avenue, Fort Edna Cotrel , 3240 Clay Street, San Fran- Fairfield, Maine. cisco, Calif. Helen M. King , Supervising Principal, 8 Lulu A. Shelton, 454 65th Street, Oakland, Walker Street, Portland, Maine. Calif. William C. Shute, 2612 Williams Street, Olive Mount, Public Schools, Mount Airy, Md. Denver, Colo . Mrs. Mary Enoch Warming, Public Schools, George Fox, Superintendent of Schools, Grand Junction, Colo. Annapolis, Md. J. H. Risley, Superintendent, District No. 1, Ada E. Chevalier, Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. Pueblo, Colo . Mrs. Amy Dickinson Warthley, Principal, Annie G. Scollard, II Bowitch Street, East Junior High School, District No. 12, Braintree 84, Mass. Sterling, Colo. Julia Sullivan, 9 Marion Street, Charlestown, Mass. Jessie A. MacWilliams, 173 Livingston Street (High School) , New Haven, Conn. Annie C. Woodward, High School, Somer- Harriet K. Storer, 291 Lenox Street (Strong ville, Mass. School) , New Haven, Conn. Mrs. Desalee Ryan Dudley, Assistant Coun- Marguerite H. Burnett, State Director of ty Commissioner, Battle Creek , Mich. Immigrant Education, Wilmington, Del. Mrs. Annie Kugers, 669 Lake Drive, Grand Emma A. Jensen, Central High School, Rapids , Mich. Washington, D. C. Lilian Sterrett, West High School, Minne- Harry English, Head of Department of Math- apolis, Minn. ematics, Franklin School , Washington, Helen E. Blaisdell, 2024 Penn Avenue, S, D. C. Minneapolis, Minn. J. H. Workman, Principal, High School, Mary Lee Boyd, Central High School, Jack- Pensacola , Fla. son, Miss. Inga Olla Helseth, Florida State College John L. Bracken, Superintendent of Schools, for Women, Tallahassee, Fla . Clayton, Mo. Jessie Muse, Principal, Girls High School, Anna M. Thompson, Haddon Hall, Linwood Atlanta, Ga. and Tracy, Kansas City, Mo. Clara Rector, 424 South 5th Avenue, Poca- Martha Haines, Principal, Glasgow High tello, Idaho. School, Glasgow, Mont. Mrs. Alice Cosgrove, 517 S. 4th Street, Miss Merel Beattie, 421 South 15th Street, Pocatello , Idaho. Lincoln, Nebr. Carrie Magee, Park School, East St. Louis, Mrs. Edith Beaumont, State Normal School , 111. Wayne, Nebr. Frances E. Harden, 1543 Sherwin Avenue, Olive Bayles, Central High School , Omaha, Chicago, I11. Nebr. Cora Mull, President, Chicago Teachers Eva Timmons, Principal, Public Schools, League, 4151 Berkeley Avenue, Chicago, Ely, Nev. 111. J. Agnes Connors, 735 Arlington Street, H. C. Muth, Principal, Theodore Roosevelt Portsmouth, N. H. Junior High School, Rockford, Ill. Harriet J. Outwin, 409 Knickerbocker Georgia Alexander, 1516 No. Pennsylvania Avenue, Paterson, N. J. Street, Indianapolis, Ind. Mrs. Lena B. Sexton, Superintendent of Estella Swen, 1250 2nd Avenue, Cedar Dona Ana County Schools, Las Cruces , N. Rapids , Iowa. Mex. A. J. Burton, Principal, East High School, Christopher Prestopino, Public School 184, Des Moines, Iowa. New York City. Elizabeth Graves, Lock Box 199, Mason Lena B. Stinson, 130 Washington Street, City, Iowa. Mount Vernon, N. Y. [954] COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 955 Martha Wilson, Public School 127 , New Miss Charlie M. Noble, 1511 Cooper Street, York City. Fort Worth, Tex. Frank Paine, Public School 120, New York Mrs. Otho Hanscom, Professor of Education, City. North Texas State Teachers College, Den- Claire Lathrop, 213 North 5th Street, Wil- ton, Tex. mington, N. C. Ora Johnson, Brackenridge High School, Mildred E. English , Assistant Superintend- San Antonio, Tex. ( 501 E. Dewey St.) . ent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Eula F. Hunter, 1324 E. Morphy Street, Fort M. Beatrice Johnstone, Superintendent of Worth, Tex. Grand Forks County Schools, Grand George Archibald, 632 East 6th South, Salt Forks , N. Dak. Lake City, Utah. Bertha Ruess, 126 South Main Street, Mans- Agnes K. Dewey, 375 North 1st East, field, Ohio. Logan, Utah. Edna Joseph, Elementary Supervisor, Elyria, Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, Teachers Ohio. Training Course, St. Johnsbury, Vt. Jessie D. Newby, Irving High School, Oklá- Robert M. Newton, Division Superintend- homa City, Okla. ent of Schools, Hampton, Va. Viola Ortschild, 385 Vancouver Avenue, Alice Macy, N. 2427 Stevens Street, Spo- Portland, Oreg. kane, Wash. Julia Spooner, Box 188 Route No. 3, Lents Jean L. Soules, 2003 West ist Avenue, Spo- Station, Portland, Oreg. kane, Wash. Jessie A. Skinner, Campbell Hill Hotel, Nellie B. Sterrett, 1427 East Pike, Seattle, Portland, Oreg. ( Jefferson High School ) . Wash. Bertha B. Wagner, Teacher of Home Eco- Mrs. Ethel Hill, 2556 First Avenue, Hunt- nomics, Watsontown, Pa. ington, W. Va. Will G. Chambers, Dean, School of Educa- Anthonette Durant, Platteville Normal tion, Pennsylvania State College, State School, Platteville, Wis. College, Pa . W. A. Clark, State Normal School, Stevens Charles E. Dickey, Superintendent of Schools, Point, Wis. 595 Union Arcade Buiding, Pittsburgh, Pa. Ethel Gardner, President, Milwaukee Teach- E. Louise King, 138 Cross Street, Central ers Association, Milwaukee, Wis. Falls, R. I. Anna Youngquist, 345 Coffeen Avenue, Fannie F. MacDonald, 123 Waterman Street, Providence, R. I. Sheridan , Wyo . R. C. Burts, Superintendent of Schools, Rock Emily Griffith, Principal, Opportunity School, Hill, S. C. Denver, Colo . Lester D. Henderson, Commissioner of Edu- Helen Richie, Washington School, Aberdeen, cation, Juneau, Alaska. S. Dak. Emily Ewaliko, 11 Ewaliko Lane, Hilo, Mrs. Mary Saunders, Public Schools, Pierre, Hawaii. S. Dak. Laurie Cash, 649 North Dunlap, Memphis, Agnes Winn, Director of the Division of Tenn. Classroom Service, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Nellie Pearl O'Neill, Germantown, Shelby N. W. , Washington, assigned consulting member. County, Tenn. COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON THE PROBLEM OF RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES Authorized by Representative Assembly) ( Philip E. Carlson, Chairman, 2547 Tenth H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Avenue, Minneapolis, Minn. Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Mrs. Mary M. Davis, 2905 19th Avenue, Edith Louise Grosvenor, The Iowa, Apt. 73, Ensley, Ala. Washington, D. C. C. B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Selden M. Ely, Gales School, Washington, Birmingham, Ala. D. C. Nina Christian, 1500 Broadway, Little Rock, Ruby Lorance, Box 750, West Palm Beach, Ark. Fla. A. B. Hill, State Superintendent of Public A. C. Cleveland, Superintendent of Schools, Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Valdosta, Ga. A. J. Matthews, President, Tempe Normal Elizabeth Russum, State Superintendent of School, Tempe, Ariz. Public Instruction, Boise, Idaho. Helen Lamb, North Arizona Normal School, D. Walter Potts, Superintendent of Schools, Flagstaff, Ariz. East St. Louis, Ill. Carrie Daley, 1439 Oak Street, San Fran- Sarah L. Thomas, High School, Rockford, cisco, Calif. 111. James Ferguson, Principal, High School, Georgia Alexander , 1516 North Pennsyl- Chico, Calif. vania Street, Indianapolis , Ind. Hannah C. Bynon, 1837 Van Ness Avenue, Helen Doty, 314 Chandler Avenue, Evans- Fresno, Calif. ville, Ind. Marguerite Vineyard, 1119 Bella Vista M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Avenue, Oakland, Calif. Sioux City, Iowa. Wilhelmina Van de Goorberg, 716 Security Lucy Hobbs, High School, Sioux City, Iowa. Building, Los Angeles, Calif. J. J. Maxwell, 22 South 19th Street, Kan- John J. Johnson, Dean, Western State Col- sas City, Kans. lege, Gunnison, Colo. Annie M. Young, 1618 Jaeger Avenue, Mrs. Grace Shoe Smith, Instructor, High Louisville , Ky. School, Denver, Colo. C. E. Laborde, County Superintendent of Janet M. Purdue, Dean, New Haven High Schools , Marksville, La. School, New Haven, Conn. P. H. Griffith, Executive Secretary , Louis- Harold E. Chittenden, Superintendent of iana Teachers Assn. , Baton Rouge, La. Schools, Naugatuck, Conn. 956 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Adelaide Finch, Principal, Training School, Margaret J. Mitchell, University of Okla- Lewiston, Maine. homa, Norman, Okla. E. W. Broome, Superintendent of Schools C. E. Ferguson, 829 East 77th Street, N. Rockville, Md. Portland, Oreg. Mollie R. Hobbs, 823 North Fremont Av- Oliver P. Cornman, Associate Superintend- enue, Baltimore, Md. ent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. Phœbe A. Mathews, 159 Morrison Lucy W. Glass, 2056 Whitehall Street, Har- Avenue, West Somerville, Mass. risburg, Pa. Ellen F. O'Connor, West Roxbury High Joseph Swain, Swarthmore College, Swarth- School, Boston, Mass. more, Pa . E. C. Warriner, President, Central Michigan Willard H. Bacon, Superintendent of Schools, Normal School, Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Westerly, R. I. Margaret Strahan, Lexington School, Grand Mrs. Mary M. Nugent, 2486 Pawtucket Rapids , Mich . Avenue, E. Providence, R. I. Ella M. Probst, Principal, Longfellow R. C. Burts, Superintendent of Schools, School, Minneapolis, Minn. Rock Hill, S. C. Charles L. Richardson, 748 Plymouth Build- Beulah Davidson, Creaven and New Streets, ing, Minneapolis, Minn. Beaufort , S. C. Ethel Emerson, 905 East 30th Street, Kan- Sara Johnston, Box 162, Rapid City, S. Dak. sas City, Mo. Ella V. Dobbs, University of Missouri, Lydia Leistikow, 503 S. Kline Street, Aber- Columbia, Mo. deen, S. Dak. John R. Kirk, President, State Teachers Col- Katharine Ingraham, Public Schools, Boli- var, Tenn. lege, Kirksville, Mo. Mina Petrashek, Deputy Superintendent of R. L. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Public Instruction, Helena, Mont. Memphis, Tenn. Dr. Freeman Daughters, Missoula, Mont. Mamie Bastian, 812 Bell Avenue, Houston, Tex. H. B. Heidelberg, Superintendent of Schools , Clarksdale, Miss. W. E. Garnett, Agricultural and Mechani- O. L. Webb , Superintendent of Schools, cal College, College Station, Tex. David City, Nebr. Melvin Wilson, Public Schools, Payson, Cosima Zack, 1909 11th Street, Columbus, Utah . Nebr. Frances Qualtrough , 3036 South 7th East, B. D. Billinghurst, Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. Reno, Nev. Mildred Spooner, Lindenhurst Street, Brat- Libby C. Booth, Principal, Public Schools, tleboro, Vt. Reno, Nev. A. H. Hill, Superintendent of Schools, Rich- W. Ernest Butterfield, Commissioner of mond, Va. Education, Concord, N. Η . Lucy M. Holt, 121 West 28th Street, Nor- John Enright, State Commissioner of Educa- folk, Va. tion, Trenton, N. J. Myra L. Snow, 4043 8th Avenue N. E.. Ellen Herron , East College, Roswell, N. Mex. Seattle, Wash. Magnus Gross , Municipal Building, New Margaret Richardson, Stanford Hotel, Spo- York City. kane, Wash. Isabel A. Ennis, 500 Park Avenue, New Mrs. Ethel Hill, 2556 First Avenue, Hunt- York City. ington, W. Va. Mrs. R. A. Carls, 114 Morningside Drive, Mrs. C. H. Hamill, 104 Henry Avenue, New York City. Elkins, W. Va. Jule B. Warren, Secretary, North Carolina E. G. Doudna, Secretary, Wisconsin Teach- Education Assn. , Box 887, Raleigh, N. C. ers Assn. , 611 Beaver Bldg. , Madison, George Howard, Jr. , Director of School Wis. Organization, Department of Public In- struction, Raleigh , N. С. Elizabeth McCormick, Public Schools, Su- Gertrude Hoag, 328 de Lendrecie Block, perior, Wis . Fargo, N. Dak. E. B. Skinner, University of Wisconsin, Milton Nugent, Superintendent of Schools, Madison, Wis . Larimore, N. Dak . Anna Youngquist, 345 Coffeen Avenue, Sher- M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles School, idan, Wyo. Cleveland, Ohio . Ida MacDonald, Librarian, Territorial Nor- Josephine Hammond, Public Schools, Steu- mal School, Honolulu, Hawaii. benville, Ohio . Joy E. Morgan, Director of the Division of Harry E. Hazel, 871 Parkwood Drive, Cleve- Publications of the N. E. A. , assigned land, Ohio. consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON RURAL TEACHERS ' PROBLEMS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Harold W. Foght, Chairman, President, Sam H. Cohn, Deputy Superintendent of Northern Normal and Industrial School, Public Instruction, Sacramento , Calif. Aberdeen, S. Dak . Caroline M. Webb, Union House, Sacra- Bessie Wells, 2911 Avenue E, Ensley, mento County, Calif. Birmingham, Ala. E. C. Cash, Box 35, Motor A. R. R., Pueblo, N. R. Baker, Superintendent of Jefferson Colo. County Schools, Birmingham, Ala. C. G. Sargent, State Agricultural College, A. B. Hill, State Superintendent of Public Fort Collins, Colo. Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Mrs. Grace Cummings, County Superintend- W. E. Halbrook, State Agent of Rural ent of Schools, Delta, Colo. Schools , Little Rock, Ark. A. B. Meredith, Commissioner of Education, Mrs. Eva Ehrenfeld, Rural School Teacher, Hartford, Conn. Hillside, Ariz. Russell F. Lund, Supervisor of Elementary Louise B. Lynd, Tempe Normal School, Agriculture, 365 Main Street, Glastonbury, Tempe, Ariz . Conn. COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 957 H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of G. C. Dilworth, Superintendent of Schools, Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Sparks , Nev. Edith Lathrop, Bureau of Education, Wash- Mrs. Florence Lowry, Paradise Valley, Nev. ington, D. С. William K. English , President, Cheshire Charles M. Fisher, County Superintendent County Teachers Assn. , Main Street, Wal- of Schools, Miami , Fla. pole, N. H. Gertrude McArthur, Public Schools, Tal- J. M. Arnold, County Superintendent of lahassee, Fla . Schools, Trenton, N. J. W. G. Scott, Technical High School, At- John Enright, State Commissioner of Edu- lanta, Ga. cation, Trenton, N. J. Walter B. Hill, State Rural Agent, Atlanta, A. Montaya , County Superintendent of Ga. Schools, Albuquerque, N. Mex. Margaret Sweet, State Rural School Super- Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia visor, Box 4, Lewiston, Idaho. University, New York City. Fannie Spaits Merwin, County Superintend- George W. Works, Cornell College, Ithaca, ent of Schools, Havana, Ill. N. Y. Harriett Birminger, Allendale, III. Ila Johnston, Box 107 , Asheville, N. C. Jasper L. McBrien, Head Rural Dept. Cen- N. W. Walker, 320 Rosemary Street, Chapel tral State Teachers College, Edmond, Hill, N. C. Okla. A. C. Berg , Rural School Inspector, Bis- Hilda M. Hughes, County Superintendent of marck , N. D. Schools , Lagrange, Ind. Agnes Jones, County Superintendent of Agnes Samuelson, Extension Department, Schools, Hattinger, N. Dak. Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Catherine Culleton, Wapakoneta, Ohio. Iowa. E. O. McCowen, County Superintendent of Macy Campbell, Public Schools, Cedar Falls, Schools , Portsmouth, Ohio. Iowa. A. G. Yawberg, County Superintendent of Bertha Tyler, Superintendent Consolidated Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. School , Orient, Iowa. H. E. Watson, Route 1 , Olustee, Okla. Olive Thompson, County Superintendent of J. C. Muerman, State Teachers College, Schools , Kansas City, Kans . Durant, Okla. Mrs. Mary Milligan Stroud, 505 Missouri Mrs. Alice M. M. Bacon, County Superin- Street, St. Marys, Kans. tendent of Schools , Grants Pass, Oreg. Flora Guethlin, County Superintendent of Maude Northcutt, County Superintendent of Rice County Schools, Lyons , Kans . Schools , Normal, Okla. J. V. Chapman , State Supervisor of Rural J. A. Churchill, State Superintendent of Schools, Frankfort, Ky. Public Instruction, Salem, Oreg. F. C. Button, President, State Normal Lee L. Driver, Director, Rural Education, School , Morehead, Ky. Harrisburg, Pa. John M. Foote, State Rural School Super- Irving C. Mitchell, Superintendent of visor, Baton Rouge, La. Schools, Valley Falls, R. I. W. C. Roaten, 412 5th Street, DeRidder, La. Lillian E. Knowles, R. F. D. 41, Narragan- Walter J. Rideout, Superintendent of Schools, sett Pier, R. I. Dover-Foxcroft, Maine. D. L. Lewis, Rural School Supervisor, Evelyn Hodgdon, Teacher of Model Rural Columbia, S. C. School , Gorham, Maine. Bonnie Martin, Assistant in Rural Educa- Ruth Holgate, Rural Helping Teacher, 289 tion, Pierre, S. Dak. College Street, Lewiston, Maine. Sue M. Powers, Court House, Memphis, Ruby Hayman, Rock-a-walkin, ' Wicomico Tenn. County, Md. Norman Frost, Professor of Rural Educa- Jennie Jessop, Supervisor of Rural Schools , tion, George Peabody College, Nashville, Towson, Md. Tenn. Harry H. Lowry, Superintendent of Schools, M. E. Moore, Superintendent of Schools , Waltham, Mass. Beaumont, Tex. David Malcolm, Superintendent of Schools, Taylor Brockbank, R. D. 4. Murray, Utah. Hinsdale, Mass. Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, Teachers Fred C. Fischer, Assistant County Commis- Training Course, St. Johnsbury, Vt. sioner, 501 County Building, Detroit, Robert Μ. Newton, Superintendent of Mich. Schools, Franklin, Va. Lela M. McDowell, R. F. D. No. 3 , Kala- Mrs. F. C. Beverly, Principal, Whitmell High mazoo , Mich. School, Whitmell, Va. Ernest C. Burnham, Head, Rural Depart- Mrs. Minnie G. Bean, Director of Elemen- ment, Western State Normal School, Kal- amazoo, Mich. tary Grades , Tacoma, Wash. Amalia M. Bengston, County Superintendent Z. May Meighen, Box 86, Olympia, Wash. of Schools, Olivia, Minn. A. S. Burrows , County Superintendent of Anna Swenson, State Supervisor, Historical Schools , Seattle, Wash . Building, St. Paul, Minn. J. D. Muldoon, Supervisor, Rural Schools, Mabel Hondo, 2636 Dupont Avenue N., Charleston , W. Va. Minneapolis, Minn . Elsie Hildebrandt, Rural Teacher, Schofield, Wis. V. Josephine Fitts. County Superintendent of Schools, Natchez , Miss. O. M. Neale, Director, Rural Education, J. T. Calhoun , State Supervisor of Rural State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. Schools , Jackson, Miss. John F. Sims, President, State Normal Grace M. Shepherd, State Teachers College, School, Stevens Point, Wis . Maryville, Mo. May Hamilton, County Superintendent of W. T. Clopton, Superintendent of Schools, Schools , Casper, Wyo . Pineville, Mo. H. M. Wells, Supervising Principal of Maui A. A. Wood, Superintendent of Schools, Schools, Hamakuapoko, Maui, Hawaii. Libby. Mont. Charl O. Williams, Director of the Division G. H. Willman, Superintendent of Schools, of Legislative Work of the N. E. A. as- Chinook , Mont. signed consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Lyle Guyer , Rural Teacher, Blair. Nebr. Street N. W., Washington, D. C. 958 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON THE PROBLEM OF TENURE (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Fred M. Hunter, Chairman, Superintendent Mrs. Elizabeth U. Haney, Vocational High of Schools , Oakland, Calif. School, Minneapolis, Minn. John W. Abercrombie, State Superintendent Mrs. E. L. Kent, Secretary, Montgomery of Education, Montgomery, Ala. County Teachers Assn. , Winona, Miss. C. C. Denny, Public Schools, Conway, Ark. Charles A. Lee, State Superintendent of Annie G. Griffey, Primary Supervisor, 2110 Public Schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Battery Street, Little Rock, Ark. A. G. Capps, Associate Professor, School Emma Brosam, 825 N. and Avenue, Administration, University of Missouri , Phoenix, Ariz. Columbia, Mo. John D. Loper, Superintendent of Schools, R. J. Cuningham, Secretary, Montana State Phoenix , Ariz. Teachers Assn., Room 9, Kohrs Block, Mark Keppel, County Superintendent of Helena, Mont. Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Florence Case, 514 West 23rd Street, Kear- Mrs. Emma A. Dacre, 45 Henry Street, ney, Nebr. San Francisco, Calif. Cecile Hoehne, High School , Beatrice, Nebr. W. D. Blaine, Superintendent of Schools, W. W. Anderson, Superintendent of Schools, Glenwood Springs, Colo. Tonopah, Nev. Edward B. Sellew, Superintendent of Mrs. Alice Rose, Battle Mountain, Nev. Schools, Middletown, Conn. Clifton A. Towle, Superintendent of Schools, Clara Mendenhall, 8th and Woolaston Streets, Exeter, N. Η . Wilmington, Del. Ide G. Sargeant, Principal, Public School Anne Goding, Wilson Normal School, Wash- No. 10, Paterson , N. J. ington, D. C. Isabel Eckles, State Superintendent of Pub- James S. Rickards, Superintendent of lic Instruction, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Schools, Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Jackson Gallup, Principal, Public School 18, Mrs. Jane A. Davis, 113 North Blvd., Rochester, N. Y. Tampa, Fla. John F. Harris, Principal, Public School Julia Prentiss, 216 West Jessamine Street, 44, Brooklyn, N. Y. Fitzgerald, Ga. Mrs. Bridgett C. Peixotto, 274 Beach 141st Ethel Redfield, High School Inspector, State Street, Belle Harbor, N. Y. Department, Boise, Idaho. Beulah Searing, 1131 Bergen Street, Brook- Flora E. Eddy, P. O. Box 257, Rockford, lyn, N. Y. 111. Nora Barron, 738 Cromwell Avenue, St. Margaret Murphy, Principal, High School, Paul, Minn. Carlinville, Ill. A. J. Hutchins , Superintendent of Schools, H. Lester Smith, Indiana University, Bloom- Canton, N. C. ington, Ind. Sue Nash, 201 S. Fulton Street, Salisbury, Iola Quigley, 928 30th Street, Des Moines, N. C. Iowa. Minnie J. Neilson , State Superintendent of Walter B. McMahon, 1102 N. 2nd Street, Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. Dak. Clinton, Iowa. M. E. McCurdy, Secretary, N. D. State Clara Johnston, 1509 Clay Street, Topeka, Teachers Assn. , Washburn, N. Dak. Kans. A. T. Carr, South High School, Cleveland, L. A. Lowther, Superintendent of Schools, Ohio. Emporia, Kans. A. L. Eyler, 4311 Franklin Avenue, Nor- R. E. Williams, Secretary, Kentucky Educa- wood, Ohio. tion Assn. , 319-320 Starks Bldg., Louis- Anna Lockwood Peterson, 18 Haddon Hall, ville, Ky. Cincinnati, Ohio. Miss Reed Potter, 1234 State Street, Bowl- Etta Dale, 505 South Rock Island, El Reno , ing Green, Ky. Okla. Loretta Doerr, 1324 North Rampart, New A. L. Ives , Superintendent of Schools, Orleans, La. Apache, Okla. Nell Dawson, 173 Bond Street, Astoria, Nicholas Bauer, Superintendent of Schools , Oreg. New Orleans, La. Addie M. Clark, 331 Chamber of Commerce W. B. Woodbury, Superintendent of Schools, Building, Portland, Oreg. Skowhegan, Maine. H. W. Dodd, Superintendent of Schools, C. W. Bickford, Superintendent of Schools, Allentown, Pa. Lewiston, Maine. Jessie Gray, 1210 Fillmore Street, Philadel- Mrs. Elizabeth Poisal, Public Schools, El- phia, Pa. licott City, Md. John Adams, Principal, Perry School, Pitts- Stella E. Brown, Board of Education, Fred- burgh, Pa. erick, Md. Charles Carroll, College of Education, Provi- W. K. Klingaman, Principal, Frederick dence, R. I. High School, Frederick, Md. Herbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools, Julia Sullivan, 9 Marion Street, Charles- 35 Powell Avenue, Newport, R. I. town, Mass. David B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Col- Jeremiah E. Burke, Superintendent Schools, lege, Rock Hill, S. C. Boston, Mass. A. H. Seymour, 1518 South Grand Street, Mildred M. Hartwell, 45 Maple Avenue, Aberdeen, S. Dak. Greenfield, Mass. Sara Johnston, Box 162, Rapid City, S. D. R. W. Ward, Superintendent of Schools , O. H. Bernard, State Agent for Rural Otsego, Mich. Schools, Nashville, Tenn. Elizabeth McCrickett, Public Schools, Ypsi- Mrs. L. S. Gillentine, Middle Tennessee lanti, Mich. Normal School, Murfreesboro, Tenn. Margaret King, Elementary School Princi- Mrs. Lucy Walton, 3415 Richmond Street, pal, 842 Laurel Avenue, St. Paul, Minn . El Paso, Tex. Helen Shove, 3116 Clinton Avenue, Minne- R. B. Cousins, President, South Texas State apolis, Minn. Teachers College, Kingsville, Tex. COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 959 W. Karl Hopkins, Superintendent of Schools, Joseph Rosier, Fairmont Normal School, Ogden, Utah. Fairmont, W. Va. Clarence H. Dempsey, Commissioner of Edu- Meta Jonas, 420 Market Street, La Crosse, cation, Montpelier, Vt. Wis. Mildred E. Spooner, Lindenhurst Street, Brattleboro, Vt. Frank Longanecker, Superintendent of Mrs. Alice W. Lovett, 820 West Grace Schools , Racine, Wis. Street, Richmond , Va. F. O. Holt, Superintendent of Schools, Hannah Cohn, 2317 Grove Avenue, Rich- Janesville, Wis . mond, Va, Mrs. Katherine A. Morton, State Superin- Stephen Dwan, Head, Commercial Depart- tendent of Public Instruction, Cheyenne, ment, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wyo. Wash . Dora Herren, 317 Central Building, Seattle, J. A. Wilson, Principal, Liliuokalani School, Wash. Honolulu , Hawaii. Elmer L. Breckner, 107 East 21st Street, Margaret Alltucker, Assistant Director of Olympia, Wash. the Research Division of the N. Ε. Α. , Bess J. Anderson, 815 Murdock Avenue, assigned consulting member, 1201 Six- Parkersburg, W. Va. teenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE TO COOPERATE WITH THE AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP LEAGUE (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Fannie Fern Andrews, Chairman, 405 Marl- Frank A. Rexford, 500 Park Avenue, New borough Street, Boston 17, Mass. York City. Joseph Swain, Swarthmore College, Swarth- J. G. Masters, Principal, Central High more, Pa. School , Omaha, Nebr. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, Mamie S. Bastian, 812 Bell Avenue, Hous- Brookline, Mass. ton, Tex. H. B. Wilson , Superintendent of Schools, Agnes Winn, Director of the Division of Berkeley, Calif. Classroom Service, assigned consulting James F. Hosic, Teachers College, Colum- member, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. , bia University, New York City. Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON AMERICAN EDUCATION WEEK TO COOPERATE WITH THE AMERICAN LEGION AND U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Thomas E. Johnson, Chairman, State Super- John A. H. Keith, President, State Normal intendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, School, Indiana, Pa. Mich. Ella V. Dobbs, University of Missouri, Edward L. Holton, 214 North 14th Street, Columbia, Mo. Manhattan, Kans. Avon S. Hall, Principal, Medill High School, Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, De- Chicago, Ill. troit, Mich. Abby Porter Leland, 60 West roth Avenue, J. Montgomery Gambrill, Teachers College, New York City. Columbia University, New York City. Ambrose Cort, Principal, Public School 73, Florence Hale, Agent for Rural Education, Rockaway Avenue & McDougal Street, State House, Augusta, Maine. Brooklyn, N. Y. Ira T. Chapman, Superintendent of Schools, Edwin A. Alderman, President, University Elizabeth, N. J. of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. J. F. West. Superintendent of Schools, Pasa- Will C. Wood, Superintendent of Public dena, Calif. Instruction, Sacramento, Calif, Arthur H. Chamberlain, 933 Phelan Build- F. M. Underwood, District Superintendent ing, San Francisco, Calif. of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. Olivia Pound, Assistant Principal, Lincoln Agnes Winn, Direcor of the Division of High School, Lincoln , Nebr. Classroom Service of the N. E. A. , as- Robert I. Elliott, State Normal School, signed consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Chadron, Nebr. Street N. W., Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON THE AMERICAN SCHOOL PROGRAM (Authorized by Representative Assembly) William B. Owen, Chairman, President, Chi- ministration, University of Chicago, Chi- cago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. cago, Ill. Stanley H. Holmes , Superintendent of Ellwood P. Cubberley, Dean , School of Schools , New Britain, Conn. Education, Stanford University, Stanford John W. Withers, Dean, School of Educa- University, Calif. tion, New York University, New York Charles H. Judd, University of Chicago, City. Chicago, Ill. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Colum- bia University, New York City. A. B. Meredith, Commissioner of Educa- William C. Bagley, Teachers College, tion, Hartfort, Conn. Columbia University, New York City. Benjamin J. Burris, President, State Normal E. L. Thorndike, Columbia University, New School, Muncie, Ind. York City. H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Franklin Bobbitt, Professor of School Ad- Berkeley, Calif. 960 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION E. E. Cortright, Superintendent of Schools, P. C. Packer , Dean, University of Iowa, Bridgeport, Conn. Iowa City, Iowa. R. M. Sipple, Superintendent of Schools, Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street, Burlington, Iowa. Somerville, Mass. Frank Gody. Superintendent of Schools, T. N. Harris, State Superintendent of Edu- Detroit, Mich. cation, Baton Rouge, La. Herbert S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools, W. H. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, Colum- Rochester, N. Y. bia University, New York City. George N. Child, Superintendent of Schools, Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwestern Salt Lake City, Utah. State Teachers College, Marysville, Mo. Margaret Noonan, New York University, J. O. Engleman, Superintendent of Schools, New York City. May Trumper, State Superintendent Public Terre Haute, Ind. Instruction , Helena, Mont. Marion Hanckel, 20 Church Street, Charles- Margaret P. Raga, 8 Henry Street, New ton, N. C. York City. Mrs. Nellie Ramsay, Hillsboro High School, Rose Pesta. Windemere Hotel , Chicago, Ill. Tampa, Fla. Helen Parkhurst, Children's University, 10 John K. Norton, Director of the Division of West 72nd Street, New York City. Research of the N. E. A. , assigned con- Ethel I. Salisbury, 855 No. Vermont Ave. , sulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. Los Angeles, Calif. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON ARITHMETIC REVISION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Guy M. Wilson, Chairman, Boston Uni- S. A. Courtis, Director, Department of In- versity, Boston, Mass. struction, City Schools, Detroit, Mich. Margaret E. Noonan, New York University, Clifford B. Upton, Teachers College, Colum- New York City. bia University, New York City. Ruby Minor, Director of Primary Educa- tion, State Teachers & Junior College, John H. Cook, 110 Morningside Drive, New San Diego , Calif. York City. Ethel Salisbury, 855 North Vermont Av- M. R. Trabue, University of North Carolina, enue, Los Angeles, Calif. Chapel Hill, N. C. Randall G. Condon, Friendship, Maine. J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools, H. S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools, Des Moines, Iowa. Rochester , N. Y. J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, John S. Roberts, District Superintendent, San Francisco, Calif. Public Schools, New York City. E. C. Higbie, President, Eastern State Nor- Josephine C. Griffith, 881 Boulevard, Bay- mal School, Madison , S. D. onne, N. J. Katherine Burggraf, Forney Hall, Moscow, W. S. Guiler, Miami University, Oxford, Idaho. Ohio. Clifford Woody, University of Michigan, Joy E. Morgan, Director of the Division of Ann Arbor, Mich. Publications of the N. E. A. , assigned W. S. Monroe, University of Illinois, Ur- consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street bana, Ill. N. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON CHARACTER EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Milton Bennion, Chairman, Dean, School of T. W. Galloway, 370 Seventh Avenue, New Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake York City. City, Utah. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Sarah Louise Arnold, Simmons College, Los Angeles, Calif. Boston, Mass. Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs Fannie Fern Andrews, 405 Marlborough School, Minneapolis, Minn. Street, Boston 17 , Mass. J. L. Merriam, University of California, Los Jeremiah E. Burke, Superintendent of Angeles , Calif. Schools, Boston, Mass. Margaret Rae, Principal, Public School No. Ira I. Cammack, Superintendent of Schools, 1, New York City. Kansas City, Mo. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, Olive M. Jones, 310 West 97th Street, New Brookline, Mass. York City. W. W. Charters, University of Pittsburgh, John R. Kirk, State Teachers College, Kirks- Pittsburgh, Pa. ville, Mo. O. B. Drake, Superintendent of Schools, J. W. Searson, State University, Lincoln, District No. 1, Cannon City, Colo. Nebr. Edwin D. Starbuck, University of Iowa, Mrs. Sandy Gregory, Rural Teacher, Faxon, Okla. Iowa City, Iowa. Catherine Haifleigh, 1115 Green Street, Har- William H. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, risburg, Pa . Columbia University, New York City. Arthur L. Beeley, Chicago University, Chi- Howard C. Hill, University High School, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. cago, Ill. T. M. Muir, Principal, Junior High School, H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati , Ohio . Berkeley, Calif. A. Duncan Yocum, University of Pennsyl- Edna Watson Bailey, Supervisor of Science, vania, Philadelphia, Pa. University High School, Oakland, Calif. Charles E. Rugh , University of California , Clarence Hayden, 2509 Napoleon Avenue, Berkeley, Calif. New Orleans, La. E. O. Sisson, Reed College, Portland, Merle Prunty, Principal, Central High Oregon. School, Tulsa, Okla. COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 961 Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, McKinley School , Leila Tilley, 710 Fort Street, Boise, Idaho. Lincoln, Nebr. S. D. Shankland, Secretary, Department of A. L. Threlkeld, Deputy Superintendent of Superintendence, assigned consulting mem- Schools, Denver, Colo. ber, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. , Wash- ington, D. С. COMMITTEE ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Thomas H. Briggs , Chairman, Professor of State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. Education, Teachers College, Columbia J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools, University, New York City. Des Moines, Iowa. B. R. Buckingham, Director, Bureau of Lucy Gage, Asst. Professor of Education, Educational Research, Ohio State Uni- George Peabody College for Teachers, versity, Columbus, Ohio. Nashville, Tenn. Stuart A. Courtis, Director, Instruction and John K. Norton, Director of the Division of Teacher Training , Detroit, Mich . Research of the N. E. A. , assigned as Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street Schools , Baltimore, Md. N. W. , Washington, D. C. W. F. Russell, Dean, College of Education, COMMITTEE ON CO -INCLUSIVE MEMBERSHIP (Authorized by Board of Directors) Thomas J. Walker, Chairman, 800 Conley cation Assn. , 319-320 Starks Bldg., Louis- Street, Columbia, Mo. ville, Ky. H. G. Dowling, Secretary, Alabama Edu- P. H. Griffith , Secretary, Louisiana Public cation Assn., 415 First National Bank School Teachers Assn. , Baton Rouge, La. Bldg. , Montgomery, Ala. Eleanor Riggs, 1421 Cadiz Street, New A. B. Hill, State Superintendent of Public Orleans, La. Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Josiah W. Taylor, State Agent for Secon- John D. Loper, Superintendent of Schools, dary Education, Augusta, Maine. Phoenix , Ariz . Hugh W. Caldwell, Secretary, Maryland Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, Cali- State Teachers Assn., Chesapeake City, fornia State Teachers Assn., 933 Phelan Md. Bldg., San Francisco , Calif. Elizabeth Kennedy, 223 Pine Street, Lowell, Melvin E. Bowman, President, City Teach- Mass. ers Assn. , Santa Barbara, Calif. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, Mary Mooney. Director of Department of Brookline, Mass . Texts and Libraries , c/o Superintendent Katherine Kelly, 126 Walker Street, Lowell , of Schools , City Hall, San Francisco , Mass. Calif . Mrs. Lettie A. Marsh , President, Grand Minnie B. Addleman, 900 Sherman Street, Rapids Teachers Club, Grand Rapids, Denver, Colo . Mich. H. B. Smith , Secretary, Colorado Education Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Principal, Palmer Assn. , 520 Commonwealth Bldg., Denver, School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Colo. Ernest T. Cameron, Secretary, Michigan Myra A. Sinclair, 1215 Elizabeth Street, State Teachers Assn. , 809 Prudden Bldg. , Denver Colo . Lansing, Mich. A. B. Meredith, State Superintendent of W. H. Shephard, 1115 Thomas Avenue, Public Instruction , Hartford, Conn. Minneapolis, Minn. H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs Public Instruction, Dover, Del. School, Minneapolis, Minn. Harry English, Franklin School, Washing- J. N. Taylor, Secretary, Mississippi State ton, D. C. Teachers Assn. , State Department of Edu- O. I. Woodley, Clermont, Fla. cation, Jackson, Miss. J. E. Mathis , Superintendent of Schools, E. M. Carter, Secretary, Missouri State Americus , Ga. Teachers Assn. , Columbia , Mo. J. W. Longfellow, Principal , Nampa High E. M. Hosman, Secretary, Nebraska State School, Nampa, Idaho, Teachers Assn., 311 Fraternity Bldg. , Lin- Robert C. Moore, Secretary, Illinois State coln, Nebr. Teachers Assn ., Carlinville, Ill. Maude Frazier, Deputy, State Department, Frances Harden , 1543 Sherwin Avenue, Chi- Fifth District, Las Vegas , Nev. cago, Ill . Alice S. Mildram, Principal, Farragut Mrs. Blanche Preble, 6436 Yale Avenue, School, Portsmouth , N. Η . Chicago, Ill. Mrs. Josephine Lockard, 635 Rio Grande B. J. Burris, President, State Normal School, Avenue, Raton, N. Mex. Muncie, Ind. Sara L. Rhodes, Principal, Public School Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Indiana No. 28, 10OI Herkimer Street, Brooklyn , State Teachers Assn. , Room 208 , Claypool N. Y. Hotel, Indianapolis, Ind. F. D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools, Myrtle Warner, Public Schools, Ottumwa, Ithaca, N. Y. Iowa. Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Macy Campbell, Public Schools, Cedar Falls , Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Iowa. Jule B. Waren, Secretary, North Carolina Charles F. Pye, Secretary, Iowa State Teachers Assembly, Box 887 , Raleigh, N. Teachers Assn. , 504 Youngerman Bldg. , C. Des Moines, Iowa. M. E. McCurdy, Secretary, North Dakota M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools, State Teachers Assn., Washburn , N. D. Kansas City, Kans . Anna Lockwood Peterson, Hughes High R. E. Williams , Secretary, Kentucky Edu- School, Cincinnati , Ohio. 962 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Frank E. Reynolds , Secretary, Ohio State Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue, Rich- Teachers Assn., 428 Chamber of Com- mond, Va. merce Bldg., Columbus , Ohio . Arthur L. Marsh, Secretary, Washington C. M. Howell, Room IOI , State Capitol, Education Assn. , 707 Lowman Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. Seattle, Wash. E. D. Ressler, Secretary, Oregon State Florence Ely, Adna, Wash. Teachers Assn., Corvallis , Oregon. Clara L. Jahnke, Irving School, Spokane, James H. Kelley, Secretary, Pennsylvania Wash. State Education Assn. , 400 N. 3rd St. , Har- Mabel V. Wilson, President , Seattle Grade risburg, Pa. Kate Wofford, County Superintendent of Teachers Club , Seattle, Wash. Schools, Laurens, S. C. J. H. Hickman, Superintendent of Schools, A. A. McDonald, Superintendent of Schools, Hinton, W. Va. Sioux Falls , S. D. E. G. Doudna, Secretary, Wisconsin Teach- S. L. Smith, General Agent, Julius Rosen- ers Assn., 611 Beaver Bldg., Madison , Wis. wald Fund, Chamber of Commerce, Nash- ville, Tenn. R. A. Karges, State Normal School, River Beulah L. Keeton, 5511 Tremont Street, Falls, Wis. Dallas, Tex . A. A. Slade, Superintendent of Schools, Cas- Eula F. Hunter, 1324 East Morphy Street, per, Wyo. Fort Worth, Tex. Mrs. Edith S. Troeller, Lihue, Kauai, Theodore D. Martin, Secretary, Utah Edu- Hawaii. cational Assn. , 317 State Capitol Build- W. E. Givens, Superintendent of Public In- ing, Salt Lake City, Utah. struction, Honolulu, Hawaii. D. W. McClelland, Superintendent of Harriett M. Chase, Assistant to the Secre- Schools , Bennington, Vt. tary, assigned consulting member, 1201 Lillian Goldsberry, Public Schools, Norfolk, Sixteenth Street N. W. , Washington, Va. D. C. COMMITTEE ON COMMUNITY RELATIONS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) George E. Carrothers, Chairman , Ohio Uni- Rollo Reynolds, Teachers College, Columbia versity, Athens, Ohio. University, New York City. T. B. Atmore, County Superintendent of J. W. Shideler, Principal , High School , Fort Schools , Vandemere, N. C. Scott, Kans. Fred Bair, Superintendent of Schools, Colo- W. M. Smith, Assistant State Superintendent rado Springs, Colo. of Schools, Salem, Oregon. Florence Clark , East Main Street, Jackson, I. E. Stutsman, Superintendent of Schools , Mich. Sterling, Colo. Carrie L. Cooper, 1314 West 7th Street, Anna Thompson, Haddon Hall, Linwood & Wilmington, Del . Tracy, Kansas City, Mo. Mabel Vanderbilt, Supervising Principal, E. K. Fretwell, Teachers College, Columbia Princeton, N. J. University, New York City. Margaret Wallace, Box 762, Greybull, Wyo . Anna Laura Force, 216 Sherman Street, Mary Woodruff , Director of School and Com- Denver, Colo. munity Betterment, Montgomery, Ala. Emily Griffith, Principal, Opportunity A. C. Eldredge, Assistant Superintendent of School , Denver, Colo . Schools, Cleveland, Ohio . J. B. Holloway, State Supervisor of High Marie W. Wilson, Supervisor of Community Schools , Frankfort, Ky. Centers, Board of Education, Cleveland, Lucy Mason Holt, 121 West 28th Street, Ohio. Norfolk , Va . W. O. Schanlaub , County Superintendent of Myrtle U. Hooper, 4046 Upton Avenue Schools , Kentland, Ind. South, Minneapolis, Minn. Marvin S. Pittman, Head of the Depart- M. H. Hughes, 4401 Chester Street, El Paso,, ment of Rural Education, Michigan State Tex. Normal School , Ypsilanti, Mich. Minnie L. Moore, Ninth Street, Willoughby Robert E. St. Claire, Principal of Elemen- Beach, Va. tary School, 1344 Laurel Street, St. Louis, James T. Mulroy, Director of the Extended Mo. Use of Public Schools , Boston , Mass . William C. Westfall, Director of Unorgan- A. P. Patton, 650 East 51st Street, North, ized Activities, Board of Education, Cleve- Portland , Oregon . land, Ohio. Clarence A. Perry, Associate Director, Rus- Agnes Winn, Director of the Division of sel Sage Foundation, New York City. Classroom Service of the N. E. A. , as- Hattie Pickles , Southern State Normal signed consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth School , Springfield, S. Dak. Street N. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON COOPERATION WITH THE WORLD FEDERATION OF NA- TIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Augustus O. Thomas , Chairman , Commis- John H. Finley, " New York Times," New sioner of Education, Augusta, Maine. York City. James F. Hosic, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Stephen P. Duggan, Director, The Institute of International Education, 522 Fifth Av- Katherine D. Blake, Public School No. 6, enue, New York City. New York City. Charles H. Williams, University of Missouri, Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Columbia, Mo. Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 963 Abby Porter Leland, 60 West roth Street, J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools , New York City. Des Moines, Iowa. W. K. Dwyer, Superintendent of Schools, George W. Frazier, President, State Teach- Anaconda, Mont. ers College, Greeley, Colo. James W. Gowans, Superintendent of Schools , Hutchinson, Kans. H. L. Smith, Dean, School of Education, Arthur J. Matthews , President, Tempe Nor- Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. mal School of Arizona, Tempe, Ariz. Minnie J. Nielson, State Superintendent of Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street, Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. D. Somerville, Mass. Miss Willie Lawson, Deputy Superintendent Florence Holbrook , 4429 Greenwood Av- of Schools , Little Rock, Ark. enue, Chicago, Ill . Charl O. Williams, Director of the Legisla- Jeannette Jacobson, 1334 Kellam Avenue, Los Angeles, Calif. tive Work of the N. E. A. , assigned con- Archibald J. Cloud, 2775 Union Street, San sulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. Francisco, Calif. W. , Washington, D. C. EDITORIAL COUNCIL (Authorized by Representative Assembly) William C. Bagley, Chairman, Teachers Col- James H. Kelley, Secretary, Pennsylvalnia lege, Columbia University, New York State Education Assn. , Harrisburg, Pa. City. Florence Mann , Director, Department of Mary E. Ahearn, Editor, Public Libraries, Education, Seattle Times , Seattle, Wash . 214 W. Monroe Street, Chicago, Ill. Lulu D. Metz, President, Virginia State Sarah Louise Arnold, Dean Emeritus, Sim- Teachers Assn., Box 281 , Manassas , Va . mons College, Boston, Mass. Mary F. Mooney, Vice-Principal, Washing- Katherine D. Blake, Principal, Public School ton School, 251 Missouri Street, San Fran- No. 6, New York City. cisco, Calif. James C. Boykin, Editor, " School Life, " U. S. M. V. O'Shea, Professor of Education, Uni- Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, Cali- Charles F. Pye, Secretary, Iowa State fornia State Teachers Assn., Phelan Bldg., Teachers Assn., Des Moines, Iowa. San Francisco, Calif. W. Carson Ryan, Jr. , Associate Editor, Lotus D, Coffman, President, University of "School and Society," and Professor of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Education, Swarthmore College, Swarth- Jessie B. Colburn, Principal, Junior High more, Pa. School No. 96, New York City. Julia A. Spooner, President, Department of Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools , Classroom Teachers, Box 188 , R. No. 3 , Los Angeles, Calif. Lents Station, Portland, Oregon. Lee L. Driver, State Rural School Inspector, George L. Towne, President, University State House, Harrisbug , Pa. Publishing Company, Lincoln, Nebr. Jessie M. Fink, Principal , Palmer School, H. G. Williams, Editor, "Ohio Teacher," Grand Rapids, Mich. Columbus , Ohio. Carleton H. Gibson, Superintendent of Walter S. Painter, Superintendent of Schools, Schools , Savannah, Ga. Mt. Vernon , Ind. Frank P. Graves , State Commissioner of Joy E. Morgan, Director of the Division of Education , Albany, N. Y. Publications, assigned consulting member, John A. H. Keith , President, State Normal 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. , Washington, School , Indiana, Pa. D. C. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL NOMENCLATURE (Authorized by Representative Assembly) John W. Withers, Chairman, Dean, School Elizabeth Hall, Assistant Superintendent of of Education, New York University, New Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. York City. J. R. McGaughey, Teachers College, Colum- William K. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, bia University, New York City. Columbia University, New York City. Franklin Bobbitt, Professor of School Ad- W. W. Charters , University of Pittsburgh, ministration, University of Chicago, Chi- Pittsburgh, Pa. cago, Ill. Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools , John K. Norton, Director of the Division of Montclair, N. J. Research of the N. E. A. , assigned con- W. W. Theisen, Assistant Superintendent of sulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. N. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON ENGLISH (Authorized by Representative Assembly) J. W. Searson, Chairman, University of Herbert E. Fowler, Chairman, English De- Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. partment, State Normal School, Belling- Howard R. Driggs, 620 West 115th Street, ham, Wash. New York City. R. W. Pence, Professor of English, DePauw O. B. Sperlin, Principal, Moran School, Roll- University , Greencastle, Ind. ing Bay, Wash. E. H. Kemper McComb , 509 South Meridian J. P. Simmons, Department of English, Bay- Street, Indianapolis, Ind. lor University, Waco, Tex. 964 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sarah T. Muir, Head, English Department, C. C. Certain, Board of Education, Detroit, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebr. Mich. Annie T. Bell, Teacher of English, Louisiana Hardin Craig, University of Iowa, Iowa University, Baton Rouge, La. City, Iowa. Esse Chamberlain, 114 South East Avenue, Cora Vaughn, High School, Winfield, Kans. Oak Park, Ill. Russell A. Sharp. 315 S. Kensington Avenue, Alice Louise Marsh, Southwestern High Kansas City, Mo. School , Detroit, Mich. Orton Lowe, 3207 N. 2nd Street, Harris- Elga M. Shearer, 555 Pacific Street, Long burg, Pa. Beach, Calif. Henrietta Prentiss, Hunter College, New Charles O. Stewart, Professor , State Normal York City. School, Huntsville , Tex. T. W. Gosling, Superintendent of Schools, O. B. Staples, University High School, Baton Rouge, La. Madison, Wis. Joy E. Morgan, Director of the Division of Angela Keyes , Maxwell Training School, Publications of the N. E. A. , assigned Prospect Place, Brooklyn , N. Y. consulting member, 120r Sixteenth Street Treda Gildemeister, State Normal School, N. W. , Washington, D. C. Winona, Minn. COMMITTEE ON ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Alma Krusen, 1345 South Lafayette Street, Sarah T. Muir, Chairman, 1801 South 17th Street. Lincoln, Nebr. Denver, Colo. H. M. Barrett, Head, Department of Edu- Mrs. Gertrude Liggett, Assistant Commis- sioner of Education, San Juan, Porto cation, University of Colorado, Boulder, Rico. Colo. Cass Street, George A. Bassford, Principal, High School, Jeanette McDonald , 3848 Ashland, Wis . Omaha , Nebr. Annie T. Bell, Louisiana State University, John J. McNamara , Principal Quinn School, Baton Rouge, La. 717 Cherokee Street, Bethlehem, Pa. Herbert D. Bixby, Assistant Superintendent Flora Menzel, Room 150, Hotel Wisconsin , of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio . Wilwaukee , Wis . C. E. Bocock, President, State Normal John Merrill, 1526 Garland Avenue, Detroit, School , Albion, Idaho. Mich. F. D. Brooks, Johns Hopkins University, W. H. Morton , Superintendent of Schools , Baltimore, Md. Beatrice, Nebr. Eva Byerly, 1215 Second Avenue East, R. H. Morrison, State Teachers College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Greeley, Colorado. George G. Chambers, Chairman, Pennsyl- E. E. Oberholzer , Superintendent of Schools, vania Committee on Professional Ethics, Philadelphia, Pa. Houston, Tex. WillG. Chambers, Dean, School of Educa- Nathan Peyser, Principal , Public School 181, tion, Pennsylvania State College, State New York Avenue near Snyder Avenue, College, Pa. Brooklyn , N. Y. Carroll D. Champlin, Southwestern State Shelton Phelps, George Peabody College, Normal School, California, Pa . Nashville, Tenn. P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of Schools, C. M. Porter, Principal, Central Grammar Tulsa, Okla. School, Temple, Tex. W. A. Cook, University of South Dakota, L. C. Rhoads, Supervisor of High School Vermilion, S. Dak. Instruction, Mount Vernon , N. Y. Arthur G. Crane, President, University of E. L. Rouse, Superintendent of Schools, Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo . Scottsbluff, Nebr. Bessie C. Devine, Assistant Superintendent of Schools , Wilmington , Del. Orson Ryan, Superintendent of Schools, J. B. Edmonson, University of Michigan, Logan, Utah. Ann Arbor, Mich . J. B. Sears , Professor of Education, Leland Mrs. Ethel Eldredge, Public Schools, Step- Stanford University, Stanford University, toe, Wash. . Calif G. E. Everett, Principal City Schools, Box 3 Willian C. Shute, Principal, Wyman School, Lakeland, Fla. Denver, Colo. T. V. Goodrich, 1219 South 27th Street,) E. M. Sipple, Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln , Nebr. Burlington, Iowa. J. W. Gowans , Superintendent of Schools, May Wade, 2400 Durant Avenue, Berkeley, Hutchinson, Kans. Calif. C. A. Greene, Superintendent of Schools, St. C. F. Taensch, Associate Professor of Joseph, Mo. Philosophy, State University, Iowa City, O. A. Hamilton, Superintendent of Schools, Iowa. Goldsboro , N. C. R. J. Walters, Principal, University Park C. A. Fetterly, Chairman, New Jersey Com- School, Denver, Colo . mission on Professional Ethics, Ruther- Justin Washburn, County Superintendent of ford, N. J. Schools , Rock Island, Ill. Theodore W. H. Irion, Columbia University, Pearl R. Wasson, Dean of Women, Uni- New York City. versity of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. A. S. Jessup. Superintendent of Schools, I. L. Williamson, State High School In- Cheyenne, Wyo . spector, Salt Lake City, Utah. J. F. Keating, Superintendent of Schools, Jov E. Morgan, Director of the Division of Pueblo, Colo. Publications of the N. E. A. , assigned Helen M. King, 8 Walker Street, Portland, consulting member, 1201 sixteenth Street Maine. N. W. , Washington, D. С. COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 965 MEMBERS OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Thomas D. Wood, Chairman, Columbia Uni- Albert E. Winship, "Journal of Education, " versity, New York City. 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Robert J. Aley, President Butler College, Mary Murphy, Assistant Director, Elizabeth Indianapolis, Ind. McCormack Memorial Fund, 848 Dear- Katherine D. Blake, Principal Public School born Street, Chicago , I11 . No. 6, New York City. Emily Griffith , 1524 Fillmore Street, Den- Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent ver, Colo. of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Junior High School , Prin- William H. Burnham, Clark University, cipal 609 South 14th Street, Lincoln, Worcester, Mass. Nebr. F. B. Dresslar, Peabody College, Nashville , William A. Howe, State Medical Inspector, Tenn. University of the State of New York , Clark W. Hetherington, 3117 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. New York City. J. B. Nash , Room 404 City Hall, Oakland, John F. Keating, Superintendent of Schools , Calif. Pueblo, Colo. William D. Burdick, Director of Physical William B. Owen, President, Chicago Nor- Education , Baltimore, Md. mal College, Chicago, Ill. Blanche M. Trilling, Associate Professor of Josephine C. Preston, Superintendent of Pub- Physical Education, University of Wis- lic Instruction, Olympia, Wash. consin, Madison, Wis. Homer H. Seerley, President, Iowa State Agnes Winn, Director of the Division of Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Classroom Service of the N. E. A. , as- John J. Tigert, Commissioner of Education, signed consulting member, 1201 16th Washington, D. C. Street N. W. , Washington, D. C. ILLITERACY COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, Chairman, Edward W. Stitt, 1534 St. Nicholas Avenue, Frankfort, Ky . New York City. Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent George M. Ford, State Superintendent of of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Schools , Charleston, W. Va. Augustus O. Thomas, Commissioner of Edu- John N. Bennett, President, Doane College, cation, State House, Augusta, Me. Crete, Nebr. H. G. Bennett, Southeastern State Teachers T. G. Bennett, County Superintendent of College, Durant, Okla. Schools , Centerville, Md. W. T. Longshore, Principal, Greenwood John V. Conway, Assistant State Superin- School, Kansas City, Mo. tendent, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Minnie J. Nielson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Public Instruction , Bismarck, N. Dak . A. K. Herlihy, 126 Hancock Street, Everett, Miss Wil Lou Gray, Supervisor of Adult Mass. Schools , 707 National Loan and Exchange Alfred E. Rejall, Supervisor, Immigrant Bank Bldg. , Columbia, S. C. Education, New York State Department of Thomas E. Johnson, State Superintendent Education , Albany, N. Y. of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Elizabeth Rouse, 212 East 80th Street, Elizabeth Ash Woodward, Supervisor of Im- Seattle, Wash . migrant Education, State Department of Maude E. Aiton, Director of Americaniza- Education , Albany, N. Y. tion, Webster School, Washington, D. C. Ethel Richardson, Assistant State Superin- Charl O. Williams , Director of the Legisla- tendent, in Charge of Adult Education, tive Work of the N. E. A. , assigned con- Sacramento, Calif. sulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street S. K. Mardis, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. N. W. , Washington, D. C. LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) George D. Strayer, Chairman, Teachers Col- D. B. Waldo, President, State Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York lege, Kalamazoo, Mich. City. Will C. Wood, Superintendent of Public In- Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent struction , Sacramento, Calif. of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Payson Smith, Commissioner of Education, J. A. C. Chandler, President, College of Boston, Mass. William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Randall J. Condon, Friendship, Maine. Anna Riddle, 217 North 13th Street, St. William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Joseph, Mo. Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. John A. H. Keith, President, Indiana State Thomas E. Finegan, 13 Astor Place, Room Normal School, Indiana, Pa. 6307 , New York City. W. T. Longshore, Principal, Greenwood C. G. Cooper, County Superintendent of School, Kansas City, Mo. Schools , Towson, Md. Arthur C. Perry, Jr. , District Superintend- Willard E. Given , Superintendent of Public ent of Schools, Board of Education, New Instruction, Honolulu, Hawaii. York City. Thomas E. Johnson, State Superintendent Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Oakland, Calif. 966 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Olive M. Jones, 310 West 97th Street, New May Trumper, State Superintendent of York City. Schools , Helena, Mont. Mary McSkimmon, Principal , Pierce School, W. E. Sealock, Dean, School of Education , Brookline, Mass. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. H. L. Smith, Dean, School of Education, Velda Bamesberger, Director of Educational Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Statistics and Supervision, Okmulgee, Charl O. Williams, Director of the Division Okla. of Legislative Work of the N. E. A. , as- Caroline S. Pfaff, District Superintendent of signed consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Schools, New Orleans, La. Street N. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON RACIAL-WELL-BEING, 1924-25 (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Helen C. Putnam, M. D., Chairman, 312 Carroll G. Pearse, 3104 Wells Street, Apart- Laurel Avenue, Providence, R. I. ment 410, Milwaukee, Wis. RESEARCH ADVISORY COMMITTEE (Authorized by Executive Committee) J. A. C. Chandler, Chairman, President Col- Eugene Nifenacker, Director, Reference and lege of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Research New York City Schools, New Va. York City. Virgil E. Dickson, Director, Bureau of Re- Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Junior High School, search and Guidance, 1106 City Hall, 609 South 14th Street, Lincoln, Nebr. Oakland, Calif. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, John A. H. Keith, President, State Normal Brookline, Mass. School , Indiana, Pa. E. S. Evenden, Teachers College, Columbia Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, University, New York City. Montclair, N. J. George Melcher, Assistant Superintendent of John K. Norton, Director of the Division of Schools, in Charge of Research, Public Research of the N. E. A. , assigned con- Library Building, Room 226, Kansas sulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street City, Mo. N. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON RELATIONSHIPS (Authorized by Board of Directors) Olive M. Jones, Chairman, 310 West 97th John F. Sims, President, State Normal Street, New York City. School, Stevens Point, Wis . H. Z. Wilber, State Normal School, Ypsil- Loretta R. Doerr, 1323 North Rampart, New anti, Mich. Orleans, La. W. O. Holden, 46 Gooding Street, Paw- J. Y. Joyner, Tobacco Growers Coöperative tucket, R. I. Elizabeth Shelburne, Registrar, Carr-Bur- Association, Raleigh, N. C. dette College, Sherman, Tex. Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Anna Riddle, 217 North 13th Street, St. Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Joseph, Mo. Josephine C. Preston, Superintendent of Rice Brown, Principal, High School, Em- Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. poria, Kans . Anna Fant, State College for Women, Edith Hopkins, 1047 Sandusky Street, Columbus, Miss. Kansas City, Kans . Georgia Alexander, 1516 North Pennsyl- Bertha S. Armbruster, President, Illinois vania Street, Indianapolis, Ind. State Teachers Association, Chicago Di- Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, Normal vision, 4152 West End Avenue, Chicago, Training Course, Castleton, Vt. 111. J. H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebr. Atlanta, Ga . P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of Schools , Harriett M. Chase, Assistant to the Secre- Tulsa , Okla . tary, assigned consulting member, 1201 Carroll G. Pearse, 3104 Wells Street, Apart- Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. ment 410, Milwaukee, Wis. COMMITTEE FOR THE REVISION OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) James H. Kelley, Chairman, 400 North Agnes Winn, Director of the Division of Third Street, Harrisburg, Pa. Classroom Service of the N. E. A. , as- Carroll G. Pearse, 3104 Wells Street, Apart- signed consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth ment 410, Milwaukee, Wis . Street N. W. , Washington, D. C. Randall J. Condon, Friendship, Maine. Cora Mull, 4151 Berkeley Avenue, Chicago, S. D. Shankland, Executive Secretary, De- 111. partment of Superintendence, assigned Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Principal, Palmer consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Julia Spooner, Box 188, Route No. 3, Lents N. W. , Washington, D. C. Station, Portland, Oregon. COMMITTEES FOR 1924-25 967 COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS , REQUIREMENTS, AND CREDITS OF TEACHERS IN THE SERVICE (Authorized by Executive Committee) Joseph Rosier, Chairman , President, State J. W. Norman, Dean, Teachers College, Teachers College, Fairmont, W. Va. University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. J. H. Ames, President, State Normal School, W. R. Pate, President, Nebraska State Nor- River Falls, Wis. mal School and Teachers College, Peru, W. D. Armentrout, Colorado State Teachers Nebr. College, Greeley, Colo. Elsie G. Perce, 402 West IIth Street, An- B. R. Billinghurst, Superintendent of derson, Ind. Schools , Reno, Nev. C. A. Phillip, College of Education, Univer- Rosa Burmaster, Principal, Washington sity of Missouri , Columbia, Mo. School, 2172 East Main Street, Muncie, Anna L. Pierce, Classroom Teacher, City Ind. Public Schools, Ottumwa, Iowa. Thomas W. Butcher, President, Kansas State Sue Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Teachers College, Emporia, Kans. Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Tina Cook , 3334 Penn Street, St. Joseph, Mo. Charles Richardson, 748 Plymouth Building, R. B. Cousins, Kingsville, Texas. Minneapolis, Minn. Grant Ruland, Superintendent of Schools, Bessie C. Devine, Assistant Superintendent Gunnison, Colo. of Schools, Wilmington, Del. W. C. Stebbins, Superintendent of Schools , Glenn Drummond, County Superintendent Grand Forks, N. Dak. of Schools , Bellefontaine, Ohio . Paul Stetson, Taft School, Dayton, Ohio. Isabel Eckles, State Superintendent of Public Grace G. Swan, Supervisor of Elementary Instruction, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Practice, Hancock School, Pittsburgh , Pa. E. S. Evenden, Teachers College, Columbia May Trumper, State Superintendent of Pub- University, New York City. lic Instruction , Helena, Mont. Florence M. Hale, Agent for Rural Educa- May Wade, Classroom Teacher, Emerson tion, Augusta, Maine. School , Berkeley, Calif. Jessie M. Hamilton, Principal, Junior High Flora Menzel, Room 150 Hotel Wisconsin , School, Denver, Colo . Milwaukee, Wis . Mary Houston, Hinckley Community High Ella Wintler, Classroom Teacher, Public School, Hinckley, Ill. Schools, Vancouver, Wash. Clara L. Jahnke, 1219 9th Avenue, Spokane, Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Wash. Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Nell E. Lain, 4518 Montgall Street, Kansas J. A. Pittman, Principal, State Normal City, Mo. School, Salem, Mass . Mrs. Alice W. Lovett, 820 West Grace George H. Shafer, Principal, State Normal Street, Richmond, Va. School, Willimantic, Conn. D. F. Messenger, Dean of Education, Uni- John L. Dunkle, Principal, State Normal versity of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. School, Frostburg, Md. Mina Mollman, Monroe School, East St. Shelton Phelps, George Peabody College for Louis, Ill . Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Emma Moulton, Classroom Teacher, City S. D. Shankland, Secretary of the Depart- Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa. ment of Superintendence of the N. E. Α. Minnie J. Nielson, State Superintendent of assigned consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Public Instruction, Bismarck , N. Dak . Street N. W. , Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY (Authorized by Executive Committee) J. O. Engleman, Chairman, Superintendent Lida Lee Tall, Principal, Marylnad State of Schools, Terre Haute, Ind. Normal School, Towson , Md. Walter Athern, 54 Converse Avenue, Malden, A. Duncan Yocum, University of Pennsyl- Mass. vania, Philadelphia, Pa. William C. Bagley, Teachers College, Colum- Katherine Hamilton, Assistant Superintend- bia University, New York City. ent of Schools, 401 Court House, St. Paul, Grace Bridges , 331 Chamber of Commerce Minn. Bldg., Portland, Oregon. B. H. Bode, Ohio State University, Colum- Charles E. Chadsey, Dean, Department of bus, Ohio . Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, Howard C. Hill, School of Education, Uni- 111. versity of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Randall J. Condon, Friendship, Maine. W. H. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, Colum- J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, bia University, New York City. San Francisco, Calif. Mabel V. Wilson, 317 Central Building. L. Thomas Hopkins, Professor of Educa- Seattle, Wash. tion, University of Colorado, Boulder, Margaret Alltucker, Assistant Director of Colo. the Research Division of the N. E. A. , as- Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, signed consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Montclair, N. J. Street N. W. , Washington, D. C. Frank E. Spaulding, Dean, Department of Education, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. COMMITTEE ON THRIFT (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Arthur H. Chamberlain, Chairman, 933 Florence Barnard, 1651 Beacon Street, Phelan Building, San Francisco, Calif. Brookline, Mass . L. B. Alderman, Bureau of Navigation, J. A. Bexell, 142 N. 12th Street, Corvallis, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. Oregon. 968 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin, Grant Building, May Trumper, State Superintendent of Pub- 17th and Pine Streets , Philadelphia, Pa. lic Instruction , Helena , Mont. C. H. Dempsey. Commissioner of Education, Helen Shove, 3116 Clinton Avenue, Min- Montpelier, Vt. neapolis, Minn. J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, Calif. Bessie Evans, 1005 McGowan Street, Little Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools , Rock, Ark. Oakland, Calif. Mary F. Mooney, 251 Missouri Street, San William B. Owen, President, Chicago Nor- Francisco, Calif. mal College, Chicago, Ill. John J. Cory, Principal, South High School, Homer H. Seerley, President, State Teach- Denver, Colo . ers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Emma A. Jensen, Central High School , Alice Thompson, 626 West 136th Street, New York City. Washington, D. C. Edna Cotrel , 3240 Clay Street, San Fran- Agnes Winn , Director of the Division of cisco, Calif. Classroom Service, assigned consulting Anna M. Thompson, 1315 Linwood Street, member, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Kansas City, Mo. Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON VISUAL EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Thomas E. Finegan, Chairman, 13 Astor Elizabeth Hall, Assistant Superintendent of Place, Room 307, New York City. Schools, Minneapolis, Minn . Arthur G. Balcom, Assistant Superintendent James J. Walsh, Fordham University, New of Schools , Newark , N. J. York City. Lora L. Clark, 1237 South Alvarado Street, Arthur C. Watkins, 1638 Columbia Road, Los Angeles, Calif. Apartment 409, Washington, D. C. Dudley Grant Hays, President, National Joe Coffman, Supervisor of Visual Instruc- Academy of Visual Instruction, 460 South tion, Atlanta, Ga. State Street, Chicago, I11. J. V. Ankeny, Associate Professor of Visual Edwin H. Reeder, Teachers College, Colum- Instruction, University of Missouri , Co- bia University, New York City. lumbia, Mo. David Gibbs, Superintendent of Schools, Carroll G. Pearse, 3104 Wells Street, Apart- Meriden , Conn. ment 410, Milwaukee, Wis . A. W. Abrams, State Education Depart- H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, ment, Albany, N. Y. Berkeley, Calif. Charles H. Judd, University of Chicago, M. C. Lefier, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, I11. Lincoln, Nebr. Elizabeth Breckenridge, Principal, Louis- Mary B. McAndrew, President, Carbondale ville Normal School, Louisville, Ky Teachers Association , Carbondale, Pa. Ernest L. Crandall, 157 East 67th Street, H. A. Allan, Business Manager of the New York City. N. E. A. , assigned consulting member, Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. , Washington, Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. D. C. National Education Association Officers 1925-1926 GENERAL ASSOCIATION MARY MCSKIMMON President.. ... Brookline, Mass . J. W. CRABTREE . Secretary. Washington, D. C. HENRY LESTER SMITH ....... Treasurer . Bloomington, Ind. Executive Committee MARY MCSKIMMON ... President ... Brookline, Mass. JESSE H. NEWLON .... Vice-President .. Denver, Colo . WALTER R. SIDERS .. Chairman , Board of Trustees. .Pocatello, Idaho HENRY LESTER SMITH ..... Treasurer . Bloomington, Ind. CORNELIA S. ADAIR .. .Member by Election . Richmond , Va. Board of Trustees WALTER R. SIDERS .... Chairman, Superintendent of Schools .... .Pocatello, Idaho MARY MCSKIMMON .. ... President, Principal, Pierce School.. Brookline, Mass. J. M. GWINN .... Superintendent of Schools . San Francisco, Calif. CARROLLG. PEARSE 3104 Wells Street ... Milwaukee, Wis . THOMAS E. FINEGAN .... 350 Madison Avenue . New York City Vice-Presidents JESSE H. NEWLON , Superintendent of Schools .. Denver, Colo. W. C. ALDERSON, Superintendent, Multnomah County Schools .. Portland, Ore . J. R. BARTON , Superintendent of Schools . Oklahoma City, Okla. LEE CLARK, Superintendent of Schools. Gainesville, Texas FRANCIS B. HAAS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Harrisburg, Pa. FLORENCE M. HALE, State Agent for Rural Education ... Augusta, Maine P. L. HARNED, State Commissioner of Education ... Nashville, Tenn. GEORGE E. MARTIN, President, State Teachers College. Kearney, Nebr. EDWIN L. MILLER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Detroit, Mich. MARY F. MOONEY, Director, Department Texts and Libraries, City Hall .. San Francisco , Calif. HELEN B. SHOVE, Principal, Longfellow School . Minneapolis, Minn. ANNA M. THOMPSON, 1315 Linwood ... Kansas City, Mo. Board of Directors Directors Ex Officio MARY MCSKIMMON, President, Brookline, HENRY LESTER SMITH, Treasurer, Blooming- Mass. ton, Ind. JESSE H. NEWLON, First Vice-President, WALTER R. SIDERS, Chairman of Board of Denver, Colo. Trustees , Pocatello, Idaho. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary, Washington, D. C. Life Directors ROBERT J. ALEY, President of Butler College. Indianapolis, Ind. THOMAS W. BICKNELL, 207 Doyle Avenue . Providence, R. I. BOARD OF EDUCATION .. Nashville, Tenn. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . .. Denver, Colo . ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, President of New York University . New York City NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, President of Columbia University. New York City P. P. CLAXTON, Superintendent of Schools . Tulsa, Okla. O. T. CORSON, R. F. D. No. 2 . Oxford, Ohio CHARLES W. ELIOT, President Emeritus of Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass. H. A. GRAHAM .. Mt. Pleasant, Mich. FREDERICK M. HUNTER, Superintendent of Schools . ..Oakland, Calif. DAVID B. JOHNSON, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College.... Rock Hill, S. C. OLIVE M. JONES, Principal, Public School No. 120 . .New York City DAVID STARR JORDAN, President Emeritus of Stanford University . Calif. JAMES Y. JOYNER ...... Raleigh , N. C. T. MARCELLUS MARSHALL Stouts Mill, W. Va. JESSE H. NEWLON , Superintendent of Schools ... Denver, Colo . WILLIAM B. OWEN , President of Chicago Normal College . Chicago, Ill. CARROLL G. PEARSE . Milwaukee , Wis . JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Olympia, Wash . CHARLES R. SKINNER, Librarian, Legislative Library, Capitol Building . ..Albany, N. Y. STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION OF ILLINOIS, Robert C. Moore, Secretary ........ Carlinville, Ill. [969] 970 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION GEORGE D. STRAYER, Teachers College, Columbia University ..New York City JOSEPH SWAIN .. Swarthmore, Pa. A. R. TAYLOR . Decatur, Il1. TEACHERS INSTITUTE . Philadelphia, Pa. JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. Commissioner of Education . Washington, D. C. CHARLESG. WHITE .. Menominee, Wis. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, Field Secretary, National Education Association ......Washington, D. C State Directors Alabama.. ........ P. W. HODGES, Secretary, Certification and Placement, State Depart- ment of Education . Montgomery Alaska. LESTER D. HENDERSON, Commissioner of Education .. ..Juneau Arizona.. HELEN L. BROWN, Superintendent of Cochise County Schools.. Tombstone Arkansas . ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, 2110 Battery Street .. Little Rock California .... ANNA G. FRASER, 822 Alma Avenue . Oakland Colorado ... ..H. B. SMITH, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 520 Com- monwealth Building Denver Connecticut ... JOHN A. YOUNG, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . ..Bridgeport Delaware. .H. V. HOLLOWAY, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Dover District of Columbia . HARRY ENGLISH, Franklin School Building .. Washington, D. C. Florida . .W. S. CAWTHON , State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tallahassee Georgia. MARVIN M. PARKS, 204 Clarke Street.... Milledgeville Hawaii.... WILL C. CRAWFORD, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction, Honolulu Idaho. ELIZABETH RUSSUM, State Superintendent of Public Instruction.. Boise Illinois . SARAH L. THOMAS, 401 Kishwaukee Street . Rockford Indiana. MILO H. STUART, 4535 Park Avenue... Indianapolis Iowa.. T. R. ROBERTS, Superintendent of Schools . Independence Kansas .. M. E. PEARSON, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City Kentucky. R. E. WILLIAMS , Secretary, Kentucky Education Association, 319-320 Starks Building Louisville Louisiana. LORETTA R. DOERR, 1323 North Rampart. New Orleans Maine... JOSIAH W. TAYLOR, State Agent for Secondary Education . Augusta Maryland. ..... WILLIAM BURDICK, State Director of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street. Baltimore Massachusetts . ANNIE C. WOODWARD, 144 School Street .. Somerville Michigan. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing Minnesota . EFFIE MACGREGOR, Principal, John Burroughs School ... Minneapolis Mississippi. .H. V. COOPER, Superintendent of Schools .. Kosciusko Missouri.. .T. J. WALKER, Editor, School and Community . .Columbia Montana. .R. J. CUNNINGHAM, Secretary, Montana State Teachers Association, Room 9, Kohrs Block... Helena Nebraska. M. C. LEFLER, Superintendent of Schools . Lincoln Nevada.. ..H. A. WHITENECK, President, Nevada State Teachers Association, Las Vegas New Hampshire ...... FLORENCE H. HEWITT, 24 Chauncey Street... Portsmouth New Jersey CHARLES B. DYKE, Superintendent of Schools ....::::: Short Hills New Mexico ...... ISABEL L. ECKLES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe New York ... .... BRIDGET C. PEIXOTTO, Principal, Public School 108, Queens Borough, Richmond Hill JACKSON GALLUP, Principal, Concord School. Rochester North Carolina ......ROBERT H. WRIGHT, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville North Dakota.. MINNIE J. NIELSON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck Ohio.. R. J. KIEFER, Superintendent of Schools . .Niles Oklahoma. ...M. P. HAMMOND, President, Northeastern State Teachers College, Tahlequah Oregon....... .C. A. HOWARD, Superintendent of Schools. Marsbfield Pennsylvania ..... JESSIE GRAY, President, Pennsylvania State Teachers Association, 1331 Spring Garden Street... Philadelphia Philippine Islands .... LUTHER B. BEWLEY, Director of Education.. .... Manila Porto Rico ... JUAN B. HUYKE, Commissioner of Education. San Juan Rhode Island..... WILLIAM O. HOLDEN, Commercial High School, 46 Gooding Street, Pawtucket South Carolina .......C. M. WILSON, 709 National L. & E. Building ........... Columbia South Dakota .. .N. E. STEELE, Superintendent of Schools .. Mitchell Tennessee ..... .S . L. SMITH , General Agent, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Commercial Club Building Nashville Texas. MAMIE S. BASTIAN , 812 Bell Avenue . Houston Utah .. .D. W. PARRATT, Secretary, Utah Educational Association, 317 State Capitol Building . Salt Lake City Vermont ... MRS. BESSIE K. THOMAS, Supervising Principal, Public Schools, Woodstock Virginia. S. A. MCDONALD, Principal, Ruffner School .. Norfolk Virgin Islands .... ARTHUR E. LINDBORG, Director of Education . St. Thomas Washington MEL FORSYTHE, Sands Hotel.. Tacoma West Virginia ..... J. H. HICKMAN, Superintendent of Schools ... Hinton Wisconsin. JOHN F. SIMS, President, State Normal School ......... Stevens Point Wyoming...... .....A. A. SLADE, Superintendent of Schools ... Casper OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 971 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President... HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean , School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, Ind. Vice-President .FLORENCE M. HALE, State Supervisor of Rural Education, State Department of Education .. ....Augusta, Maine Secretary . ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education. Washington, D. C. Executive Committee .... A. J. MATTHEWS, President, Tempe Normal School .... Tempe, Ariz . (Term expires 1926) ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal, Broadway Jr. H. S..... Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1927) GEORGE W. CHILD, Superintendent of Schools . Salt Lake City (Term expires 1928) OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Adult Education President..... ROBERT C. DEMING, State Director of Americanization, State Department of Education... ..Hartford, Conn. Vice -President . MISS WIL LOU GRAY, Supervisor of Adult Education, State Department of Education . .. Columbia, S. C. Secretary . MISS WILLIE LAWSON, Deputy State Superintendent of Schools . .Little Rock, Ark. Treasurer . ETHEL RICHARDSON, 1023 Pacific Finance Building, Los Angeles, Calif. Department of Business Education President .... JOHN O. MALLOTT, Teacher, Commercial Department, Yeatman High School ... St. Louis, Mo. Vice-President..J. WALTER Ross, Teacher, Commercial Department, South Hills High School ..Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary . HELEN HAYNES, Teacher of Retail Selling, Emmerich Manual Training High School.. .. Indianapolis, Ind. Department of Classroom Teachers President ...... JULIA E. SULLIVAN, 9 Marion St..... ...... Charlestown, Mass . ..... Vice-President ........ EULA F. HUNTER, 1324 E. Morphy St........... Fort Worth, Texas Secretary . CLARA LYNN, 3 Crockett St..... .. Seattle, Wash. Members of Executive Committee . Eastern Section, MRS. EDITH B. JOYNES, 1211 Colonial Ave. , Norfolk, Va. (Term expires 1928) Middle Section, ANNA M. THOMPSON, Haddon Hall, Linwood & Tracy...... Kansas City, Mo. (Term expires 1926) Western Section, JEAN L. SOULES, Avalon Hotel ..... Spokane, Wash. (Term expires 1927) Department of Deans of Women President FLORENCE PURINGTON, Dean of Women, Mount Holyoke College South Hadley, Mass. First Vice-President ..... ANNA V. DAY, Dean of Women, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis . Second Vice-President ... AGNES E. WELLS, Dean of Women, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Secretary . MARTHA DOAN, Earlham College ... Richmond, Ind. Treasurer . ANNA E. PIERCE, Dean of Women, N. Y. State College for Teachers ..Albany, N. Y. Department of Elementary School Principals President .... IDE G. SARGEANT, Principal, Public School No. 10 .. Paterson, N. J. First Vice-President ...... HELEN V. SHOVE, Principal, Longfellow School ..Minneapolis, Minn. Second Vice-President ....J. S. NANTS, Principal, Bates School .. .... St. Louis, Mo. Third Vice-President . J. D. WILLIAMS, Principal, Woodlawn School .... Birmingham, Ala. Secretary ... ... E. RUTH PYRTLE, Principal, McKinley School ... Lincoln, Nebr. Treasurer ..... COURTLAND V. DAVIS, J. E. B. Stuart School. ... Norfolk, Va. Executive Committee .....ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal, Broadway Jr. H. S..... Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1926) LUISE KRAUss, Principal, Grattan School ...... San Francisco, Calif. (Term expires 1927) W. T. LONGSHORE, Principal, Greenwood School .. Kansas City, Mo. (Term expires 1928) MRS. JESSIE M. FINK, Principal, Palmer School .. Grand Rapids , Mich. (Term expires 1929) 972 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Department of Kindergarten Education President.. MAY HILL, Head of Cleveland Kindergarten-Primary Training School .... Cleveland, Ohio Vice-President ....... CLARA MEISNER, Director of Kindergarten Training, State Nor- mal School ... .Ellensburg, Washington Secretary . RUTH PATTERSON, Supervisor of Kindergartens, Public Schools Indianapolis, Ind Department of Music Education President To be appointed by the president. Secretary Department of Rural Education President .... .... A. F. HARMAN, Superintendent of Schools, Montgomery County Montgomery, Ala. Vice-President . ..... FLORENCE M. HALE, State Agent for Rural Education, Augusta, Maine Secretary . MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia University New York City Treasurer . MARY E. HOWE, Detroit Teachers College ...... .. Detroit, Mich. Executive Committee ... JOHN M. FOOTE, Department of Education ...... Baton Rouge, La. CHLOE BALDRIDGE, State Normal School ... ....... Peru, Nebr. CORA PEARSON, County Supervisor of Elementary Schools Montgomery, Ala. RICHARD J. LIBBY, Department of Education . Augusta, Maine J. S. HOFFMAN, County Superintendent, Hunterdon County Flemington, N. J. M. S. PITTMAN, State Normal College .... Yysilanti , Mich. MAY TRUMPER, State Superintendent of Education .... Helena, Mont. JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH, Cornell University . Ithaca, N. Y. NORMAN FROST, George Peabody College for Teachers Nashville, Tenn. C. G. SARGENT, College of Agriculture... .. Fort Collins, Colo. MACY CAMPBELL, State Teachers College ......... Cedar Falls, Iowa N. SEARLE LIGHT, Rural Director, State Department of Educa- tion Hartford, Conn. D. C. JENSEN, Superintendent of Schools. Sandy, Utah SUE POWERS, Superintendent of Schools, Shelby County Memphis , Tenn. MRS. A. F. BEVERLEY, Farm Life School . Whitmell, Va. Department of School Health and Physical Education President. MELVILLE STEWART, State Supervisor of Physical Education Charleston, W. Va. Vice-President ..J. ANNA NORRIS, Director of Physical Education for Women, Univesity of Minnesota .. ..Minneapolis, Minn . Secretary- Treasurer ...... FREDERICK W. MARONEY, Director Department of Health Instruc- tion, Public Schools ... Atlantic City, N. J. Executive Committee .... FRANCIS N. MAXFIELD, Bureau of Special Education, State De- partment of Public Instruction .. ..Harrisburg , Pa. (Term expires 1926) WALTER F. Совв, Director of Physical Education and Hygiene, Public Schools . Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1927) ETHEL PERRIN , American Child Health Association, 370 Seventh Avenue ..... New York City (Term expires 1928) ELMA ROOD, Director of Health Education, Child Health Demon- Stration ....Mansfield, Ohio (Term expires 1929) Department of Science Instruction Department of Secondary School Principals President ... CHARLES EDWIN KEYES, Principal , Oakland High School Oakland, Calif. Vice-President ...........L . W. SMITH, Principal, Joliet High School Joliet, Ill. Secretary ... MARGARET DURKIN , Scranton High School ............. Scranton, Pa. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 973 Department of Social Studies President .......... HOWARD C. HILL, University of Chicago . Chicago, Ill. Vice-President ...........B. L. PIERCE, University of Iowa ... Iowa City, Iowa Secretary-Treasurer ...... EDGAR DAWSON, Hunter College... New York City Corresponding Secretary..MARY V. CARNEY, Central High School ... St. Paul, Minn. Department of Superintendence President. FRANK W. BALLOU, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. First Vice-President ..... WILLIAM MCANDREW, Superintendent of Schools...... Chicago, Ill. Second Vice-President ... E. E. LEWIS, Superintendent of Schools .. ..Flint, Mich. Executive Secretary.S. D. SHANKLAND, 1201 16th St. N. W....... Washington, D. C. Executive Committee .... C. B. GLENN, Superintendent of Schools .... Birmingham, Ala. (Term expires 1926) F. D. BOYNTON, Superintendent of Schools ......... Ithaca, N. Y. (Term expires 1927) M. G. CLARK, Superintendent of Schools . Sioux City, Iowa (Term expires 1928) NORMAN R. CROZIER, Superintendent of Schools .... Dallas, Texas (Term expires 1929) Department of Teachers Colleges President ............ ROBERT H. WRIGHT, President, East Carolina Teachers College Greenville, N. C. First Vice-President ......J. L. JARMAN, State Normal School for Women ...... Farmville, Va. Second Vice-President ....J. O. COATES, East Kentucky State Normal School and Teachers College Richmond, Ky. Third Vice-President ..... A. J. MATTHEWS, President, Tempe Normal School .... Tempe, Ariz. Secretary- Treasurer ...... H. S. MINNICH, Dean, School of Education, Miami Uni- versity .. Oxford, Ohio Department of Visual Instruction President . ERNEST L. CRANDALL, Director of Lectures and Visual Instruc- tion, Public Schools. ... New York City Vice-President . ...DUDLEY GRANT HAYS , Director of Visual Education, Public Schools Chicago, I11 . Secretary . RITA HOCHHEIMER, Assistant Director of Visual Instruction, Public Cchools... ..... New York City Members of Executive Committee ... A. G. BALCOM, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of Schools Berkeley, Calif. Department of Vocational Education President.. O. H. DAY, Director of Vocational Education, Public Schools Kansas City, Mo. Vice -President . ..... .HOWARD L. BRIGGS, Director of Vocational Education, Public Schools .. Cleveland, Ohio Secretary ...... ..H. G. McCOMB, State Supervisor of Industrial Education , State Department of Public Instruction . ..Indianapolis, Ind. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA June 28-July 3, 1925 GENERAL PROGRAM Sunday Afternoon, June 28, 4 o'clock North Steps, Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument Vesper Service Presiding Officer-Robert J. Aley, President, Butler College, Indianapolis, Ind. COMMUNITY SINGING-Hymns. Director-Ernest G. Hesser, Director of Music, Indianapolis, Indiana. America Come, Thou Almighty King America, the Beautiful INTRODUCTION OF THE PRESIDING OFFICER Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo., President of the Association. INVOCATION Reverend H. H. Fout, Bishop of the United Brethren Church, In- dianapolis, Ind. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Robert J. Aley, President, Butler College, Indianapolis, Ind. ADDRESS- PARADISE William Lowe Bryan, President, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. HYMN Day is Dying in the West. BENEDICTION Bishop H. H. Fout. The Arsenal Technical High School Band will play for this service. If the weather is unfavorable for an outdoor program, this meeting will be held in the Second Presbyterian Church. Sunday Evening, June 28, 7:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle Presiding Officer-Jesse H. Newlon, President of the Association. MUSIC Tabernacle Presbyterian Church Choir, Director, Fred Newell Morris ; Organist, Paul Matthews . COMMUNITY SINGING led by Fred Newell Morris. [974] PROGRAM OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 975 THE FAITH OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE IN PUBLIC EDUCATION John J. Tigert, United States Commissioner of Education, Washing- ton, D. C. Platform Guests: Vice-Presidents and Past Presidents of the Association. This meeting is open to the general public without charge. Members are encouraged to pass the word along to their friends in the city. First Day-Monday Morning, June 29, 8:30 o'clock Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School Presiding Officer-President of the Association. COMMUNITY SINGING AND STATE SONGS Educational Progress in the First Quarter of the Twentieth Century PROGRESS IN THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION ( Twenty-five Minutes ) Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C., and President of the Department of Superintendence. PROGRESS IN ADMINISTRATION AND SUPPORT ( Twenty-five Minutes) George D. Strayer, Professor of Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. SCHOOLS AND THE BUILDING OF CHARACTER (Twenty-five Minutes) W. L. Bryan, President, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS IN TYPES OF SCHOOLS AND CURRICULA ( Twenty- five Minutes) J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, Calif. PROGRESS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ( Twenty-five Minutes) E. C. Elliott, President, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind. Monday Evening, June 29, 7:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle Formal Opening Session Presiding Officer-Olive M. Jones, First Vice-President of the Association. MUSIC-COMMUNITY SINGING led by Fred Newell Morris Arsenal Technical High School Band of Indianapolis, Ind., F. A. Barker, Director ( Winner of First Prize in 1925 State Music Con- test.) Arsenal Technical High School Girls' Glee Club, Miss Elizabeth Kaltz, Director ( Winner of Second Prize in 1925 State Music Contest. ) ADDRESSES OF WELCOME ( Ten Minutes Each) E. U. Graff, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. W. P. Dearing, President, Indiana State Teachers Association, Oakland City College, Oakland City, Ind. RESPONSE ( Ten Minutes) Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo., and a former President of the Association. ADDRESS (Fifteen Minutes) James A. Drain, Commander of the American Legion, Indianapolis, Ind. PRESIDENT'SADDRESS THE EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK AT THE END OF THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (Twenty-five Minutes ) Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. 976 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Platform Guests : Vice-Presidents and Past Presidents of the Association. This meeting is open to the general public without charge. Members are encouraged to pass the word along to their friends in the city. The pro- gram will be broadcast from radio Station WFBM, Indianapolis, between eight and ten P.M., Central Standard Time. Following the program there will be a general reception in the Riley Room of the Claypool Hotel. This reception has been arranged by the teachers of Indianapolis in honor of the present officers and past presidents of the Association. All members and friends of the Association are welcome. Monday Afternoon, June 29 Meetings of Departments and Allied Organizations Second Day-Tuesday Morning, June 30, 8:30 o'clock Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School First Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. COMMUNNITY SINGING Robert C. McCutchan, Dean of the School of Music, DePauw Univer- . sity, Greencastle, Indiana, Leader. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CREDENTIALS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RULES William B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill.; Chairman of Committee on Rules and Official Parliamentarian . ADOPTION OF ORDER OF BUSINESS ADOPTION OF MINUTES OF WASHINGTON MEETING PRESIDENT'S REPORT OUR ASSOCIATION AND ITS WORK ( Fifteen Minutes) Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo . ILLITERACY : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty Minutes ) Leader-Mrs . Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Ky.; Chairman of Il- literacy Commission. THE CHILD- LABOR PROBLEM : REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Twenty-five Minutes ) Leader-John F. Sims, President, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.; Chairman of the Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor. CHARACTER EDUCATION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Thirty Minutes) Leader-Milton Bennion, Dean of the School of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah ; Chairman of the Committee on Char- acter Education. RELATIONSHIPS OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION WITH DEPARTments, ComMIT- TEES, AND ALLIED ORGANIZATIONS ; ALSO HOME FOR RETIRED TEACHERS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty Minutes) Leader-Olive M. Jones, Principal, Public School No. 120, New York City; Chairman of the Committee on Relationships and of the Com- mittee on a Home for Retired Teachers . THRIFT PROBLEMS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Fifteen Minutes ) Leader-Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California State Teachers Association, San Francisco, Calif.; Chairman of Committee on Thrift Problems . NOMINATIONS FROM FLOOR FOR PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT, AND TREASURER ROLL CALL OF STATES FOR NOMINATIONS OF STATE DIRECTORS ANNOUNCEMENTS Resolutions for the consideration of the Committee on Resolutions may be handed to the Secretary, who will place them in the hands of the committee. PROGRAM OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 977 Tuesday Morning, June 30, 8:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle General Session for Those Not Participating in Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-Frederick M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif., and a former President of the Association. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN THE DETERMINATION OF POLICIES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER Anna Lockwood Peterson, Cincinnati, Ohio. Cornelia S. Adair, Richmond, Va. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE PRINCIPAL Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT Thomas R. Cole, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash. MUSIC Arsenal Technical High School Orchestra, V. E. Dillard, Director (Winner Second Prize 1925 State Music Contest. ) Solo-Mrs . Hazel Simmons Steele, Soprano. Tuesday Afternoon, June 30 Meetings of Departments and Allied Organizations Tuesday Afternoon, June 30, 4 to 6 o'clock There will be a general reception at the Herron Art Institute, Pennsyl- vania and Sixteenth Streets, on Tuesday afternoon, June 30, from four to six. This reception has been arranged by the Indiana State Teachers Associa- tion. All members and friends of the National Education Association are welcome. Special guests for the day will be artists of Indiana. Transpor- tation will be furnished from Shortridge High School. Tuesday Evening, June 30, 7:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle Indiana Night INTRODUCTION OF THE PRESIDING OFFICER President Jesse H. Newlon. Presiding Officer-Hon. Ed Jackson, Governor of Indiana . MUSIC Indianapolis Teachers' Chorus, Ernest G. Hesser, Director. CULTURE AND BRASS TACKS Meredith Nicholson, author, Indianapolis, Ind. STEADY AS SHE GOES Albert J. Beveridge, former United States Senator from Indiana. Platform Guests: Indiana authors and citizens. This meeting is open to the general public without charge. Members are encouraged to pass the word along to their friends in the city. The pro- gram will be broadcast from radio Station WFBM, Indianapolis, between eight and ten P.M., Central Standard Time. 978 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Third Day-Wednesday Morning, July 1, 8:30 o'clock Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School Second Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. COMMUNITY SINGING-Harold E. Winslow, Director of Music, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind., Leader PROGRESSIVE FORCES ( Twelve Minutes ) Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Spring- field, Ill. THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty Minutes ) Leader-J . O. Engleman, Superintendent of Schools , Terre Haute, Ind.; Chairman of the Committee on Teaching of Democracy. WORLD FEDERATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS : ( Report and Dis- cussion ( Twenty Minutes) Leader-Augustus O. Thomas, State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Maine ; Chairman of the Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations. CLASSROOM TEACHERS' PROBLEMS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Thirty-five Min- utes) Leader-Anna Riddle, Teacher, Saint Joseph, Mo.; Chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems . AMERICAN EDUCATION WEEK : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty-five Minutes ) Leader-Thomas E. Johnson, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, Lansing, Mich.; Chairman of the Committee on American Edu- cation Week. TENURE : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Thirty Minutes) Leader-Frederick M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif.; Chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problems of Tenure. Wednesday Morning, July 1, 8:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle General Session for Those Not Participating in Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-Olive M. Jones, Principal, Public School No. 120, New York City, First Vice President of the Association. MUSIC Indianapolis Teachers' Double Quartette-Ernest G. Hesser, Director. Cello Solo-Constantin Bakaleinikof, Cellist, Musical Director of Circle Theatre, Indianapolis ; Bomar Cramer, Accompanist. Solo-Miss Goldie Lowman, Soprano, Assistant Supervisor of Music, Indianapolis, Ind. Work of Teachers' Organizations DISTRIBUTION OF VOTING POWER TO PREVENT FACTIONAL CONTROL LENGTH OF TERM FOR OFFICERS How COMMITTEES SHOULD BE APPOINTED PROGRAM OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 979 NAMES AND SUBJECTS OF COMMITTEES PROPORTION OF PROGRAM TO PERSONAL, PROFESSIONAL, PEDAGOGIC, OR GENERAL THEMES WHEN PROGRAM IS PLANNED AND ANNOUNCED BUDGETING THE ASSOCIATION WORK WHAT PUBLICATIONS ARE ISSUED AND HOW FINANCED RECOGNITION BY SCHOOL OFFICIALS RECOGNITION BY CIVIC ORGANIZATIONS AND POLITICAL AUTHORITIES RELATION OF GROUP ORGANIZATIONS TO A GENERAL LOCAL BODY RELATION OF LOCAL ORGANIZATION TO STATE ASSOCIATION, AND OF BOTH TO THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION Participants in the discussion will include officially selected representa- tives from the following States: California, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ten- nessee, Washington. Discussion from the floor is invited. Wednesday Afternoon, July 1 This afternoon is left free in order that teachers may visit literary and historic shrines in and near Indianapolis. The local committee has planned excursions as follows : ( 1) Indiana University and other nearby educational institutions ; ( 2 ) Riley home, Riley tomb, and Riley Hospital; ( 3 ) Large automobile manufacturing plant; (4) Potter Fresh Air School, City Library, and Teachers' Special Library ; and ( 5 ) Primary exhibit, Teachers College, Children's Library, and Orchard School. Those desiring to take these ex- cursions should leave their names at information desk, Shortridge High School, soon after arrival. Wednesday Evening, July 1, 7:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle Presiding Officer-President of the Association. MUSIC Indianapolis Newsboys' Band, J. B. Vandaworker, Director. Interpreting the Schools to the Public INTERPRETING THE STATE PROGRAM ( Twenty-two Minutes ) John W. Abercrombie, State Superintendent of Education, Montgomery, Ala. INTERPRETING THE WORK OF THE SCHOOL TO THE HOME ( Twenty-two Min- utes) Anna G. Fraser, Public Schools , Oakland, Calif. STRATEGIC POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE SCHOOLS TO THE PEOPLE ( Twenty-two Minutes) Belle M. Monroe, Principal, King School, Akron, Ohio. INTERPRETING THE SCHOOL PROGRAM TO THE LOCAL COMMUNITY (Twenty-two Minutes) John J. Maddox, Superintendent of Schools, Saint Louis, Mo. INTERPRETING THE RURAL SCHOOL PROGRAM TO THE PEOPLE ( Twenty-two Minutes) Lillia E. Johnson, Superintendent of Eau Claire County Schools, Eau Claire, Wis. 980 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Platform Guests: Officers of departments and allied organizations . This meeting is open to the general public without charge. Members are encouraged to pass the word along to their friends in the city. The program will be broadcast from radio Station WFBM, Indianapolis, between eight and ten P.M., Central Standard Time. Fourth Day-Thursday Morning, July 2, 8:30 o'clock Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School Third Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. COMMUNITY SINGING AND STATE SONGS THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY-A GUARANTOR ( Twelve Minutes) H. Lester Smith, Dean of the School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. STANDARDS, REQUIREMENTS, AND CREDITS FOR TEACHERS IN SERVICE : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty Minutes ) Leader-Joseph Rosier, President, State Teachers College, Fairmont, W. Va.; Chairman of the Committee on Standards, Requirements , and Credits for Teachers in Service. ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty-five Minutes) Leader- Sarah T. Muir, Teacher, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebr.; Chairman of the Committee on Ethics of the Profession. LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Forty-five Minutes) Leader-George D. Strayer, Professor of Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City ; Chairman of the Legislative Commission. THE AMERICAN SCHOOL PROGRAM: REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty- five Minutes) Leader-William B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill .; Chairman of the Committee on the American School Program. COMMUNITY RELATIONS: REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Twenty Minutes) Leader-George E. Carrothers, College of Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio ; Chairman of the Committee on Community Relations . Thursday Morning, July 2, 8:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle General Session for Those Not Participating in Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pitts- burgh, Pa. MUSIC Community Singing-Harold E. Winslow, Director of Music, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind., Leader. Crawfordsville, Indiana, Girls' Glee Club, Flora Rogers, Director (Winner First Prize 1925 State Music Contest. ) Solo-Mrs . Adele Kimble, Soprano. Moral Education MORAL EDUCATION THROUGH EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES ( Twelve Minutes) William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl vania. PROGRAM OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 981 BUILDING THE CHILD'S PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE ( Twelve Minutes) J. O. Engleman, superintendent of schools, Terre Haute, indiana. HOW THE TEACHER MOLDS CHARACTER ( Twelve Minutes ) Jessie M. Gray, president of Pennsylvania State Education Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. THE MORALS OF MODERN YOUTH ( Twelve Minutes ) Henry Noble Sherwood, Indiana State commissioner of education, In- dianapolis, Indiana. THE PARENT'S RESPONSIBILITY FOR MORAL EDUCATION Mrs. A. H. Reeve, President, National Congress of Parents and Teach- ers , Philadelphia, Pa. MORAL CODE FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN ( Twelve Minutes ) W. O. Saunders, Collier's, the National Weekly, 416 West 13th Street, New York City. Discussion from the floor will be welcomed on each of these topics . Thursday Afternoon, July 2 Meetings of Departments and Allied Organizations Thursday Evening, July 2, 7:30 o'clock Cadle Tabernacle Presiding Officer-President of the Association. MUSIC Raper Commandery Choir, George W. Kadel, Director. Interpreting the Schools to the Public THE COLLEGES AND THE PEOPLE ( Twenty Minutes ) E. H. Lindley, President, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. THE FUNCTIONS OF TEACHERS' ORGANIZATIONS IN INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC ( Twenty Minutes) Ella Victoria Dobbs, Associate Professor of Industrial Arts, University of Missouri, Columbia , Mo. RESPONSIBILITIES OF EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC ( Twenty Minutes ) Joy Elmer Morgan, Editor, The Journal of the National Education Association, Washington, D. C. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PRESS IN INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC Glenn Frank, President, University of Wisconsin and Editor, The Century, New York City. Platform Guests: State directors, presidents of State associations, and chair- men of all committees. This meeting is open to the general public without charge. Members are encouraged to pass the word along to their friends in the city. The program will be broadcast from radio Station WFBM, Indianapolis, be- tween eight and ten P.M., Central Standard Time. 982 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Fifth Day-Friday Morning, July 3, 8:30 o'clock Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School Fourth and Final Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. COMMUNITY SINGING-Horace Whitehouse, Director of Indianapolis Ora- torio Society, Leader. OUR CONSTITUENTS ( Twelve Minutes ) Olivia Pound, Assistant Principal, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebr. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY, 1924-25 Ernest L. Crandall, Director of Lectures and Visual Education, Public Schools, New York City ; Chairman of Committee on Necrology. CO- INCLUSIVE MEMBERSHIP Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community, Columbia, Mo .; Chairman of the Committee on Co-inclusive Membership. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY AND STATEMENT ON MEMBERSHIP J. W. Crabtree, Secretary of the National Education Association, Wash- ington, D. C. REPORT OF THE TREASURER Cornelia S. Adair, Teacher, Junior High School, Richmond, Va.; Treasurer of the National Education Association. REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES Walter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello, Idaho , Chair- man of the Board of Trustees . REPORT OF THE AUDIT COMMITTEE REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND BOARD OF DIRECTORS, INCLUDING THE REPORT OF THE BUDGET COMMITTEE UNFINISHED BUSINESS NEW BUSINESS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS REPORT ON ELECTION OF OFFICERS Friday Afternoon, July 3 Meetings of Departments and Allied Organizations MINUTES OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 983 MINUTES of the FIFTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY¹ Indianapolis , Indiana, June 28-July 3, 1925 First Business Session of the Representative Assembly Tuesday forenoon, June 30, 1925 The first business session of the Representative Assembly was held in Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School, June 30, 1925, beginning at 8:30 o'clock. It was called to order by Jesse H. Newlon, president. Harold E. Winslow, director of music, Manual Training High School, Indian- apolis, conducted the community singing. Maud Compton, chairman of the Committee on Credentials, was introduced, and reported for the Committee that the Credentials of 892 delegates had been sub- mitted, passed on, and accepted, and recommended that any delegates reporting later, whose credentials were satisfactory to the Credentials Committee, be properly seated. A motion was made and carried to adopt the report of the Committee. (For list of delegates see Proceedings 1925, page 1060.) Mr. McDaniel, of Oak Park, Illinois, presented the report of the Committee on Rules. The Rules were adopted as printed on page 4 of the Official Manual for Delegates. President Newlon then explained that in connection with the adoption of rules for the Representative Assembly, provision should be made for the nomination of officers under the new plan of election adopted at the Washington meeting in 1924. Mr. Newlon called attention to the fact that the new procedure provides for a roll call giving each State an opportunity to make nominations and asked, "Shall we permit nominating speeches or shall we satisfy ourselves by merely placing the name in nomination ? " Mr. Reynolds, of Ohio, moved that nominating speeches be dispensed with and the names of candidates merely presented. The motion was seconded. Mr. Marshall, of West Virginia, moved to amend to read "that nominating speeches be limited to two minutes each." The motion was seconded. Mr. Saunders, of Virginia, spoke in favor of nominating speeches. The amend- ment providing for two-minute speeches was carried, after which the motion as amended was carried. President Newlon then announced that nominating speeches would be limited to two minutes . The order of business as printed in the Official Program was next adopted. Mr. Newlon then called for the minutes. Secretary J. W. Crabtree explained that the minutes of the Washington meeting were in the Official Manual, beginning on page 44, and moved that they be adopted. The motion was carried. Mr. John R. Boris, of the Near East Relief, introduced to the convention Zadi, the adopted daughter of Dr. and Mrs. Gannaway. He explained that the child is one of the many thousands of orphans cared for by the Golden Rule friends of the Near East Relief. Zadi then presented to President Newlon the gavel to be used in the convention, explaining that it was made in the Bible Lands by the orphan boys in the Near East Relief-and adding: "Every day those children over there say 'God Bless America. " On behalf of the convention, Mr. Newlon ac- cepted the gavel and stated that it was his prayer that there shall be peace and righteousness through all time to come so that little children will never suffer again as they have in the past. Mr. Newlon then presented his report as president, Our Association and Its Work. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 47. ) 1This is a brief statement of the business sessions at the sixty-third annual meeting of the National Education Association , as prepared by the Secretary. The complete copy of the notes taken by the Reporter is in the Secretary's Office. 984 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Mr. Newlon next introduced Cora Wilson Stewart, chairman of the Illiteracy Commission, who presented the report of the Commission. A motion to accept the report was made and carried. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 140.) The Oregon delegation presented a beautiful floral offering to the convention. Mr. Newlon called for the report of the Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor. John F. Sims, president of the State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis- consin, chairman of the Committee, referred to the report of the Committee printed on page 3 of the Annual Reports, in the hands of the delegates. He then moved the adoption of the Committee's report and the continuance of the Committee. The motion was carried. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 172. ) President Newlon stated that two eminent men-David Starr Jordan and Charles W. Eliot-had accepted service on the Child Labor Committee and suggested that this Association would gladly carry on the fight which they so nobly led in their generation. The President then introduced Milton Bennion, of Utah, chairman of the Com- mittee on Character Education, who presented the report of that Committee. On motion the report was accepted and the Committee continued. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 182. ) Olive M. Jones, chairman of the Committee on Relationships of the National Association with Departments, Committees, and Allied Organizations and also of the Committee on a Home for Retired Teachers, discussed the reports of these Committees, printed on pages 12 and 13 of the Annual Reports. Miss Jones moved that the Representative Assembly authorize the reappointment of the Committee on a Home for Retired Teachers and instruct it to begin its work. The motion was carried. It was moved and carried that the report of the Committee on Rela- tionships of the National Association with Departments, Committees, and Allied Organizations be adopted. (For the report of the Committee on Relationships of the National Association with Departments, Committees, and Allied Organiza- tions see Proceedings 1925, page 184.) For the report of the Committee on a Home for Retired Teachers see Proceedings 1925, page 185. ) Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary of the California State Teachers Association and chairman of the Committee on Thrift Problems, then presented the report of that Committee. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 188.) The next item of business was the nomination of officers as provided for in the amendment to the By-Laws adopted at the Washington meeting in 1924. President Newlon appointed as tellers the Committee on Elections which had been announced earlier in the year, with Mr. Reynolds, of Ohio, as chairman. After Mr. Reynolds had explained the arrangements for ballot boxes and voting, the roll call of the States was begun. Alabama nominated its State director and yielded the floor to Virginia. Joseph Saunders, of Newport News, Virginia, was recognized. Mr. Saunders: Virginia is proud of her leadership which she has extended to the Nation in times past, because she has been able to serve the Nation. She comes to you this morning and offers to you again her leadership in one of her favorite daughters-a lady who has served you well and faithfully for the past five years, as Treasurer, and member of your Executive Committee. It gives me great pleasure to present at this time the name of Cornelia S. Adair as President for the ensuing term. Alaska, the next name to be called, nominated its director and yielded the floor to Massachusetts. Payson Smith, of Boston, Massachusetts, was recognized. Mr. Smith: I wish to present to you this morning the name of a daughter of Massachusetts, who has been identified for many years with all grades and branches of educational activity, and she has not lost sympathy with any part, but rather has gained sympathy. During the last few years she has been deeply in- terested in every part of the work of the National Education Association. No one MINUTES OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 985 can exceed her in her devotion to the interest of this Association and I am most proud to present the name of Mary McSkimmon, of Brookline, Massachusetts, as President for the coming year. The nomination of Miss Adair was seconded by Arkansas, Florida, Kansas, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, and West Virginia. The nomination of Miss McSkimmon was seconded by California, Connecticut, Colorado, Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Rhode Island, and the Virgin Islands. President Newlon explained that there were twelve vice-presidents, the retiring president being ex-officio first vice-president, leaving eleven to be elected. The following candidates were nominated for the office of vice-president : W. C. Alderson, J. R. Barton, Lee Clark, Francis B. Haas, Florence Hale, P. Harned, George E. Martin, Edwin L. Miller, Mary Mooney, Hattie Morton, Helen D. Shove, J. Q. Thomas, Anna M. Thompson, and Caroline S. Woodruff. Nominations for Treasurer of the Association were next called for. Henry Lester Smith, dean of the School of Education, Indiana University, and F. E. Reynolds, secretary of the Ohio State Teachers Association, were nominated. Mr. Reynolds withdrew his name and asked that Doctor Smith be the unanimous nominee of the Assembly for Treasurer. The motion to this effect was carried. For a list of State directors as nominated by the various States and elected see Proceedings 1925, page 970. ) A motion to adjourn was then carried and the Assembly adjourned at 12:30 o'clock, P.M. Second Business Session of the Representative Assembly Wednesday forenoon, July 1, 1925 This session was called to order by President Newlon, Wednesday morning, July 1, 1925, at 8:30 o'clock, in Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School. The musical services of the morning were directed by Harold E. Winslow, of Indianapolis, Indiana. A motion was made by Mr. Reynolds "that the secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of this Association for all candidates for director, vice-president, and treasurer, who have no opposition, when the result of the election is announced Friday." Motion seconded by West Virginia and carried. President Newlon explained that it was necessary for an alternate, who was taking the place of a delegate, to exchange his credentials for the delegate's credentials to entitle him to take the place of the delegate. The President urged everyone of the Assembly to exercise his right to vote, in order "that the election of a president will be by a majority of the delegates and not by a minority, as so often happens in our general elections." Mr. Newlon then explained that he had asked three distinguished members of the profession to make talks on matters of general policy on three successive morn- ings and introduced Francis G. Blair, State superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, Illinois, who spoke on Progressive Forces. ( For this address see Proceedings 1925, page 84.) The chairman of the Committee on the Teaching of Democracy, J. O. Engleman, of Terre Haute, Indiana, was introduced and presented the report of that Com- mittee, printed on page 15 of the Annual Reports. A motion was carried unani- mously to have the Committee continue the study of this problem. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 191.) President Newlon then called for the report of the Committee on Partial Payment of the Expenses of Delegates to the Annual Convention. Cornelia S. Adair, chair- man of the Committee, moved the adoption of the report as printed on page 48 of the Annual Reports. The motion was seconded and carried unanimously. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 264. ) 986 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Mr. Newlon next called for the report of the Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations . In the absence of the chairman, Augustus O. Thomas, the report was read by Secretary Crabtree. On motion the recommendation of the Committee that the Association continue its membership in the World Federation of National Education Associations was adopted. The report of the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Prob- lems was presented by Anna Riddle, of St. Joseph, Missouri, chairman of the Committee. Miss Riddle moved that the report be filed, placed upon the record and the Committee continued. Motion carried. Mr. Newlon then introduced Thomas E. Johnson, State superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Michigan, chairman of the Committee on American Education Week, who presented the report of that Committee. Mr. Johnson moved the adoption of the report and that the Committee be continued. After discussion the motion carried. Frederick M. Hunter, of Oakland, California, chairman of the Committee on Tenure, was then introduced. He made a plea for more attention to this problem and moved that the report of the Committee, as embodied in the printed pamphlet in the hands of delegates, be accepted and that the Committee be continued. Motion carried. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 220. ) President Newlon declared the meeting adjourned at 11:30 o'clock, Α.Μ. Third Business Session of the Representative Assembly Thursday forenoon, July 2, 1925 This session was held in Caleb Mills Hall, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Indiana, Thursday forenoon, July 2, 1925, Mr. Newlon presiding. Following the community singing, several State delegations sang their State songs. Henry Lester Smith, dean of the School of Education, Indiana University, Bloom- ington, Indiana, delivered an address, entitled The Representative Assembly-A Guarantor. ( For this address see Proceedings 1925, page 87. ) Mr. Newlon introduced Sarah T. Muir, of Lincoln, Nebraska, Chairman of the Committee on Ethics of the Profession, to give the report of that Committee. Miss Muir moved that in view of the unfinished work of the Committee it be continued. Motion carried. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 241. ) Joseph Rosier, president, State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia, chairman of the Committee on Standards, Requirements, and Credits for Teachers in Service, presented the report of that Committee, printed on page 24 of the Annual Reports. After discussion by Miss McIntyre, of Iowa; Mr. Kirk, of Missouri ; and others, Mr. Rosier moved that the Committee be authorized to continue this work during the coming year. Motion carried. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 237.) President Newlon called for the report of the Legislative Commission, which was given by George D. Strayer, chairman of the Commission, printed on page 31 of the Annual Reports. Mr. Strayer moved "that the Representative Assembly approve the principles embodied in the bill here presented and instruct their Legislative Commission to do all in their power to see that the principles in this bill are presented to and passed by the Congress of the United States." After discussion by Mr. Teller, of Massachusetts, and other delegates, the motion was passed, with only two dissenting votes. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 244.) President Newlon next explained that he had appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of Thomas E. Finegan, to draft a set of instructions to delegates to the World Federation of National Education Associations. After explaining that they had been approved by the Executive Committee, Doctor Finegan presented the instructions to the delegates and moved their adoption. The motion was carried. MINUTES OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 987 Delegates to the World Federation conference were thereby asked to seek to have incorporated in its constitution the following principles : ( 1) Only chief national education associations in each country to be entitled to membership ; ( 2) Delegates from each country to be chosen by that national association; ( 3 ) Equality of representation for each country based on the number of teachers employed in the schools of the country ; ( 4) Delegates from the United States to the 1925 biennial meeting to be limited to twenty-five, they having power to select more if conditions demand it; ( 5) That the work of the World Federation be carefully restricted to the prime purpose for which it was formed-to promote through popular education "mutual goodwill and respect between all people of the world and to develop in the minds of the citizens of future generations such understand- ing of the contributions of all nations to civilization and the common interests of mankind everywhere as shall ultimately establish peace upon the earth." George E. Carrothers, College of Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, chairman of the Committee on Community Relations, was next introduced to give the report of that Committee, printed on page 33 of the Annual Reports. Mr. Carrothers also presented a series of resolutions. The President suggested that formal action on these resolutions should not be taken until next year, when they might be included in the printed report placed in the hands of the Representative Assembly. On motion this report of progress was accepted and the Committee continued. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 249.) President Newlon announced that William B. Owen, chairman of the Com- mittee on the American School Program, was unable to be present, but "that the President and Executive Committee consider this American School Program a very important committee and are considering a substantial donation for the carry- ing on of that work." The convention adjourned at 11:30 o'clock A.M. Fourth Business Session of the Representative Assembly Friday forenoon, July 3, 1925 This session was called to order by the President, Jesse H. Newlon, Friday morning, July 3 , 1925, at 8:30 o'clock, in Cadle Tabernacle, Indianapolis, Indiana . The community singing was conducted by Horace Whitehouse, director of the Indianapolis Oratorio Society. The President introduced Ernest L. Crandall, director of Lectures and Visual Education, public schools, New York City, chairman of the Committee on Necrology, to give the report of that Committee. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 1058. ) Olivia Pound, assistant principal, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebraska, delivered an address, Our Constituents. (For this address see Proceedings 1925 , page 90.) Mr. Newlon then introduced Uel W. Lamkin, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, who presented the report of that Committee. Mr. Lamkin explained that the few days of the meeting gave too little time for thorough consideration of all the proposals presented to the Resolutions Committee and moved that a pre- liminary committee on resolutions be appointed earlier in the year and instructed to consider proposed resolutions and to present a rough draft to the Resolutions Committee. The motion was adopted. Mr. Lamkin then presented the report of the Committee, item by item, each item being voted on before passing to the next. After reading of the resolution on child labor, Mary C. C. Bradford, of Denver, Colorado, moved the following substitute : The National Education Association reaffirms its faith in and pledges itself to work for the ratification of the Twentieth Amendment, until it is made a part of the Constitution of the United States. 988 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Frederick M. Hunter, of California, explained that the resolution as presented by the Committee included the position stated in Mrs. Bradford's substitute resolu- tion, but that in the interest of simplicity he was in favor of her motion. Mary McSkimmon, on being recognized by the chair, said: "I want to stand for the Child Labor Amendment. All our work in character building will be thrown away-one half of it is being thrown away because we have not the power to keep the child in school long enough to appeal to his thinking judgment the application of what he has been taught. The children of our schools today are our only ex- cuse for being. They are that great object of interest with which we are mostly concerned ." Harvey C. Minnich, dean of the School of Education, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, then spoke on behalf of the resolution presented by the Committee. The debate was then closed by the adoption of the previous question which prevented further discussion and the vote was in favor of the resolution presented by the Committee. Other resolutions presented from the floor were on motion referred to the Resolutions Committee. The remaining resolutions were then read and adopted one by one, after which the report of the Resolutions Committee as a whole was adopted. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 1009. ) The President next called for the report of the Committee on Co-inclusive Mem- bership. In the absence of the chairman, Thomas J. Walker, editor, School and Community, Columbia, Missouri, the report was presented by Arthur L. Marsh, of Seattle, Washington, a member of the Committee. A motion to continue this Committee was carried. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 253. ) Mr. Crabtree then presented his report as secretary, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates, and moved that it be approved. Motion carried. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 1025. ) Mr. Newlon next introduced T. D. Martin, recently appointed director of the Division of Membeship at headquarters . The Treasurer of the Association, Cornelia S. Adair, was introduced and ex- plained the printed report of the Treasurer, which was in the hands of delegates. The adoption of the report was moved by Miss Adair. Motion carried. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 1011.) Walter R. Siders, chairman of the Board of Trustees, presented the report of the Board and moved its adoption. The motion carried unanimously. ( For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 1015. ) Mr. Saunders, of Virginia, moved the adoption of the printed report of the Auditing Committee covering the reports of the Treasurer and Trustees. Motion carried. The report of the Board of Directors and Executive Committee, including the Budget Committee, was presented by Walter R. Siders, who explained : "We have gotten out of debt; but the Auditors find that we have made an improvement of $63,000 in our net operations. For this the Executive Committee give credit to our Secretary, Mr. Crabtree, and his associates." It was moved to adopt the report and the budget. Motion carried. (For this report see Proceedings 1925, page 989. ) Mr. Newlon announced that the next order of business was the consideration of proposed amendments to the Association's By-laws as found on pages 5 and 6 of the Official Manual. On motion the following amendment, relating to the formation of new departments, was adopted: That in Section 8, of Article 5, of the By-laws of the Association relating to the formation of new departments, the words " two hundred fifty" be substituted for the words "twenty-five" and that following the phrase "proposed to be established" there be added the clause "provided that no group shall be admitted to departmental status until is shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years." MINUTES OF INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION 989 The second amendment, concerning membership in the National Council, which had been proposed by William B. Owen, president of the Chicago Normal College, was adopted as follows : Amend Article 4, Section 2, of the By- laws, by adding the following words: "In addition to the 120 members thus selected from the active membership, the National Council may in its by-laws provide for the admission to membership of representatives from the several de- partments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department." President Newlon then called for new business. Miss Blake, of New York, asked that the President of the Association appoint a committee on Training for World Co-operation and Peace. It was voted that the committee be appointed. Miss Peixotto, of New York, moved to amend the Constitution, "Board of Direc- tors," on page 55 of the Official Manual, by inserting "In any State where the active membership exceeds ten thousand, an additional director will be allowed and the division of the field work shall remain on the defined geographic lines." Mr. Newlon declared such a proposal out of order because it would amend the Act of Congress, under which the Association is organized. The President then introduced Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa, who, for fifty years has been a member of this Association. Mr. Newlon next presented Frank E. Reynolds, of Ohio, who read the report of the Committee on Elections. The report of the Committee was adopted and the Secretary cast the unanimous ballot of the Association for the persons whose names were recommended by the Committee, and Mr. Newlon declared the officers duly elected. The President then introduced the newly-elected president, Mary McSkimmon, principal, Pierce School, Brookline, Massachusetts, who expressed her appreciation of the honor and pledged her allegiance to the ideals for which the Association stands . The Sixty-Third Annual Meeting of the National Education Association of the United States was then declared adjourned. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE TO THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND TO THE REP- RESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY The Executive Committee submits for consideration the following report and recommendations : REPORT OF THE BUDGET COMMITTEE Budget for June 1, 1925, to May 31, 1926 Financial Condition at End of Fiscal Year Last year's indebtedness has been paid, and the fiscal year closed with a cash balance of $18,555.83 . The Auditors state that there is " an improvement in the operation of the Association of $ 63,032.12." Basis of the Budget The sum of the cash receipts of the last fiscal year and the amount remaining after all bills of the last fiscal year are paid is taken as the basis of the budget for 1925-1926. 990 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Cash receipts of the last fiscal year : For the General Association . ...$338,933.50 For the Department of Superintendence ( net) $2,952.10 For the Department of Elementary Principals ( net) .... 35.24 Not available for budget ........ $2,987.34 From the computation immediately below, add.. 2,955.35 Available for Budget... $341,888.85 Computation Current Accounts : Cash on hand at end of fiscal year ..... $18,555.83 Accounts and notes receivable .. $16,696.58 Reserved for doubtful accounts . 1,000.00 15,696.58 Total 34,252.41 Less Obligations : Trust Funds : Department of Superintendence . $6,924.95 Department of Elementary Principals .... 917.10 $7,842.05 Current Bills 23,455.01 31,297.06 Balance Available 2,955.35 Schedule of Expense Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 1 Board of Trustees $602.64 $900.00 2 Executive Committee 3,276.82 4,800.00 3 Secretary's Office 21,349.63 21,349.63 4 Division of Accounts 15,348.90 7,500.00 5 Legislative Division 15,417.572 16,507.65 6 Division of Business 18,720.92 19,526.00 7 Division of Publication 15,040.18 / 2 16,570.33 8 Division of Research 15,900.43 21,878.24 9 Division of Classroom Service 6,168.73 6,410.95 10 Division of Administrative Service . 1,874.01 2,651.00 11 Division of Records and Membership . 16,208.94 12 Plant, 1201 Sixteenth St. 19,475.87 20,175.87 13 General Office Expenses 6,556.98 6,856.98 14 Annual Convention 6,889.11 6,889.11 15a Collection of Membership Dues . 5,168.76 5,168.76 15b Membership Campaign 23,016.28 23,016.28 16 Journal of the N. E. А. 86,719.67 86,719.67 17 Research Bulletin 6,554.57 6,554.57 18 Financing Delegates 9,531.00 10,000.00 19 Special Appropriations, 1923-4-5 17,607.92 21,900.00 20 Office Furniture, etc. 1,083.72 3,230.00 21 Volume of Proceedings 7,792.14 7,792.14 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 991 Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 22 Membership World Federation 1,150.00 1,150.00 23 Membership American Council 100.00 100.00 24 Permanent Fund 2,500.00 25 Emergency Fund 5,623.73 Total $305,345.86 $341,888.85 Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Experise 1924-1925 1925-1926 1 Board of Trustees $602.64 $900.00 Provision is made in this amount for a third meeting of the Board of Trustees. The fall meeting was omitted last year because of the deficit in the current funds of the Association. The actual expenses under this item vary from year to year, depending on location of meetings and also on the location of officers. The Board of Trustees meets with the Executive Committee at all meetings and acts jointly with it on all questions of income, expenditures and policies . 2 Executive Committee : President ( 1923-1924) 485.45 President ( 1924-1925 ) : 1,110.22 First Vice-President ( 1923-1924) 105.23 First Vice-President ( 1924-1925) 236.68 Treasurer 267.56 Chairman Board of Trustees 685.19 Member by Election ( 1923-1924) 121.13 Member by Election (1924-1925) 265.36 $3,276.82 $4,800.00 Provision is made for the usual fall meeting of the Executive Committee. This meeting was not held last year. If it should be omitted this year the increase would not be necessary. The fall meeting is very important and should be held except in emergencies . As the Association extends its activities, and as its responsibility to its membership and the public increases the Executive Committee must necessarily give more and more time and attention to the problems of the profession. Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 3 Secretary's Office : Salaries and Clerical Service $18,394.94 $ 18,394.94 Traveling Expense 585.77 585.77 Stationery and Supplies 248.25 248.25 Stamped Envelopes 1,312.19 1,312.19 Telegrams 284.49 284.49 Miscellaneous Printing 523.99 523.99 Total $21,349.63 $21,349.63 The increase in correspondence on affiliations, life memberships, one hundred per cent schools, and with departments and committees will about offset the portion to be turned over to the Division of Records and Membership. 992 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 4 Division of Accounts : Clerical Services $14,958.94 $7,000.00 Stationery and Office Supplies 139.16 200.00( a) Stamps and Cards 250.80 300.00(b) Total $15,348.90 $7,500.00 (a) To cover purchase of additional books and supplies for handling the accounts of the Association. (b) To cover additional cost of billing due to increase in the number of Ac- counts Receivable . 5 Legislative Division : Salaries and Clerical Services $11,723.56 $11,723.56 Traveling Expenses 1,316.66 1,884.09 (1) Stationery and Office Supplies 104.36 200.00 (2) Postage and Stamped Envelopes 441.432 700.00 (3) Telegrams 146.79 500.00 (4) General Expense 1,684.77 1,500.00 (5) Total $15,417.572 $16,507.65 (1) Traveling Expenses: The most intensive campaign on the Education Bill which has yet been waged will come during the next session of Congress. The increased activities on the bill will necessitate an increase of funds to promote the interests of the bill. This will increase the item of Traveling Expenses which includes local monthly expenses. In 1924-1925 over a period of ten months $218.67 was spent for local monthly ex- penses, an average of $21.86 a month. (2) Stationery and Office Supplies : It is estimated that greater activities in the Field Division will increase the ex- penditure for this item. (3) Postage and Stamped Envelopes : This item is increased to take care of the increase in correspondence as well as the increase in postal rates. (4) Telegrams : In bringing needed support to the Education Bill in the next session of Congress it will be necessary many times to communicate quickly with the constituents of Congressmen in their congressional districts-telegraphic service will be used for this communication which will cause an increase in the expenditure for this item. (5) General Expense : This item covers the printing done by the Division. Since a new bill will be introduced for a Department of Education it will be necessary to have entirely new literature printed. This item covers the cost and distribution of the records of the hearings which will be held. A decrease is made in this item because it is the intention of those who have the hearings in charge to keep the size of the record down as low as possible, thereby decreasing the cost. Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 6 Division of Business : Salaries and Clerical Expense $8,651.27 $8,648.00 Traveling Expense 437.68 400.00 (1) Stationery and Office Supplies 220.89 220.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes 331.19 330.00 Telegrams 32.42 35.00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 993 Expended Budget 1924-1925 1925-1926 Typing Section 9.17 10.00 (2) Mailing Section 2,278.71 2,716.00 Multigraph Section 152.38 100.00 (3) Addressograph Section 6,607.21 7,067.00 (4) Total $18,720.92 $19,526.00 ( 1) On basis of annual meeting in eastern United States. ( 2) Cost distributed to activities for which work is done; balance required for overlay at end of year. (3) Cost distributed to activities for which work is done; balance required for overlay at end of year. (4) Includes following: Three Salaries $3,300.00 Wages of from 3 to 6 temporary clerks and operators . .... 3,276.00 Stock and material 500.00 $7,076.00 7 Division of Publications : Salaries and Clerical Service $13,713.00 $14,713.00 ( 1) Stationery and Supplies 285.24 285.24 Postage and Stamped Envelopes 349.352 549.50 ( 2) Telegrams 44.77 44.77 General Expense 67.30 67.30 Reprints 267.25 267.25 Photographs and Prints 29.50 59.50 Traveling Expense 283.77 583.77 ( 4) Total $15,040.182 $16,570.33 (1) During the past year THE JOURNAL and other publications of the Associa- tion have suffered somewhat from our efforts to keep expenses down. Much of the Association's printing comes in on peak load just before meetings at which time it should be possible to employ additional temporary help. THE JOURNAL plans for next year call for more writing in the headquarters office and for a wider judgment on manuscripts before they are printed. It should be possible to employ practical teachers occasionally for a few hours a week for this work. (2) This increase is intended to offset the increase in postal rates and to allow a slightly wider range of publicity than we have had this year. (3) Expenditures for photographs for publicity have been held down unduly during 1924-25. (4) The Director of the Division has already made commitments for addresses next year, requiring considerable travel which should be supplemented by travel in the interest of THE JOURNAL. Honorariums will offset most of this expense. Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 8 Division of Research : Salaries $13,854.19 $16,332.00 ( a) Traveling Expense 315.61 315.61 Stationery and Office Supplies 300.96 300.96 Postage and Stamped Envelopes 526.17 526.17 Telegrams 28.32 28.32 994 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-19260 General Expense 875.18 875.18 Librarian 1,500.00 (b) Expert on Analysis and Tabulation 2,000.00 Total $15,900.43 $21,878.24 (a) This sum does not represent increases in salary or in personnel. It is principally the result of the Director's return to full time. He was on part time most of the year 1924-1925. The expenditures for salaries in 1923-1924 are a better basis of comparison than those of 1924-1925. (b) For salary of librarian and file specialist. (c) For salary of expert in the analysis and classification of educational mate- rials; for purchase of materials ; and to cover expense of distribution of materials to teachers' associations, colleges, school systems, and members of the Association. 9 Division of Classroom Service : Salaries and Clerical Service $5,735.95 $5,735.95 Traveling Expense 237.04 400.00 (1) Stationery and Office Supplies 48.37 75.00 (2) Postage and Stamped Envelopes 126.31 175.00 (3) Telegrams 21.06 25.00 Total $6,168.73 $6,410.95 (1) This item is increased to provide for short field trips in response to invita- tions received. It includes also attendance at two conventions . (2) Additional equipment. (3) To provide for correspondence and increased postage rates in second-class mail. 10 Division of Administrative Service: Salaries and Clerical Service $1,665.72 $2,400.00 Stationery and Office Supplies 90.22 91.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes 14.88 40.00 Traveling Expense 103.19 120.00 Total $1,874.01 $2,651.00 ( a) (a) Office and Office Help for Secretary Shankland, whose salary is paid by Department of Superintendence. Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 11 *Division of Records and Membership : Salaries and Clerical Service $14,833.94 Stationery and Supplies 225.00 Postage 300.00 Telegrams 50.00 General Expenses 50.00 Traveling Expenses 750.00 Total $16,208.94 *The old Division of Membership and Accounts has been divided into a Divi- sion of Accounts ( Schedule 4) and a Division of Records and Membership ( Sched- ule 11). Increase in the organization made this necessary. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 995 12 Physical Plant, 1201 Sixteenth St.: Rents $14,305.53 $ 15,005.53 ( 1 ) Lights and Power 971.88 971.88 Heat 1,307.64 1,307.64 Janitor Service 1,719.80 1,719.80 (2) Maintenance 1,171.02 1,171.02 Total $19,475.87 $20,175.87 (1) Fixed by Board of Trustees. (2) Includes all janitors' supplies, extra cleaning, minor repairs, elevator up- keep, and service material. 13 General Office Expenses : Telephone Service ( one operator and tolls ) ..... $2,491.12 $2,491.12 Telegrams 137.52 137.52 Repairs ( Office Furniture and Equipment 254.21 254.21 General Expense 53.50 53.50 Subscriptions for JOURNALS 3.00 3.00 Purchase of Books and Pamphlets 111.47 211.47 Refunds of Membership 235.50 235.50 Purchase of Back Volumes 14.00 14.00 Express and Freight 881.25 1,081.25 Interest and Discount Allowed 1,468.15 1,468.15 Surety Bonds 210.00 210.00 Auditing of Accounts of Association 697.26 697.26 Total $6,556.98 $6,856.98 14 Annual Convention : Department Expenses $402.79 $402.79 State Directors 794.00 794.00 Registration 370.81 370.81 Stenography and Typing 15.57 15.57 Publicity 1,068.88 1,068.88 Printing-Program 1,431.06 1,431.06 Printing-Miscellaneous 429.70 429.70 Express and Freight 16.68 16.68 Telephone and Telegrams 24.08 24.08 Miscellaneous 468.31 468.31 Badges 176.00 176.00 Representative Assembly Expense 1,268.52 1,268.52 Special Committees Appointed by President 422.71 422.71 Total $6,889.11 $6,889.11 Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 15 Membership: Collection of Membership Dues : Expense in Collecting $5,168.76 $5,168.76 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership 23,016.28 23,016.28 ( 1) Total $28,185.04 $28,185.04 (1) This item covers all blanks and other supplies used in membership drives, the typing and mailing and the postage. The cost of stamps and stamped en- velopes last year for this work was about $7,000.00. 996 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 16 Journal: Printing and distribution $86,711.50 $86,711.50 Material for Contents 8.17 8.17 Total $86,719.67 $86,719.67 The higher rates of postage will add $1,350 to the cost of the JOURNAL but we prefer using the expenditures of last year as the budget for this year, even though it may be necessary to draw upon the lump sum for distribution by the Executive Committee. The above is based on the present circulation. The amount will need to be increased or decreased as the membership fluctuates. 17 Research Bulletin : Printing and Distribution $6,554.57 $6,554.57 ( a) (a) Cost of printing and distributing five issues of Research Bulletin. 18 Financing Delegates : Financing Delegates ....... $9,531.00 $10,000.00 ( 1) (1) Same as last year's appropriation. All used except $469.00. The appro- priation is given as $10,000.00 as fixed by the Board of Directors. 19 Special Appropriations : Appropriations for committees : Educational Nomenclature $200.00 Character and Citizenship 300.00 Committee on Foreign Relations (For publicity only) ........ 100.00 Committee on Health Education 400.00 Legislative Commission 5,000.00 Classification of Educational Material .... 250.00 Committee on Tenure .. 100.00 Committee on Thrift Education 100.00 Research Advisory Committee 50.00 Department of Classroom Teachers 7,500.00 Committee on American Education Week 300.00 Department of Elementary School Principals ..... 1,400.00 Committee on American School Program 1,000.00 Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teacher Problems 500.00 Committee on English 50.00 Committee of One Hundred on Retirement Allowances 500.00 Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teacher Problems 600.00 Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 Committee on the Behavior Problem-Child.. 200.00 Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor .. ........ 300.00 Committee on Co-inclusive Membership ....... 200.00 Committee on Community Relations ... 200.00 Committee on Professional Ethics 300.00 Committee on Standard Requirements and Credits for Teachers 200.00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 997 Expended Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1924-1925 1925-1926 Committee on Teaching Democracy 500.00 Committee on Character Development as a School Problem 500.00 Committee on Visual Education 500.00 Committee on Reorganization of Departments 100.00 Committee on Home for Retired Teachers .... 50.00 Department for Adult Education : 500.00 Total $17,607.92 $21,900.00 20 Office Furniture, etc.: Fixed Assets : Office Furniture and Fixtures .. $1,083.72 $3,230.00 ( 1 ) (1) Expenditures for 1924-1925 were reduced to an absolute minimum. As a result, replacements of working machinery must be heavier for 1925-1926. Such replacements must include typewriters, multigraph, graphotype and addressograph equipment on an exchange basis. A reasonable amount of new equipment must be purchased. Such new equipment is in two classes: ( 1 ) additional filing cases, shelving and office equipment; ( 2) labor saving machines, calculator, dictaphone, scales, electric fans, mimeograph. Estimate of cost: Replacements $1,460.00 Additional furniture 800.00 Labor saving equipment .. 970.00 $3,230.00 RECOMMENDATIONS 1. $2,500 of this year's receipts are budgeted for the Permanent Fund. It is rec- ommended that one-fourth of the amount realized from increases in membership over last year shall be placed in the Permanent Fund. 2. Committees for this current year : The Executive Committee recommends the continuance of the following as active committees of the Association for the year June 1, 1925, to May 31, 1926 : a. All committees previously listed under Budget Item 19. b. Editorial Council. 3. Recommended transfer of work of committees and commissions : a. Thrift Education Committee to the Curriculum Committee of the Depart- ment of Superintendence ; Illiteracy Commission to the Department of Adult Education ; Committee on Character and Citizenship to be divided into Committee on Teaching Democracy and Committee on Character Develop- ment as a School Problem; Committee on Kindergarten Education to the Kindergarten Department. 4. It is recommended that the life of all committees cease with the end of the year for which they are appointed, all committees to be reappointed annually. 5 The Executive Committee requests the authority of the Representative Assembly to redistribute the amounts assigned by this budget where an amount remains after the completion of the work to which the sum was budgeted, or where the best interests of the Association demand a readjustment. Respectfully submitted, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE . Indianapolis, Indiana, July 3, 1925. 998 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SUMMARY OF THE MINUTES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE YEAR 1924-25 Cincinnati , Ohio Saturday, Tuesday, and Wednesday. February 21, 24, and 25, 1925 Meeting of the Executive Committee at the Gibson Hotel, Cincinnati, Ohio, Satur- day morning, February 21, 1925, 9:00 o'clock was called to order by President Newlon with the following present: Miss Iversen, Miss Jones, Mr. Siders, and the Chairman, Mr. Newlon. Miss Adair was absent owing to a delayed train. Miss Doherty of the Board of Trustees was present and participated in the discussions. A motion was made by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Jones and passed by a vote of the Committee to approve the minutes as presented by the Secretary. After discussing the question of credentials for delegates to the World Federa- tion of National Education Associations at Edinburgh, Scotland, in July, the fol- lowing motion was made by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders, and carried by a unanimous vote of the Committee. The President of the Association is hereby authorized : ( 1) . To appoint three classes of delegates: Delegates with full partici- pating and voting rights in the conferences and in the delegate assembly; Alter- nate delegates with such participating and voting rights as are granted by the delegate assembly of the World Federation; and Participating Representatives with the right to participate in the work of group conferences and to such rights and privileges in the delegate assembly as may be accorded to participating representatives of affiliated national Education associations. (2) To appoint a chairman of the delegation and to acquaint him with the action taken by the Executive Committee at the Chicago meeting in 1924 and to call his particular attention to the points of relationship which the National Education Association believes should exist bewteen national education associations and the World Federa- tion. ( 3) To have the credentials printed on a good quality of paper and in dignified attractive form to be signed by the President and Secretary of the Asso- ciation. (4) To instruct the delegates, alternate delegates , and participating representatives to discuss with the delegates from other associations the importance of restricting the voting privileges in group meetings and in the delegate assembly to those who hold credentials from the affiliated associations composing the World Federation. Since at this first meeting the policies of the new organization are to be adopted and precedents established, the importance of guarding the principles set forth in the Chicago meeting of the Executive Committee should be evident to all repre- sentatives of the National Education Association of the United States . President Newlon outlined plans for the Indianapolis meeting. He also secured the approval of the committee, by general consent, of the committees appointed by the chairman, including special committees. It was stated that there would be slight expense for some of these committees and the Secretary was authorized by a vote of the committee to pay the same out of this year's income. President Newlon called special attention to the committee which he had ap- pointed on American Education Week and to the reasons for appointing this partic- ular committee. The Executive Committee gave its approval by general consent; the expenses of the committee being authorized. The Secretary reported on the action which President Newlon had taken in case of the attempt of the Governor of Kansas to oust Chancellor Lindley of the Uni- versity of Kansas for political purposes. He called attention to the request of President Newlon that the State Teachers Association investigate and report the facts immediately to the Executive Committee of the National Education Associa- tion, but that before the work was fully under way President Lindley had been reinstated. Many educational agencies in the State had passed resolutions express MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 999 ing appreciation. A number of university presidents have complimented the Association on this action. To them it meant that the Association stands for tenure for all grades of the profession. On motion of Miss Iversen, seconded by Miss Jones, the Secretary was instructed to let the contract for the next Volume of Proceedings to Judd and Detweiler, theirs being the lowest bid. A motion was passed ratifying the vote by mail adding $5 a month to the salary of Mrs. Boyd. The Secretary was also authorized to increase Mr. Christian's annual salary from $1700 to $1800, to begin with March. Mr. Allan was authorized to get an extension of the contract with Judd and Detweiler on printing THE JOURNAL and to submit the same to the Secretary for approval. The Secretary was directed to acknowledge the receipt of the invitation from Philadelphia to hold the next meeting of the Association in that city. The committee then voted to adjourn to 2:00 o'clock in the afternoon. At 2:00 o'clock the committee again met in Room H, Gibson Hotel. All members were present except Miss Adair. A motion was passed authorizing the chairman of the Board of Trustees to pre- pare a statement for The Journal explaining the condition of the finances of the Association . The following resolution was read by Miss Jones : The National Education Association appoint a committee on the study and care of the behavior problem children; that the National Education Association ask the National Con- ference of Social Work to appoint a similar committee; that the two committees be requested to coöperate in a manner similar to the action of the Joint Health Committee headed by Dr. Wood; and that $50 be appropriated to be used for mail and typewriting in connection with this committee if in the judgment of the Secretary such charges are just. Motion seconded by Mr. Siders and passed by vote of the Committee. A motion was made by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Iversen and passed by a vote of the Committee : (1) To create a new division in the headquarters organization to be known as the Division of Records and Membership and to ap- point a director of the new division at a salary commensurate with the salaries of heads of divisions ; ( 2) To transfer the work on the records from the present division of Records and Accounts to the new division and to change the name Division of Records and Accounts to the Division of Accounts ; ( 3 ) To authorize the Secretary to appoint a director satisfactory to the President of the Association, the appointment to be submitted for the approval of members of the Committee and services to begin as soon as possible. Each section was adopted separately by a unanimous vote of the members present. A subcommittee was appointed to report on rules governing the payment of National Education Association Directors' expenses consisting of Miss Iversen, Mr. Engleman, and Miss Doherty. The Committee was requested to pass upon Miss Doerr's bill which contained expenses incurred at the meeting of the State Assocіа- tion. A motion was made by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders and carried by a vote of the Committee to permit the President and Secretary to add not to exceed $100 to the appropriation of the Committee on Character Education. On motion an adjournment was taken to 8:00 o'clock in the evening. 1000 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Committee reconvened at 8:00 o'clock in the evening with all members present, Miss Adair having arrived during the late afternoon. All members of the Board of Trustees were present and participated in the discussions. A communication was read from Commissioner Tigert stating that the time for holding the Pan American Educational Conference had been postponed. The Secretary was authorized to ascertain the new date for the Conference and if pos- sible to find someone to attend as a representative of the National Education Asso- ciation. After considering the bill submitted by Mr. Cooper for $450 expenses of the Committee on School House Planning, a motion was made by Miss Adair, seconded by Mr. Siders and passed by a vote of the Committee to allow the bill. The question of accepting Dr. Bagley's resignation as editor-in-chief of The Journal was discussed without reaching a conclusion. Members regretted to lose his services on The Journal. In order to have vouchers show more definitely the work performed by clerical help of Committees the following motion was made by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Adair and carried by a vote of the Committee: All bills for stenographic and clerical service shall exhibit the amount of time served, and specifically state on each bill the kind of work performed. The Secretary was authorized to send a copy of this action to each Committee employing a secretary or other clerical help. Amotion was made by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders and passed by a vote of the Committee to authorize the use of $10,000 on the payment of delegates' ex- penses and to use the same plan of pro rata allotment as last year. Miss Adair was authorized to prepare the plans and to publish them in The Journal. The meeting then adjourned to meet again at 4:00 o'clock Tuesday afternoon. The meeting of the Committee was called to order at 4:00 o'clock Tuesday afternoon, February 24, in Room E at the Gibson Hotel, with all members of the Executive Committee present. Doctor W. S. Gray, Dean of the College of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, presented a request from a large number of people interested in Educational Research throughout the country, to make the Division of Research of the National Education Association, a clearinghouse for all educational research in the United States. He presented the following petition which was signed by more than three hundred members of the Phi Delta Kappa fraternity : Scientific investigations and reports concerning various problems in the field of education have multiplied so rapidly during recent years that it is difficult for school officers, as well as research workers, to secure information concerning many of them after they have been published. It is highly desirable that some agency of National scope undertake the task of preparing the making available classified lists of such studies. The following members of the Phi Delta Kappa fraternity respectfully request the Executive Committee of the National Education Association to establish an agency for systematically collecting and distributing such information. By so doing great economics can be effected, a genuine service rendered to school officers, and needed assistance provided for research workers. The Secretary was authorized to make such a beginning in making the research work serviceable in harmony with the above recommendation as can be done at slight expense and to make a recommendation at the next meeting concerning the development of the plan as outlined. The Committee adjourned to meet Wednesday morning in the same room at 9:00 o'clock MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 1001 The meeting was opened at the hour named with all members present and with all members of the Board of Trustees in attendance on invitation to participate in the discussions. Miss Jones presented her report on the Home for Retired Teachers. A motion was made by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Adair and carried by a vote of the Committee to approve the plan suggested by Miss Jones. The following is the plan which was adopted: That the National Education Association shall undertake to organize a home or a series ofhomes for retired teachers . That the first one shall be in or near the city of Washington, D. C. That the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association shall be the guardian of the money collected to build and manage such homes and shall preserve such money as a separte fund for a Home for Retired Teachers. That Olive M. Jones is authorized to prepare plans for financing such homes and present them to the various States through the advisory committee consisting of persons suggested by State Commissioners of Education, State Directors , officers of the State Association, and others known to be interested and informed concerning the subject. That all the action taken and the various plans proposed be reported to the Representative Assembly in July, 1925. Motion to adopt the resolution was made by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Iversen, and passed by a unanimous vote of the Committee. The Secretary was instructed to notify Committee chairmen again that all reports must be printed at headquarters. He was instructed to notify them also that letter- heads should be secured from the headquarters office. The question of accepting funds from foundations and from other agencies was discussed at length without taking action. On motion by Miss Adair, seconded by Mr. Siders, Miss Doherty, Miss Iversen, and the Secretary were appointed as a Committee to formulate rules concerning expenses and to report at the next meeting of the Executive Committee. A motion was passed authorizing the President and Secretary to pass on the Constitution and By-laws of the Association of Teachers' Colleges and on the recommendation of the Committee on the Reorganization of Departments to list the organization as a department of the Association. The session adjourned to meet again at 1:30 o'clock in the afternoon in the same room . The Committee met as arranged, Wednesday afternoon at 1:30 o'clock in Room E, Gibson Hotel. A motion was passed authorizing the Secretary to co-operate with Mathew Woll, chairman of the Committee on Education, American Federation of Labor, in the preparation of a platform for the use of educational committees in local units of the American Federation of Labor. He was authorized to call on members of the Executive Committee and others for help. A motion was passed by unanimous vote to comply with the request of the Representatives of Educational Research and to begin arrangements for making the Division of Research a clearinghouse for all educational research . A motion was passed approving of the arrangements of President Newlon to give the Research Bulletin on Tenure and the one on Salaries to new members in lieu of back Journals at a cost of approximately $1,600 and to charge that amount to the account for the publication of bulletins. The Committee approved of the recommendation of the Secretary to give the W. T. Harris book as a prize to schools reaching the 100 per cent goal. The Secretary was advised to use volumes and books on hand for increasing membership whenever it can be done to advantage. 1002 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A motion was passed authorizing the President and Secretary to pass on the constitution and by-laws of the Association of Secondary School Principals in case a formal application should be made for membership as a Department of the National Education Association and in case the Committee on Reorganization of Departments recommends such action. The wisdom of accepting funds from foundations and other agencies was again discussed without reaching a definite conclusion. It was decided, however, to give further consideration to the question at the next meeting of the Executive Committee and the President was authorized to appoint a Committee on Subventions. Mr. Siders, Chairman of the Budget Committee, explained the efforts of the organization to live within the budget which was adopted at the Washington meeting. The chairman complimented Mr. Siders for his work on the budget, and stated that he had appointed him chairman of the Committee for the Indianapolis meeting. A motion was made by Miss Adair, seconded by Miss Iversen, and carried by a vote of the Committee directing the Secretary and President to take up with the office force of the headquarters organization, the idea of making strenuous efforts to keep within the budget as adopted at the Washington meeting except that $ 8,100 should be added to the budget. It was understood that $5,000 should be used by the Secretary for increasing membership, $2000 for the payment of rent, $1,000 for the membership fees in the World Federation, and $100 as mem- bership fees in the American Council of Education. It was the sense of the Com- mittee that honorariums, amounts paid in on expenses , and sales of pamphlets, etc., should be added to the budget in the divisions concerned, wherever this repre- sents amounts paid out which come back as income and that such additions should not be considered as increasing the budget. The committee instructed the Secretary to recommend an improved accounting system which will provide for condensation of headings and for set of headings more in line with the organization of the headquarters staff and work of the Association. The new system should provide for listing daily liabilities incurred and should give at the end of each month a complete statement not only of expendi- tures, but of outstanding liabilities. On motion the committee adjourned to meet on call of the President. JESSE H. NEWLON, J. W. CRABTREE, President. Secretary. Indianapolis, Indiana Friday afternoon, June 26, 1925 A meeting of the Executive Committee was held in Committee Room A, Short- ridge High School, Indianapolis, Indiana, at 2:00 o'clock Friday afternoon, June 26, 1925, with the following members present: Miss Adair, Miss Iversen, and Mr. Newlon, Chairman. The other members of the Committee did not arrive until later in the day. On motion, the minutes of the last meeting of the Executive Committee were ap- proved as prepared by the Secretary. A statement prepared by the Continental Trust Company, providing for a loan of not to exceed $25,000 was read, and on motion by Miss Adair, seconded by Miss Iversen it was voted upon and passed. The vote was on roll call as follows : Miss Adair, Miss Iversen and Mr. Newlon, Chairman, voting Aye, none voting No. It was explained by the Secretary that $10,000 would be needed soon-hence a motion was made by Miss Adair, seconded by Miss Iversen, and passed by a vote of the committee, authorizing the President and Secretary to sign a note for $10,000 to be used in the payment of the expenses of delegates, those voting Aye MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 1003 being Miss Adair, Miss Iversen and Mr. Newlon, Chairman ; none voting No. The Secretary explained that another note could now be signed by either Presi- dent or Secretary when additional funds were needed. The Secretary was authorized to give notice to the Sanitary Grocery in the headquarters building that the lease held by the company on a store room which expires April 30, 1925 will not be renewed. After giving attention to the budget and other matters, the committee ad- journed to meet at 4:00 Saturday afternoon, June 27, in the same room. Saturday afternoon, June 27, 1925 An adjourned meeting of the Executive Committee was held in Room A, Short- ridge High School, Saturday Afternoon, 4:00 o'clock, June 27, 1925. It was called to order by President Newlon, with the following members of the committee present: Miss Adair, Miss Iversen, Mr. Siders, Miss Jones and Mr. Newlon, Chairman. The following members of the Board of Trustees were present who participated in the discussions : Miss Doherty, Mr. Pearse, and Dr. Finegan. There was an informal discussion of the auditor's report. All members of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees participated in this discussion. The complaint was made that the auditor's report is too technical. It was decided by the Executive Committee that the Secretary should prepare a more suitable form for presenting reports to the directors and the assembly. He is authorized to employ an accountant to come in to help him make a simple state- ment that will be intelligible to the uninstructed person. He stated that he would immediately proceed towards preparing such a report with the help of such experts as are needed. The World Federation-Instructions-Mr. Newlon brought up the problem of the World Conference, briefly summarizing his problems in dealing with the World Federation of Educational Associations The President was authorized to appoint a committee from the Board of Trus- tees and the Executive Committee to draft a set of resolutions and to present the same to the Representative Assembly. He appointed Trustees Finegan and Pearse on this committee. On motion, the meeting adjourned to reconvene at 8:30 o'clock, Saturday evening, June 27, 1925 . Saturday Evening, June 27, 1925 An adjourned meeting of the Executive Committee was held in Room A, Short- ridge High School, Indianapolis, Indiana, at 8:30 o'clock, Saturday evening, June 27, 1925. It was called to order by President Newlon, with the following mem- bers present: Miss Adair, Miss Iversen, Miss Jones, Mr. Siders, and Mr. New- lon, Chairman. The following Trustees participated in discussions : Miss Doherty, Mr. Pearse, and Dr. Finegan. It was stated that Dr. Bagley was voted $500 a year ago which was not paid at that time because of the deficit and that matter has been held up. Dr. Bagley knew nothing of this at the time. When advised of this action by the Secretary, Dr. Bagley stated that he did not wish any pay for his work for the Association. Mr. Newlon stated that in his opinion we should make some kind of an expression of appreciation for the work which Dr. Bagley has done. It was moved by Miss Adair, seconded by Miss Iversen, that the Secretary pay this amount ( $500) to Dr. Bagley as soon as funds are available, and send a letter in the name of the Executive Committee expressing appreciation for his services the same to be signed by the President and to be presented in the name of the Association. The motion was put and carried by unanimous vote. It was the belief of the committee that the National Education Association must not allow the recent unjust attack in New York on Mr. Cort to pass unnoticed. 1004 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Decision as to the procedure to be followed in this matter was deferred until the next meeting of the committee. Miss Iversen brought up the matter of the payment of expenses of State Directors which has been considered by a committee consisting of Miss Adair, Miss Doherty, and Miss Iversen. It was moved by Miss Iversen and seconded by Miss Jones that there be a minimum of $20 and a maximum of $50 for the expenses of State Directors, this to be approved by the Executive Committee on a membership basis, the directors to present their vouchers on the amounts spent. The motion carried. The Secretary was instructed to express appreciation to Colliers for what they are doing for education in promoting their moral code. Miss Jones brought up the question of the membership year. It was recom- mended by Mr. Newlon that the matter be studied by the Secretary and Mr. Martin, and that the Secretary make a report next year. Approved. Upon motion the meeting adjourned to reconvene at 2:15 o'clock Tuesday after- noon, June 30, 1925. Tuesday afternoon, June 30, 1925 An adjourned meeting of the Executive Committee was held in Room A, Short- ridge High School, Tuesday afternoon at 2:15 o'clock, June 30, 1925. It was, called to order by President Newlon with the following members present: Miss Adair, Miss Jones, Miss Iversen, Mr. Siders and Mr. Newlon, Chairman. Miss Doherty, Mr. Hunter, and Dr. Finegan were also in attendance. Mr. Siders presented a verbal report of the budget committee as far as com- pleted. It was moved by Miss Adair and seconded by Miss Jones that there be an ap- propriation of $500 for the Department of Adult Education, on account of the addition to that department of the Illiteracy Commission. Motion carried. The matter of the annual increase to the permanent fund was discussed. It was moved by Miss Iversen, seconded by Miss Jones, that the budget should con- tain an appropriation of $2500 as an addition to the permanent fund of the Asso- ciation and that it should be the policy of the Executive Committee to add to the permanent fund twenty-five per cent of the increase in receipts from membership dues in 1925-26 over the receipts for 1924-25. It was thought this might form a precedent and put into the permanent fund each year one fourth the difference between the income of 1924-25 and that of the current year. It was moved by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Adair that the health committee be appropriated $400 and that the committee be terminated at the end of this year. Motion carried. The Committee on Character Training was terminated and the Committee on Character Development as a School Problem established. The old committee was expected to complete its report. The committees on English, Arithmetic, and Thrift are referred to the Depart- ment of Superintendence. It was moved by Miss Jones, seconded by Miss Iversen that a committee on committees be appointed as a convention committee to report to the Executive Committee. Motion carried. It was moved by Miss Iverson, seconded by Miss Jones that the report on the budget prepared by Mr. Siders be approved and that the Executive Committee present it to the Representative Assembly. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Jones that the accountant be directed to place all refunds and honorariums in the general funds of the Associa- tion. Motion carried. It was decided by the committee that if a delegate for any reason cannot serve he should go to the registration office, turn in his credential card, and sign over his right that another person may be appointed to serve in his place as a delegate on certification by the Secretary or State Director of the affiliated organization . MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 1005 The question of dismissals of superintendents and others in school work was discussed. Mr. Newlon read to the committee the report of President J. A. C. Chandler for the Research Advisory Committee. It was moved by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders that the report be adopted. The report recommended a con- siderable increase in appropriation for the Division of Research. It called atten- tion to the high standing of the division. Motion carried. The matter of the communication from Mr. Phillip Carlson was brought up by Miss Jones. It was requested that this be placed in the hands of the President who will present it to the Executive Committee later. On motion the meeting adjourned to reconvene at noon Wednesday, July 1, 1925. Wednesday Noon, July 1 , 1925 An adjourned meeting of the Executive Committee was held in Room A, Short- ridge High School, Wednesday Noon, July 1, 1925. It was called to order by President Newlon with the following present: Miss Adair, Miss Iversen, Miss Jones, Mr. Siders and Mr. Newlon, Chairman. The following Trustees par- ticipated in the discussion: Miss Doherty, Dr. Finegan, and Mr. Pearse. The purpose of the meeting was to decide upon a set of resolutions prepared by Dr. Finegan to be sent to the members of the American delegation to the World Federation of National Education Associations at Edinburgh, Scotland, in July, 1925. The committee discussed the resolutions at length. A paragraph numbered 4 was inserted. It was moved by Miss Iversen, seconded by Mr. Siders that the Executive Com- mittee approve the set of instructions which had been prepared and that Dr. Finegan be asked to put them in final form and present them to the Representative Assembly with the recommendation from the Executive Committee that they be adopted as instructions to the delegation from the National Education Association of the United States. Motion carried. Resolutions as completed may be found in the Minutes of the Representative Assembly for July 3, 1925. On motion the meeting adjourned. JESSE H. NEWLON, J. W. CRABTREE, President. Secretary. Friday afternoon, July 3, 1925 The meeting was called to order by the President, Miss McSkimmon. The following members were present : H. L. Smith, Jesse H. Newlon, Walter R. Siders, Miss McSkimmon, Chairman, Miss Adair being absent. It was moved by Mr. Newlon, seconded by Mr. Siders that we empower the President, Miss McSkimmon, working with Mr. Crabtree, to make a final decision as to the time and place of the 1926 annual meeting. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Siders, seconded by Mr. Newlon that a meeting of the Executive Committee take place at the Broadmoor Hotel, Colorado Springs, Colorado, early in October, the exact date to be fixed by Miss McSkimmon. Carried. All general business of the committee should be held for that meeting. Mr. Newlon brought up the matter of the status of Mr. Morgan in the editor- ship of The Journal. It was moved by Mr. Newlon, seconded by Mr. Smith that Mr. Morgan be made acting editor of The Journal pending further action by the Executive Committee at its October meeting. Motion carried. The committee passed a motion that the Near East Relief gavel be presented to Mr. Newlon, to be kept by him during his lifetime, after which it will return to the National Education Association. On motion the meeting adjourned. MARY MCSKIMMON, J. W. CRABTREE, President. Secretary. 1006 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS Indianapolis, Indiana Saturday afternoon, 2:00 o'clock, June 27, 1925 A meeting of the Board of Directors was held in Committee Room, A, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Indiana, at 2:00 o'clock, Saturday afternoon, June 29, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President Newlon. The minutes of the previous meeting, held in Washington in 1924, were approved as prepared by the Secretary. The Secretary presented his printed report. It was moved by H. L. Smith and seconded by Dr. Aley that the report be received and placed on file. The motion was put and carried. Miss Adair presented the report of the Treasurer, explaining that it was included in the report of the auditors, which was placed in the hands of the members of the Board of Directors in printed form. She called attention to the fact that the report had just been received from the auditors and that she had not had time to put it in simpler form. There was considerable discussion of seeming difficulties in understanding the auditor's report. The following were among those who participated in the discus- sion: H. L. Smith, Robert E. Aley, Walter R. Siders, S. D. Shankland, Carroll G. Pearse, Olive M. Jones, Director Burdick, of Maryland, Cornelia S. Adair, Presi- dent Jesse H. Newlon, and others. Mrs. Hixson was called in to explain certain items . The Secretary explained that the auditors would need to make their report in good business form. He thought it might be simplified somewhat, but he thought the explanations and simplications would necessarily have to be made by the officers concerned. He thought it possible to do this. He doubted whether any attempt should be made to get the auditors away from what they consider the best form. He said the form could be changed, but a little study would show the present form a good one. Mr. Siders made a few statements in regard to the report of the Board of Trustees. Mr. Siders asked that the adoption of his report be deferred until the meeting on Monday. President Newlon reminded the committee that under the By-laws a meeting should be held on Monday morning at 10 o'clock, which conflicts with a very important general session, making it practically impossible for many members to be present. In order to postpone this meeting legally and comply with the By- laws, it was decided that the Secretary should meet with such members as happen to be present at 10 o'clock on Monday and adjourn to meet at two o'clock on Monday afternoon, June 29. On motion the meeting adjourned. JESSE H. NEWLON, J. W. CRABTREE, President. Secretary. Monday afternoon, 2:00 o'clock , June 29, 1925 An adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors was held in Committee Room A , Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Indiana, Monday afternoon, 2:00 o'clock, June 29, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President Newlon. The Secretary explained that a few members had met at 10 o'clock and adjourned to meet at this time. President Newlon announced the appointment of the following auditing com- mittee: M. E. Pearson, chairman, Caroline S. Woodruff, and H. B. Smith. MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 1007 It was moved by S. L. Smith, of Tennessee, and seconded by a member that the President be authorized to appoint a committee to recommend members of the Council of Education, this committee to consist of not less than three nor more that five members. The motion was carried. The President announced later in the meeting that he had appointed the following committee : John F. Sims, chairman, S. L. Smith, Elizabeth Russum, Anne G. Griffey, and Wm. H. Shepherd. Miss Adair presented a summary of the Treasurer's Report. This is a digest of the Auditor's Report, which was presented yesterday. It was moved by Miss Adair, seconded by Mr. Marsh, that this report be accepted. Motion carried. Mr. Siders presented the report of the Board of Trustees, making a few brief explanations in regard to it. It was moved by Mr. Siders and seconded by H. В. Smith that the report be adopted. Motion carried. It was moved by H. B. Smith and seconded by Anne G. Griffey that Mr. Siders present a verbal outline of the report of the Budget Committee, and that the Executive Committee be authorized to approve the report and present it to the Representative Assembly. The motion was carried. Mr. Siders went over the report of the Budget Committee in detail, calling several matters to the special attention of the board. The Budget Committee ap- proved the recommendation that a librarian and file specialist, at $1500, and a specialist to analyze material in magazines and books, at a salary of $2000, be employed in order that the Research Division may be ready to answer the questions of school boards, school superintendents, or teachers who wish detailed information, thereby increasing the efficiency of the Research Division. Mr. Siders made a few explanations regarding the new Division of Records and Membership, and the cost entailed in the creation of this division ; also some comments concerning various departments noting changes and rearrangements in committees and appropriations therefor. There followed a discussion of the merging of the Illiteracy Commission with the Department on Adult Education. It was moved by Mr. Kiefer and seconded by Mr. Sims that the verbal report of Mr. Siders be adopted and that the Executive Committee be authorized to carry it out along the lines recommended by Mr. Siders. The motion was carried. The complete report appears in the minutes of the business session of the Representative Assembly. President Newlon announced that the Executive Committee would meet on Wednesday afternoon at 2 o'clock in Committee Room A to receive the final report of the Budget Committee. Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle presented the report of the Health Committee to the Board of Directors. It was moved by Mr. Kiefer and seconded by a member that the report be received and placed in the hands of the Executive Committee for such action as seems best. Motion carried. The Secretary was empowered by the board to write in the names of those who are seated in place of any State Director from any State who is absent. It was declared that a majority of the States were represented at the meeting. Mr. Kelley presented the report of the Committee for the Revision of Depart- ments. It was moved by Mr. Shepherd and seconded by a member that the report of this committee be approved. On motion the meeting adjourned. JESSE H. NEWLON , J. W. CRABTREE, President. Secretary . 1008 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MINUTES OF THE MEETING of THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS Indianapolis , Indiana Friday afternoon, July 3, 1925 A meeting of the new board of directors was held in Room A, of the Shortridge High School, Friday afternoon, 2:00 o'clock, July 3, 1925. The meeting was called to order by the new president, Mary McSkimmon. Invitations were presented by representatives from Philadelphia and Los Angeles to hold the 1926 summer meeting in those cities. It was moved by Mr. Hunter, seconded by Mrs. Bradford, that a ballot be taken. The motion was carried and the vote taken. The ballot showed a result of 34 votes for Philadelphia and seven for Los Angeles. It was moved and seconded that the vote of preference be submitted to the Executive Committee with power to act. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Newlon, seconded by a member that the Secretary be authorized to note the acceptance of State Directors not in attendance and to record the election of and to seat as Directors those members representing State Directors. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Pearse, seconded by a member, that Dean H. L. Smith's resignation be accepted and that Milo H. Stuart be appointed in his place, as State Director for Indiana. Motion carried. Nominations were received for the office of trustee to succeed Miss Doherty. The following were nominated: Miss Doherty to succeed herself, J. M. Gwinn, and Florence M. Hale. It was moved and seconded that nominations be closed. The motion was carried. The ballot showed that Mr. Gwinn received 24 votes, Miss Hale 10, and Miss Doherty 5. Mr. Gwinn was declared elected. It was moved and seconded that the Board of Directors give the Executive Com- mittee full power to act and to carry out all instructions and resolutions of the Representative Assembly and Board of Directors. Motion carried. The following persons were nominated to succeed Miss Iverson on the Executive Committee: Cornelia S. Adair, Anna M. Thompson, and A. J. Matthews. Ballot was taken with the result that Miss Adair received 23 votes, Miss Thompson 18, and Dr. Matthews 2. Miss Adair was declared elected. John F. Sims presented the report on the National Council of Education. Con- sideration was given to vacancies in the Council and the recommendation of the committee was approved. The following is the report which was adopted: We recommend that the following whose terms expire in 1925 be elected to succeed them selves, their terms to expire in 1931. Mary D. Bradford, Wilmington, Delaware. George N. Childs, Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. J. C. Collicott, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Marie Gugle, Assistant Superintendent of Schools , Columbus, Ohio. Thomas E. Finegan, Educational Engineer, New York City. Frederick M. Hunter, Superintendent of School , Oakland, California. Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado. Payson Smith, State Superintendent of Schools , Boston, Massachusetts. Charl O. Williams, Legislative Secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. We recommend that S. L. Smith, General Field Agent for Rural Schools, Nashville, Ten- nessee, be elected to succeed George H. Reavis whose term expires in 1925, term to expire in 1931; That T. H. Harris, State Superintendent of Schools, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, be elected to succeed W. A. Brandenburg, membership lapsed, term to expire in 1928. That Joseph Rosier, President State Normal School, Fairmont, West Virginia, be elected to succeed P. W. Horn, membership lapsed, term to expire in 1926. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS 1009 That Isabel Lancaster Eckles, Santa Fe, New Mexico, be elected to succeed Frank McVey, membership lapsed, term to expire in 1927. JOHN F. SIMS , Chairman, W. H. SHEPHARD, ELIZABETH RUSSUM , ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, S. L. SMITH. On motion the resignation of those seated for the purpose of the meeting were accepted and the names on the list elected by the Representative Assembly declared to be the State Directors for the ensuing year. On motion the meeting adjourned to meet at the next annual meeting or on call of the President. MARY MCSKIMMON, J. W. CRABTREE, President. Secretary. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS UEL W. LAMKIN, PRESIDENT, NORTHWEST MISSOURI STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MARYVILLE, MISSOURI, CHAIRMAN We thank the good people of the Hoosier State and of their beautiful and busy capital who through their organizations, officials, newspapers, children, teachers, and other citizens have given us such generous and gracious welcome. We have met the Hoosiers elsewhere; we have read their literature; we had eager anticipations of our visit to them; the welcome has exceeded our expectations; we shall tell the pleasant story of it in ten thousand places, even in the islands of the sea. International peace and goodwill-With international understanding for a basis, international peace and goodwill is promoted. Therefore, education in all nations should purpose to implant a feeling of brother- hood with all mankind and to obliterate the misunderstandings that breed war. The attainment of this purpose is compatible with the maintenance of a sound system of training for citizenship and patriotism within the Nation. Such ends are effectively promoted through the World Confer- ence on Education. Financial support-The National Education Association again calls attention to the need of adequate financial support of all classes of schools. Large units of taxation and administration increase efficiency without corresponding increase in cost. The Nation, the State, or the community must supply the money necessary to give the children of the Republic the education which will enable them to meet the ever-increasing demands of a present day civilization. Economical expenditure is an imperative duty of all administrative officers. In every State such provision should be made for the distribution of public funds as will equalize educational opportunities. Information-The people are entitled to know the purposes, achieve- ments, and needs of their schools. Those charged with administration must accept the responsibility of giving the public the information to which it is entitled. 1010 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Health and physical education-Civilization has advanced to the place where health for all is essential to the realization of the best in life. Ade- quate programs of health and physical education should be established in all parts of our Nation in order that our children may be equipped with sound bodies and alert minds . Trained teachers in all classrooms-Education is the most complex pro- cess with which the human race is concerned. It should not be left to the untrained. The National Education Association reaffirms that our public schools must be fully staffed with trained teachers so that the schools can fully meet their obligations. None but professionally trained teachers should be granted the privilege of presiding over the Nation's classrooms. Obscene literature, pictures, and tokens-The Congress of the United States has denied the privilege of the mails to obscene and indecent liter- ature, pictures, and tokens, yet such articles reach the youth of our land through various other means of transportation. This Association recom- mends that its legislative committee memorialize the Congress of the United States to enact legislation prohibiting the transportation in inter- state commerce of all such literature, pictures, and tokens, as are now denied the privilege of the United States mails. Citizenship obligation-The exercise of the suffrage and the observance of law are primary duties of a citizen. Teachers and administrators of schools should teach, both in the schoolroom and by personal conduct, a wholesome respect for an observance of all laws, and should take an active and intelligent part in the selection of public officials and the con- sideration of public questions. Child labor-The National Education Association reaffirms its position on the subject of child labor and insists upon the speedy passage of such Federal and State legislation, constitutional and statutory, as will prevent the exploitation and will promote the welfare of the children of America. Interference by non-educational agencies-The Association recommends that administrative authorities protect schools from attempts by outside agencies to use the school organization for the furtherance of ends not directly connected with the aims of public education. Teachers' welfare-We urge the adoption by State legislatures of rea- sonable tenure laws, actuarially sound retirement laws, and teachers' min- imum salary laws. We consider these measures essential to the effective development of the teaching profession and the improvement of educational opportunities of the children of the Nation. Taxation of teachers in Territories-The National Education Associa- tion urges Congress to remove any discrimination regarding the payment of Federal income tax by the teachers of the Territorial and insular possessions of the United States. Association membership-Membership and participation in local, State, and National education associations is urged on all persons engaged in teaching. Department of Education-We believe that education is a matter of REPORT OF TREASURER 1011 primary concern to the Nation as a whole. This National responsibility for education has been recognized from the earliest days of the Republic by grants of land and of money to the several States in support of their public-school systems. We hold that the Federal Government should promote the further development of our State and local school systems through the establishment of a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President's Cabinet. Efficiency and economy demand that the several agencies of the Federal Government dealing with education now distributed among the several executive departments be consolidated in a Department of Education. We know that this department, operating as a fact-finding and fact-distributing agency, will aid the several States to improve and develop their public schools. We urge the Congress to create a Department of Education in accord with the principles embodied in the Bill adopted by this body. TREASURER'S REPORT As Given in the Report of the Auditors FROM JUNE 1, 1924, ΤΟ ΜΑY 31, 1925 Deficit Brought Forward from Treasurer's Report for Year ended May 31, 1924 ..... $12,583.30 Receipts: From Annual Meetings : Washington Meeting . 3,514.05 Cincinnati Meeting. 2,389.30 5,903.35 For Account-Department of Superintendence ( Net) ...... 2,952.10 For Account-Department of Elementary School Principals (Net) .. 35.24 From Secretary's Office during Year: Membership Fees ..... $119,247.50 Subscriptions to N. E. A. Journal . 108,732.00 Subscriptions to Research Bulletins . 3,774.00 Sale of Volumes of Proceedings ... 831.50 Sale of Special Reports .. 4,276.39 Sale of Research Bulletins. 1,750.10 Sale of N. E. A. Journals . 55.25 Sale of Dr. Harris' Book . 792.00 Cash Sales of Reports and Pamphlets . 1,972.04 Carried Forward ... 241,430.78 8,890.69 1012 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought Forward .. 241,430.78 8,890.69 From Income on Permanent Fund . 12,346.42 From Commercial Exhibits (Net) . 20,298.44 From Advertising-N. E. A. Journal (Net) 60,774.57 From Interest and Discounts Earned .. 64.24 From Rentals Received . 2,630.00 From Honorariums (Field and Legislative Secretaries ) 1,819.92 From Sundry Income-Exchange, Etc.... 84.18 From Fire Insurance Covering Loss . 207.84 339,656.39 $348,547.08 Expenses: Board of Trustees-Expenses . ..... 602.64 Executive : President (Miss Jones ) 485.45 (Mr. Newlon ) 1,110.22 First Vice-President ( Dr. Owen) 105.23 First Vice-President ( Miss Jones) 236.68 Treasurer 267.56 Chairman, Board of Trustees ... 685.19 Member by Election (Mrs. Stewart ) 121.13 (Miss Iversen) 265.36 3,276.82 Office of General Secretary: General Expense ( Clerical Service, Traveling, Post- age and Stationery) $12,853.63 Salary of Secretary . 8,496.00 21,349.63 Home Office : General Expense . 417.47 Express and Freight .... 881.25 Telephone Service . 2,491.12 Telegrams ( General ) 137.52 Repairs-Office Furniture and Fixtures . 254.21 Interest and Discounts Allowed ... 1,468.15 Surety Bonds ..... 210.00 Auditing Accounts of Association .... 697.26 Physical Plant-Rents, Light, Heat, Power, and Janitor ... 19,475.87 26,032.85 Institutional Expense : Annual Conventions : Departmental Expenses . 402.79 State Directors ... 794.00 Registration Bureau . .. 370.81 Stenographic Service . 15.57 Publicity 1,068.88 Printing: Programs $1,431.06 Miscellaneous 429.70 1,860.76 4,512.81 Carried Forward 55,774.75 REPORT OF TREASURER 1013 Brought Forward . 55,774.75 Express and Freight .. 16.68 Telephones and Telegrams . 24.08 Miscellaneous Expense ( Speakers, Etc. ) . 468.31 Representative Assembly Expense ...... 1,268.52 Badges 176.00 6,466.40 Expense in Collecting Membership Dues . 5,168.76 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership ... 23,016.28 General Publicity. 500.75 Special Committees Appointed by the President... 422.71 Membership and Expense-World Conference on Education 1,150.00 Membership-American Council on Education . 100.00 N. E. A. Journal (Printing and Distribution) 86,719.67 Volume of Proceedings ( 1924) 7,792.14 Research Bulletin (Printing and Distribution) ..... 6,554.57 Dr. Harris' Book (Printing and Distribution) ...... 2,055.85 135,434.32 Special Appropriations for the Year 1924-25 : Committee on Character and Citizenship . $181.30 Committee on Health Education .. 1,504.57 Illiteracy Commission 1,446.32 Legislative Commission .. 371.54 Committee on Classification of Educational Material . 291.29 Committee on Standardization of School House Planning 830.65 Committee on Salaries, Tenure and Pensions ........ 57.94 Committee on Thrift Education .... 394.38 Commission on Reorganization of Elementary Edu- cation 6.50 Department of Classroom Teachers .... 5,367.62 Financing Delegates ..... 9,531.00 Committee on Kindergarten Education .... 182.04 Department of Elementary School Principals . 2,000.00 Arithmetic Committee . 51.78 Committee on American School Program........... 344.31 Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers' Prob- lems 47.00 American Education Week ... 106.27 Expenses of Committees for 1923-24 -Paid During the Current Year .... 4,424.33 27,138.84 Division of Records and Accounts : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) ........ 15,348.90 Division of Field Secretaries : Legislative Secretary-General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) . 15,417.58 Field Secretary-General Expense ( Salaries, Sta- tionery, Etc. ) 1,423.04 Carried Forward .... 250,537.43 1014 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought Forward . 250,537.43 Division of Business : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) .... 9,673.45 9.17 Typing Section . Mailing Section .... 2,278.71 Multigraphing Section . 152.38 Addressographing Section ... 6,607.21 Division of Publications : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 15,040.18 Division of Research : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) ........ 15,900.43 Division of Classroom Service : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) ........ 6,168.73 Division of Administrative Service : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) ........ 1,874.01 Purchase of Office Furniture and Fixtures ..... 1,074.51 Purchase of Stamps and Stamped Envelopes and Sta- tionery ... 712.10 Depreciation on Furniture and Fixtures ............ 3,003.64 Bad Debts Written Off ........ 764.85 Reserved for Doubtful Accounts .... 1,000.00 $314,796.80 SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURES Current Expenses and Equipment, Etc........ 287,338.15 Reserved for Doubtful Accounts .. 1,000.00 Depreciation Reserved ... 3,003.64 Expenses Unpaid ( Vouchers Payable) ...... 23,455.01 $314,796.80 CASH SUMMARY Receipts for the Year ..... 348,547.08 Overdraft-May 31, 1924 .... $12,583.30 Excess of Expenditures Over Receipts, Permanent Fund-May 31, 1924 ...................... 125.02 12,458.28 $336,088.80 Cash Applicable to Accounts Receivable . 6,626.24 $329,462.56 Disbursements for Current Year ....... $287,338.15 Disbursements for Previous Year's Operations . 31,068.58 Notes Payable Repaid ....... 7,500.00 325,906.73 Cash in Bank as at May 31, 1925 .... $3,555.83 REPORT OF THE AUDITOR 1015 CASH SUMMARY Regular Fund .. .. $3,555.83 Revolving Fund ... ... 15,000.00 Total Cash (Treasurer) $18,555.83 CERTIFICATE OF AUDITORS To the President of the National Education Association : We have audited the accounts of the National Education Association and of the Treasurer, and of the Secretary, for the year ended May 31, 1925, and certify that the foregoing statement of Income and Expenses is correct and is in accord- ance with the books of the Association. The Secretary's Revolving Fund of $15,000.00 has also been verified by us. PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & CO. New York, N. Y., June 20, 1925. REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR JUNE 1, 1924, TO MAY 31, 1925 As Given in the Report of the Auditors To the Executive Committee, to the Board of Directors, and to the Representative Assembly: The Board of Trustees herewith submit the Annual Report on the finances and property of the Association. THE FUNDS OF THE ASSOCIATION The Permanent Fund is the money which has been put into a reserve fund. The income from this fund pays for repairs, upkeep, insurance, etc., on the property in which part of this fund is invested. The balance goes into the Regular Fund for current expenses. The Permanent Fund is invested in Stocks, Mortgages, Bonds, and Real Estate. The Regular Fund is the money received from memberships, from the sale of volumes and pamphlets, from commercial exhibits, advertising, etc. The Revolving Fund is a part of the moneys of the Regular Fund placed in the hands of the Secretary to pay salaries and current bills. The Secretary presents vouchers for the money he expends. The Revolving Fund is reimbursed monthly from the General Fund. Detailed information follows. Respectfully submitted, BOARD OF TRUSTEES . REPORT OF THE AUDITOR Jesse H. Newlon, Esq., President, National Education Association of the United States, Washington, D. C. DEAR SIR: In accordance with instructions received, we have made an examination of the accounts of the National Education Association of the United States for the year ended May 31, 1925, and now submit our report thereon. 1016 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Our examination embraced the verification, as hereinafter described, of the assets and liabilities of the Association as at May 31, 1925, as well as an audit of the expenses and a review of the income for the year then ended. In that con- nection and in order to satisfy ourselves regarding the general accuracy of the accounts, we made a series of tests relating to the cash receipts and disbursements, subscriptions, advertising and other matters of detail. INCOME AND EXPENSES The excess of income over expenses resulted in a surplus of $32,549.55 for the year ended May 31, 1925. This compares with a deficit of $30,482.57 for the previ- ous year, thus reflecting an improvement in the operations of the Association of $63,032.12. The following is a condensed comparative statement of the income and expenses for the two years ended May 31, 1925 and 1924 : CONDENSED COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF INCOME AND EXPENSES Year ended May 31 Increase Income: 1925 1924 Decrease Memberships from Secretary's Office ....... $119,247.50 $100,625.00 $18,622.50 Memberships from Annual Conventions 5,903.35 .... 7,374.50 1,471.15 N. E. A. Journal-Subscriptions and Adver- tising 169,561.82 148,970.25 20,591.57 831.50 1,060.50 229.00 Sales of Proceedings ... Sales of Special Reports. 4,276.39 495.77 3,780.62 Commercial Exhibits 20,298.44 16,412.79 3,885.65 Research Bulletins 5,524.10 4,648.16 875.94 Honorariums 1,819.92 3,000.05 1,180.13 Rentals 2,630.00 2,123.75 506.25 Interest and Discount Earned . 64.24 169.59 105.35 Cash Sales 1,972.04 156.66 1,815.38 Net Income Transferred from Permanent Fund 12,346.42 7,374.98 4,971.44 Sundry Income 292.02 213.73 78.29 Sales of Dr. Harris' Book .. 792.00 792.00 Total .. $345,559.74 $292,625.73 $52,934.01 Expenses: Board of Trustees . 602.64 1,405.98 803.34 Executive Committee 3,276.82 4,967.88 1,691.06 General Secretary's Office . 21,349.63 19,777.92 1,571.71 Home Office 29,036.49 26,163.38 2,873.11 Institutional Expenses-Annual Conventions . 6,466.40 9,668.12 3,201.72 World Conference on Education .. 1,150.00 1,963.38 813.38 Expense in Collecting Membership Dues .... 5,168.76 8,894.69 3,725.93 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership .... 23,016.28 18,769.39 4,246.89 General Publicity 500.75 726.91 226.16 Special Committee appointed by the Presi- dent 422.71 245.08 177.63 Membership-American Council on Educa- tion 100.00 ....... 100.00 N. E. A. Journal (Printing and Distribu- tion) 86,719.67 96,017.32 9,297.65 Volume of Proceedings . 7,792.14 9,010.32 1,218.18 Research Bulletins (Printing and Distribu- tion) 6,554.57 7,692.83 1,138.26 REPORT OF THE AUDITOR 1017 Year ended May 31 Increase 1924 1924 Decrease Dr. Harris' Book .... 2,055.85 2,055.85 Special Appropriations 27,138.84 16,442.79 10,696.05 Division of Records and Accounts . 15,348.90 14,736.69 612.21 Division of Field Secretaries .. 16,840.62 25,563.89 8,723.27 Division of Business . 18,720.92 20,419.43 1,698.51 Division of Publications 15,040.18 13,866.03 1,174.15 Division of Research 15,900.43 17,020.48 1,120.05 Division of Class Room Service . 6,168.73 7,100.94 932.21 Division of Administrative Service . 1,874.01 2,654.85 780.84 Bad Debts Written off and Reserved for .... 1,764.85 ...... 1,764.85 Total .. $313,010.19 $323,108.30 $10,098.11 Surplus or Deficit for Year ......... $32,549.55 $30,482.57 $63,032.12 As in former years, prepaid subscriptions, memberships, etc., have been treated as income of the current year. Further particulars of the income and expenses for the year ended May 31, 1925, are submitted in Exhibit "A," appended hereto. The deficit as at May 31, 1924, has been changed into a surplus as at May 31, 1925, as shown below : Deficit as at May 31, 1924...... $5,461.47 Excess of Expenditures over Income-Permanent Fund-May 31, 1924 .. 125.02 $5,336.45 Surplus for Year ended May 31, 1925, as per Income and Expense State- ment 32,549.55 Surplus as at May 31, 1925 ....... $27,213.10 RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS The following is a summary of the cash receipts and disbursements of the Treas- urer's Account for the year : Cash Balance as at May 31, 1924 .... $2,416.70 Receipts : Income as per Income and Expense State- ment $345,559.74 Accounts and Notes Receivable as at May 31, 1924 10,070.34 355,630.08 Less Accounts and Notes Receivable as at May 31, 1925 ........ 16,696.58 338,933.50 Departments of Superintendence and Ele- mentary School Principals : As at May 31, 1924 .... $4,854.71 As at May 31, 1925 ... 7,842.05 2,987.34 Total Cash Receipts . 341,920.84 344,337.54 1018 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought Forward .... 344,337.54 Disbursements : Expenses as per Income and Expense State- ment 313,010.19 1924 Bills paid during Current Year ........ 31,068.58 $344,078.77 $344,337.54 Less: Bills Unpaid as at May 31, 1925 $23,455.01 Depreciation-Office Furniture and Fix- tures ... 3,003.64 Reserved for Doubtful Accounts ... 1,000.00 Excess of Expenditures over Receipts-Per- manent Fund as at May 31, 1924 .. 125.02 27,583.67 316,495.10 Furniture and Fixtures Purchased during Year 1,074.51 Office Stationery and Supplies Purchased dur- ing Year 712.10 Loan Repaid-Continental Trust Co ......... 7,500.00 Total Cash Disbursed ...... 325,781.71 Excess of Cash Receipts over Cash Ex- pended ... 18,555.83 Accounted for as follows : Revolving Fund : InBank 2,533.29 Transfer from Continental Trust Co., Reg- ular Account to reimburse Fund ........ 12,457.11 On Hand 9.60 15,000.00 Continental Trust Co., Regular Account ..... 3,555.83 $18,555.83 We examined the cash receipts after making an investigation of the methods of handling the income derived from memberships, subscriptions to the N. Ε. Α. Journal, advertising and sundry income, and so far as the system permitted us to do so, within the expenditure of a reasonable amount of time, we satisfied ourselves that all the funds received had been properly accounted for. Vouchers supporting cash disbursements were examined and found in order, with the exception of certain vouchers covering payments made towards the end of the fiscal year which had not been returned to the Treasurer's office at the date of our visit. ASSETS AND LIABILITIES The following is a statement of the assets and liabilities as at May 31, 1925, as shown by the books: REPORT OF THE AUDITOR 1019 ASSETS Cash: Secretary's Fund-In Bank, on Hand and to be reimbursed from the Regular Account ...... ..... $15,000.00 Regular Account-In Bank ..... 3,555.83 18,555.83 Permanent Fund . 7,696.38 26,252.21 Accounts Receivable ... $16,617.85 Less Reserve for Doubtful Accounts . 1,000.00 15,617.85 Notes Receivable : Life Members . 1,475.00 Others 78.73 1,553.73 Stationery, Supplies, Stamped Envelopes, Etc..... 1,983.83 Old Volumes of Proceedings and Other Publications ...... 500.00 Securities at Book Value ( Schedule "1" ) ...... 110,428.80 Real Estate: Cost Price ... 153,000.00 Improvements and Alterations since date of Pur- chase-M Street Property . 17,566.13 170,566.13 Less Mortgages and Loans . 83,000.00 87,566.13 Furniture and Fixtures ...... 31,110.89 Less Reserve ..... 9,336.97 21,773.92 $265,676.47 LIABILITIES Accounts Payable ....... $23,455.01 Department of Superintendence . 6,924.95 Department of Elementary School Principals ... 917.10 Trust Fund-Permanent Investment .. 207,166.31 Surplus as at May 31, 1925 ....... 27,213.10 $265,676.47 We verified the Secretary's Fund partly by count and partly by certificate ob- tained from the depository, and the Regular Account was verified by certificate from the same source. We also verified the balance in the Permanent Fund by the certified report of the Trustees. Certain of the accounts receivable are long overdue and a reserve of $1,000.00 has been established to take care of any debts which may be uncollectible. The notes receivable on hand were examined by us and found in order. The stationery, supplies, stamped envelopes, etc., on hand are book figures, sup- ported by lists which we inspected. The values are stated at cost and we obtained a certificate from the business manager as to the quantities and values. The asset "Old Volumes of Proceedings," which has been shown for several 1020 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION years in the Balance Sheet at $500, now includes new publications acquired during the year, and the name has been changed to "Old Volumes of Proceedings and Other Publications." The account now covers the following: "Old Volumes of Proceedings," 19,125 volumes ; "Wm. T. Harris' Book," 4050 volumes ; and "School House Planning," 10,100 volumes. These are conservatively carried at the same arbitrary figure of $500.00. We inspected vouchers for all the additions to the furniture and fixtures dur- ing the year, amounting to $1,074.51, and found the amounts to be proper capital charges. We made a sufficient check to satisfy ourselves that all known liabilities are shown on the books . PERMANENT FUND We have audited the receipts and disbursements of the Permanent Fund and have inspected the securities in the custody of the Continental Trust Co., Washing- ton, D. C. There was no change in the securities owned during the year, and a detailed list is attached hereto as Schedule "1," showing their par values and costs. The market values were not ascertained at this time. All income from invest- ments was received during the year. We examined receipts for the amount of $1,477.00 spent out of the Permanent Fund cash on improvements to the M Street property. The following statement shows the changes in the Permanent Fund during the year: Balance as at May 31, 1924, as per last report.. $204,941.31 Added during Year : Cash received for Life Members' Fees ....... $2,400.00 Notes for Life Members' Fees : Amount as at May 31, 1924 ............. $1,650.00 Amount as at May 31, 1925 ..... 1,475.00 175.00 2,225.00 Balance as at May 31, 1925 ... $207,166.31 Made up as follows : Cash 7,696.38 Notes Receivable-Life Members .. ..... 1,475.00 Securities 110,428.80 Improvements at M Street : Amount as at May 31, 1924 . 16,089.13 Added during Year ... 1,477.00 17,566.13 Real Estate, less Mortgage Loans thereon ...... 70,000.00 87,566.13 $207,166.31 The income from the investments and the disbursements for the period may be summarized as follows : Receipts: Interest from Securities Owned ( Schedule " 1" ) ...... $4,725.00 Rentals Received from Real Estate Owned . 14,305.53 Carried Forward ..... $19,030.53 REPORT OF THE AUDITOR 1021 Brought Forward .. 19,030.53 Disbursements : Excess of Expenditures over Receipts, as per last report... $ 125.02 Interest on Mortgages . .. 4,980.00 Taxes 216.48 Repairs, Etc....... 615.85 Insurance 375.89 Trustees' Commission . 370.87 6,684.11 Net Income paid over to the Association . ....... $12,346.42 The receipts were properly accounted for and vouchers were produced in sup- port of all disbursements. GENERAL As in former years, no examination was made of the monies received and dis- bursements made by the Departments of Superintendence and Elementary School Principals. Yours truly, PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co. INCOME AND EXPENSES For the Year Ended May 31, 1925 Exhibit "A" Income: Memberships from Secretary's Office....... $119,247.50 Memberships from Annual Conventions .... 5,903.35 N. E. A. Journal : Subscriptions (Part of Membership Dues ) $108,732.00 Advertising 60,774.57 Sales 55.25 169,561.82 Sales of Proceedings .. 831.50 Sales of Special Reports . 4,276.39 Commercial Exhibits .. 20,298.44 Research Bulletin: Subscriptions 3,774.00 Sales 1,750.10 5,524.10 Honorariums 1,819.92 Rentals 2,630.00 Interest and Discount Earned . 64.24 Cash Sales ..... 1,972.04 Net Income transferred from Permanent Fund 12,346.42 Sundry Income . 84.18 Sales of Dr. Harris' Book .... 792.00 Fire Insurance covering Loss .. 207.84 Total Income .. $345,559.74 • 1022 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Total Income Brought Forward ... $345,559.74 Expenses: Board of Trustees ... .... $602.64 Executive Committee : President ( Mr. Newlon) $1,110.22 President (Miss Jones ) 485.45 First Vice-President ( Miss Jones) 236.68 First Vice-President ( Dr. Owen) 105.23 Treasurer 267.56 Chairman, Board of Trustees . 685.19 Member by Election: Miss Iversen ... 265.36 Mrs. Stewart . 121.13 3,276.82 General Secretary's Office : General Expenses ( Clerical Service, Trav- eling, Stationery, Etc.) ... 12,853.63 Salary of Secretary .. 8,496.00 21,349.63 Home Office : General Expenses, Etc..... $417.47 881.25 Express and Freight ...... Telephone Service .. 2,491.12 Telegrams 137.52 Repairs-Office Furniture and Fixtures ... 254.21 Depreciation-Office Furniture and Fix- tures .. 3,003.64 Interest and Discounts Allowed ....... . 1,468.15 Surety Bonds ......... :... 210.00 Audit Fee, Etc.... 697.26 Physical Plant Expenses : Rent $14,305.53 Light and Power ..... 971.88 Heat 1,307.64 Janitor Service . 1,719.80 Maintenance, Etc....... 1,171.02 19,475.87 29,036.49 Institutional Expenses : Annual Conventions : Department Expenses . 402.79 State Directors . 794.00 Registration 370.81 Stenographic Service . 15.57 Publicity 1,068.88 Printing-Programs and Miscellaneous . 1,860.76 Express and Freight... 16.68 Telephone and Telegrams . 24.08 Miscellaneous Expenses ( Speakers, Etc. ) .. 468.31 Representative Assembly Expense ........ 1,268.52 Badges 176.00 6,466.40 World Conference on Education ...... 1,150.00 Expense in Collecting Membership Dues ... 5,168.76 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership .... 23,016.28 Carried Forward ...... $35,801.44 $54,265.58 $345,559.74 REPORT OF THE AUDITOR 1023 Total Income Brought Forward ..... $345,559.74 Brought Forward . $35,801.44 $54,265.58 General Publicity . 500.75 Special Committee appointed by the President 422.71 Membership-American Council on Educa- tion 100.00 N. E. A. Journal ( Printing and Distribution) 86,719.67 Volume of Proceedings ( 1924 ) ... 7,792.14 Research Bulletin (Printing and Distribution) 6,554.57 Dr. Harris' Book ( Printing and Distribution) 2,055.85 139,947.13 Special Appropriations for the Year 1924-5 : Committee on Character and Citizenship .. $181.30 Committee on Health Education ....... 1,504.57 Illiteracy Commission . 1,446.32 Legislative Commission . 371.54 Committee on Classification of Education Material 291.29 Committee on Standardization of School House Planning .. 830.65 Committee on Salaries, Tenure and Pen- sions 57.94 Committee on Thrift Education ... 394.38 Commission on Reorganization of Ele- mentary Education ...... .. 6.50 Department of Classroom Teachers ...... 5,367.62 Financing Delegates ...... 9,531.00 Committee on Kindergarten Education .. 182.04 Department of Elementary School Princi- pals 2,000.00 Arithmetic Committee 51.78 Committee on American School Program .. 344.31 Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers Problems ... 47.00 American Education Week .... 106.27 22,714.51 Expenses of Committees for 1923-4 Paid During Current Year : Committee on Character and Citizenship .. 188.71 Committee on Foreign Relations ........ 35.22 Committee on Health Education ......... 29.73 Legislative Commission ... 142.11 Committee on Salaries, Tenure and Pen- sions 805.73 Committee on Thrift Education .. 311.42 Commission on Reorganization of Elemen- tary Education ... 235.45 Commission on Coördination of Research Agencies 156.25 Committee on Kindergarten Education ... 19.71 Department of Elementary School Princi- pals 2,500.00 27,138.84 Carried Forward ... $221,351.55 $345,559.74 1024 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION Total Income Brought Forward ... $345,559.74 Brought Forward . $221,351.55 Division of Records and Accounts : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 15,348.90 Division of Field Secretaries : Legislative Secretary ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 15,417.58 Field Secretary ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 1,423.04 16,840.62 Division of Business : Salaries , Traveling Expenses, Stationery, Etc. 9,673.45 Typing Section 9.17 Mailing Section 2,278.71 Multigraph Section 152.38 Addressograph Section 6,607.21 18,720.92 Division of Publications : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 15,040.18 Division of Research : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 15,900.43 Division of Classroom Service : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) ... 6,168.73 Division of Administration Service : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 1,874.01 Bad Debts Written Off .... 764.85 Reserved for Doubtful Accounts . 1,000.00 Total Expenses 313,010.19 Surplus for the Year .............. $32,549.55 SECURITIES ON HAND As at May 31, 1925 Schedule "1" Value Par Book Income Municipal and School Bonds : Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works Bonds 5% due: 1930-No . 18 $1,000.00 $1,000.00 $50.00 1931-No . 19-20 2,000.00 2,000.00 100.00 1932-No . 21-22-23 3,000.00 3,000.00 150.00 Kansas City, Mo., School District 32% Bonds due 1925-Nos. 3127, 3128, 3129, 3133 , 3135, 3136, 3190, 3192, and 3200 .... 10,000.00 9,500.00 350.00 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water Bonds 42% due 1934 -Nos . 310 to 319 ....... 10,000.00 10,000.00 450.00 Seattle, Washington, School Bonds, 42 % due 1931-Nos . 586 to 595 ....... 10,000.00 10,266.30 450.00 THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1025 Railroad Bonds : Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co. 1st Cons. Mtge. Bonds 4% due 1952-Nos. 5130, 6494, 11638, 11639, 14335, 14339, 17579, 24601, 37565, and 50251 10,000.00 9,600.00 400.00 Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Co. ( Pittsburgh, Lake Erie & West Virginia System) Ref. Gold Bonds 4% due 1941-Nos. 13496 to 13500, 21236 to 21250 20,000.00 19,942.50 800.00 Chicago, Indiana & Southern Ry. Co. 4% due 1956-Nos . 11386 to 11394 and 13786 ........ 10,000.00 9,500.00 400.00 Manhattan Railway Co., Cons. Mtge. Gold Bonds 4% due 1990-Nos. 2843, 6522, 16083, 16087 4,000.00 3,900.00 160.00 Oregon Short Line R. R. Co. Ref. Gold Bonds, 4% due 1929-Nos. 4013 to 4017, 4025 to 4027, 4976, 13810 10,000.00 8,895.00 400.00 St. Louis & San Francisco R. R. Co., Adjust- ment Bonds, 6% due 1955-Nos. M14552, D845, Y1033 1,750.00 1,443.75 105.00 St. Louis & San Francisco R. R. Co. Prior Lien Mtge. Bonds, 4% due 1950-Nos. M56051 to 56055 , Y1527 5,250.00 4,331.25 210.00 Terminal R. R. Association of St. Louis, Gen. Ref. Sink. Fund Gold Bonds, 4% due 1953- Nos. 16311 to 16325 .. 15,000.00 15,050.00 600.00 Corporation Bonds : Maine Real Estate Title Co., 1st Mtge. Gold 5%, due 1932-Nos. 151 and 152 ..... 2,000.00 2,000.00 100.00 Total.. $114,000.00 $ 110,428.80 $4,725.00 PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & CO. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION J. W. CRABTREE, SECRETARY The Association is out of debt. Owing to the failure of members in agricultural sections of the country to pay membership dues, year before last there was a deficit June 1, 1924, of $30,811.23 . This deficit was a source of worry to officers during a portion of the year at the headquarters office. The amount was too great to be paid off in one year. The plan was to pay one third of the deficit this year, one third next year, and the remaining one third the year following. All were surprised to find on June 1, 1925, that the whole deficit had been wiped out and that it had been replaced by a balance of $4,155.35. The balance is small but en- couraging in view of the anticipated deficit of $20,000. The Association will now need to borrow only to cover the summer period when weekly receipts run low. Delegates and members will be interested in the following compari- sons of income and expenditures of 1923-24 with those of 1924-25 : 1026 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF INCOME ON THE FIRST DAY OF EACH MONTH 1923-24 1924-25 October 1 $39,537.66 $43,616.56 November 1 70,257.94 95,150.40 December 1 126,445.96 154,735.44 January 1 174,780.77 209,076.36 February 1 190,484.79 236,856.46 March 1 215,310.14 265,598.54 April 1 245,116.74 290,245.92 May 1 265,024.83 304,978.81 June 1 296,275.75 347,776.91 TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF EXPENDITURES ON THE FIRST DAY OF EACH MOΝΤΗ 1923-24 1924-25 February 1 -$ 199,757.15 $206,605.41 March 1 231,845.89 234,430.31 April 1 261,850.49 262,840.51 May 1 285,033.39 287,074.16 June 1 325,796.75 309,325.51 TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF BALANCES AND DEFICITS ON THE FIRST DAY OF EACH MONTH 1923-24 1924-25 October 1 $36,287.48 Deficit $76,859.80 Deficit November 1 35,392.09 Deficit 44,356.57 Deficit December 1 27,421.64 Deficit 15,894.75 Deficit January 1 3,414.02 Balance 6,460.92 Balance February 1 7,206.83 Deficit 1,718.34 Deficit March 1 26,036.31 Deficit 1,062.44 Deficit April 1 27,434.41 Deficit 6,533.60 Deficit May 1 32,134.26 Deficit 14,495.82 Deficit June 1 30,811.23 Deficit 4,155.35 Balance Total income for 1924 --------- $296,275.75 Total income for 1925 . 347,776.90 Membership growth, turnover-There has been an encouraging growth in membership from year to year. At first membership was more stable than at the present time. It consisted largely of those in administrative positions and those who held positions in the larger systems of schools. Now that there is a more complete enlistment of the profession the mem- bership begins to show the natural turnover in the profession. In Table 4, which shows the membership by States for 1923, 1924, and 1925, it is necessary to explain that the 8847 "miscellaneous" includes those dropped on request and otherwise, whose membership rights continued THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1027 throughout the year 1924. In all 35,885 were dropped under the new By-Laws and 10,000 under the provisions of the old By- Laws. Many of these are now renewing membership. Under the old By-Laws the count for 1924 would have been above 150,000. The membership of more than 20,000 has expired since January 1. This is offset in part by the new membership, January 1 to May 1. The peak of membership will be January 1 each year. Membership of unpaid mem- bers lapses in February each year. The official count has been made as of January 1 since the Association was organized. There is every reason to believe that next year will show continued growth in membership. TABLE 4. MEMBERSHIP OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION New Members Jan. 1 to Jan. 21, 1923 Jan. 1, 1924 Jan. 1, 1925 May 1, 1925 Alabama 708 824 1,016 261 Alaska 92 112 105 17 Arizona 1,107 1,477 1,669 46 Arkansas 327 380 442 64 California 9,592 14,490 15,213 937 Colorado 8,820 4,222 4,284 159 Connecticut 1,819 1,527 1,770 102 Delaware 343 511 752 45 District of Columbia . 595 745 1,949 1 Florida 820 440 1,051 59 Foreign 144 160 166 Georgia 231 362 469 53 Hawaii 1,168 1,461 1,827 271 Idaho 497 564 621 256 Illinois 7,475 9,332 8,961 508 Indiana 3,137 3,393 4,437 2,147 Iowa 5,944 5,501 3,536 100 Kansas 1,399 1,646 1,890 387 Kentucky 431 487 543 244 Louisiana 932 989 1,026 60 Maine 2,105 2,087 1,867 126 Maryland 529 858 1,567 158 Massachusetts 10,696 10,540 6,197 217 Michigan 7,466 8,284 8,977 390 Minnesota 2,281 2,802 2,704 557 156 167 273 36 Mississippi Missouri 3,234 3,403 3,176 327 Montana 337 258 333 14 Nebraska 2,651 2,877 2,721 129 Nevada 310 485 562 23 New Hampshire 625 619 557 40 New Jersey 3,407 3,715 4,269 145 New Mexico 884 293 319 18 New York 10,081 11,194 9,973 449 North Carolina 323 387 430 22 1028 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssoOCIATION New Members Jan. 1 to Jan. 21. 1923 Jan. 1, 1924 Jan. 1, 1925 May 1, 1925 North Dakota 497 620 584 29 Ohio 8,383 9,271 9,881 1,022 Oklahoma 1,252 1,611 1,477 124 1,041 1,589 2,288 116 Oregon Pennsylvania 6,279 7,259 10,423 626 519 432 221 Philippine Islands Porto Rico 27 54 67 Rhode Island 215 254 322 24 South Carolina 89 120 484 35 South Dakota 785 874 1,066 144 Tennessee 615 746 869 71 Texas 1,089 1,593 2,049 224 Utah 2,879 1,651 1,678 176 Vermont 398 374 432 1,082 1,286 1,480 71 Virginia Virgin Islands 10 108 123 2 Washington 3,413 3,297 3,334 130 West Virginia 736 1,129 1,810 223 Wisconsin 3,316 3,442 3,428 91 1,271 1,363 1,198 87 Wyoming 118,012 133,565 138,856 11,558 Miscellaneous 6,625 8,847 Total 140,190 147,703 New membership division-The Association has established new divisions from year to year to render services demanded by the profession. It has every year appropriated liberally for the use of committees. It left to the last the establishment of the Membership Division, which with the Business Division is responsible for getting the income to meet the expenses of these important service divisions. In March, it became evident to all that the new division was essential to the continued growth and prosperity of the Association. It was created too late to affect materially this year's in- come, yet in time to make adequate preparation for next year. Had the new division been in operation during the present year a much better finan- cial report would have been possible. But the Association has more than made ends meet for the year. It was out of debt June 1. It now has the machinery ready for results in 1925-26. The Executive Committee could not have made ends meet, however, had it held strictly to the budget allowances, not at least without doing away with service divisions created by the Directors and Representative Assembly, or else by decreasing the size of THE JOURNAL. It is question- able whether the Committee has the authority except in emergencies to do away with lines of service established by the Representative Assembly, and it is well known that the membership is proud of THE JOURNAL and would regret to see it reduced in size or quality. How much better to meet the emergency, as has been done, by increasing revenues. The Executive Com THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1029 mittee held expenditures down to the minimum and yet it kept faith with the Representative Assembly. Retain service divisions and 64- page Journal-In view of the possibility of increased income through the Membership and Business Divisions, the recommendation is made to appropriate funds for continuing the work of present service divisions allowing for a fair degree of development-and- to continue to publish THE JOURNAL on the sixty-four page basis pro- vided the members of the Executive Committee, members of the Board of Directors, secretaries of State associations, and delegates of the Repre- sentative Assembly give their enthusiastic approval of the plan. This means heavier expenses than for the past year. There is no doubt that we can more than make ends meet again next year following this plan, if all take the optimistic view. Based on a personal knowledge of all condi- tions and considerations, I do not hesitate to make this as an unqualified recommendation . Do not count on more extensive economics in the divisions, for the sav- ings have already reached the point of interfering with efficiency. Do not count on the clerks increasing their output, for the pressure has been so great the past year that many have worked overhard. The unusual amount of sickness during the past few months may have been due in part to the nervous strain caused by the feeling of responsibility and by hard work on the part of these faithful and loyal girls. Heads of divisions show the results of the strain also. Permit me to explain, however, that not one of these complains of the load. Each one has been anxious to do more than his part. Budget on historical basis-The system of accounts was revised in 1923 and under its provisions a new type of budget was started last year. There was no historical basis in 1924 for this budget except the one annual report. There will be a historical basis this year, item by item covering the ex- penditures of 1923-24 and 1924-25. It will be possible hereafter to make a safer and more workable budget. The arrangements last year worked out remarkably well considering that it was the first attempt to put the Association's finances on a more complete budget basis, which past presidents-Dr. Owen and Miss Jones-looked forward to and arranged for and which President Newlon seeks to improve and establish. The salaries of members of the headquarters staff are low considering the high cost of living in Washington. Salary increases of ten to twenty- five per cent should be made during the present year if possible. The superintendent, college professor, or other educator properly increases his annual income by accepting honorariums for addresses. This opportunity is not open to the staff. All honorariums received by them are turned over to the Association. Over two thousand dollars of the income for the past year was from this source. Child labor-At the Washington meeting the Association passed on a resolution requesting the membership to work for the ratification of the Child Labor Amendment. A committee of One Thousand on Child Labor 1030 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION was appointed to coöperate with other agencies in getting adequate informa- tion into the hands of members of legislatures in the various States. It was soon found that other forces favoring the ratification of the Amend- ment were like our own Association, neither adequately organized nor sufficiently financed for an effective campaign. The manufacturing or- ganizations opposing the Amendment were thoroughly organized and had huge sums at their disposal. Those fighting Prohibition joined hands with opposing organizations. The psychology of the situation was favorable i to the opposition. The pendulum had swung far to their side. The funds were in their hands. They had skill and efficiency in organization. They won temporarily. The victory is not final. This type of question is only settled when settled right. The pendulum will soon swing back to normal. Every State legislature will need to face the question again at the next session and the next until settled in the interest of childhood. The States can hardly put up permanently with the injury to child growth and child health caused by shop and factory practices and conditions in many centers of population. President Sims, of Wisconsin, chairman of the Committee of One Thousand on Child Labor, with the help of coöperating organiza- tions, won an easy battle for the Amendment in his own State where he appeared personally before the Senate and Assembly. With this help he could have won in other States had he been provided with funds for per- fecting the organization and for getting the actual facts before members of the legislature. The committee very properly desires to continue the fight. President Sims believes in the ultimate triumph of right. Study of department benefits all-The Department of Superintendence has conducted a study on the curriculum at a cost of several thousand dollars to the Department. The results of this study in these days of all- inclusive participation in school policies and school organization mean as much to principals and teachers as to superintendents. While we say that the Department finances its own activities, it will be observed that it finances activities of equal importance to other divisions of the profession. Coöperation of colleges and universities-A few years ago the charge was often made that universities and colleges were not in sympathy with the purposes and policies of the National Education Association. This criticism is no longer made, for it is easily seen that college presidents and professors are among the most active workers on committees and in other capacities in the Association. Leading universities and colleges have re- quested the Association to make its research division a clearing-house for important lines of research work for the colleges throughout the country. Clearing-house for higher research work-The following was presented to the Executive Committee by Dr. Gray, of the University of Chicago, at the Cincinnati meeting, signed by more than four hundred leaders in research representing every State in the Union : THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1031 Scientific investigations and reports concerning various problems in the field of education have multiplied so rapidly during recent years that it is very difficult for school officers, as well as research workers, to secure information concerning many of them after they have been published. It is highly desirable that some agency of National scope should undertake the task of preparing and making available classified lists of such studies. The following members of the Phi Delta Kappa fraternity respectfully request the Executive Committee of the National Education Association to establish an agency for systematically collecting and distributing such information. By so doing great economies can be effected, a genuine service rendered to school officers , and needed assistance provided for research workers. It will add to expenditures in the research division to comply with this request. The question is not so much as to whether we can afford finan- cially to undertake the work as to whether we can afford not to under- take it. Teacher tenure-The profession is at last awake to the need of teacher tenure regulations in cities and States. The recent outstanding reports of the Committee of One Hundred on Teacher Tenure Problems have been distributed widely, and have resulted in better tenure regulations in a num- ber of places and in a much better informed profession on the problem throughout the Nation. The Association has been fully recognized as the main force behind the movement for teacher tenure in the public schools . Tenure for all-Until recently the Association has left the matter of tenure in colleges largely to associations of universities and colleges, but on the dismissal of President Lindley, of the University of Kansas, for strictly political reasons, President Newlon considering that the Association stands for tenure for teachers, superintendents, professors, and presidents alike, urged an immediate investigation by the State Teachers Association of Kansas which is an affiliated unit of the National Education Association . Before the investigation had gained full headway, President Lindley had been reinstated in his position. The message of President Newlon doubt- less had great weight in forcing a reversal of judgment in this case. Many letters of commendation have been received from organizations in Kansas and from colleges and universities in other States. This has been taken as further evidence of the Association's readiness to defend the profession and of its influence and power with the public on educational questions and policies. Delegates to World Conference-The following is taken from the min- utes of the Cincinnati meeting of the Executive Committee : After discussing the question of credentials for delegates to the World Federa- tion of National Education Associations at Edinburgh, Scotland, in July, and after expressing interest and pride in the new organization, the following motion was made by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders and carried by a unanimous vote of the Executive Committee: The President of the Association is hereby au- thorized ( 1 ) To appoint three classes of delegates; delegates with full partici- pating and voting rights in the conferences and in the Delegate Assembly ; alter- nate delegates with such participating and voting rights as are granted by the Delegate Assembly of the World Federation; and participating representatives 1032 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with the right to participate in the work of group conferences, and to such rights and privileges in the Delegate Assembly as may be accorded to participating representatives of affiliated national education associations. (2) To appoint a chairman of the delegation and to acquaint him with the action taken by the Executive Committee at the Chicago meeting in 1924, and to call his particular attention to the points of relationship which the National Education Association believes should exist between national education associations and the World Fed- eration. ( 3 ) To have the credentials printed on a good quality of paper and in dignified, attractive form to be signed by the President and Secretary of the Asso- ciation. (4) To instruct the delegates, alternate delegates and participating representatives to discuss with the delegates from other associations the impor- tance of restricting the voting privileges in group meetings and in the Delegate Assembly to those who hold credentials from the affiliated associations composing the World Federation. This Association called the World Conference which resulted in the world association is yet to be put on a definite basis. It has had less evident that they could be construed to admit to membership other than the all-inclusive national association in each country and that scores of radical and undesirable organizations as well as a few desirable organiza- tions wanted admission. Hence before paying a membership fee of $1000 the Executive Committee held a conference with the officers of the World Federation and came to a definite understanding with them to the effect that the officers would construe the by-laws to mean that only one nation- wide association could be accepted to membership in the World Federation for any nation. Responsibility of Association-It would be a source of strength to the delegates of the United States working for the ideals which the Executive Committee has in mind to receive definite instruction on vital points from the Representative Assembly itself. It must be remembered that this world association is yet to be put on a definite basis. It has had less attention in other countries than in our own. Delegations from other countries do not yet come through the one channel of the national associa- tion as in this country. There is much important work to be done. A responsibility rests on the Association as well as on the delegates who have been appointed. The question is one of great importance. Members of the staff have written excellent statements setting forth the aims and ideals of the Association. It was left, however, to an as- sistant in the staff to write the best statement yet in print about the Asso- ciation. It is as follows : The N. E. A. is the voice of American educators . It broadcasts the educational ideals of the country. It keynotes the aspirations of thinking people. It gives direction to the aims of education. It brings to the spotlight worthy school activ- ities. It helps to organize unorganized units. It serves as a clearing-house for local and State associations. It advocates better salaries for better teachers. It defends the good name of the teacher. It works for the youth of America. It is the power plant of the public school. Life memberships-The distinguished list of life members in the Asso- ciation has grown during 1924-25. Many teachers' organizations feel THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1033 that they can do no greater honor to an outstanding teacher, principal, or superintendent than to present him with a life membership in his own professional organization. This has been done in a number of instances . Older members are taking out life memberships to advance the interests of the profession. Younger members take them out for the additional reason that it pays and is more convenient than paying dues annually. We believe that by another year our list of life members will be much larger. The Association's service will grow in proportion to its membership. The life member has the satisfaction of knowing that he has contributed to the educational progress through ages to come. The amount received from these memberships adds to the permanent fund of the Association and so is kept in perpetuity. The teaching profession has but recently come into its own. But now that it is generally recognized as a profession and since it feels the pro- fessional impulse itself, it will rise rapidly until it has the recognition and influence of other professions. The National Education Association stands today as the greatest educational body in the world. A life membership card not only serves as a credential, but is the highest type of credential that can be carried by members of the profession. Headquarters efficiency-For a better understanding of the work of the Association read the reports of each of the directors of divisions. Note the account of the work of the past year, the policies and plans for the coming year, and the recommendations which are submitted for the con- sideration of officers and delegates. The tremendous amount of work in 1924-25 is not only due to well-qualified, faithful, and efficient workers but to a loyal coöperative spirit found in few offices in the country. You may well be proud of this headquarters staff. It is not at all surprising that a noted expert on efficiency picks out our organization as one of the best examples of well-balanced efficiency in the United States. The vision-The unparalleled development of the science of surgery began a few years ago with the vision of two brothers in an out-of-the-way place, who are still the leaders in the greater progress being made year by year, who are now only two of thousands of surgeons who have caught the inspiration and vision for the future of their profession. How few among the educators in 1915 had the vision of an organized all-inclusive teaching profession in the United States. The membership has doubled the fourth time since that date. The service which the Association renders to the profession and the schools has increased proportionately. Prosperity during next decade-The few thousand who could see the opportunity of the Association for the immediate future has swelled to twenty times what it was then. These larger numbers who have the perspective of a much larger and more serviceable National association with the momentum from the progress of the past decade means unpre- cedented prosperity during the years to come-provided that officers and delegates continue unselfishly to meet the responsibility of their positions. 1034 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE BUSINESS DIVISION HAROLD A. ALLAN, DIRECTOR The following report summarizes the work of the Business Division for the year ended June 30, 1925 : The activities of the Business Division may be divided as follows : ( 1) Headquarters business, including : (a) purchasing, (b) approval, distribu- tion and analysis of accounts, ( c) employment, (d) general typing and clerical service, (e) shipping and mailing. ( 2) Business incident to print- ing and publications, including multigraph and addressograph service. (3) Property. (4) Journal advertising. (5) Conventions, including : (a) organization, (b) business details, (c) commercial exhibits. HEADQUARTERS BUSINESS Purchasing-All purchases are handled through a system of requisition and purchase order. Material of common use is carried in a general stock, which is distributed as the institutional requirements arise. Stock and material are charged against the division or activity to which they are issued. A complete stock record system is maintained. Approval, distribution, and analysis of accounts-Bills rendered to the Association are examined and approved in the Business Division. All ex- pense is distributed under the several appropriation heads. Such analyses and statements as will assist in a more intimate knowledge of the finances of the Association are prepared from time to time. Marked improvements have been made in the general form of bills as rendered. It is recommended, however, that the purposes for which funds are appropriated for committees and departments be more clearly defined and that bills for committee and department expenses be rendered in greater detail. Employment-There is close coördination of the activities of the head- quarters divisions. Each division has a permanent staff to carry on its normal work. Temporary employees are assigned as demands arise. Methods of placement and assignment are such that extra loads in any activity are carried without a proportionate increase in the number of em- ployees of the Association. The permanent staff includes forty persons ; the number of temporary employees has varied from a minimum of twelve to a maximum of forty-eight for any one week. General typing and clerical service-A system of requisition and work order has been installed to cover service given in the typing section. Charges for such service have been properly distributed. The same situa- tion holds in the matter of service rendered in the multigraph and ad- dressograph sections . Shipping and mailing-Improvement of facilities has made this section more effective. An increased output of publications has largely added to the work in this section. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1035 PRINTING Estimates and bids are obtained for publications of the Association. On larger projects such as the Journal, Research Bulletins, and the Annual Proceedings, formal contracts are made. Printing costs compare favorably with those of preceding years when consideration is given to the amounts involved. The printing cost of the 1924 volume was $1,227.07 less than that for 1923 and $5,254.42 less than that for 1922. Smaller forms, envelopes, letter heads, and circular letters are printed in the multigraph section. PROPERTY The property of the Association is in excellent condition. Recom- mendations covering minor repairs and upkeep will be presented to the Board of Trustees. When, in the opinion of the Board of Trustees, finan- cial conditions permit, it is advisable that the steam heating system be extended to the entire plant. ADVERTISING The problem of advertising is most important. The director of the Business Division has consistently endeavored to give it his best thought and maximum effort. The employment of an assistant who assumes re- sponsibility for all details and who will assume added responsibility in giving direct assistance in the development of new business has greatly in- creased the effectiveness of the division. Advertising income for 1924-25 was $60,774.57; for 1923-24 it was $53,208.60. Recommendation is made that authority be given to eliminate the Septem- ber issue of the Journal rather than to combine the September-October issues as was done in 1924 . CONVENTIONS Organization and business details-The preliminaries of convention or- ganization are entrusted to the Business Division. Assistance is given in preparations for local committee organization, in arranging meeting places , exhibits, State headquarters, registration, housing and printing and re- sponsibility is assumed for many business details . Commercial exhibits-Especially successful commercial exhibits were held in Washington and Cincinnati. The exhibit income for 1924-25 amounted to $20,298.44 CONCLUSION The faithful work of all assistants in the Business Division has resulted in economies of expenditures and increased income. Expenditures for carrying on the administrative work and service of the Division have been $1,698.51 less than those for the same purpose in the preceding year. In- come within the year from the larger revenue producing activities of the 1036 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Division, advertising and exhibits, has increased $ 13,531.48 over that of the year preceding. The greatly increased amount of receipts and substantial decrease in expenditures over last year for the Association as a whole, is direct evi- dence of the efforts and coöperation of all officers and staff members to render more efficient service at a lesser cost. REPORT OF THE DIVISION OF RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS HELEN T. HIXSON, DIRECTOR The following report summarizes the activities and growth of the Di- vision of Records and Accounts, for the year ended June 30, 1925 : The financial status of the Association is presented in the treasurer's report, which gives the income received from various sources and the expenditures for the year. The treasurer's report is ready for distribution to mem- bers of the Association at the Indianapolis meeting. We have felt a special pride and satisfaction in compiling this report. It shows a decided im- provement in the financial standing of the Association as compared with last year, when our balance appeared on the debit side of our ledger. This year we have been able not only to wipe out our deficit, but to start the new year with a substantial balance. ACCOUNTS- CLASSIFICATION This is the first complete year of handling the finances of the Association through our newly installed system, and we find that it has operated with even greater ease than last year, when we were changing from the old system to the new. We believe that the heads of the various divisions , as well as committees and other functions, feel a general satisfaction in the system which enables them to keep familiar with their expenses and to keep a check on their budget. The system is elastic, new accounts are being set up from time to time as the business demands, and old accounts are discontinued without affecting the smooth operation of the system. At the close of each month a trial balance and financial statement is pre- pared which gives the monthly distribution of income and expenses. Copies of these statements are placed in the hands of the heads of divisions and mailed out to all of the officers of the Association, so that they are at all times fully informed as to our income and operating costs. BUDGET This is the trial year of our budget system, which was set up by a budget committee appointed by the President, Miss Jones, last year. Although all of the divisions and functions of the Association were not able to keep entirely within the budget set for them, owing to the close pruning by the budget committee to reduce our deficit and the increased growth and demands put upon us, yet we feel that we have made a satisfactory showing THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1037 for the first year, and the budget committee for the ensuing year will have something more tangible on which to base its work. REVOLVING FUND What is meant by a Revolving Fund? This question is often asked us by our members. This fund is represented on our books by what is known as our Special Account. It is a sum of $15,000 set aside from the regular funds of the Association to be used in caring for the salaries of the head- quarters staff and to enable us to meet local obligations promptly, without waiting for the approval of the auditing committee, thus maintaining a good credit with our local dealers on whom we must depend for immediate supplies. These expenses are distributed at the end of each month through our home office expense bill, and checks to reimburse the account are then drawn from the regular funds. The Regular Accounts represent the actual cash receipts of the Association as shown on the daily cash record, including funds received from all sources. AUDIT At the close of each year the accounts and records of the Association are completely audited by a responsible auditing firm, designated by the Presi- dent, and a report is submitted to the Executive Committee, with recom- mendations. During the recent audit of the accounts by Messrs. Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., of New York, favorable comment was made upon our system, and especially upon the triplicate check that we have in handling our membership dues, which come to us in numerous small checks and time checks. The time-check system, used by many of our members, was instituted this year as an experiment. It has worked well, enabling members to indicate their desire to continue membership and re- ceive the Journal, their dues to be paid at a later date. One problem con- fronted us-some of the checks when presented for payment were returned with the notation "insufficient funds," showing that the member had over- looked providing for the payment of the check when it was due. This , of course, necessitated considerable correspondence, and in some instances we were obliged to charge the checks back and cancel the memberships , but these difficulties will no doubt be eliminated as our members become more familiar with this method of payment. MEMBERSHIP Membership records show that during the past year we have had a steady, if perhaps a slower, climb toward our goal, "A stabilized and all-inclusive membership. " Our increase in actual cash memberships over last year shows a net gain of 18,000 members during the fiscal year. This has, of course, greatly increased the work of this department in preparing and filing the membership cards and addressing plates, and yet this increased work has all been handled at an expense of less than $1000 to the Associa- tion. This indicates that the work has been handled most efficiently by 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION those who are responsible. They have all given untiringly of their time and energy in order that there might be no unnecessary delay in sending out the Journal and other material to our members. In order to keep our records as clear as possible we have sent out many letters daily asking for changes of address, verification of names, etc. With the cooperation of the postal authorities we have been able to make 13,427 corrections. In addition to this we have received direct from members 2145 requests for change of address, 2540 requests to be dropped, and 1074 letters have been returned to us as "undeliverable." COLLECTION OF MEMBERSHIP DUES The budget system of handling the dues through the State secretaries, affiliated organizations, and one hundred per cent schools, is aiding us materially in the collection of dues by reducing the cost of collection. This year we had a net saving of $3700. During the fall months we took in 20,000 more memberships than during the same period last year. These months were the heaviest of the year, which indicates that our members are coöperating with us in trying to get their dues in before November 1. This is a great help in that it enables us to clear up our records early in the year and insures to the member the prompt receipt of the Journal. ADDRESSOGRAPH PLATES AND RECORDS The addressograph section, which functions primarily under the direc- tion of the Membership Division, has always been connected with or classi- fied under the Division of Business. This section, we believe, should now be transferred to the new Division of Membership and Records, since the greater part of the work in this section is so closely related to, and in fact a part of, the membership records. The work in this section during the year has been handled with increased speed and accuracy, and without ad- ditional expense to the Association. DELEGATE EXPENSES In June, 1924, arrangements were made through our local bank to borrow $10,000 as a special fund to take care of a certain percentage of the traveling expenses of delegates to the Washington meeting, in accord with action taken by the Representative Assembly the previous year. The proportionate amount to be paid each delegate from the various sections of the country had been previously arrived at, and we gave out checks to 512 delegates, totaling $9531 . The unused balance of this special fund, amounting to $469, was then transferred to the regular funds of the Asso- ciation. This year we shall take care of the delegates' expenses in the same man- ner, and we anticipate that the machinery set up to care for this need will operate more smoothly than it did last year. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1039 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT Owing to the increase in the membership of the Association, the officers have deemed it advisable to create a new department which will hereafter be known as the Division of Membership and Records, whereas the finances of the Association will have a distinct and separate classification as the Division of Accounts. This is now highly commendable in view of the increased volume of work due to the growth of the Association, and of the fact that the membership records need constant supervision. Mr. T. D. Martin will have charge of the Membership Division. He is now formulating his plans for the new year. We anticipate that this new division will not only be most ably handled, but that it will result in a large increase in the membership. The Division of Accounts will continue to operate along the lines recently set up by our expert committee, with occasional revisions as to the general operation as the growth of the Asso- ciation may demand. CONCLUSION There is nothing that paves the way for the successful carrying on of an institution or business as thorough confidence and coöperation. With this in view we have endeavored to establish a cordial relationship with our members. We need their coöperation and whole-hearted support, which will assist us in building not only a greater institution but a sound and enduring one. We receive thousands of appreciative letters. We realize that with a membership of more than 140,000 not all can be letters of encouragement and commendation. It shall be our aim, however, at all times to render efficient service, and we believe that the coming year will prove to be most gratifying to our officers and members, as well as to our- selves . REPORT OF THE DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS JOY ELMER MORGAN, DIRECTOR The service of the Division of Publications for the year ended June 30, 1925, is summarized herein under the following heads : ( 1 ) The Journal; (2) The Proceedings, and other publications ; (3) publicity ; and (4) summary . THE JOURNAL Richer content-Each year the Journal is planned more carefully in advance and the plans are submitted to more people for suggestions. The judgment of an increasing number of persons is sought on manuscripts considered for publication. This gives greater certainty of judgment and helps to protect the magazine from manuscripts which are uninteresting or below standard. It is at this point that greater improvement can be made as additional funds are available and a larger staff becomes possible. 1040 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The tentative plans for 1925-26 have been reviewed by members of the Editorial- Council and other educational workers. Enough material is in hand to insure a better Journal than we have had during the present year. Use of the Journal in teacher-training institutions-An effort is being made to connect the Journal as closely as possible with teacher-training institutions, which are largely the source of new ideas in education and which supply each year the new recruits for the ranks of the profession. The editor visited a number of teacher-training institutions last year and hopes to visit more during 1925-26. Several schools are now using the Journal as a textbook in senior classes. One professor of education writes : "I am planning to ask our senior teaching group of some thirty or forty students next year to subscribe to the Journal instead of buying a single textbook on teaching. Examinations of the Journal for the past six months make me feel certain that teachers who read it will get more actual information about teaching than by buying a single textbook, and they will also begin earlier than they otherwise would a professional connection with the National Education Association." Nine issues annually-The September and October numbers for 1924 were combined, giving nine issues, each composed of sixty-four pages and cover. The plan was adopted because of the difficulty of getting new ad- dresses of members in the fall in time for distribution of the September number during the last week in August. This arrangement should be made permanent, the first fall number to be called the October issue. Proceedings and other publications-In the Proceedings for 1924 (pages 1041-1060 ) is a list of the publications of the National Education Associa- tion since its beginning in 1857. It is an impressive record of educational thought, growing from the eight-page leaflet that recorded the proceedings of the first meeting in 1857, to an annual volume of more than a thousand pages, to which are now added the Journal and the publications of the stronger departments. Students of education everywhere recognize the Association's literature as an unrivalled source of information and inspira- tion. Teachers in training institutions refer to it constantly and advise their students to become members of the Association . The Proceedings is now on a budget basis, space being assigned to gen- 1 eral sessions, committee reports, and the meetings of the various depart- ments, in an effort to keep the volume within eleven hundred pages. This planhas led to a more careful selection of material. A special feature of the Proceedings for 1924 is the brief historical note which has been inserted before the proceedings of each department, giving a record of its establishment and growth. It is planned to continue and develop this feature and to make the Proceedings an annual record of the organic growth of the Association and its departments. In addition to the Proceedings and the Journal, the regular publications of the Association are now the Research Bulletin; the quarterly bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals, including a Yearbook as the July number; the Yearbook and Official Report of the Department THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1041 of Superintendence; and reports of other departments and committees. The Association has also published during the year material on the Educa- tion Bill, the proposed Child Labor Amendment to the Constitution, and a bound volume on William T. Harris : His Educational and Related Philosophical Views : giving a total printed output for the year of 1,766,800 pieces of literature with a grand total of more than 108,000,000 pages. PUBLICITY To arouse interest in education among editors of newspapers and mag- azines and influential citizens is the central aim of the Association's pub- licity. Its contacts include educational journals, daily newspapers, press associations, feature writers, magazine editors, women's magazines, the religious press, agricultural press, business magazines, foreign periodicals, public men, and the journals of organized labor. Material designed to encourage newspapers and local school officers in their efforts to give pub- licity to education has been published in the Journal during the year. Special publicity has been built around the Association's one hundred per cent schools, emphasis being placed on the fact that the teachers are growing more professional and on the Association's program of service. Radio broadcasting has come directly into use in the Association's meet- ings. Some of the evening meetings at Cincinnati were broadcast and the evening meetings will be broadcast regularly from Indianapolis by Sta- tion WFBM. SUMMARY The position of the Association as the largest publisher in the world on the problems of the teaching profession entails a corresponding re- sponsibility. The Association is growing remarkably in numbers and in influence. It has the support of the best trained and most experienced teachers. The public has faith in its work and its leadership. References to its publications run like a golden thread through the educational litera- ture of the world. The Proceedings are evidence of its glorious past and of the growing richness of its annual conventions. Its Research Bulletins are accepted as models of facts clearly interpreted and forcefully presented. Its departmental bulletins and yearbooks are rich mines of material in the special fields they represent. The Journal, dedicated to the elevation of the profession as a whole and to the improvement of the Nation's entire scheme of education, stands at the base of the Association's publications and work-supporting, interpreting, uniting, calling to every member of the great professional army to share his bit of interest and influence with his fellows throughout the Nation, to the end that "earth's noblest pro- fession" may contribute its share toward the security and advancement of humankind. 1042 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE RESEARCH DIVISION JOHN K. NORTON, DIRECTOR The Research Division was established three years ago last February. The division early recognized that it would have to formulate carefully a limited number of objectives and pursue them with efficiency if its work was to exercise any appreciable influence in the educational program of theAssociation and the Nation. Below are listed the division's objectives along with illustrations of work performed toward their attainment. OBJECTIVES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE RESEARCH DIVISION 1. Conduct studies of vital and current interest to the teaching profes- sion-The Division of Research was created by the National Education Association to provide an agency to assemble data bearing upon outstand- ing problems of current interest to the profession with sufficient promptness to influence decisions upon these problems. To fulfill this purpose is our principal objective. Upon the success with which the division anticipates the problems peculiar to the teaching profession and furnishes a solid foundation of exact information upon which the profession may shape its program in solving these problems will rest its best claim for continuance and expansion. The 1924-1925 salary study is the type of investigation which fulfills this objective. At the beginning of the year the economic situation was such that the march toward professional salary schedules, halted by the 1921 depression, could be resumed. Many cities were planning revision of their salary schedules. No committee of the Association had been made responsible for a study in this field. The division, therefore, collected the necessary information. These facts concerning the 1924-1925 salary study should be noted: (1) For the first time comprehensive salary information was made available in the same school year in which the data were assembled. Tab- ulations were ready for distribution in March and played an important part in many salary campaigns. (2) The study was the most comprehensive yet made in this field. A total of 1449 cities furnished complete data for all types of school em- ployees. The January-March Research Bulletin, Public School Salaries in 1924-1925, summarized salary data for 521,395 school employees. (3) Data for individual cities were also made available. Special sheets were prepared giving distributions of salaries paid, and the maximum, minimum, and medium salary for each class of school employees. The nominal cost of reproducing these tables by a photostatic process was met by 103 cities, which used them in salary campaigns. The fact that the accuracy of these salary tabulations has not been questioned in a single instance, although they listed approximately five out of every seven employees now serving in public school systems, indicates efficiency and devotion on the part of the division's small clerical staff. This study represents a type of independent investigation to which the THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1043 division should devote much of its energy. It should be constantly on the alert to provide data necessary to the intelligent solution of problems of peculiar significance to the teaching profession. 2. Serve the committees of the National Education Association-The appointment of a committee by the Association usually indicates the ex- istence of an unsolved professional problem of major importance. The division may well devote a part of its energy to serving under the leader- ship of the Association's committees. The division should relieve com- mittees of the routine of assembling and tabulating data, leaving them free to plan their investigations, to interpret data, and to state the larger prin- ciples upon which professional progress should be based. The reports of the Committee on Tenure, the Committee on Teacher Retirement Allowances, and the Committee on Educational Nomenclature are cited as illustrative of the results of coöperation between the Associa- tion's committees and the Research Division . 3. Serve the Association's departments-The division has adopted as one of its policies the assisting of the departments of the Association, par- ticularly in the assembling of facts pertinent to the solution of their prob- lems. Work has been performed for the Department of Elementary School Principals and for the Department of Classroom Teachers. The divi- sion has also played a considerable part in developing the curriculum re- search program of the Department of Superintendence. In July, 1924, the Commission on the Curriculum decided that the most needed service in its field was the collection and analysis of outstanding research studies in each of the subjects of the elementary school curriculum. The work of carrying out this project was delegated to the Research Division. The results were printed in the Third Yearbook of the Department of Super- intendence, Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum . The Department of Superintendence furnished substantial financial sup- port for this special work. Two full-time clerical assistants, paid directly from the funds of this Department, were provided for the Division of Research . The division should continue to render assistance to the departments in the development of their research programs. When unusually large programs of investigation are requested of the division, the cost should be directly financed from the funds of the department concerned. 4. Supply special material needed by the Association's headquarters staff-One of the division's finest opportunities for effective service to the profession is in assisting other divisions of the headquarters staff in the advancement of the programs for which they are responsible. Ac- cordingly, the division is organized, and many of its investigations are undertaken with the needs of other headquarters divisions in mind. During the past year, twenty-seven pages have appeared in the Journal that were prepared by the Research Division at the suggestion of the Director of Publications. A special investigation has been completed and 1044 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION will shortly be published which assembles facts previously unavailable, bearing upon the question of the proper relationship of the Federal Gov- ernment to education. This investigation was encouraged by the Chair- man of the Legislative Commission and the Legislative Secretary. Its results should play a significant part in the advancement of the Associa- tion's legislative program. The division should continue as one of its policies the study of the pro- grams of other headquarters divisions so that investigations needed in advancing these programs may be completed at opportune times. 5. Act as a general service agency to State and local teachers organiza- tions and to individual members of the Association-Several thousand letters are answered each year which request information on many sub- jects of professional interest. The results of this service are of value in advancing the cause of education and in retaining the good-will of the Association's members. This service should be continued, but it should be so organized that it may be rendered effectively without seriously in- terfering with the fundamental work assigned to the division. A plan has been devised in coöperation with the Department of Super- intendence whereby individual school systems meet the expense of special investigations undertaken at their request. Sixty-one cities have sub- scribed to this Educational Research Service. The development of this plan will make possible an effective information service without absorb- ing too large a part of the resources supplied the division by the Association. THE RESEARCH BULLETIN The following table gives facts concerning Research Bulletins issued during the past year : Number Number pages printed Facts on the Public School Curriculum, Vol. I, No. 5 48 7,000 Teachers' Retirement Allowances, Vol. II, No. 3 . 32 9,000' Facts on the Public School for American Education Week, Vol. 40 10,000 II, No. 4 ..... The Problem of Teacher Tenure, Vol. II, No. 5 ............ 40 8,000 Public School Salaries in 1924-1925, Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2 .... 72 28,000 Totals 232 62,000 The frequency with which the Research Bulletin is referred to in scien- tific educational publications, its increasing use by universities and teacher study groups as a textbook, and its wider distribution and sale are encour- aging. There is evidence that the Research Bulletin has played its part in the educational advance of the past three years. To continue the reg- ular issuance of this publication and to increase constantly the value of its contents, should be one of the principal objectives of the division. Does not include 10,000 reprints purchased and used by Iowa State Teachers Association. 2Does not include 8000 reprints purchased and distributed by the Department of Superin tendence. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1045 LOOKING TO THE FUTURE The policies of the division outlined above should be continued. The work of carrying out these policies will offer the best outlet for the major portion of the division's energy. Two important independent investiga- tions are planned for next year. One will be in the field of school finance, and the other will deal with the status of the teaching profession. Both of these investigations will be conducted with the 1926-27 sessions of the State legislatures in mind. In that year the legislatures of 44 of the 48 States will hold sessions . There is need for an improvement of the division's facilities for serving the headquarters staff and the members in the field. Thus far, it has been impossible for the division to employ a properly trained person to give his major attention to the organization of reference files and material. The addition of a worker with library training of the type obtainable for $ 1500 or $2000 would greatly strengthen the effectiveness of this work. This worker should study not only the needs of the Research Division but those of all headquarters divisions and should organize reference material in such form as to be of greatest service to the whole Association . Pro- vision in next year's budget for such a worker is recommended. It was suggested early in the development of the division that it should act as a clearing-house for the results of educational research in certain fields of importance to the profession. The work performed in this direc- tion has been limited up to the present. At the Cincinnati convention, a proposal was submitted to the Executive Committee of the National Edu- cation Association by Dean William S. Gray, of the University of Chi- cago, which emphasized the need for further attention to the work of co- ordinating the results of educational research. This proposal is sufficiently limited in its scope, so that the division may well attempt to carry it out. To initiate this work would require and addition to the division's budget of approximately $2000. It is recommended that such provision be made in next year's budget. The above extensions of the research staff are selected from many desirable ones suggested, since they fit into work already being developed and represent a move in the direction of perfecting the present organization rather than adding new types of work. The time has come for the development of a better organized program of research which will involve coöperation between the Division of Re- search and our affiliated State associations. Many of the State associa- tions are already organized for effective research work. They might all gain by greater coöperation in this field. The National Education Asso- ciation is the logical organization to bring about a mass study and attack of problems common to all. A plan is being formulated whereby a be- ginning may be made in attaining this objective. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Director of Research has given but a small fraction of his time to the work of the division during the past year. During the time of his 1046 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION absence on leave, the division's work has been supervised by Margaret M. Alltucker, assistant director. The output of the year is the result of her efficient work, in which she has been aided by the loyal coöperation of the division's clerical staff. REPORT OF THE DIVISION OF CLASSROOM SERVICE AGNES WINN, DIRECTOR The activities of the Division of Classroom Service from July 1, 1924, to June 30, 1925, may be summarized under the following heads: ( 1 ) Teachers' organizations, (2) departments and allied organizations, (3 ) committees, ( 4) Journal articles and publicity work, (5) annual meet- ing, (6) information service and field work. Teachers' organizations-To keep in touch with local organizations of teachers for the purpose of creating a closer relationship between such organizations and the National Association is one of the aims of this divi- sion. As an aid in doing this, an inquiry was sent early in the fall to seventy-five representative organizations asking for definite information regarding their activities, membership, and the like. This number will be increased from year to year, but up to this time it has seemed wise to con- centrate on a limited number. The replies to the questionnaire furnished valuable information that has proved itself in assisting organizations throughout the field and in preparing a series of articles on the various ac- tivities of local organizations. A card file of the officers of these organiza- tions has been kept and a file of names of classroom teachers representative of all parts of the country has been compiled. Correspondence has been carried on with the officers, and monthly preprints from the Journal per- taining to organization work have been sent. Material was collected on teachers' councils and distributed upon request. One of the growing activities of local organizations is the publication of a monthly or quarterly bulletin. Copies of these publications are regularly looked over and have afforded an excellent way to get information relative to the programs, social and professional, of these organizations. Corre- spondence is carried on with the editors, and Journal reprints and preprints are mailed to them monthly. A list of local publications was furnished to the editorial staff of each bulletin to be used as an exchange list. Departments and allied organizations-1. Department of Classroom Teachers-The director has kept in close touch with the president and other officers of this Department. Early in the year its president was furnished a duplicate of the classroom teacher card file and also a portfolio giving lists of officers and other information relative to the Association. Prior to the classroom regional conferences held by the members of the executive committee of the Department, membership material has been mailed for use at these meetings. At the request of the President of the Association reports of regional conferences were collected, placed on file at headquarters, and furnished to those desiring this information. It was THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1047 the privilege of the director of Classroom Service to attend the regional conference held in Baltimore. 2. Department of Kindergarten Education-The detailed clerical work for the research committee of this Department has been one of the major activities of this division. It consisted of compiling mailing lists, sending out letters and questionnnaires, and taking care of the returns, the information from which was used as the basis of the report "General Prac- tice in Kindergarten Education in the United States" . This report, which was published under the supervision of this division, will be available at the meetings of the Department in Indianapolis and also at the July con- vention of the International Kindergarten Union in Los Angeles. Other departments and allied organizations-The interests of ten of the Association's departments and several allied organizations have been cared for through this division. This work includes correspondence throughout the year, aid in making convention plans, information service to officers, and assistance in solution of special problems. Committees-The poliiy of assigning members of the headquarters staff as consulting members of the Association's committee has been estab- lished. It has been my privilege to act in this capacity for seven com- mittees, among which was the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems. A detailed report was compiled for this committee from replies to a questionnaire and from letters received in response to the Journal page "Fresh from the Classroom" . Advice and assistance has been given to the chairman of the Committee on the Revision of the N. E. A. Departments. Copies of the Thrift Committee Report covering the Thrift Conference held in Washington last summer were mailed to several hundred people. The Journal and publicity work-The work on the Journal may be grouped under the following heads: (a) A series of articles on the ac- tivities of local organizations, (b) A series based on the report of the Com- mittee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems, (c) Articles on the Washington meetings of eight departments, (d) Monthly page, "Problems for Teachers' Meetings." A folder containing a list of publications of the Association was pre- pared in this office for publication and has proved valuable in complying with many requests. The Booklet of Information that has been used so widely in soliciting membership was revised for use this year. Occasionally opportunities for publicity service present themselves. For the past three years this division has contributed an article on the Association to the New American Annual and for the past two years a similar article has been fur- nished to The World Almanac. A press release, "In a Nutshell," con- sisting of brief excerpts from the Journal, was prepared and distributed each month. This has been widely used by other educational journals . Annual meeting-This division has acted as a clearing-house for the programs of all departments and allied organizations for the summer meeting. Extensive correspondence has been carried on with those having 1048 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION charge of programs and with the convention manager. The convention work has necessitated close coöperation with other divisions at headquarters . The copy for the Official Program was assembled, and a service plan for handling tickets for special breakfasts, luncheons, and dinners during the convention was worked out for the convenience of those in attendance at the annual convention. Information service and field work-Requests for almost every type of information have been answered. Several requests have required the com- pilation of lists involving considerable time and thought. A number of trips into the field have been made to speak before county, city and State organizations of teachers on the professional program of the Association. In April, at the request of the Mississippi Education Association's annual convention, I delivered several addresses. These contacts with the field are helpful to the members of the headquarters staff, giving them a broader and more sympathetic knowledge of State and local educational problems . It is hoped that more of these trips can be made during the coming year. Summary-This division is looking forward to larger opportunities for service and accomplishment during the coming years. The primary pur- pose will be, as before, to assist in every way possible the Department of Classroom Teachers, teachers' organizations, and the individual teacher. The director is also planning to work closely with the Division of Records and Membership recently established on ways and means of bringing before the teachers of the country the professional program of the Associa- tion. It has been a privilege to work with the men and women of the headquarters staff during this important year of our financial history. The balancing of the budget has given us all new hope and courage, and I am sure we will enter upon the year before us with renewed inspiration and enthusiasm . REPORT OF LEGISLATIVE DIVISION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, FIELD SECRETARY This report covers the activities of the Legislative Division of the Field Service in behalf of the two legislative measures which the National Edu- cation Association has supported during the past year and suggests further activity in their behalf in order to reach the desired goal at the earliest possible date. The information on file in the State Department in Wash- ington, D. C. , April 1, 1925, was to the effect that four States-Arizona, Arkansas , California and Wisconsin-had ratified the Child Labor Amend- ment to the Federal Constitution and that 16 States-Georgia, Kansas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Con- necticut, Delaware, South Dakota, Idaho, Massachusetts, Iowa, Louisiana and North Dakota-had failed to ratify when the question was considered in one or both houses of the legislatures of these States. Expert legal opinion holds that the States that have already ratified may not change their THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1049 decision but that States that have once rejected the Amendment may re- consider the question at a subsequent meeting of the legislature. In developing support for the Education Bill and for the Child Labor Amendment 40,884 pieces of literature were distributed, 3400 personal letters were sent out, including 555 letters in answer to requests for literature on the Education Bill and 5668 form letters in 34 sets were sent to various coöperating groups, 15 meetings of the two sub-committees of the Women's Joint Congressional Committee supporting the two measures which the National Education Association is actively working were attended, 122 persons of prominence were interviewed, 5 group conferences were held, 28 meetings were attended in 14 States and the District of Co- lumbia, at 22 of which addresses were made on the Education Bill. The record of the hearing on the Education Bill before the Committee on Education of the House of Representatives filled a volume of 750 pages, the most complete compilation of arguments for and against the passage of the bill which has yet been printed. It was the judgment of the Legisla- tive Secretary that this record should be preserved. With that in mind 2000 copies were purchased for distribution at cost to libraries. On June 15, 1925, the following distribution had been made : To libraries of colleges and normal schools . 504 copies “ To public libraries ..401 " To libraries of high schools and junior colleges . 90 " To bookstores and individuals .107 For future reference a report of this distribution is on file in the office of the Legislative Secretary. Congress convened December 1, 1924, in the short session and adjourned March 4, 1925, without passing either the Education Bill or the Smoot- Mapes Bill, otherwise known as the Reorganization Bill. It was impossible to have the Education Bill considered because members of Congress wished to await the outcome of the plan to reorganize the executive departments of the Government which had been in the hands of a special committee since December 17, 1920, and on the calendar of both houses of Congress in the form of a bill since June 3, 1924. Great opposition from many sources was directed against the Reorganization Bill with the result that it, too, failed of passage. To the casual observer of legislation in Congress it would seem that little progress has been made. However, those directly concerned with this bill know that the situation has cleared up materially and that valuable information for guidance in the future has been gathered from the efforts to pass these two bills in the short session. Before Con- gress adjourned plans were well under way for the drafting of the bill to be presented at the next session, which convenes December 7, 1925. Beginning in March numerous conferences with members of Congress, members of the Legislative Commission, other important educators and the legislative representatives of the supporting organizations were held in Washington. The consensus of opinion of those who conferred on this important question was that it would be unwise to include the Federal aid 1050 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION appropriations in the new bill. It seemed best at this time to build upon the sentiment for a Department of Education which had been created throughout the country and in Congress by the supporters of the Educa- tion Bill as well as by the report of the Reorganization Committee. The very fact that this committee after having worked for four years on the plan to reorganize the executive departments declared for a Department of Education and Relief is in itself evidence of the wisdom and justice of the claims of the educators and the friends of education. Some vexing problems not solved in previous bills will have been solved at the close of this convention and the outlook then will be as favorable as could possibly be expected. Five new and attractive pieces of literature are now being prepared to be ready by July 25, 1925, for use in the campaign for the new bill. An avowed champion of a Department of Education is in line for the chairmanship of the Committee on Education in the House of Representatives; Daniel Alden Reed, member of Congress from the State of New York, will again introduce the bill in that body. Senator Charles Curtis, of Kansas, majority floor leader, will introduce and sponsor the bill in the Senate. President Coolidge made his views known to 10,000 cheer- ing educators last July in Washington. It can be safely said that never before in the history of this bill has it been in such a favorable position as it now occupies. The support for the measure continues to grow both in and out of Con- gress. A prominent Democratic Senator recently made a ringing speech in behalf of a Department of Education and a Republican member of Con- gress called at headquarters during June for information and literature on the bill, saying that he heard more about this measure on Capitol Hill than about any other question before Congress. All of this is in marked con- trast to the situation which confronted us in the beginning of the last Congress. With the approval and direction of the Executive Committee the Legis- lative Secretary has confined her activities almost wholly to the legislative program of the Association and has centered her efforts largely in and around Washington, where many of the supporting organizations have their headquarters . This is a task quite large enough in itself. A pleasing number of invitations to speak to State and local groups of teachers has been received, many of which had to be declined for reasons already men- tioned. However, 14 States have been visited. One field trip in the interest of membership seems worthy of mention here. Last September the three lower East Coast counties of Florida held at West Palm Beach their third Tri-County Institute, at which 600 teachers were in attendance. Your Legislative Secretary was present with a large exhibit of Journals, bulletins and charts used in the hearings on the bill. This material was distributed and explained in the first days of the meeting. A committee of three teachers from each county was appointed to plan and conduct the membership campaign. Definite plans were outlined at a dinner. Large committees were appointed for special pieces of work. On the last day a THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1051 "little N. E. A." was staged with the one hundred or more schools seated under their respective standards. Due to the leadership of the three superintendents and the fine professional spirit of those teachers more than 500 teachers enrolled that day and paid their fees either in time checks or in cash. Since that date the enrolment of the three counties in the Na- tional Education Association has practically reached 100 per cent. The work of the National Education Association for the establishment of a De- partment of Education was one of its activities that strongly appealed to these teachers, as was evidenced by the discussion from the floor and fur- ther by the results of their membership campaign. There never has been a time in the history of the Association when unity of purpose and solidarity of ranks were so much needed as at the present time. The fight to stop the exploitation of childhood in the coun- try will go on and it is confidently hoped that the Child Labor Amend- ment will be ratified when the legislatures of the States again convene . The teachers of the nation, guardians of its childhood, know better than most people the opportunities denied children through their enforced labor in productive industries. A stern obligation and a sacred duty, then, rests with the profession to see that at the earliest possible date the doors of the schoolroom are thrown wide open to all of the children of all of the people. Asound democratic citizenry can be built on no other basis. The situation with respect to the Education Bill is much more hopeful, however. For fifty years the National Education Association has spon- sored the idea of a Federal Department of Education. Since 1918 an active campaign has been waged in its behalf. Twenty-seven National organizations of men and women are working shoulder to shoulder in this great movement. The time has been well spent. Reasons for and against the establishment of this Department have been debated before the Amer- ican people in the press and from the platform and the pulpit. The senti- ment of the people is unchanged-it is overwhelmingly in favor of the creation of a Department of Education. With so much of advantage on our side in the next Congress, what then remains to be done ? Dr. John H. MacCracken, president, Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania, and chairman of the Committee on Federal Legislation of the American Council on Education, in his advocacy of a Federal Department of Education, with his usual happy faculty of hitting the nail on the head, has answered that question in part by asking another one. He says : "Do we who are engaged in education want education represented in the National Government ? If we do it will be represented." He voices a faith in the ability of the educators and their influence upon the life and thought of this country in which the Legislative Secretary shares. Do we really want this thing? If we do now is the time to make our wants definitely known and fully understood. The members of Con- gress are now at their various homes. They are eager to hear and they need to know what the educators desire in this matter. Is there a member of the National Education Association in the country 1052 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION who is unprepared to present the question of a Department of Education to congressmen with credit to the profession, or being prepared, is there a single one who will fail to do his duty ? Upon the answer to this ques- tion more than upon any other single factor depends the success of our legislative program. REPORT OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AND DIVISION OF ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE SHERWOOD D. SHANKLAND, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY The Department of Superintendence-The formal report and list of members of this Department for the calendar year 1924 was published in the Third Yearbook, which was distributed at the winter meeting in Cincinnati. The financial statement for the year ended December 31 , 1924, showed receipts of $ 17,637.93, and expenditures of $15,406.07. The balance on hand at the end of the year was $2,507.70. By mutual agreement, the profits from the commercial exhibit at the winter meeting are divided equally between the Department and the parent Association, each organization thus deriving funds for convention expenses. At Cin- cinnati the Department received $8,696.06 from this source. Educational Research Service-Over sixty cities are subscribers to the Educational Research Service of the Department of Superintendence in coöperation with the Research Division of the National Education Asso- ciation. Each subscriber pays $25 annually. Subscribers are furnished with printed or multigraphed copies of recent educational studies; informa- tion is secured in response to individual inquiries; special tabulations are made involving problems, such as teachers' salaries; and an effort is being made to assist subscribers in solving the questionnaire problem. Funds derived from this source are applied in payment of the salary of an addi- tional assistant in the Division of Research . Commission on the Curriculum-The Cleveland Convention of the De- partment of Superintendence authorized the appointment of the Commis- sion on the Curriculum. The Third Yearbook of the Department, entitled "Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum," was pre- pared under direction of the Commission. Over seventy specialists assisted in its preparation. At Cincinnati a coöperative plan of curriculum revi- sion was undertaken, which bids fair to bring about material progress in the solution of curriculum problems. About three hundred school systems have enrolled for curriculum study. The Department of Superintendence and Division of Research will serve as a clearing-house for those at work in the field. Two clerical assistants are employed at headquarters by the Department to care for the additional work connected with this co- operative enterprise. The Department of Elementary School Principals-This Department has made remarkable progress since it was first recognized at the Des Moines Convention in 1921. It enrolls 2745 members. The president of THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1053 the Department, Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, of Grand Rapids, Michigan, has wisely administered its affairs. A quarterly bulletin, which deals con- structively with the problems of the elementary school principal, is issued under the editorship of Ide G. Sargeant, Paterson, New Jersey. The yearbooks of the Department have been in great demand. The Fourth Yearbook, just published, is entitled, "The Elementary School Principal- ship-A Study of its Instructional and Administrative Aspects." The editor is Arthur S. Gist, of Seattle, Washington. The Division of Administrative Service-A member of the headquarters staff at Washington is assigned to care for the interests of each of the allied departments and organizations of the National Education Association. These naturally consist of two groups, one particularly interested in class- room problems and one in questions of administration. The administra- tive group has been assigned for my attention, under the title of Division of Administrative Service. This work includes aid in making convention plans, information service to individuals and organizations, and assistance in the solution of special problems. In conclusion-The Headquarters Staff of the National Education Association has been most helpful. The comradeship of common interests has brought inspiration for renewed effort. THE DIVISION OF RECORDS AND MEMBERSHIP T. D. MARTIN, DIRECTOR A report from this Division, which has been in existence but a month, must of necessity be largely a record of first impressions and a suggestion of possible developments. From the experiences of one month as a member of the headquarters staff four things stand out with vividness : 1. The staff a group of men and women of exceptional ability, con- scientiously devoted to the cause which they have espoused, working in hearty coöperation for its success ; 2. The system of records comprehensive and somewhat complicated but accurate and definite; 3. The organization-dynamic and determined, dominated by the loftiest ideals and driven by an inner force which comes from a vivid consciousness of the vital value of service; 4. The goodwill-abundant and increasing among the laity as well as among the members of the profession, an invaluable asset which guarantees further growth and progress . PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS The work of this Division falls naturally under two headings-Records and Membership each distinct, yet intimately related. Records-As stated above, the system of records now in use is com- prehensive, accurate, and definite, a fact of which many members of the 1054 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Association are not aware. They need to be informed more definitely by personal letters which explain clearly the "combination plan" of "annual " yet "continuous" membership. A campaign originating possibly at head quarters, but conducted by the members of the Association themselves, which will lead to the payment of dues on or before November 1, and a definite understanding that the membership year runs from September 1 to August 31 of each year, will do much to clear up current misunderstand- ings. A reduction of the clerical (mechanical) operations involved in the handling of the record of each member can probably be effected by eliminat- ing one of the three filing records now employed and recording the informa- tion it contains on the addressograph stencils. The present three-file system is accurate but can be improved. Membership-The rapid growth in membership which the Association has enjoyed during the past seven years is little less than phenomenal. It must continue if the strength and service of the Association are to be in- creased. In order to accomplish this a great distribution of responsibility and organization must be effected. A better working relationship must be developed with local and State associations. Some kind of "budget" or " co-inclusive membership plan," whereby local units will collect, with their own dues, the dues of the State and National associations, is needed ; in fact, such a plan is already in process of development. The growth of the National Association is having a strong and helpful influence upon the development of the local and State associations. Increase in efficiency and strength among the local and State units will make possible an increase in membership and a corresponding increase in the strength and the service of the National organization. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE FOR THE REVISION OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JAMES H. KELLEY, CHAIRMAN The Committee on the Revision of Departments of the National Edu- cation Association is pleased to submit the following report of its work for the year 1924-25 : I. Department of Teachers Colleges. At the Cincinnati convention a committee appointed by Guy E. Maxwell of the American Association of Teachers Colleges met with a committee appointed by George W. Frasier of the Department of Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges and framed a recommendation in harmony with the recommendation of this committee approved June 28, 1924, by the Representative Assembly, that the Amer- ican Association of Teachers Colleges become the National Education Asso- ciation Department of Teachers Colleges. This recommendation was adopted by the American Association of Teachers Colleges. We recom- mend that the American Association of Teachers Colleges become the THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1055 Department of Teachers Colleges of the National Education Association. II. Department of Secondary School Principals. Under date of April 22, 1925, President Jesse H. Newlon sent the chairman of this committee a letter from H. V. Church, secretary-treasurer of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, from which the following extract is taken: "The National Association of Secondary School Principals, at its busi- ness meeting, adopted the following resolution : 'To sum up the whole matter, if the Association of Secondary School Principals does become a department of Secondary School Principals in the National Education Association, it should be as follows : 'First. That the name be: The National Association of Secondary School Principals-a Department of the National Education Association. 'Second. That our funds be in sole charge of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, and that the same may be audited by the proper officers of the National Education Association. 'Third. That our publications be left in charge of the National Asso- ciation of Secondary School Principals. 'Fourth. That we give assurance to the National Education Association that the National Association of Secondary School Principals will do all it can to increase the membership in the National Education Association but that this Association will not be responsible for collecting Natonal Edu- cation Association dues from its members . 'This is submitted for your consideration and your committee asks to be discharged of its responsibility. ' After full discussion the report of the committee was accepted and the committee was discharged.' " The chairman sent a copy of President Newlon's letter to each member of this committee and each member replied. The conclusion may be summed up as follows : We would like to have the National Association of Secondary School Principals become the Department of Secondary School Principals of the National Education Association and are willing to make a favorable recommendation to the Board of Directors of the National Education Association, provided, the Secondary School Principals become a department on conditions similar to those accepted by the De- partment of Superintendence, the Department of Elementary Principals and the Department of Classroom Teachers. We are unwilling to accede to any special conditions or to assign to them more favorable terms than have been given other organizations. III . Library Department and Department of Educational Publica- tions. Since the Library Department and the Department of Educational Publications during the past two years have not complied with the By-laws governing departments, we recommend that these two departments be dis- continued. IV. Department of Social Studies.-The National Council for the So- cial Studies, Edgar Dawson, Secretary, 691 Park Avenue, New York City, in May submitted a petition bearing over 700 signatures for the recogni 1056 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tion of that council as a department. The National Council for the Social Studies was established in 1921, has over 1,300 members, publishes "The Historical Outlook" with a circulation of over 5,000 and has held regular annual meetings in February and July each year for the past four years attended by about 500 persons. Your committee finds that the National Council for the Social Studies easily complies with the conditions prescribed for the formation of a depart- ment and, therefore, recommends that it be made a department of the Na- tional Education Association. V. Fee for Allied Organizations. -Owing to the expense involved in looking after the interests of the allied organizations authorized by the Executive Committee to hold meetings at the time of the summer or winter conventions, we recommend that a fee of $100, payable in advance, be charged such organizations, provided that the Executive Committee of the National Education Association may by vote exempt from such payment any organization, all of whose members are members of the National Edu- cation Association. This amount would hardly cover the expense for the correspondence involved, the space given in the official program, the publicity in the press and the work involved in securing proper room assignments. The allied organizations that usually meet with the Na- tional Education Assocation are as follows : American Classical League. American Home Economics Association. Educational Press Association of America. National Congress of Parents and Teachers. National Council of Primary Education. National Council for the Social Studies . National Council of Teachers of English . National Federation of Modern Language Teachers. National Geographic Society. National League of Teachers' Associations. National Organization of Secretaries of State Education Associations. National Vocational Guidance Association . School Garden Association of America. VI. Amendment to Article V of the Constitution. On June 28, 1924, the Board of Directors approved an amendment of Section 8 of Article V of the By-laws pertaining to the admission of departments, so that it will read as follows : Article V, Sec. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the Board, or by two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any annual busi- ness meeting ; Provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the Board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least two hundred fifty members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established, provided that no group shall THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1057 be admitted to departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A department already estab- lished may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representa- tive Assembly at any business meeting of the Association; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the Board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meet- ing. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. The new matter in the above section is in italics. We recommend that this amendment be adopted by the Representative Assembly of 1925 . VII. Departments of the National Education Association . The present departments of the National Education Association are as follows: Adult Education American Association of Teachers Colleges. Business Education Classroom Teachers Deans of Women Elementary School Principals Kindergarten Education Music Education Rural Education School Health and Physical Education Science Instruction Secondary School Principals Superintendence Visual Instruction Vocational Education. VIII . We recommend that the report be accepted and the committee be discharged. Respectfully submitted, Randall J. Condon, Atlantic member, 1201 Sixteenth Street Monthly, 8 Arlington St., Boston, N. W. , Washington, D. C. 17, Massachusetts . Julia A. Spooner, Box 188, Route Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Principal, No. 3, Lents Station, Portland, Palmer School, Grand Rapids, Oregon. Michigan. Agnes Winn, Director of the Divi- Cora Mull, 4151 Berkeley Avenue, sion of Classroom Service, Chicago, Illinois. assigned consulting member, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. , Carroll G. Pearse, 3104 Wells Washington, D. C. Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. J. Herbert Kelley, Chairman S. D. Shankland, Executive Secre- Pennsylvania State Education retary, Department of Superin- Association, 400 North Third tendence, assigned consulting Street, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. June 29, 1925, approved as amended with a vote of thanks to the com- mittee. J. H. KELLEY. 1058 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY ERNEST L. CRANDALL, DIRECTOR OF LECTURES AND VISUAL EDUCATION PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN This is the third successive occasion when I have been called upon to report as Chairman of the Necrology Committee. I have been informed that in the past this committee has functioned more or less perfunctorily. For myself, I must confess that each time I am confronted with this duty I suffer a genuine pang. Nothing deserves greater scorn than crocodile tears. Nothing is more offensive than unctious and ostentatious sorrow. Let us not pretend that we suffer keenly or are plunged into profound grief at the thought of our colleagues who have passed on, except in the case of those who were in some personal way near and dear to us. On the other hand, it seems to me we should be more than callous did we not pause in our practical labors, did we not turn aside for a moment from our quest of self-improvement, which sometimes seems all too much like the pursuit of self-advancement, to lend a solemn thought to those who have toiled beside us, but are with us no more. Each passing year takes its toll of old and young, in this calling as in any other. Such is the ordered serenity of the teacher's life, however, that most of those who are taken have rounded out their service, have finished their task, and are ready to lay down their tools. Perhaps I should not use the expression "have finished their task," for, of all human tasks, that of the teacher may most truly be said never to be ended. In a truer sense than any other artificer, they build for the future, and the future ever recedes before them. Let us say rather, then, that we rejoice that so many of those who have passed beyond have done their quota, have finished their tale of bricks for the ever growing, ever expand- ing, ever rising structures of civilized society and our own dear republic. During the past few years one challenging question, first whispered with bated breath, has grown in volume and in frequency, until at last it re- verberates from a thousand platforms and stares at us from a million pages- namely the question whether by reason of humanity's blundering failure to garner in the fruits of peace, the young lives snuffed out by the horrible holocaust of the late World War were offered up in vain. It is a staggering question, because we realize that if these boys died in vain, the fault is ours. My friends, we are confronted with a similar question with regard to our colleagues who have laid down their arms and gone to their rest-not if they died in vain, but if they lived in vain. And if the answer is in the affirmative we must face the consciousness that again the fault will be ours . Our departed comrades belonged for the most part to a generation which cherished high ideals, and especially high ideals of the teaching profession. We, on the other hand, belong to a generation which is widely charged with being materialistic and sordid. It is useless to sidestep this accusation. The charge is true. The world today is suffering from a distinct lowering THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 1059 of its ideals. Old faiths are being abandoned, established institutions are crumbling, dark and menacing forces are surging up from below and threat- ening to disrupt society. It is our task as teachers, your task and mine, my friends, in the midst of all this, to hold high and hold firm the torch of pure learning, which these, our departed colleagues, have been obliged to iet fall from their lifeless hands. We can do this only by reminding our- selves continuously that learning, training, education, is essentially a matter of the spirit even more than a matter of the mind and of the senses. Only so can we meet squarely our responsibility. Only so can we carry on in a manner to satisfy our conscience and our God. Only so can we be sure that those who have gone before have not lived and toiled in vain. I shall read you now a brief list compiled by Miss Adelaide Davis, secre- tary of the Necrology Committee, containing the names of several notable educators who have passed away since last we were assembled. At the conclusion of this list, will you please all rise and stand for a few seconds in silent prayer and meditation in memory not only of these, but of the un- known soldier of our vast educational army whose name is legion and whose passing we should not forget simply because he failed to attain what the world calls distinction, but had to be content to do his duty simply and lie down to rest. PROMINENT EDUCATORS WHO HAVE DIED DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 1924-1925 Dr. Marion Leroy Burton, President, Uni- James L. Lynch, County Superintendent, versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich .. Marshall, Mo. Dr. Ernest DeWitt Burton, President, Uni- J. Eugene Baker, Principal, Philadelphia versity of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Normal School, Philadelphia, Pa. Dr. Fred W. Hixon, President, Allegheny S. B. Underwood, Professor, East Carolina College, Meadville, Pa. Teachers College, Greenville, N. С. Dr. Francis Marion Bralley, President, Col- Charles Doswell Tomkie, Professor, Univer- lege of Industrial Arts, Denton, Texas . sity of Texas , Austin, Texas. Dr. Frederick Lister Burk, President, State D. H. Robinson, Professor, University of Teachers College, San Francisco, Calif. Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Samuel Plantz, President, Lawrence Col- C. H. Dutcher, Professor, Teachers College, lege. Appleton, Wis. Warrensburg, Mo. Dr. Edwin R. Snyder, President, State Teach- George W. Howe (retired) , Professor, Teach- ers College, San Jose , Calif. ers College, Warrensburg, Mo. Dr. J. George Becht, State Superintendent of A. M. Burroughs, Professor, University of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania. Missouri , Warrensburg, Mo. Charles A. Wagner, Superintendent of W. H. Lynch, Professor, Teachers College, Schools, Chester, Pa. Springfield, Mo. Addison L. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Dr. Charles H. Keyes, former treasurer of West Chester, Pa. the National Education Association, San M. M. Dupre, Superintendent of Schools , Francisco, Calif. Lobbock , Texas. Dr. L. E. Wolfe, one of the original Zenas C. Thornburg , Superintendent of founders of the National Education Asso- Schools , Des Moines, Iowa. ciation, San Antonio, Texas . Martin P. Forbes, Superintendent of Schools , Alexis Lange, Dean, Department of Educa- Northfield, Minn. tion, University of California. Robert Ward, Superintendent of Schools, James A. Barr, Sierra News, San Francisco, Otsego, Mich. California. E. Morris Cox, Assistant Superintendent of Alexander Tait Stuart, founder of the Na- Schools , Oakland, Calif. tional Education Association, Washing- Rufus M. Hitch, District Superintendent, ton, D. C. Chicago, Il1. William Herbert Carruth, poet and scholar. 1060 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION THE FIFTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Delegates who attended the Sixty-third annual meeting of the National Education Asso- ciation in Indianapolis, Indiana, June 26 - July 3, 1925. It will be observed that some of the delegates failed to register their positions. ALABAΜΑ Daniels, Mrs. Annie E., County Superin- tendent of Schools, Tucson; Arizona State Abercrombie, John W. , State Superintend- Teachers Association. ent of Education, Montgomery; Ex-officio. Ford, Mrs. J. J. , Capitol Building, Phoenix ; Allgood, R. V., Principal, Avondale School, Phoenix Teachers Association. Birmingham; Alabama Education Asso- Loper, John D., Superintendent of Schools, ciation. Phoenix; Arizona State Teachers Ass'n. Ansley, Foster, Principal, Barrett School, Mahoney, Helen, Mesa ; Arizona State Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso Teachers Association. ciation. Martin, S. H. , 219 S. Alarcon Street, Pres- Baxley, J. A., Superintendent of City cott; Ex-officio, State Director. Schools, Andalusia; Alabama Education Matthews , A. J. , President, Tempe State Association. Teachers College, Tempe; Arizona State Brown, Nona, 1620 S. 12th Street, Birming- Teachers Association. ham; Birmingham Teachers' Association. Menbonnett, Valerie, Mesa ; N. E. A. Mesa Bryan , J. E. , Principal, Cunningham School , Branch. Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso- Vos , Cornelia, 717 N. 1st Avenue, Tucson; ciation. Tucson Teachers Association. Carruth, Margaret, 1010 N. 30th Street, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso- ARKANSAS ciation. Collins, Aimee, 1602 11th Avenue, South, Brown, Mrs. May M. , 1004 Perry Street, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers' Asso- Helena; Arkansas Education Association. ciation. Griffey, Annie G., Primary Supervisor, Pub- Cowart, R. W. , 415 First Nat'l Bank Bldg. , lic Schools, Little Rock; Ex-officio, State Montgomery : Secretary , Alabama Edu- Director. cation Association. Haufler, Lida M., 1217 W. 3rd, Little Rock; Grove, Frank L. , Principal, Mobile High Womans Teachers Association of Little School, Mobile; President, Alabama Edu- Rock. cation Association. Henry, Miss Beryl, Hope; Arkansas Educa- Hodges, Mable, 428 South 54th Street, Bir- tion Association. mingham; Birnungham Teachers Associa- Hill, A. B., State Superintendent of Public tion. Instruction, Little Rock; Ex-officic. Hodges, P. W., Secretary, Division, Teach- Hull, Mrs. Katherine , West Side Junior er-training, Certification and Placement, High School, Little Rock: Woman's Montgomery ; Ex-officio, State Director. Teachers Association of Little Rock. Love, Elizabeth F., Aliceville ; Alabama Edu- Lawson, Miss Willie, State Supervisor of cation Association. Illiteracy , Little Rock; Arkansas Educa- Milchener , J. C., Kennedy School, Birming- tion Association. ham; Birmingham Teachers Association . Morton, Hattie, Principal, Loulie Compton CALIFORNIA Seminary , Birmingham; Alabama Educa- tion Association . Adams , Alma, 304 E. 16th Street, Oakland; Price, N. H., Principal, Hemphill School, California Council of Education . Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso- Aldrich, Bess, 509 E. Harvard Street, Glen- ciation. dale; Glendale City Teachers Club . Stutts, Margaret , Florence; Alabama Edu- Allen, Marguerite P. , 3837 2nd Avenue, Los cationa Association . Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Club . Amrath, Mrs. Mary E., High School of ALASKA Commerce, San Francisco; San Francisco High School Teachers Association . Evans , W. H. , Superintendent of Schools, Barker , Pearl, 2155 Olive Avenue, Long Cordova; Alaska Education Association . Beach; California Council of Education . Henderson , Lester D. , Commissioner of Edu- Bartlett, Adelaide, 521 Magellan Street, San cation , Juneau ; Ex-officio, State Director. Francisco ; San Francisco Grade Teachers Association . ARIZONA Bartlett, Olive S., 521 Magellan Avenue, San Francisco ; San Francisco Grade Baker, Hazel, 838 N. Euclid Avenue, Tuc- Teachers Association . son; Tucson Teachers Association . Bell, George H. , 627 Brewster Avenue, Red- Bouldin, Emma, Teacher, Elfrida ; Arizona wood City; California Council of Edu- State Teachers Association. cation. Broadway, Martha , 206 S. MacDonald St. , Bradley, Anne M., 412 63rd Street, Oak- Mesa; N. E. A. Mesa Branch. land; Oakland Teachers Association . Brown, Helen L., County Superintendent of Bradley , Mrs. Gertrude Upton , 2506 St. Schools, Tombstone; Arizona State Teach- George Street, Los Angeles; High School ers Association . Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Burton, Marvin L. , Box 2325, Bisbee ; War- Bradley, Margaret, 1616 4th Avenue, Oak- ren District Union of the N. E. Α . land; Oakland Teachers Association . Case , C. O. , State Superintendent of Public Instruction , Phoenix ; Ex-officio. Bunker, J. L. , Alameda High School, Niles; Cotton, Dr. F. A. , State Teachers College, Alameda County Education Association. Flagstaff; Prescott Education Association . Cagney, W. J., Antelope Valley Grammar Criley, Christine , 1420 11th Street, Douglas ; School, Lancaster; California Council of Arizona State Teachers Association. Education. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1061 Cauch, F. R. , 2316 Valdez St. , Oakland; Iversen, Ida Christine, Trinity Hotel , Los Oakland Teachers Association. Angeles; Ex-officio, Member Executive Charaberlain, Arthur H., 933 Phelan Build- Committee. ing. San Francisco: Secretary, California Jacobson, Jeannette, 1335 Kellam Avenue, Council of Education . Los Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Chamberlain, Mrs. Blanche, 1732 Central Club . Avenue, Alameda; Oakland Teachers As- Kersev, V. , 716 Chamber of Commerce sociation. Building, Los Angeles, California Council Churchill, Jeannette, El Cajon; California ofEducation. Council of Education. Keyes, Charles E. , 1057 E. 33rd Street, Oak- Cloud, Roy W. , Superintendent of Schools, land; Oakland Teachers Association. Redwood City; California Council of Edu- Landis, Ira C.. Superintendent of Schools, cation. Riverside; California Council of Education. Connelly, Mary F., 1911 Carleton Street, Leasure, Mrs. Fanny M. , John C. Fremont Berkeley; Alameda County Education As- School, Long Beach; City Teachers Club sociation. of Long Beach. Crooke, Charles R. , 860 Keller Avenue, San Leasure, Floyd, J. , Horace Mann School, Jose; Santa Clara County School Masters Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Club. Beach. Dunlevy, W. P., Teacher, San Diego High Linn, Louis P. , 3644 Platt Avenue, Fresno; School, San Diego; Ex- Officio, State California Council of Education. Director. Lundgren, Leonard, 20 Jones Strect. San Edmiston, Edith, 450 Stow Street, Oakland; Francisco; California Council of Educa- Oakland Teachers Association. tion. Elmore, A. G. , 207 Park Avenue, Modesto ; McCray, Frances , 234 W. 28th Street, Los California Council of Education. Angeles; California Council of Education. Ferguson, James, Principal, High School, McCutchan, H. H., 517 W. 9th. Long Chico; California Council of Education. Beach; Long Beach City Teachers Club. Franklin, Vera, 51 Douglas Street, San McDermott, Louisa, 1180 Guerrero Street. Francisco; San Francisco Grade Teachers San Francisco; San Francisco Grade Association. Teachers Association. Fraser, Anna G., 822 Alma Avenue, Oak- McEntyre, Doris, 2511 College Avenue, land, California Council of Education. Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Association. Gaines, Howard R. , Lowell School , Fresno ; McGorray, Mrs. Ada D., 960 S. Oxford Fresno City Teachers Council. Avenue, Los Angeles ; Los Angeles City Galpin, Lloy, 2354 Addison Way, Eagle Teachers Club. Rock High School Teachers Association McGowan, A. W. , R. F. D. No. 4, Box 155, of Los Angeles. Lodi; Stockton Elementary Teachers As- Garrison, Dora L., 1416 Third Avenue, Los sociation. Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. McGrath, Mrs. Mary, 2955 McClure Street, Gatchel, D. F., Box 165, Centerville ; Cali- Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. fornia Council of Education. Meeks , Ida V., 1252 14th Street, San Diego; Gray, Mrs. Minnie M. , County Superintend- San Diego Principals' Club. ent of Schools, Yuba City; California Mooney, Miss Francis, Key Route Inn, Oak- Council of Education. land; San Francisco School Principals' Gibbs, Jane I. , 735 Lime Avenue, Long Association. Beach; City Teachers Club . Mooney, Mary F.. Director of Department Green, Mrs. Luella, 821 S. Van Ness , Santa of Texts and Libraries, Office of Superin- Ana; Santa Ana City Teachers League. tendent of Schools, San Francisco ; Ex- Gridley, E. G. , 312 Bacon Building, Oak- officio, Vice-President. land; California Council of Education. Moorhead, Gladys Evelyn, 1832 Mansfield Gwinn, J. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Avenue, R. F. D. No. 7, Los Angeles; San Francisco: California Council of Edu- City Teachers Club . cation. Morris, Mylitta M. , Edgerly Court. Santa Hanna, H. J. , High School, 4600 Country Barbara; Santa Barbara Teachers Club. Club Drive, Los Angeles; California Coun- Moses, Mildred Leader, 5108 7th Avenue, cil of Education. Ios Angeles; Los Angeles Kindergarten Hartman, Emma, 605 23rd Street, Oakland; Club. California Council of Education. Moulton, Edith D., 1046 N. Hunter Street, Hartman, Amelia, 605 23rd Street, Oakland; Stockton; California Council of Education. Oakland Teachers Association. Nelson, H. G. , 201 E. 10th Street. Santa Harwell, Charles A. , 2626 Haste Street, Ana; Santa Ana City Teachers League. Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Nida , W. L. , 3696 First Street, San Diego ; Heineman, Sarah, 954 Beacon, Los Angeles; California Council of Education. Los Angeles Kindergarten Club. O'Leary, Josephine, 59 Dudley Avenue, Hendricks , Harold D., Principal, High School, Boonville; California Council of Venice; Santa Monica City Teachers Association. Education. Hendricks, Mrs. Jeanette B., Boonville; Oliver, Ralph E., Head, Commercial Dept. , California Council of Education. Polytechnic High School, Long Beach; Hewitt, Mary. 500 Duboce Avenue, San City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Francisco: San Francisco Grade Teachers Paine, Russell, 3101 Bancroft Street, San Association . Diego; San Diego Teachers Association. Hill, Louise S.. 2808 Albatross Street, San Pendry, Elizabeth, 1292 Meadowbrook Ave- Diego; California Council of Education. nue, Los Angeles, California Council of House, J. L. , 744 Brighton, El Centro; Education. California Council of Education. Pesante, Mrs. Maude T., 1101 Lakeshore Hubbard, O. S. , 700 West Yosemite Avenue, Avenue , Oakland ; Oakland Teachers As- Madera; California Council of Education. sociation. Hunter, Frederick M. , Superintendent of Peterson , M. E., 6712 Leland Way. Los Schools, Oakland; Ex-Officio, Life Direc- Angeles; Elementary Principals Club. tor. Reed, B. W., 6266 Sunset Blvd., Los 1062 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Angeles; Los Angeles High School Prin- Coulson, Clara G. , 1083 14th Street, Boul- cipals' Association. der; Boulder Teachers Club . Riley, Ocella, 620 N. Hunter Street, Stock- Elder, E. Waite, 1300 Pontiac, Denver; Den- ton; Stockton Elementary Teachers Asso- ver Classroom Teachers Association. ciation. Force, Anna Laura, Principal, Broadway Robinson, Mardele, 1041 Curtis Street, Ber- Jr. High School , Denver, Colorado Edu- keley; Richmond Teachers Association. cation Association. Robinson, J. A. , 397 Adams Street, Oak- Foster, A. J., Superintendent City Schools, land; Oakland Teachers Association. Brighton; Colorado Education Association. Sandifur, C. W. , Box, 108, E 3rd Street, Gurtner, Mrs. Ethel, 1524 Fillmore, Denver; Lankershim; California Council of Edu- Denver Classroom Teachers Association. cation. Hatch , D. R., East High School, Denver; Schon, Elsie M., Lowell High School, San Colorado Education Association. Francisco; San Francisco High School Helleson, Ellen H., 795 So. Pennsylvania, Teachers Association. Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Asso- Shaw, A. M. , 2833 Estara Avenue, Los ciation. Angeles; High School Teachers Associa- Inman, G. W., Principal, High School , La tion of Los Angeles. Junta; Colorado Education Association. Shaw, Faith, 1580 Madison Street, Oakland; Krusen, Alma, 1345 Lafayette, Denver; Den- Oakland Teachers Association. ver Classroom Teachers Association. Smith , A. Haven, 305 Buena Vista Street, Lory, Charles A. , President, State Agricul- Redlands; California Council of Education. tural College, Ft. Collins; Colorado Educa- Tanner, Wm. R., 4914 4th Avenue, Los tion Association. Angeles; High School Teachers Associa- McDonald, Mrs. Mary, 3248 Federal Blvd. , tion of Los Angeles. Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers As- Trompson, Mrs. Anne, San Jose; California sociation. Council of Education. Newlon, Jesse H. , Superintendent of Schools, Thompson, Roy, 45 Sierra Avenue, San Denver; Ex-officio, President, N. E. Α . Jose; Santa Clara County Teachers As- Parsons , R. A. , 2643 Lafayette Street, Den- sociation. ver; Denver Classroom Teachers Associa- Thurston, Gray, 1925 W. 21st Street, Los tion. Angeles; High School Teachers Associa- tion of Los Angeles . Pfrimmer, Edmonia, 1099 S. Clarkson, Den- ver; Denver Classroom Teachers Associa- Tillman, Florence, 2037 Alameda Avenue, tion. Alameda; Oakland Teachers Association. Vandegrift, Albert F. , 143 N. Coronado Rogers, V. M. , Principal, High School, Street, Los Angeles; California Council of Delta; Colorado Education Association. Education. Rooney, Mrs. Lillie, 2211 Spruce Street, Dis- Wade, May C. , 2400 Durant Avenue, Ber- trict 20, Pueblo Pueblo Grade Teachers' keley; California Council of Education. Association. Welch, Anne J., 1201 Union Street, Ala- Shadel, S. J., County Superintendent of meda; Alameda Grade Teachers Club . Schools, Trinidad; The Las Animas County Westcott, James A. , Box 30, Santa Ynez; Teachers' Association. Santa Barbara County Teachers Club . Shaw, Mary L. , 207 W. 19th Street, Pueblo; Whytock, Norman, 411 North Jackson St. , Pueblo Education Association of Dist. 1. Glendale; Glendale City Teachers Club. Smith, H. B., Secretary, Colorado Education Wilson, Mabelle, 1111 The Alameda, Ber- Association, Denver; Ex-officio, State Di- keley; Berkeley Teachers Association. rector. Wolfe, Eugene, 3222 Orilla Avenue, Los Stoner, J. W., Lime; Colorado Education Angeles; Glendale Union High School Association . Teachers Club . Threlkeld, A. L. , Deputy Superintendent of Wright, Edna L., 5606 Taft Avenue, Oak- Public Schools , Denver, Colorado Educa- land; Oakland Teachers Association. tion Association. Utterback, Mrs. Essie, 2601 Elm, Denver; COLORADO Denver Classrooom Teachers Association. Walek, Anna, 216 Lincoln Street, Sterling ; Anderson, Ida, 829 Lafayette, Denver; Den- The Federated Teachers Club of Sterling. ver Classroom Teachers Association. Watson, George L., 2449 Bellaire, Denver; Anderson, A. Helen, 857 Harrison, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Denver Classroom Teachers Association. White, Julia M. , 1557 St. Paul Street, Den- Aylard, Carlton, 1553 Fillmore, Denver; ver; Denver Principals and Directors As- Denver Teachers Club . sociation. Bair, Frederick H., Superintendent of Worthley, Mrs. Amy D., Principal, Junior Schools, Colorado Springs; Colorado Edu- High School, Sterling: Colorado Educa- cation Association. tion Association. Ballard, Mary A. J. , 209 No. Arcadia Street, Wray, C. L. , Grand Central Hotel, Denver; Colorado Springs; Classroom Teachers Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Association. Boggess , F. A. , Principal University Hill CONNECTICUT School, Boulder; Colorado Education Asso- ciation. Brennan, Katherine, Teacher, 182 Lloyd Bradford, Mary C. C., 1735 Bellaire Street, Street, New Haven; Connecticut State Denver; Ex-officio, State Superintendent. Teachers Association. Brinker, Olivia, 2146 Gaylord, Denver; Den- Faris, Mrs. Maude L. , Principal, Colonial ver Classroom Teachers Association. Avenue, Devon, Stratford; Stratford Casey, John C. , Superintendent of Schools, Teachers Association. Eaton; Colorado Education Association. , Goodrich, Carrie, Teacher, Columbus School East Haven; New Haven Teachers Childears , A. B. , 503 So. 12th, Rocky Ford; Rocky Ford Teachers Association. League. Cory, John J. , Principal, South High School, Hart, Harry T. , Principal, P. O. Box 55, Denver; Colorado Education Association. Stamford; Stamford Teachers Association. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1063 Jourdan, Caroline, Teacher, 102 W. Main Carter, R. L., Principal of Schools, Cocoa; Street, Bradford; New Haven Teachers Florida Education Association. League. Cawthon, W. S., State Superintendent of Keeney, Sylvia A., Teacher, 162 Gardier Public Instruction, Tallahassee; Ex-officio, Avenue, New London; Connecticut State State Director. Teachers Association. Fisher, Mrs. Charles M., 1244 S.W. 13 Maddocks, Carl W., Supervising Agent of Court, Miami; Royal Palm Education Schools, Deep River; Connecticut State Association. Teachers Association. Fisher, Charles M., 1244 S.W. 13 Court, O'Connell, Margaret, Teacher, 59 Burnside Miami; Royal Palm Education Ass'n. Avenue, East Hartford; Connecticut State Francis, Mrs. Mary, Box 144 Safety Har- Teachers Association. bor; Pinellas County Education Ass'n. Spencer, Walter B., Principal, High School, Naugle, Hazel, Largo ; Pinellas County New Haven; Connecticut State Teachers Education Association. Association. Roseborough, D. D., Principal, Public Stark, William E., Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Dora; Florida Education Schools , Stamford; Connecticut State Association. Teachers Association. Spaulding, Frederick H. , c/o Hillsborough Staples, Leon C., Superintendent of High School, Tampa, Florida Education Schools, Suffield; Connecticut State Association . Teachers Association. Taylor, Emmett, Superintendent of Schools, Young, JohnBridgeport; A. , Assistant Ex-officio, Superintendent of Ft. Pierce; Florida Education Association. Schools, State Wilbur, G. E., Superintendent of Schools, Director. Jacksonville; Florida Education Associa- tion. DELAWARE GEORGIA Brown, Dr. Thomas P., President, State Gibson, Carleton B. , Superintendent of Board of Education , Wyoming; Delaware Schools, Savannah; Georgia Education State Education Association. Association. Burnett, Marguerite H., State Director Martin, W. P., Superintendent of Schools, Adult Education, Wilmington; Wilming- Gainesville; Georgia Education Associa- ton Teachers Association. tion. Holloway, H. V., State Superintendent of HAWAII Public Instruction, Dover; Ex-officio, State Director. Beers, Mrs. William H., Primary Super- Hydorn, M. L. , Principal, Public Schools, visor, Hilo Town Schools, Hilo ; Hawaii Frederica; Delaware State Education As- Education Association. sociation. Beveridge, Kathryn B., Teacher, Papaikou ; King, H. B. , Asst. State Superintendent in Hawaii Education Association. charge of Elementary Schools. Dover; Churchill, Mrs. Minnie H., Principal, Waia- Delaware State Education Association . lua, Oahu ; Hawaii Education Association. Ward, David A. , Superintendent of City Conwill, C. C. , Principal, Kekaha, Kauai; Schools, Wilmington; Wilmington Teach- Hawaii Education Association. ers Association. Cook, Katherine Alma, Principal, Hanalei , Kauai ; Kauai Education Association. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Grace, John, Jr. , Teacher, Kohala School, Kamuela; Kohala Teachers Association. Ballou, F. W. , Superintendent of Schools, Mookini, Mrs. Rose K. , Teacher, Lahaina, Washington ; Ex-officio. Maui; Hawaii Education Association. Crabtree, J. W., Secretary, National Educa- Robinson, O. W., Principal, Makawao, tion Association, Washington; Ex-officio. Maui; Hawaii Education Association. Ely, Selden M., Supervising Prin. 5th Di- Sayers , E. V., Head of Department of Edu- vision, Gales School Building, Washing- cation, Territorital Normal School, Hono- ton; Education Association of the District lulu; Hawaii Education Association. of Columbia. Webling, G. H. , Supervising Principal, Hon- English, Harry, Chief Examiner, Public olulu Schools, Honolulu; Hawaii Educa- Schools, Washington; Ex-officio, State tion Association. Director. Haworth, Ellis, Teacher, Eastern High IDAHO School, Washington; High School Teach- ers Association of the District of Columbia. Beam, L. W. , Principal, High School, Jensen, Emma A. , Teacher, Central High Idaho Falls; Idaho State Teachers Ass'n. School, Washington; Education Associa- Breckenridge, J. L., City Superintendent of tion of the District of Columbia. Schools, Coeur d'Alene; Idaho State Marsh, Allen T. , Teacher, McKinley High Teachers Association . School, Washington; High School Teach- Dienst, Charles F. , City Superintendent of ers Association of the District of Columbia Schools, Boise; Idaho State Teachers Tennyson, J. Anna, Teacher , Junior High Association. School, Washington; Education Associa- Miller, Colwell, Mrs., Rural Teacher, Merid- tion of the District of Columbia. ian; Idaho State Teachers Association. Tigert, John J. , U. S. Commissioner of Pond, Charlotte, County Superintendent of Education, Washington; Ex-officio, Life Schools, Twin Falls; Idaho State Teachers Association. Director. Williams, Charl Ormond, National Educa- Russum, Elizabeth, Superintendent of Pub- tion Association, Washington; Ex-officio, lic Instruction, Boise; Ex-officio, State Director. Life Director. Siders, Walter R. , Superintendent City FLORIDA Schools , Pocatello; Ex-officio, Member, Executive Committee, Chairman Board of Blanton, R. S., County Superintendent of Trustees. Public Instruction, Clearwater; Pinellas Stout, Iva, Classroom Teacher, Pocatello; County Education Association. City Teachers Association . 1064 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ILLINOIS Hays, Dudley Grant, Director of Visual Abbe, Mary M. , Teacher, 6619 LaFayette Education, 460 So. State Street, Chicago ; Avenue, Chicago : Chicago Division, Illi- Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers nois State Teachers Association. Association. Anderson, Norman D., Teacher, 851 Belden Heeney, Marie R., Teacher, 3650 N. Hamlin Avenue, Chicago: Chicago Division, Illi- Avenue, Chicago; Lake Shore Division , Illinois State Teachers Association . nois State Teachers Association. Armbruster, Bertha S. , Principal, 111 Gale Hildebrand, L. E. , 1823 Orrington Avenue, Avenue, River Forest; Illinois State Evanston; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association . Teachers Association. Hyndman, R. W., Superintendent of Baker, Della F. , Principal , Geneseo ; Black Schools, Canton; Illinois State Teachers Hawk Division of Illinois State Teachers Association. Association . Bean, Estella, Teacher, 1108 Summit Ave., Kinsey, Mrs. May Owens, Kindergarten E. St. Louis; Illinois State Teachers Teacher, 5452 Calumet Avenue, Chicago; Association . Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Beers , G. D., Principal, 3925 Van Buren Street, Chicago: Chicago Principals Club. Large, J. M. , Township High School, Joliet; Berninger, Harriet, Superintendent of Joliet Township High School Teachers Association. Schools, Allendale; Illinois State Teach- ers Association. Larson, Mrs. Anne B., Teacher, 11133 So. Blair, Francis G. , State Superintendent of Park Ave. , Chicago ; Chicago Division , Illinois State Teachers Association. Public Instruction, Springfield; Ex-officio. Lawson, Mrs. Maude, Teacher, Junior High Callaway, J. H., 124 Smith Street, Kewanee; School, Pekin; Pekin Teachers Club. Illinois State Teachers Association. Lynch, J. I. , Mason City; Teachers Asso- Cheney, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, ciation of Mason County. Taylorville; Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. Livingston, Mary B., Principal, 1368 East Clark, Edna O., Ohio ; Illinois Valley Di- 54th Street, Chicago: Chicago Division, vision, Illinois State Teachers Association. Illinois State Teachers Association. Clendenen, T. C. , Superintendent of Schools, Lloyd, Hazel E. , 4152 West End Avenue, Cairo; Illinois State Teachers Association. Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Coats, Mrs. Carrie R. , Teacher, 23rd at Teachers Association. 49th Street, Chicago, Illinois State Teach- McDaniel, M. R., Superintendent, High ers Association . School, Oak Park; Illinois State Teachers Connor, Rose, Teacher, 1203 Benton Street, Association, Lake Shore Division. Joliet; Joliet Teachers Association. McHenry, Ruth J. , 502 Maple Avenue, Blue Dean, H. A. , Superintendent of Schools, Island; Illinois State Teachers Associa- Crystal Lake; Northeastern Division, Illi- tion, Lake Shore Division. nois State Teachers Association. McManus, J. B., Superintendent of Schools, Donoghue, Mary V. , Teacher, 5538 Mag- LaSalle; Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. nolia Avenue, Chicago ; Chicago Division, Mollman , Mina, Teacher, 1640 St. Louis Illinois State Teachers Association. Dougherty, Lillian, 3356 Adams Street, Chi- Avenue, East St. Louis; Grade Teachers Fellowship Society. cago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Moore, Robert C., Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association . Teachers Association, Carlinville; Ex-offi- Dwyer, Mary F. , Teacher, 821 Ridge Ave. , cio, Life Director. Evanston; Chicago Division, Illinois State Morgan, W. P. , President, Illinois State Teachers Association. Teachers College, Macomb; Illinois State Earnest, W. W., Superintendent of Schools, Teachers Association. Champaign; Illinois State Teachers Asso- Mull, Cora E. , Teacher, 4151 Berkeley Ave. , ciation. Chicago; Chicago Teachers League. Ellis , Lycurgus , Teacher, 560 Veroview, Nichols, F. W. , Central School, Evanston ; East St. Louis; East St. Louis Teachers Illinois State Teachers Association, Lake Association. Shore Division. Farman, Lillian , 50 W. 110th Place, Chi- Owen, William B., President, Chicago Nor- cago; Association of Assistants to Prin- mal College, Chicago Ex-officio, Life cipals. Director. Fulwider, L. A. , Principal, High School , Pesta, Rose A. , Principal, 1642 East 56th Freeport; Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. Street, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi- Garden, Annie, Teacher, 422 Englewood nois State Teachers Association. Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Teachers Platt, G. E. , Superintendent of Schools, League. Keithsburg; Black Hawk Division of Gilligan, Mrs. L. Belle, Teacher, 4128 Illinois State Teachers Association. Monroe St. , Chicago Chicago Division, Post, Mrs. Harriet L., Teacher, 210 So. Illinois State Teachers Association. Ashland Avenue, Chicago Chicago Divi- Goodhue, E. Louise, Teacher, 245 Linden sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Avenue, Wilmette Chicago Teachers Powell, Margaret, Teacher, 1215 Winona League. Avenue, Chicago: Chicago Division, Illi- Gooding, Charles W. , Teacher, High School, nois State Teachers Association. 607 W. Healey, Champaign; Champaign Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche, Teacher, 6337 Teachers Association. Stewart Avenue, Chicago: Chicago Divi- Harden, Anna I. , Teacher, 1543 Sherwin sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Avenue, Chicago: Chicago Division, Illi- Pruitt, Edgar C., Superintendent of County nois State Teachers Association. Schools, Springfield; Sangamon County Harden, Frances E. , Teacher, 1548 Sherwin Teachers Association . Avenue, Chicago, Illinois State Teachers Robson, Mary, Teacher, 1108 East 65th St.. Association . Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Hartline, Mrs. Kate, High School Teacher, Teachers Association. Cairo; Illinois State Teachers Association. Sarver, Clifford, Superintendent of Schools, Haves, John A. , County Superintendent of Spring Valley; Illinois State Teachers Schools, Peoria; Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. Association. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1065 Scragg, Lolo E., Teacher, 7216 Evans Ave., Anthony, Antoinette, Teacher, 111 Ken- Chicago; Chicago Teachers League. tucky Avenue, Evansville; Federation of Scully, Susan, Teacher, 7630 Cornell Ave. , Public School Teachers . Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. Bogardus, F. S., 2312 N. 10th, Terre Haute; Shiel, Kate, Teacher , 2010 Raymond Street, Indiana State Normal School. Chicago; Chicago Divsion, Illinois State Burris, Benj . J. , President, Normal School, Teachers Association . Muncie; Indiana State Teachers Ass'n . Silver, Xerxes, San Jose; Illinois State Carnahan, W. H. , Principal High School, Teachers Association. Bloomington; Indiana State Teachers As- Sinden, Anne, Principal, 141 Wesley Ave. , sociation. Oak Park ; Illinois State Teachers Asso- Coons, Merle F., County Superintendent of ciation, Lake Shore Division. Schools , Crawfordsville; Indiana State Slattery, Anise, Teacher, 6420 Newgard Av- Teachers Association. enue, Chicago: Chicago Division, Illi- Dearing, W. P., 110 Lucretia Street, Oak- nois State Teachers Association. land City; Indiana State Teachers Ass'n. Slattery, Jessie B., Teacher, 6420 Newgard DuShane, Donald, Superintendent City Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi- Schools, Columbus; Indiana State Teach- nois State Teachers Association. ers Association. Smedley, Eva A., Teacher, 3780 Ellis Ave- Emery, Annah E., Teacher, 21 Ruth Street, nue, Chicago; Chicago Teachers Club. Hammond; Hammond Teachers Ass'n. Smith, Robert R., 5719 S. Francisco Avenue, Fink, Gertrude, Teacher, 1530 Grove Street, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Lafayette; Lafayette Federation of Public Teachers Association. School Teachers. Smith, Flozza, Teacher, Marshall; Illinois State Teachers Association. Foreman, J. W. , Superintendent of Schools, Goshen; Indiana State Teachers Ass'n. Sparks, Mrs. Winnie E., 533 Diversey Park- Funk . Olive, 511 E. 30th, Indianapolis ; way, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois National Council of Administrative Wo- State Teachers Association. men in Education. Spickerman, R. J., Ottawa; Illinois Valley Gould, E. S. , Teacher, 3306 Indiana Avenue, Division, Illionis State Teachers Asso- ciation. Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne Teachers Ass'n. Storm, H. C., Superintendent of Schools, Green, Nell V., Principal, Indianapolis , Batavia; Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. Indianapolis Branch of National Council Teach, Nina, Principal, Astoria ; Illinois of Administrative Women in Education. State Teachers Association. Henn, Hallie, Teacher, 1211 E. Delaware Thalman, J. L. , Superintendent, 128 Key- Street, Evansville; Federation of Public stone Avenue, River Forest; Proviso School Teachers. Township High School. Higgins, Anna, Principal, 223 S. 13th Street, Thalman, John W. , Superintendent, 432 Ash Terre Haute; Teachers ' Federation. Street, Waukegan; Waukegan Twp. High Hull, John F., Principal, High School, School. Raub; Indiana State Teachers Ass'n. Theis, Ethel Anna, Minier; Illinois State King, Jennie, Teacher, General Delivery, Teachers Ass'n., Lake Shore Division. Muncie; Indiana State Teachers Ass'n. Thomas, Sarah L. , High School Teacher, 401 Leffel, James M. , Superintendent City Kishwaukee Street, Rockford ; Ex-officio, Schools, Warsaw; Indiana State Teachers State Director. Association . Tuggle, L. A. , County Superintendent of Lemme, Carl , Principal, 49 Jefferson Avenue, Schools, Danville; Illinois State Teachers Evansville ; Federation of Public School Association . Teachers . Turner, Mrs. Emma P. , 181 E. Grantley Lyon , Lucille, Teacher, 983 Park Place, Avenue, Elmhurst; Chicago Division, Illi- Hammond; Hammond Teachers Ass'n. nois State Teachers Association . McAdams, Emily, Teacher, 21 S. Arlington, Vaughan, Nellie, Principal, 6018 St. Law- Indianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Asso- rence Avenue, Chicago, Illinois State ciation. Teachers Ass'n. , Lake Shore Division. Maehling, Hildegarde, Teacher, 1857 Third Watts, Charles H., County Superintendent Avenue, Terre Haute; Teachers Federa- of Schools, Urbana ; Illinois State Teach. tion. ers Association . Manring, Minetta , Principal, 1830 Main St. , Washburn, Justine, County Superintendent Elwood; Public School Teachers of El- of Schools , Rock Island; Black Hawk wood. Division of Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. Miesel, Sophia, Teacher, 610 S. First Street, Watson, Mina M. , 3216 Altgeld Avenue, Evansville; Federation of Public School Chicago; Assocaition of Assistants to the Teachers. Principals. Moore, Ella, Teacher, 1115 Byron Street, Wells, Dora, Principal, 5716 Dorchester Huntington; Huntington Teachers Council Avenue, Chicago: Chicago Division, Illi- Murphy, Elizabeth, Teacher, 2523 Webster nois State Teachers Association. Street, Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne Teach- Winstrom, J. Harvey, Superintendent of ers Association. Schools, Springfield; South Central Di- Newman, Eleanor, Cambridge City; Indiana vision, Illinois State Teachers Ass'n. State Teachers Association. Zeeb, Frieda B. , 5051 Washington Blvd., Pate, Lawrence, Teacher, 1209 Lincoln Way, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State West, South Bend; South Bend City Teachers Association. Teachers Association. Zipf, Ferdinand, Asst. Principal, 11923 Yale Plummer, Margaret, Principal, 541 West Hill Avenue, Chicago ; Chicago Division, Illi- Street, Wabash; Wabash City Teachers nois State Teachers Association. Club. Quivey, Mrs. Alice, Teacher, 309 W. INDIANA Berry Street, Ft. Wayne ; Ft. Wayne Abbett, Merle, Principal, Bedford; Indiana Teachers Association. State Teachers Ass'n . Ray, Mrs. Mary, Principal, 3849 N. Delaware Aley, Robert J. , President, Butler College, Street, Indianapolis; Indiana State Teach- Indianapolis; Ex-officio, Life Direcor. ers Association. 1066 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Roberts, William C., County Superintendent Pye, Charles F., 504 Yongerman Building, of Schools , Bedford; Indiana State Des Moines; Iowa State Teachers Asso- Teachers Association. ciation. Robinson, Lulu J. , Teacher, 11 N. Seventh Roberts, T. R. , Superintendent of Schools, Street, Evansville; Federation of Public Independence; Ex-officio, State Director. School Teachers. Seerley, H. H. , President, State Teachers Royster, Salibelle, Teacher, 726 Blackford College, Cedar Falls; Iowa State Teachers Avenue, Evansville; Federation of Public Association, School Teachers . Smith, Calla, 1125 Paxton Street, Sioux Rupp, Carrie, Principal, 815 Maple Avenue, City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Terre Haute; Teachers Federation . Taylor, H. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Shannon, John R., Superintendent of Shenandoah; Iowa State Teachers Asso- Schools, Danville; Indiana State Teach- ciation. ers Association. Towner, Mrs. Milton, 145 E. 4th Street, Smith, H. L. , Dean, School of Education , Kenwood Park; Cedar Rapids Teachers Indiana University, Bloomington; Ex- Association, officio, State Director. Soules , Gertrude, Principal, R. R. E. , Terre KANSAS Haute; Terre Haute Teachers Federation. Spohn, A. L., Principal, 1230 Jackson Street, Cock, Jewell, Roosevelt Hotel, Topeka; Hammond; Hammond Teachers Associa- Kansas State Teachers Association. tion. Darnell, A. M. , Principal, High School, Steele, Cora, Supervising Principal, 800 Po- Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Associa- tomac Avenue, Terre Haute; Ex-officio, tion. Vice-President. Evans, Vera, 724 Garfield, Kansas City; Suter, E. M. , Teacher, 3025 S. Clinton, Fort Kansas City Grade Teachers Club. Wayne; Fort Wayne Teachers Association. Ewell, Katherine, 2204 N. 12th Street, Trimble, Alta M., Dean of Girls, 1103 S. 6th Kansas City, Junior High School Associa- Street, Evansville; Indiana State Teachers tion. Association. Hang, Claudine, 730 Troupe Avenue, Kan- Valentine, R. H. , Principal, 1125 Mourer sas City; Kansas State Teachers Ass'n. Street, New Castle City Teachers Asso- Hopkins, Edith, 1048 Sandusky, Kansas ciation. City; Kansas City Grade Teachers Club . Wagoner, Marcia, Teacher, 312 N. Taylor McConnell, Ruth 4120 Thompson Street, Street, South Bend; South Bend City Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Associa- Teachers Association. tion. Williams, Myrtle, Teacher, 705 % N. Mul- Nelson, Mary, Lincoln Hotel, Kansas City; berry, Muncie; Federation of Muncie Kansas City Grade Principals Club. Public School Teachers. Pearson , M. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City; Ex-officio, State Diretcor. IOWA Schlagle, F. S., 1901 Elizabeth Street, Kan- sas City; Kansas State Teachers Asso- ciation. Blackmar, H. E., Superintendent of Schools, Ottumwa; Iowa State Teachers Associa- Scott, Eula, 1058 Oakland Avenue, Kansas tion. City; Du Bois Teachers Club . Cain, Mrs. L. B. , 3301 Laurel Avenue, Sioux Showalter, Cora, 553 Washington, Topeka; City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Kansas State Teachers Association. Campbell, Macy, State Teachers College, Smith, Nora E. , 2416 Washington Avenue, Cedar Falls ; Iowa State Teachers Asso- Parsons; Parsons City Teachers Asso- ciation. ciation. Cobb, Charles, 2116 St. Aubin, Sioux City ; Stout, A. J., Superintendent of City Sioux City Teachers Club. Schools, Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Duncan, Edith, North Junior High School, Assocation. Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club . Stratton, Kate, 423 N. 17th, Kansas City; Eaton, George D., Superintendent of Kansas City Grade Teachers Club . Schools, Clarion; Iowa State Teachers Weaver, Margaret, 2010 W. 38th, Kansas Association. City; Kansas City Grade Teachers Club. Farmer, F. B. , Superintendent of Schools, Welker, May, Teacher, Horace Mann Storm Lake; Iowa State Teachers Asso- School, Kansas City; Kansas State Teach- ciation. ers Association. Francis, May E. , Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines ; Ex-officio. KENTUCKY Hoffman, Mrs. A. H. , Commodore Hotel, Des Moines; Iowa State Teachers Asso- Bache, Ada, 28 Eastover Ct., Louisville; ciation. Kentucky Education Association. Horchem, B. J. , 997 Locust Street, Du- Cooper, Dr. Homer E., Dean, Eastern Ken- buque; Iowa State Teachers Association. tucky State Teachers College, Richmond; Keller, Lester E. , 2808 Arlington Avenue, Faculty, Eastern Kentucky State Teachers Davenport; Scott County Teachers Asso- College. ciation. Dudley, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, Lightall, Lora, 1234 2nd Avenue, N., Ft. Henderson; Kentucky Education Associa- Dodge; Fort Dodge Teachers Federation. tion. McKee, Ida, 423 N. 5th Street, E. , Newton; Kornfeld, Louise, Teacher, Louisville Girls Iowa State Teachers Association. High School, Louisville; Kentucky Educa- Martin, Frances E. , 723 Blondeau, Keokuk; tion Association. Elementary Teachers Club. Ragsdale, George, Instructor, Male High Naumann, A. I., Sudlow Intermediate School, Louisville; Kentucky Education School, Davenport; Iowa State Teachers Association. Association. Rhoads , McHenry, State Superintendent of Nivling, Caroline T., 101 City Building, Public Instruction, Frankfort; Ex-officio. Sioux City: Administration Club of the Stewart, Cora Wilson, Frankfort; Kentucky Sioux City Schools. Education Association. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1067 Stokes, Emma, Teacher, Louisville Public Arnold, Melville A. , 29 Walnut Street, Ever- Schools , Louisville ; Louisville Education ett; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Association . Atkins, Robert S., 481 Columbia Road, Bos- Stutz, Miss Ela, Teacher, Emerson School, ton; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Louisville ; Louisville Education Associa- Batson, Bertha R., Teacher, 162 Warren tion. Avenue, Brockton; Brockton Grade Teach- Taylor, Wm. S. , Dean, College of Educa- ers Club . tion, University of Kentucky . Louisville; Brewer, Mrs. Donna M., Teacher, S. H. Kentucky Education Association. School , Everett ; Massachusetts Teachers Weibel, Elise, Principal , Emerson Grade Federation. School, Louisville ; Louisville Principals Buckminister, Pauline, Teacher, 7 Hamp- Club. shire, Everett; Everett Teachers Club . Williams, R. E., Secretary, Kentucky Edu- Chace, Seth Howard, Superintendent of City cation Association. Louisville ; Ex-officio, Schools, Beverly; Massachusetts School State Director. Supt. Association. LOUISIANA Clark, Marion, 75 Monroe Street, Somer- ville; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Doerr, Loretta, Supervising Principal of Clarke, George B. , Superintendent of Schools, Schools , New Orleans; Ex-officio, State East Pepperell; Massachusetts School Director. Griffith, P. H., 1916 America Street, Baton Superintendents Association. Rouge; Secretary, Louisiana Teachers Clement, Matilda, 22 Hampshire Street, Everett; Massachusetts Teachers Federa- Association . tion. Phillips, Spencer, Principal, Public School, Pelican; Louisiana Teachers Association. Conrad, Fannie M., Teacher, 620 Beach Potts, J. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Street, Revere; Revere Teachers Club . Alexandria; Louisiana Teachers Associa- Costello, Mrs. Mary A. , 34 Blanchard Ave- tion. nue, Rockland; Massachusetts Teachers Richardson, E. S., Superintendent of Schools, Federation. Minden; Louisiana Teachers Association. Coveney, Katherine C., Teacher, George T. Roy, V. L. , Principal, State Normal School, Angell School, Boston; Boston Teachers Natchitoches ; Louisiana Teachers Asso- Club. ciation. Hawes, Mrs. Martha J., 21 Fairmount Ave- nue, East Weymouth; Massachusetts MAINE Teachers Federation. Baker, Ellis D. , Teacher, Elementary School, Howes , L. Gertrude, Teacher, 96 Winthrop Steuben; Washington Co. Teachers Asso- Street, Boston; Massachusetts Teachers ciation. Federation. of Carter, George M., Superintendent Hunter, Florence E. , Teacher, 5 Craigie Cir- Schools, Caribou; Maine Teachers Asso- cle, Cambridge Teachers Club . ciation. Ireland, Ralph P., Elementary Supervisor, 1 Chase, W. O. , Superintendent of Schools, Kent Circle, Gloucester ; Gloucester Teach- Oldtown; Maine Teachers Association . ers Association. Cooper, Bessie, Instructor, Foxcroft Acad- Kimball, Caroline F. , Teacher, 29 Jackson emy, Dover-Foxcroft ; Maine Teachers As- Street, Lynn ; Massachusetts Teachers sociation. Federation . Gilpatrick, Howard, Superintendent of Laycock, Edith L. , Teacher, 23 Melvin Schools, North Anson; Somerset Co. Street, Winter Hill; Somerville Teachers Teachers Association . Association. Hale, Florence M. , State Agent for Rural Locke, Christina , Teacher, High School, Education , Augusta; Ex-officio, Vice- West Springfield; West Springfield Teach- President. ers Federation. King, Helen M. , Supervising Principal , Lynch, John E. , 9 Stoneland Road, Worces- Nathan Clifford School, Portland; Maine ter; President , Massachusetts Teachers Teachers Association . Federation . Lambert, Milton, Principal, High School, McGrath, Grace A. , Teacher, 3 Castle Rock Houlton, Maine Teachers Association . Street, Dorchester ; Boston High School Nickerson , Frederick M. , Superintendent of Women's Club. Schools , Jay ; Maine Teachers Association . McSkimmon , Mary, Principal, Pierce School, Partridge , John A. , Principal, High School, Brookline; Ex-officio, State Director. Caribou; Ex-officio, Acting State Director. Markham , Myrtle, 57 No. Main Street , Na- Robinson , Helen M. , Deputy Superintendent tick; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. of Schools , Portland; Portland Teachers Mellish, Anna Alfreda, Teacher, 59 Monu- Association . ment Avenue, Charlestown ; Boston Teach- Smith, Charles L. , Principal, High School, ers Club. Belfast; Maine Teachers Association. Nichols , Adella F. , Teacher. , George S. , Thompson, J. B., Superintendent of Schools, Paine School, Brockton; Brockton Teach- Milo; Maine Teachers Association. ers Association . MARYLAND O'Connor , Mary E. , 158 Highland Street, Taunton ; Faculty of Boston University, Burdick, William, State Supervisor of Physi- cal Education, Baltimore ; Ex-officio, State School of Education . Reed, Ethel A. , 61 Chestnut Street, New Director. Bedford; Massachusetts Teachers Feder- Holloway, Wm. J., State Normal School, Salisbury; Maryland State Teachers Asso- ation. ciation. Richardson , Arthur C. , Teacher, 51 Ninth Avenue, Haverhill ; Haverhill Teachers As- MASSACHUSETTS sociation. Abbott, Ardelle, Teacher, 71 Craigie Street, Sampson , Ruby, Teacher , 98 High Street, Somerville: Somerville Teachers Club . Brockton; Massachusetts Teachers Feder- Allen, Grace M. , Teacher, 11 Linden Place, Brookline; Brookline Teachers Club . ation. 1068 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sanders, Wm. J., Teacher, 80 Chestnut Phelps, Grace, 5754 Second Blvd, Detroit; Street, Haverhill ; Massachusetts Teach- Detroit Teachers Association. ers Federation. Quackenbush , E. J., Principal, Angell School, Sheehan, Julia A. , Principal, Hunnewell Highland Park; Highland Park Teachers School, Wellesley; Norfolk County Teach- Club. ers Association. Rich, Fanny, 331 Budlong Street, Adrian; Smith, Payson, Commissioner of Education, Adrian Teachers Club . Boston; Ex-officio . Robison, Blanche H., 1012 E. University Sturgis, Annie M., Teacher, 10 Shaw Street, Avenue, Ann Arbor; Michigan State West Newton; Newton Grade Teachers Teachers Association. Club. Robison, Lillian J., 1012 E. University Ave. , Sullivan, Julia E., 9 Marion Street, Charles- Ann Arbor; Michigan State Teachers As- town; Boston Teachers Club . sociation. Tucker, Richard D., Teacher, 611 Washing- Saunders, Alice, 441 Norwood Avenue, S. E. , ton Street, Brookline; Brookline Teach- Grand Rapids; Teachers Club . ers Club . Walsh, Nellie L., 648 Crescent Street, N. E. , Whipple, Dr. Frank L., 61 Maple Street, Grand Rapids; Teachers Club. Lynn; Massachusetts Teachers Federation . MINNESOTA Williston , Arthur L. , 27 Kilsyth Road, Brookline ; Massachusetts Teachers Fed- Allee, Anne, 2739 17th Avenue S. , Minne- eration. apolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Woodward, Annie C., 144 School Street, Association . Somerville; Middlesex County Teachers Bauman, Helen, 81 Oliver Avenue North, Association . Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min- nesota Education Association. MICHIGAN Barron, Nora, 738 Cromwell Avenue, St. Paul; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Andrews, Georgia, 405 Maple Street, Sault Education Association. Ste. Marie; N. E. A. of Sault Ste. Marie. Becker, Elsa, 10 East Second Street, Duluth; Bailey, Freida, 727 Prospect S. E. , Grand Atlantic Gateway Association. Rapids; Grand Rapids Teachers Club . Bell, Jane E., Jefferson Jr. High School, Bennett, Ella , 227 S. Thayer, Ann Arbor ; Minneapolis; Secretary, Minneapolis Teach- Michigan State Teachers Association . ers' League. Bevier, Mrs. Effie, 1414 Bates Street, S. E. , Brown, Daisy, 407 S. 6th Street, Stillwater; Grand Rapids ; Teachers Club . St. Paul Division, Minneapolis Education Butler, L. A. , Superintendent of Schools, Association. Grand Rapids, Michigan State Teachers Byrnes , Mrs. Mary S. , 325 E. Franklin Association . Avenue, Minneapolis ; Grade Teachers Sec- Drake , E. H., Superintendent of Schools , tion of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Kalamazoo ; Michigan State Teachers As- Cesander, Paul K. , Superintendent of Schools, Rushford; Minnesota Education Associa- sociation . tion. Erb , Grace Isable, 1206 Lake Drive, S. E., Grand Rapids ; Teachers Club . Clancy, A. W., 502 Globe Building, Minne- Essery, Florence, County Commissioner of apolis; Minnesota Bookmen's Department. Schools , Court House, Ann Arbor; Mich- Clark, Minnie, Lincoln School, South St. igan State Teachers Association . Paul; St. Paul Division of the Minnesota Fink, Mrs. Jessie M. , Principal , Palmer Education Association. School , Grand Rapids , Michigan State Cowin, Edith, 907-5th Avenue, South, St. Cloud; Minnesota Education Association. Teachers Association . Curran, Catherine, 27 Thomas Avenue, Min- Fisk , Marjory E. , 403 Church Street, Ann Arbor; Michigan State Teachers Associa- neapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. tion. Grees on , William A. , Strafford Arms, Grand Doherty, Agnes E., Central High School, St. Rapids; Grand Rapids Teachers Club. Paul; Ex-officio (Board of Trustees). Head, Roy , 145 Griggs Street, S. E. , Grand Drohan, Gertrude, South High School, Min- neapolis; Minnesota Education Associa- Rapids; Teachers Club. tion. Hopkins , Amy L., 403 Church Street, Ann Duddles, R. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Arbor; Michigan State Teachers Associa- Ulen; Minnesota Education Association. tion.on, Thomas E. , State Superintendent Francis , Charles C., Principal, Sibley School, Johns St. Paul; Minnesota Education Associa- of Schools , Lansing; Ex-officio, State Di- tion. rector. Ging, V. B. , 1226 E. Fifth Street, Duluth; Keyworth, M. R. , Superintendent of Schools , Atlantic Gateway Association. Hamtramck; Michigan State Teachers As- Hellesen, Anne E., 4700 Bryant Avenue sociation. South, Minneapolis ; Minneapolis Division, Knoohuizen , Miss, 1432 Wilcox Park Drive, Minnesota Education Association. S. E. , Grand Rapids, Teachers Club . Hollands, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, McLouth , Olive, 900 Oakland, Ann Arbor; Deer River; Minnesota Education Associa- Michigan State Teachers Association. tion. Marsh, Alice L. , 2524 La Salle Gardens N. , Hooper, Myrtle, 4046 Upton Avenue, South, Detroit ; Michigan State Teachers Asso- Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minne- sota Education Association. ciation. Merrill, Gertrude H.. Miller School, Spring- Kammarren, Abbie M. , 2629 Fremont Ave- wells, Detroit; Michigan State Teachers nue, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec- Association. tion of the Minnesota Teachers League. Merrill, John, Principal, Lingemann School, Keckefoth, Ethel, 1326 S. E. 8th Street, Detroit; Michigan State Teachers Asso- Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min- nesota Education Association. ciation. Pearce, Daniel W. , 1004 Olivia Street, Ann Kimball , Florence, 143 Orlin Avenue S. E. , Arbor: Michigan State Teachers Associa- Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. tion. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1069 MacLean, R. B., President, Teachers Col- Maddox, John J. , Superintendent City lege, Moorhead ; Minnesota Education As- Schools, St. Louis, Missouri State Teach- ers Association. sociation. Mayo, Robert J. , Superintendent of Public Martin, Martina, Teacher, 9092 Robidoux Instruction, Hopkins; Minneapolis Divis- Street, St. Joseph; St. Joseph Teachers ion, Minnesota Education Association. Association. Moran, Mrs. Brett, Curtis Hotel, Minneapo- Rallis , Mary, Teacher, 6929 Jefferson, Kansas lis; Junior High Association. City; Kansas City Teachers Club . McConnell, J. M. , Commissioner of Edu- Riddle, Anna, Teacher, 217 N. 13th Street, cation, St. Paul; Ex-officio. St. Joseph; St. Joseph Teachers Associa- Newell, Esther, 3505 Portland Avenue, Min- tion. neapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Ritchie, Mrs. May V., Teacher, 516 West Minnesota Teachers League. 7th, Sedalia; Community Teachers Asso- Ray, Charlotte D., Hampshire Arms, Min- ciation. neapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Starkes , Ardella, Teacher, 2321 Lydia Ave- Minnesota Teachers League. nue, Kansas City; The Council of Negre Teachers. Richards, Mary L. , 84 Spruce Place, Minne- apolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Thompson, Anna M., Teacher, Haddon Hall, Minnesota Teachers League. Kansas City, Missouri State Teachers Scofield, Harriet, 3017 Park Avenue, Minne- Association. apolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Toomey, Grace, Teacher, 3622 Michigan , Association . Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Schulz, C. G. , 919 Pioneer Building, St. White, Elizabeth L. , Teacher, 307 S. Ma- Paul; Secretary , Minnesota Education As- quire Street , Warrensburg; Missouri State Teachers Association . sociation. Shephard , W. H., North High School, Min- Whiteford, J. A., Superintendent, Cape Gir- neapolis ; Ex-officio, State Director. ardeau; Elementary Principal Association Shove, Helen B., Principal , Longfellow of Kansas City. School, Minneapolis ; Ex-officio, Vice- President. ΜΟΝΤΑΝΑ Smith , Dora U., High School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Educa- Brandt, Rose K. , Rural Supervisor, Depart- tion Association. ment of Public Instruction , Helena ; Mon- Snodgrass, Belva, 309 3rd Street, N. W. , tana Education Association. Rochester; Rochester Education Associa- Grandey, C. W. , Superintendent of Schools , tion. Terry; Montana Education Association. Sorensen , R. R., Superintendent of Schools, Shoup, Mittie, Principal, Roosevelt School, Tracy ; Minnesota Education Association. Missoula; Montana Education Association, Sullivan, Alice, 208 E. 6th Street, Duluth; Atlantic Gateway Association. NEBRASKA Vertz , Mrs. Leila , 3730 Pleasant Avenue, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of Austin, Mary N., 630 Park Avenue, Apart- the Minnesota Teachers League. ment 23, Omaha Omaha School Forum. Young, Leonard D., 1422 E. 3rd Street, Beveridge, J. H. , 601 City Hall, Omaha; Duluth; Atlantic Gateway Association. Nebraska State Teachers Association. Bowen, Bess, 2520 Vine Street, Lincoln ; MISSISSIPPI Lincoln Teachers Association. Taylor , W. N.. 425 Edwards Hotel Building, Bracken, Angeline, 4913 Chicago Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Jackson; Mississippi Education Associa- Clark, I. N.. 2832 P. Street, Lincoln; tion. Nebraska State Teachers Association. MISSOURI Compton, Maude, 5615 Howard Street, Carter , E. M. , Sec. , Missouri State Teachers Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Association , Columbia ; Ex-officio, State Foster, Mary E. , 2237 Jones Street, Omaha ; Omaha School Forum. Director. Dailey, A. L. , Principal, 2815 Faroar Street, Goodrich, Mrs. T. V. , 1219 South 27th, St. Joseph: St. Joseph Division, Missouri Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Associatino. State Teachers Association. Hosman, Everett, M., 311 Fraternity Build- Dobbs. Ella V., Professor , University of ing, Lincoln Secretary, Nebraska State Missouri , Columbia ; Missouri State Teach- Teachers Association. ers Association . Lawrence , Nancy, 3310 Myrtle Avenue, Fair, Eugene, President-elect, State Teachers Omaha; Omaha School Forum. College, Kirksville ; Missouri State Teach- Lefler, M. C. , 2101 Sewell Street, Superin- tendent of Schools, Lincoln ; Ex-officio, ers Association . State Direcor . Greene, C. A. , Superintendent, 1615 Edmond Street, St. Joseph; Missouri State Teach- Martin, George E., 932 W. 24th Street, Kearney; N. E. A. Unit of Kearney State ers Association . Hendricks , E. L. , President, Teachers Col- Teachers College. lege, 217 E. Gay Street, Warrensburg ; Matthews, Marie, 1515 Park Avenue, Missouri State Teachers Association . Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Muir, Sara T. , 1801 South 17th Street, Lin- Kirk, John R. , President, Teachers College, coln; Nebraska State Teachers Associa- Kirksville ; Missouri State Teachers As- tion. sociation. Oliver, Katharine (Mrs.), Ft. Crook Build- Lain, Nell E., Teacher, 4518 Montgall, ing, Omaha Omaha School Forum. Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Pound, Olivia, 1632 L Street, Lincoln; Lamkin , Uel W., President, Teachers Col- Nebraska Woman's Educational Club . lege. Maryville ; Missouri State Teachers Proctor, Margaret, 347 South 14, Lincoln; Association. Lincoln Teachers Association . Longshore, W. T. , Principal, 520 W. 40th Pyrtle, E. Ruth, 609 South 14th Street. Street. Kansas City; Missouri State Teach- Lincoln: Nebraska Woman's Educational ers Association . Club. TS ASSOCIATION 1068 NATIONA Resmer Emile. esit. Patetautom Sanders , Wm. J. , Teacher, 80 Rvor Ann R Street, Haverhill ; Massachusett Cry, New Jerse ers Federation . Sheehan , Julia A. , Principal, H School , Wellesley ; Norfolk Count ,t Ide C.wP Sarganrson Pete : Ne ers Association . Asociation Smith, Payson , Commissioner of E Boston ; Ex-officio. Sweeney Cartie Sturgis , Annie M. , Teacher, 10 Sha Alantic City : Ber West Newton ; Newton Grade Auncation s R.A. Club. Watan ool,rle , Cha Scr Little Falls Je Sullivan, Julia E. , 9 Marion Street town; Boston Teachers Club . Tracters Association . Tucker , Richard D. , Teacher , 611 Wasan Sarah P.M Sewart: Newar's Tan ton Street, Brookline ; Brooklin Trang Miss Theodos ers Club . Exckensack : Hacke Whipple, Dr. Frank L., 61 Map Lynn; Massachusetts Teachers F Williston , Arthur L. , 27 Kilsy NEW MEL Brookline ; Massachusetts Teac eration. Caves Mrs. Alda Com Woodward , Annie C. , 144 Scho Schoois, Santa Fe Somerville ; Middlesex County Association, Association . Dey W. G. S Schools, Carisbad: MICHIGAN To Association, . Isabella L Bestes ... Sta Andrews , Georgia , 405 Maple St S Ste. Marie ; N. E. A. of Sault Puhe c Instruction or Stane Direct . Bailey , Freida , 727 Prospect S. Bos, Mary. Direcra Rapids; Grand Rapids Teacher Suver City, New Bennett , Ella, 227 S. Thayer , A Michigan State Teachers Asso College Bevier , Mrs. Effie, 1414 Bates St NEW Grand Rapids ; Teachers Club. Butler , L. A. , Superintendent en Grace A., Tea Grand Rapids : Michigan Sta Avenue, Mt. Verne n Association . ers Associatio . Drake , E. H., Superintendent Ash. Mildred, Teach Kalamazoo ; Michigan State T Binghampton; Bun sociation . Erb , Grace Isable , 1206 Lake I Blace Katherine Grand Rapids ; Teachers Cl Bich Street, New Essery, Florence , County Com of Public School Schools , Court House, Ann / CA Boone . Lisley, Teas igan State Teachers Associat Fink , Mrs. Jessie M. , Princ .. New York City n ers Associatio. School , Grand Rapids : Mi Burnerfield, R. L.. - r mcca Teachers Association . Fisk, Marjory E. , 403 Church School , Roches n Arbor; Michigan State Tea Associatio . tion. Carpenter, Winifr Greeson , William A. , Strafford Road, New R Rapids ; Grand Rapids Teac ٢ ‫فلك‬ ٢١‫لا‬ ша , New Rochelle. то Head , Roy, 145 Griggs Street 3. Can Flora Rapids ; Teachers Club. - Avenue, Mt. Hopkins , Amy L. , 403 Chur e Cutters do dergarten Ass Arbor ; Michigan State Te learney ar Don, Helen, e New York C n New Jersey Stat tion. Johnson , Thomas E., State A me . Cimo n servatio . of Schools , Lansing ; Ex-c Delbear, Kather S , Yew Bruns rector. ME New Rochell Keyworth , M. R., Superinter Association. Hamtramck ; Michigan St Betson Street K. Asso Finegan, Thom sociation . SewJersey Stare Teachers cation Servic Knoohuizen , Miss , 1432 Wi Member Boa S. E. , Grand Rapids, Te My Emma A. 230 Limm sant Avenue McLouth , Olive , 900 Oakl a. New Brunswick Puitic Gallup, Jacrkso Michigan State Teachers Teaters Ca Rocheste: Marsh, Alice L. , 2524 La Morra Charen A. Country Superintendent tion. Detroit; Michigan Stat Tos Rer, New Jersey State Gay. A. E.. T ciation. . Teachers Asociation port; Lock Merrill, Gertrude H. , Mil Outin Harriet 409 Knickerbocker Ave tion. wells, Detroit; Michig Paterson: New Jersey State Teachers Holmes, Mar Association. Arace Aserc anion. School, 500 Merrill, John, Principal , Paul, Harriet B., 673 Rutherford Avenue, Junior Hig Detroit; Michigan Sta Trenton, Ciation、 New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Johnson, C. ciation. Avenue, M Pearce, Daniel W., 1004 Perry, Sarah, ers Club. R. 6, Trenton; Trenton Teach- ers Associa Arbor; Michigan Stat Phillips, H. H., Montgomery St. School. tion. Jones, Olive Newa cia tiork: n, New Jersey State Teachers Asso- 120. New President. DELEGATE DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1071 MacLean, R. B., President. R., Principal, 3177 Bedford Clark, Alice, 118 Franklin Avenue, Salem; lyn; High School Teachers Ohio State Teachers Association. lege, Moorhead;Minnesots De Mar, Sarah, Norwood; Norwood Teach- sociation, ers Association. ary, Teacher, Public School Mayo, Robert J., Superin Brooklyn Teachers Asso- Dick, L. C. , Superintendent of Schools, Lon- Instruction, Hopkins; M don; Ohio State Teachers Association. ion, Minnesota Educat L. B. , Teacher, 20 Park Dombaugh, Alice L. , 283 N. State Street, Moran, Mrs. Brett, Car Vernon; Mt. Vernon Teach- Marion; Marion City Teachers Associa- lis; JuniorHigh Assc. tion. McConnell, J. M.,Co ett C., Principal, Public Erwine , R. H., Director of Research, Ak- cation, St. Paul; Ex ueens , Richmond Hill, New ron; Southeastern Ohio State Teachers Newell, Esther, 8505 x-officio, State Director. Association. neapolis; GradeTe eacher, 136 Rutland Road, Evans , W. A., R. F. D. No. 10, Madison- Minnesota Teache Doklyn Teachers Association. ville: The Cincinnati Teachers Association. ay, Charlotte D., D. , Professor, Teachers Folk, Curtis J. , 419 W. Lincoln Street, Find- neapolis; Grade " nbia University, New York lay; Findlay Organziation affiliated with Minnesota Teach io, Life Director. National Education Association. chards, Mary L G. , Teacher, 8 Hamilton Foster, Grace, 1987 E. 81st Street, Cleve- polis: Grade ers; Yonkers Teachers Asso- land; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Minnesota Tea Frauz , G. F. , Carson School, Cincinnati ; held, Harrie ". E., Teacher, 8 Hamilton Elementary Principals Club of Cincinnati. Dolis; Minz ers; Yonkers Teachers Asso- Goodall, Josephine, 5325 Edgewater Drive, ssociation. Toledo; The Toledo Teachers Association. iz, C. G Hanselman , C. F. , Principal, Washburn ol: Secre TH CAROLINA School, Cincinnati ; Ohio State Teachers ciation. Association. hard, W ate Superintendent of Public Harlor, Mrs. Margaret King , 1851 Charles polis; aleigh; North Carolina Edu- Road, E. Cleveland, Ohio State Teachers H tion. Association. bol, Superintendent of Schools , Hibbard, Laura, No. 2 The Seville, Cin- ider rham Teachers Educational cinnati; Ohio State Teachers Association. D Hindman, Mrs. Martha, 1877 E. 32 St. , er Superintendent of Township Lorain; Lorain Teachers Club. gh; North Carolina Educa- Holycross, H. W. , Superintendent of County 2 on. Normal School, West Liberty; Logan H., President, East Carolina County Teachers Association. lege, Greenville; Ex- Officio, Hottendorf, Elizabeth, 810 Richmond, Cin- r. cinnati; The Cincinnati Teachers Asso- ciation. RTH DAKOTA Huston, Nellie , 305 N. Madriver Street, Bellefontaine; Bellefontaine Teachers Asso- tate Rural School Inspector, ciation. th Dakota Education Asso- Jacobs, Floy, 1115 Horace Street, Toledo ; The Toledo Teachers Association. 902-8th Street, North, Fargo; Keller, Chloe E., Lorain ; Ohio State Teach- a Education Association. ers Association. C., Secretary, State Teachers Keyser, R. Florence, 334 Swallow, Warren ; Washburn; Ex-officio, State Warren City Teachers Association. Kiefer, R. J., Superintendent of Schools, J. , State Superintendent of Niles; Ex-officio , State Director. action, Bismarck; Ex-officio. Kingsbury, Carrie H. , 3005 Scarborough Carrington, North Dakota Road, Cleveland Heights; Cleveland ssociation. Teachers Federation. uperintendent of City Schools. Lake, Charles H., Board of Education, Cleve- 1 Dakota Education Associa- land; Ohio State Teachers Association. Leonard, A. R., 364 Weber Road, Columbus ; OHIO Columbus Teachers Federation. Liebman, Lotta B. , Roosevelt Jr. High ie, 518 Washington Avenue, School, Lee Road, Cleveland Heights; in Teachers Club. Cleveland Heights Teachers Association. Lucy, 1265 Parkwood Drive, Lindeman , Norma , 7504 Coleridge Avenue, leveland Teachers Federation . Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teachers Α. , 200 Old Court House, Federation . Cuyahoga County Teachers McCreery, Susan, Brecksville; Cuyahoga County Teachers Institute. la, 1264 Elm Street, Cincin- McFarland, Christena, 211 E. Atlantic St. , ncinnati Teachers Association . Warren; Warren City Teachers Associa- Superintendent of Schools , tion. State Teachers Association. McLaughlin, Mrs. Mattie, 337 School Street, M., 18 Orchard Court, War- Bradford; Ohio State Teachers Association. City Teachers Association . McIntire, B. B., 1014 N. Limestone Street, 1301 W. 108th Street, Cleve- Springfield, Ohio : Ohio State Teachers sood Teachers Association . Association. 334 Woodlawn Avenue, McMyler, H. T. , Center Road, Cleveland ; h, The Zanesville Teachers Asso- Cleveland Teachers Federation. Mahaffey, C. E. , Rudolph Wood County B.. Ohio University, Athens ; Teachers Association. Teachers Association. Marple, Charles A. , 6801 Euclid Avenue, Board of Education , Akron ; Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Teachers Association . Maurer, George C., Superintendent of Schools, = Mary G., Hotel London, Lon- Wooster; Ohio State Teachers Associa- State Teachers Association. tion. : 1070 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Shuman, Eva B., County Superintendent of Reyhner, Emilie, 281 Governor Street, Pat- Schools, Fairbury; Nebraska State Teach- erson; Paterson Teachers Association. ers Association, Ryder, Ann E. , 10 Olean Avenue, Jersey Switzer , Edna, 318 W. 13th Street, Grand City; New Jersey State Teachers Associa- Island; Nebraska State Teachers Associa- tion. tion. Sargeant, Ide G., Principal, School No. 10, Switzer, Agnes , 818 W. 13th Street, Grand Paterson; New Jersey State Teachers Island; Nebraska State Teachers Associa- Association. tion. Sweeney, Carrie M., Junior High School, Thompson , L. Marie, Lincoln; Nebraska Atlantic City; New Jersey State Teachers State Teachers Association. Association. Tompsett, Ruth, 5632 Jones Street, Omaha, Walton, Charles E. A. , Supervising Principal Omaha School Forum. of School, Little Falls; New Jersey State West, Parl, P. O. Box 392, Gothenburg; Teachers Association. Nebraska State Teachers Association. Watson, Sarah F. , Morton Street School, Wilcox, Marian, 3400 T Street, Lincoln; Newark; Newark Teachers Association. Lincoln Teachers Association. Whiting, Miss Theodosia, 166 State Street, Woodburn, Edith, 919 South 12th Street, Hackensack; Hackensack Teachers Asso- Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Association. ciation. NEW MEXICO NEVADA Kneymeyer, Bertha C. , Principal , Elko Chaves, Mrs. Alda, County Superintendent County High School, Elko; Nevada State of Schools , Santa Fe; New Mexico Edu- Educational Association. cation Association. Donley, W. G., Superintendent of City NEW HAMPSHIRE Schools, Carlsbad; New Mexico Educa- tion Association, Benezet, L. P., Superintendent of City Eckles, Isabella L. , State Superintendent of Schools, Manchester; New Hampshire Public Instruction, Santa Fe; Ex-officio, State Teachers Association. State Director. Doody, Stephen A. , Head Master, Stevens Eckles, Mary, Director, Teacher Training, High School, Claremont; New Hampshire Silver City; New Mexico State Teachers State Teachers Association. College. Quimby, Anna Dell, Teacher, 28 S. Main NEW YORK Street, Rochester; Strafford County Teach- ers Association. Quimby, L. May, Teacher, Madison; Carroll Allen, Grace A. , Teacher, 226 Westchester County Teachers Association. Avenue, Mt. Vernon; Mt. Vernon Teach- ers Association. NEW JERSEY Ash, Mildred, Teacher, 9 Charlotte Street, Binghampton; Binghamton Teachers Asso- Barr, Morris L. , 64 N. 9th Street, Newark; ciation. Newark Teachers Association . Blake, Katherine D. , Principal, 101 West Berry, Bess, 101 29th Street, Woodcliff; 85th Street, New York City; Association West New York Teachers Association. of Public Schools, 6, 53, 151 and 190. Brick, Francis A. , High School, Bayonne; Boone, Ilsley, Teacher, 71 West 23d Street, New Jersey State Teachers Association. New York City; New York State Teach- Chase, L. S., Glenfield School, Montclair; ers Association. New Jersey State Teachers Association. Butterfield, R. L. , Principal, Charlotte High Claxton, Matilda R. , 374 Diamond Bridge School, Rochester; Rochester Teachers Avenue, Hawthorne; Paterson Teachers Association. Association. Carpenter, Winifred G. , Teacher, 121 Clove Dyke, Charles B., Superintendent of Schools, Road, New Rochelle; Teachers Club of Short Hills; Ex- officio, State Director. New Rochelle. Hartman, Winfield, South Side High School , Colvin, Flora M. , Teacher, 357 Bedford Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Avenue, Mt. Vernon; Public School Kin- ciation. dergarten Association of New York City. Haver, Jennie M. , Clinton; New Jersey State Dillon, Helen, Teacher, 4031 Park Avenue. Teachers Association. New York City; Blind and Sight Con- Jenkins, R. A., High School, New Bruns- servation. wick; Public School Teachers Club . Dolbear, Katherine E., Teacher, High School, Klages, Josephine R. , 602 Benson Street, New Rochelle; New Rochelle Teachers Camden; New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Association . ciation. Finegan, Thomas, President, American Edu- McCoy, Emma A. , 230 Livingston Avenue, cation Service, New York City; Ex-officio, New Brunswick New Brunswick Public Member Board of Trustees. Teachers Club . Gallup, Jackson, Principal, No. 18 School, Morris, Charles A. , County Superintendent Rochester; Rochester Teachers Associa- ofSchools , Toms River; New Jersey State tion. Teachers Association . Gay. A. E. , Teacher, 69 Hyde Park, Lock- Outwin, Harriet J. , 409 Knickerbocker Ave- port; Lockport City Teachers Associa- nue, Paterson; New Jersey State Teachers tion. Association. Holmes, Margaret C. , Teacher, Jr. High Paul, Harriet B. , 673 Rutherford Avenue, School, 500 Park Avenue, New York City; Trenton; New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Junior High School No. 96, Manhattan. ciation. Johnson, C. Bishop, Teacher, 409 Union Perry, Sarah, R. 6, Trenton; Trenton Teach- Avenue, Mt. Vernon; Mt. Vernon Teach- ers Club . ers Association. Phillips, H. H. , Montgomery St. School. Jones, Olive M., Principal, Public School Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Asso- 120, New York City; Ex-officio, Vice- ciation. President. Member, Executive Committee. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1071 Lasher, William R. , Principal, 3177 Bedford Clark, Alice, 113 Franklin Avenue, Salem; Avenue, Brooklyn ; High School Teachers Ohio State Teachers Association. Association. De Mar, Sarah, Norwood ; Norwood Teach- Mendelsohn, Henry, Teacher, Public School ers Association. 115, Brooklyn; Brooklyn Teachers Asso- Dick, L. C. , Superintendent of Schools , Lon- ciation. don; Ohio State Teachers Association. Milligan, Grace L. B. , Teacher, 20 Park Dombaugh, Alice L., 283 N. State Street, Avenue, Mt. Vernon; Mt. Vernon Teach- Marion; Marion City Teachers Associa- ers Association. tion. Peixetto, Bridgett C. , Principal, Public Erwine, R. H., Director of Research, Ak- School 108, Queens, Richmond Hill, New ron; Southeastern Ohio State Teachers York City; Ex-officio, State Director. Association. Ryan, Helen, Teacher, 136 Rutland Road, Evans , W. A. , R. F. D. No. 10, Madison- Brooklyn; Brooklyn Teachers Association. ville; The Cincinnati Teachers Association. Strayer, George D. , Professor, Teachers Folk, Curtis J. , 419 W. Lincoln Street, Find- College, Columbia University, New York lay; Findlay Organziation affiliated with City; Ex-officio, Life Director. National Education Association . Worthington, F. G. , Teacher, 8 Hamilton Foster, Grace, 1987 E. 81st Street, Cleve- Avenue, Yonkers ; Yonkers Teachers Asso- land; Cleveland Teachers Federation. ciation. Frauz, G. F., Carson School , Cincinnati ; Worthington, W. E., Teacher, 8 Hamilton Elementary Principals Club of Cincinnati. Avenue, Yonkers ; Yonkers Teachers Asso- Goodall, Josephine, 5325 Edgewater Drive, ciation. Toledo; The Toledo Teachers Association. Hanselman, C. F. , Principal, Washburn NORTH CAROLINA School, Cincinnati ; Ohio State Teachers Association , Allen, A. T. , State Superintendent of Public Harlor, Mrs. Margaret King, 1851 Charles Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina Edu- Road, E. Cleveland, Ohio State Teachers cation Association . Association . Martin, F. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Hibbard, Laura, No. 2 The Seville, Cin- Durham; Durham Teachers Educational cinnati; Ohio State Teachers Association. Association. Hindman, Mrs. Martha, 1877 E. 32 St. , Srygley, H. F., Superintendent of Township Lorain: Lorain Teachers Club . Schools , Raleigh; North Carolina Educa- Holycross , H. W. , Superintendent of County tion Association. Normal School, West Liberty; Logan Wright, Robert H., President, East Carolina County Teachers Association. Teachers College, Greenville ; Ex-Officio, Hottendorf, Elizabeth, 810 Richmond, Cin- State Director. cinnati; The Cincinnati Teachers Asso- ciation. NORTH DAKOTA Huston, Nellie, 305 N. Madriver Street. Bellefontaine Bellefontaine Teachers Asso- Berg, A. C., State Rural School Inspector, ciation. Towner; North Dakota Education Asso- Jacobs, Floy, 1115 Horace Street, Toledo; ciation. The Toledo Teachers Association . Lobbon, Clara, 902-8th Street, North, Fargo; Keller, Chloe E., Lorain; Ohio State Teach- North Dakota Education Association. ers Association. McCurdy, M. E. , Secretary, State Teachers Keyser, R. Florence, 334 Swallow, Warren; Association, Washburn ; Ex-officio, State Warren City Teachers Association . Director, Kiefer , R. J., Superintendent of Schools, Nielson, Minnie J. , State Superintendent of Niles; Ex -officio , State Director. Public Instruction, Bismarck; Ex-officio. Kingsbury, Carrie H. , 3005 Scarborough Schafer, A. L. , Carrington, North Dakota Road, Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Education Association. Teachers Federation , White, L. A. , Superintendent of City Schools. Lake, Charles H., Board of Education, Cleve- Minot; North Dakota Education Associa- land; Ohio State Teachers Association. tion. Leonard, A. R. , 364 Weber Road, Columbus; OHIO Columbus Teachers Federation. Liebman, Lotta B. , Roosevelt Jr. High Ahrens. Marjorie, 518 Washington Avenue, School, Lee Road, Cleveland Heights; Lorain; Lorain Teachers Club . Cleveland Heights Teachers Association. Ammon, Mrs. Lucy, 1265 Parkwood Drive, Lindeman , Norma , 7504 Coleridge Avenue, Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teachers Baer, Joseph A. , 200 Old Court House, Federation. Cleveland; Cuyahoga County Teachers McCreery, Susan, Brecksville; Cuyahoga Institute. County Teachers Institute. Beinhart, Frieda , 1264 Elm Street, Cincin- McFarland, Christena, 211 E. Atlantic St. , nati; The Cincinnati Teachers Association . Warren; Warren City Teachers Associa- Boone, D. J. , Superintendent of Schools, tion. Lorain; Ohio State Teachers Association. McLaughlin, Mrs. Mattie, 337 School Street, Bowen, Alice M., 13 Orchard Court, War- Bradford; Ohio State Teachers Association. ren; Warren City Teachers Association. McIntire, B. B. , 1014 N. Limestone Street, Cantrell, J. D. , 1301 W. 108th Street, Cleve- Springfield, Ohio , Ohio State Teachers land: Lakewood Teachers Association. Association. Carlow, Beulah , 334 Woodlawn Avenue, McMyler , H. T., Center Road, Cleveland; Zanesville; The Zanesville Teachers Asso- Cleveland Teachers Federation. ciation. Mahaffey , C. E. , Rudolph Wood County Carrothers, G. B. , Ohio University, Athens ; Teachers Association . Ohio State Teachers Association, Marple, Charles A., 6801 Euclid Avenue, Carson, Olive, Board of Education, Akron; Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Federation . Ohio State Teachers Association. Maurer, George C., Superintendent of Schools , Chamberlain, Mary G., Hotel London, Lon- Wooster; Ohio State Teachers Associa- don; Ohio State Teachers Association. tion. 1072 NATIONAL Education Association Mayer, Lewis F. , 19160 Lorain Street, Rocky Hammond, M. P. , President, State Teachers River; Cuyahoga County Teachers Insti- College, Tahlequah ; Oklahoma Education tute. Association. Minnich, Dr. H. C. , Campus View, Oxford ; Hargis , B. W. , Teacher, 410 No. Nogales, Ohio State Teachers Association. Tulsa; Tulsa City Education Association. Monroe, Belle M. , 122 Atlas Street, Akron; Hargis , Iva Jane, Teacher, 410 No. Nogales, Ohio State Teachers Association. Tulsa; Tulsa Education Association. Morris, George M. , State Department of Edu- Holcombe, Isabel, Mrs., Teacher, 1012 N. cation, Columbus , Ohio State Teachers Hudson, Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Edu- Association. cation Association. Morris, Mary M. , 558 Lilly Avenue, Colum- Holmes , J. R. , Room 115, Roosevelt, Sa- bus; Columbus Teachers Federation. pulpa; Sand Springs. Offenhauer, R. E., Superintendent of Schools, Howell, C. M., 708 Continental Building, Lima; Ohio State Teachers Association. Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Education Perkins , Mrs. Fannie M., 856 Rockingham, Association. Toledo; The Toledo Teachers Association. Lyles , Victoria, State Department of Edu- Peterson , Anna L. , 18 Haddon Hall, Cin- cation, Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Educa- cinnati; The Cincinnati Teachers Associa- tion Association tion. Nash , M. A. , State Superintendent of Public Pettibone, Blanche, 15417 Lake Avenue, Instruction, Oklahoma City; Ex-officio. Lakewood; The Cleveland Teachers Fed- Peak , C. N. , University Preparatory School, eration. Tonkawa; Oklahoma Education Associa- Pogue, George M. , County Superintendent tion. of Schools, St. Clairsville ; Ohio State Shirley, Mary, Teacher, 553 N. 10. Mus- Teachers Association . kogee; Muskogee City Teachers Associa- Quirk, W. A. , 1641 Clayton Street, Cincin- tion. nati; The Cincinnati Teachers Association. OREGON Rayen, H. K. , Princeton School , Youngs- town; Youngstown Education Association. Alderson, W. C., Superintendent of Schools, Rawdon , H. L., Superintendent of Schools, 642 Court House, Portland, Oregon State Oberlin; Ohio State Teachers Association. Teachers Association. Reynolds , F. E., 428 Chamber of Commerce, Allen, Esther, Mrs., Teacher, 19 3d Street, Columbus, Ohio State Teachers Associa- S. , Forest Grove; Washington County tion. Teachers Association. Robertson, Margaret, 3453 Vine Street, Cin- Blazier, Florence E. , Teacher, Oregon Agri- cinnati; The Cincinnati Teachers Associa- cultural College, Corvallis ; Oregon State tion Teachers Association. Shaw, Charles E. , 1466 Rosewood Avenue, Bridges , Grace, Teacher, 780 Marshall Street, Lakewood; Lakewood Teachers Associa- Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Asso- tion. ciation. Shelton, F. M., Superintendent of Schools, Crow, Virgie, Teacher, 632 E. 9th Street, Springfield; Springfield Teachers Associa- Eugene; Oregon State Teachers Associa- tion. tion. Smith, Beulah, 608 S. Ohio Avenue, Colum- Getz, P. A. , Principal, Roosevelt High School, bus; Columbus Teachers Federation. Portland; Portland High School Teachers Association. Solomon, R. W., Superintendent of Schools, Middletown; Ohio State Teachers Asso- Howard, C. A., Superintendent of Schools, ciation. Marshfield; Oregon State Teachers Asso- ciation. Solomonson, C. E., 32 Summit Street, Niles; Niles Teachers Association. Lewis, Charles E. , Multnomah; Oregon State Teachers Association. Strong, George M., 75 Glenmont Avenue, Columbus; Columbus Teachers Federation. McGlasson, J. P. , Superintendent of Schools , Thomsen, Christine, 1897 W. 74th Street, Beaverton; Oregon State Teachers Asso- Cleveland; Ohio State Teachers Associa- ciation. tion. Miller, Charles S., Superintendent of Schools, Turner, H. B. , Superintendent of Schools, Ontario; Oregon State Teachers Associa- Warren; Ohio State Teachers Association. tion. Watkins , Eva, 312 N. Vine Street, Warren; Olson, Alvin C. , Teacher, Beatty; Oregon State Teachers Association. Warren City Teachers Association . Olson, Hannah M. , Teacher, Silverton ; Whitmer, J. W. , Superintendent of Schools , Toledo; Ohio State Teachers Association. Oregon State Teachers Association. Wisnieski, Mildred, 352 Brecksville Road, Petteys, Hazel, Teacher, Buckman School, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Asso- Independence; Cuyahoga County Teach- ciation. ers Institute. York, Myrtle, 2035 Forest Avenue, Toledo; Richardson , Jean, Teacher, 131 E. 19, Port- Ohio State Teachers Association. land; Portland Grade Teachers Associa- tion. OKLAHOMA Spooner, Julia A. , Teacher, 331 Chamber of Commerce Building, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Bamesberger, Velda, Teacher, Public Schools , Okmulgee; Olahoma State Teachers Asso- PENNSYLVANIA ciation. Barton, J. R. , Superintendent, City Schools , Bennett, Frank J., Teacher, Spring Mills; Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Education Pennsylvania State Education Association. Association. Broome, Dr. Edwin C., Superintendent, City Briggs, Eugene, Superintendent, City Schools, Keystone Building, Philadelphia; Schools, Okmulgee; Okmulgee City Teach- Philadelphia Teachers Association. ers Association. Blewitt, Arthur J., Teacher, 66 Ransberry Butcher, Ralph E., Teacher, care Central Avenue, E. Stroudsburg; Pennsylvania High School , Muskogee; Muskogee Teach- State Education Association. ers Association. Call, Agnes C., Supervisor, 706 Sproul Street, Carmichael, Perry, 1179 S. Xauihus, Tulsa; Chester; Pennsylvania State Education Tulsa Public Schools. Association. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1073 Coulcomb , Dr. Charles A., Asst. Superin- Nunn, Grace, Teacher, 2710 East Avenue, tendent, Grant Building, Philadelphia ; Erie; Teachers Association of Erie. Philadelphia Teachers Association . Nyhart, Fred W. , Supervising Principal, 9 Davies , Gwilym, Teacher, 30 Park Place, Oxford Street, Wilkes Barre; Pennsylvania Kingston; Pennsylvania State Education State Education Association. Association . Rule, James N. , Department of Public In- DeTurck, W. E., Supervising Principal, 214 struction, Harrisburg; Pennsylvania State Yost Avenue, Spring City; Pennsylvania Education Association. State Education Association. Ryan , W. Carson, Professor, Swarthmore Diffendafer, A. P. , Superintendent City College, Swarthmore; Pennsylvania State Schools, 101 Hanover Street, Nanticoke; Education Association. Pennsylvania State Education Association. Snyder, George Brady, Teacher, 7824 Kelly Edmonds , Beatrice R., Teacher, 316 East Street, Pittsburgh Pennsylvania State 26th Street, Erie; Teachers Association of Education Association. Erie. Steele, Irene, Teacher, Girls High School, Fager, Dr. Charles B. , Principal, High 17th and Spring Garden St., Philadelphia; School, 2417 N. Front Street, Harrisburg ; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Pennsylvania State Education Association. Strawn, E. Joel, Supervisor, State College; Fischer, Mildred, Department of Public In- Pennsylvania State Education Association. struction, Harrisburg; Pennsylvania State Struck, F. Theodore, Department of Public Education Association. Instruction, Harrisburg; Pennsylvania Foust, Clement E., Teacher, Philadelphia State Education Association. Normal School, Philadelphia; Philadelphia Sweeney, Goldie, Teacher, 275 Jackson Teachers Association. Street, York ; York City Teachers Asso- Francis, Thomas, Principal, 1707 Pine Street, ciation. Scranton; Pennsylvania State Education Thomas, Emma, Teacher, Girls High School , Association. 17th and Spring Garden Street, Philadel- Garwood, Dr. C. H., Superintendent, City phia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Schools, 121 Chestnut Street, Harrisburg ; Weaver, H. B., Principal, High School, New Harrisburg Teachers Institute. Kensington; Pennsylvania State Educa- Gilland, Thomas M. , Superintendent of tion Association. Schools, Donora; State Education Asso- White, Isabel , Teacher, 1043 Walnut St. , ciation. McKeesport; Pennsylvania State Educa- Glatfelter, E. A., Teacher, Spring Grove; tion Association, York City Teachers Association. Gray, Jessie, Teacher, 1210 Fillmore Street, RHODE ISLAND Frankford, Philadelphia ; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Bacon, Agnes M., State Supervisor of Amer- Gress, H. E. , Superintendent, 936 Virginia icanization, Providence; New England Avenue, Lancaster ; Pennsylvania State Association of School Superintendents. Education Association. SOUTH CAROLINA Haas, Francis B. , State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg ; Ex -officio. Gray, Wil Lou, National Loan & Exchange Hoban, C. F. , Department of Public In- Bank, Columbia; South Carolina State struction , Harrisburg ; Pennsylvania State Teachers Association . Education Association. Scott, W. M. , Superintendent of Schools , Jacoby, Ralph, County Superintendent of Easley; South Carolina Teachers Associa- Schools, Carlisle; Pennsylvania State Edu- tion. cation Association. Wilson, C. M., 709 National L. & E. Build- Jenkins, Wilson M. , Teacher, 1104 Chestnut ing, Columbia; South Carolina Teachers Street, Franklin ; Franklin Teachers Asso- Association. ciation. Wofford, Kate V., Superintendent of County Kelley, J. Herbert, Executive Secretary, Schools, Laurens ; South Carolina Teach- Pennsylvania State Teachers Association, ers Association. Harrisburg; Ex- officio, State Director. Kerchner , Eleanor C., Teacher, 326 W. Cot- SOUTH DAKOTA tage Place, York; York City Teachers Association. Binney, Edine, County Superintendent of Schools, Ft. Pierre; South Dakota Educa- Kline, Daniel A., County Superintendent of tion Association. Schools , New Bloomfield; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Early, W. I., Principal, High School, Sioux Kramer, Frank H., Teacher, 140 Broadway, Falls; Sioux Falls Public Schools. Gettysburg; Pennsylvania State Educa- Hall, C. S. , Director of Supervision, Depart- tion Association . ment of Education, Pierre; South Dakota Education Association . Leas, L. Elmer, Teacher, 746 W. Philadel- McDonald, A. A. , Superintendent of City phia Street, York York City Teachers Schools , Sioux Falls ; Sioux Falls Public Association . Schools. Lowman, Margaret J. , Teacher, Normal McFarlane, Harriet, Classroom Teacher, Lake School, Indiana; Pennsylvania State Edu- Anes; South Dakota Education Associa- cation Association. tion. MacMullen, Walter G., Asst. Superintend- ent, Grant Building, Philadelphia ; Phil- St. John, C. G. , Superintendent of Public adelphia Teachers Association. Instruction, Pierre; Department of Educa- tion. Mann, Euphemia, Teacher, 1022 Clinton Shill , Miss Joan, Classroom Teacher, Water- Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania State town; South Dakota Education Associa- Education Association. tion. Mechling, J. A. , Asst. Superintendent of Steele, N. E., Room 3, Perry Building, Sioux Schools, Kittaning ; Pennsylvania State Falls; Executive Secretary, South Dakota Education Association. Education Association. Miller, Beatrice, Teacher, 853 Wynnewood Swenson, Joseph, Superintendent of County Road, Philadelphia ; Philadelphia Teach- Schools , Parker; South Dakota Education ers Association. Association. 1074 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TENNESSEE . McChellan, J. Harriett, Teacher , 2939 S. Blvd., Dallas ; Texas State Teachers Asso- Allen, R. T., Superintendent of City Schools, ciation. Cleveland; Tennessee State Teachers Asso- Marrs, S. M. N. , State Superintendent of ciation. Public Instruction , Austin ; Ex-officio. Batte, Rubie A. , Supervisor of Primary Oberholtzer, Е. E., Superintendent of Schools, 88 N. Belvedere, Memphis; Shelby Schools , Houston Texas State Teachers County Teachers Association. Association. Browne, Mrs. Mamie Coin, Member, Board Peyton, Irving , State Supt. of Education, of Education, Memphis City Schools, Mem- Supervisor of Colleges, Austin; El Paso phis; Tennessee State Teachers Associa- Teachers Association. tion. Ryan, Velma, Teacher, 831 Harvard Street, Carney, G. C., 701 Gallatin Road, Nashville ; Houston; Houston Teachers Association. Davidson County Teachers Association. Sterling , Evalyn, Principal, 11 Randolph Cowden, M. M. , Chairman, County Board of Apartments, San Antonio ; Texas State Education, Bon Air; Tennessee State Teachers Association . Teachers Association. Watkins, Mary L. , Teacher, 1617 Forest, Frazier, E. J., Superintendent of County Dallas; Texas State Teachers Association. Schools, Cleveland; Tennessee State Teach- Wooster, Mrs. Geo. C. , Teacher, 190 Bon- ers Association. ham Street, Paris ; Texas State Teachers Gage, Lucy C., Professor, Peabody College, Association. Tennessee State Teachers Association, Nashville. UTAH Goddard, Edith, Principal, Mary School, Maryville; Tennessee State Teachers Archibald, George R. , Teacher, 632 E. 6th Association. South, Salt Lake City; Salt Lake City Goddard, Mary, Teacher, High School, Teachers Association . Maryville; Tennessee State Teachers Asso- Bennion, Milton, Dean, School of Educa- ciation. tion , University of Utah, Salt Lake City; Wilson, New, Superintendent of Town Utah Education Association. Schools , S. Pittsburgh Tennessee State Fitzgerald, Elizabeth, Asst. Principal, West Teachers Association. High School, Salt Lake City; Utah Edu- Powers , Sue M. , Superintendent of County cation Association. Schools, Court House, Memphis; Shelby Jensen, C. N. , State Superintendent of Pub- County Teachers Association.. lic Instruction , Salt Lake City; Ex-officio. Walker, J. E., Superintendent Hamilton Matheson, A. C. , Assistant State Superin- County Schools, Chattanooga ; Tennessee tendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake State Teachers Association. City; Utah Education Association. Smith, S. L. , General Agent for Rural Parratt , D. W., 317 State Capitol, Salt Lake Schools, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Nash- City; Utah Education Association. ville; Ex-officio, State Director. Parratt, Spencer D., Student, School of Edu- cation, University of Utah , Salt Lake TEXAS City; Utah Education Association. Thompson, Mrs. E. O., Teacher, Tooele Schools , Tooele; Utah Education Associa- Bastian, Mamie S., Principal, 812 Bell Ave- tion. nue, Houston; Houston Teachers Asso- ciation. VERMONT Bingman, C. W. , Principal, 1017 High Ave- nue, Beaumont; Texas State Teachers Association. Thomas, Mrs. Bessie K. , Supervising Prin- Black, F. M. , Supervisor, High School, 604 cipal, Public Schools, Woodstock; Ver- Great Southern Building , Houston, Texas mont State Teachers Association. State Teachers Association. Woodruff , Caroline, Principal, Normal Train- ing School, Castleton; Vermont State Brandenberger, W. L. , Asst. Principal, High Teachers Association. School, Houston Texas State Teachers Association. VIRGINIA Clark, Lee, Superintendent of Schools, Gainesville; Texas State Teachers Associa- tion. Adair, Cornelia S. , Teacher, 2121 Park Cobb, Nettie, Teacher, Westbrook Hotel, Avenue, Richmond; Ex-officio, Treasurer Ft. Worth Fort Worth Grade Teachers of the National Education Association. Association. Adams, Mrs. Sallie, Teacher, 309 Cowadin Crozier, Norman, Superintendent of Schools, Avenue, Richmond; Virginia State Teach- ers Association. Dallas; Texas State Teachers Association. Davis, Mrs. Frances, Teacher, 1627 E. Rio Avery, Mrs. Ora Hart, State Ec. Super- Grande, El Paso; El Paso City Teachers visor, Richmond; Virginia State Teachers Association. Association. Dill, Minnie G., Teacher, 110 W. 17, Aus- Butcher, Ida May, Teacher, 2217 Stuart Ave- nue, Richmond; Richmond League of tin; Austin Local Association. Teachers Association. Gorbutt, Catherine, Principal, Aoy School, Cobb, William, 411 E. Cary Street, Rich- El Paso; Ex-officio, State Director. mond; Richmond League of Teachers Asso- Hunter, Eula F. , Teacher, 1324 E. Morphy ciation. Street, Fort Worth; Fort Worth Grade Cohn, Hannah, Teacher, 2317 Grove Avenue, Teachers Council. Richmond; Virginia State Teachers Asso- James, W. A., Principal, High School, 2327 ciation. Avenue M. , Galveston; Galveston City Holt, Edith, Teacher, 1517 Porter Street, Teachers Association. Richmond; Virginia State Teachers Asso- Jones , R. R. , Principal, 2613 Aurora Street, ciation. El Paso; El Paso Teachers Association. Joynes, Edith B., Teacher, Maury High Keeton, Beulah L. , Teacher, 5511 Fremont, School, Norfolk; Norfolk City Teachers Dallas;, Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Association, DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1075 Pullen , T. G., Jr. , Principal , High School, Marsh, Arthur L., 707 Lowman Building, Newport News; Newport News Teachers Seattle; Washington Education Associa- Association. tion. Rawlings, Florence, Teacher, Fredericksburg; Morrow, Margery, 684 E. 23rd, Spokane ; Virginia State Teachers Association. Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Robertson, Marian, Teacher, Maury High Osborn, Eleanor, Stephen Court, Belling- School , Norfolk; Norfolk Teachers Asso- ham; Faculty Forum. ciation. Pelton, Anna J., John Hay School, Seattle; Saunders , Joseph H., Superintendent of Seattle Grade Teachers Club . Schools , Newport News ; Ex-officio, Act- Preston, Josephine Corliss, State Superin- ing State Director. tendent of Public Instruction, Olympia; Street, Anas, Teacher, 305 N. Davis, Rich- Ex-officio, Life Director. mond; Richmond League of Teachers Records, Lola E., Youngstown School, Asscoiation. Seattle; Washington Education Associa- Thompson, Nannie, Teacher, 2204 Lamb tion. Avenue, Richmond; Virginia State Teach- Sholty, Myrtle, Administration Building , ers Association. Spokane; Spokane Education Association. West, Mary Ann, Teacher, 305 N. Davis Snyder, Jessie E., 2753 Belvedere Avenue, Avenue, Richmond; Richmond League of Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club . Teachers Association. Soules, Jean L. , 2003 W. 1st Avenue, Williamson, Pauline, Administration Build- Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Asso- ing, 805 E. Marshall Street, Richmond; ciation. Virginia State Teachers Association. Wilson, Mabel V. , 2224 1st Avenue W. , Worrell, E. E. , State Superintendent of Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Rural Schools, Richmond; Virginia State Wilson, Vira E., Knickerbocker Apartments, Teachers Association. Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Asso- ciation. VIRGIN ISLANDS WEST VIRGINIA Markoe, Claude O., Principal, Junior High School, Frederiksted, St. Croix; Virgin Hervey, Mary A. , Teacher, High School , Islands Education Association. Elm Grove; West Virginia State Educa- WASHINGTON tion Association. Hickman , J. H. , Superintendent of Schools , Anderson, Mrs. L. D. , Superintendent of Hinton; Ex-officio, State Director. Schools , Waterville ; Washington Educa- Marshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills ; Ex- tion Association. officio, Life Director. Babcock, L. T. , County Superintendent of Otto, Julia Elizabeth, Teacher, Bluefield; Schools, Colfax; Washington Education West Virginia State Education Associa- Association. tion. Baker, Della, 1515 Boren Avenue, Seattle ; Reynolds , Mrs. Gertrude, Teacher, Lincoln Seattle Grade Teachers Club . Junior High School, Charleston ; West Beach, C. E., Superintendent of Schools , Virginia State Education Association. Enumclaw; Washington Education Asso- Rosier, Joseph, President, Fairmont Normal ciation. School, Fairmont; West Virginia State Breckner, Elmer L. , Superintendent of Education Association. Schools , Olympia; Ex-officio, State Di- Rust, Mattie, Teacher, Lincoln School, rector. Charleston; West Virginia State Educa- Carnahan, Minnie M. , Box 732 , Prosser; tion Association. Washington Education Association. Stewart, Melville , State Director of Physical Coyne, Marie, South 210 Adams, Spokane; Education , Charleston ; West Virginia Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Educational Association. Culver, Ida, Malden Apartments, Seattle; White, W. H. S., President, Shepherd Col- Seattle Grade Teachers Club . lege, State Normal School, Shepherds- Dean, Helen L. , Lewis & Clarke High town; West Virginia State Education School, Spokane ; Spokane Education Association. Association. WISCONSIN Dutting, Katharine R., State Normal School , Cheney; Cheney Washington Unit, N. Balliette, R. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Ε. Α. Sturgeon Bay; Wisconsin Teachers Asso- Forsythe, Mell, Sands Hotel, Tacoma; ciation. Tacoma Grade Teachers Association. Cox, W. A. , 1253 Blaine Building, Racine; Garretson, H. H. , 1005 N. M. Street, The Teachers Council of Racine. Tacoma; Tacoma Grade Teachers Asso- Doudna , E. G. , Secretary, State Association , ciation. 717 Beaver Building, Madison; Wisconsin Garretson, Mrs. Ivy D. , 1005 N. M. Street, Teachers Association. Tacoma; Washington Education Associa- Habernicht, Clara, Supervising Teacher, tion. Bellevue Apartments , Madison; Wisconsin Gilkey, J. N., Grandview; Washington Edu- Teachers Association. cation Association. Hoefflin, A. V., 1216 Bluff, Sheboygan ; Wis- Greguson, Judith, Roosevelt High School, consin Teachers Association. Seattle; Seattle High School Teachers Johnson, Lillia E., Superintendent of County League. Schools , Eau Claire; Wisconsin Teachers Jahnke, Clara L.. 1219 9th Avenue, Spokane; Association. Washington Education Association. Jonas, Meta M. , Teacher, 420 Market Street, Lapham, Margaret, 247 S. Tacoma Avenue, La Crosse; Western Wisconsin Teachers Tacoma; Tacoma High School Associa- Association. tion. Kohn, Charlotte, Grade Teacher, 1426 State Lynn, Clara, 3 Crockett Street, Seattle; Street, La Crosse; The Teachers Club of Washington Education Association. La Crosse. McConnel, Mary E. , 1623 22nd Avenue N. , Lally, Grace, Teacher, 225 E. Rives Street, Seattle; Washington Education Associa- Rhinelander; Wisconsin Teachers Asso tion. ciation. 1076 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION McDowell, Mary, Teacher, 520 Howland Rehnstrand, Vera, Superintendent of County Avenue, Kenosha; Kenosha Teachers Club . Schools, Superior; Wisconsin Teachers Maloney, John B. , Commercial Department, Association. High School, 471 West Street, Kenosha; Rosenthal , Annette, Teacher, 1419 Cedar Kenosha Teachers Club . Street, Milwaukee; Wisconsin Teachers Manthey, Clara T., Teacher, 977 Island Association. Avenue, Milwaukee ; Milwaukee Teachers Sims, John F. , President, Stevens Point Association. State Normal School, Stevens Point; Ex- officio, State Director. Mellencamp, Dr. F. M., State Normal School, Teter, George E. , Teacher, State Normal Milwaukee; Milwaukee State Normal School, Milwaukee ; Wisconsin Teachers School Faculty. Association. Nurmberger, Paul, Teacher, High School, Unzicker, S. P. , Principal, Junior High 225 N. Maple, Green Bay ; Wisconsin School, Fond du Lac; Wisconsin Teachers Teachers Associatoin . Association. Pearse, Carroll G., 3104 Wells Avenue, Winger, R. C., Principal, Elementary School, Apartment 410, Milwaukee ; Ex-officio, Racine; The Teachers Council of Racine. Member Board of Trustees . WYOMING Pearse , Emily Dorn, 3104 Wells Ave. , Mil- Hamilton , May, 931 S. Durbon Street, waukee; Milwaukee Principals and Super- Casper; Wyoming State Teachers Asso- visors Association . ciation. LIFE MEMBERSHIPS 1077 LIFE MEMBERSHIPS There are three kinds of life memberships in the National Education Association : ( 1 ) A group of life members created under the old By-Laws between 1884 and 1898 ; (2) a group of all living past presidents, who, under the By-laws, become life members ; and (3) those who have enlisted under the plan adopted at the Des Moines meeting in 1921, which provides that upon the payment of one hundred dollars a person may be granted a life membership, which will entitle him to receive throughout his lifetime the publications of the Association, including The Journal and the volume of Proceedings. Fees paid for life memberships go into the permanent fund and add to the financial security of the Association. Life Members (First Group) Alumni Association, State Normal School , Grantz, Simon, 1919 Spruce Street, Phila- Milwaukee, Wis . delphia, Pa. Athenaeum Society, State Normal School, Harvey, George I. , 215 North K Street, Platteville, Wis. Muskogee, Okla. Bartholomew, William Henry, 426 East Gray Hayward, Emily A. , 1437 Glenarm Street, Street, Louisville, Ky. Denver, Colo . Beloit City School Board, Beloit, Wis. Hutton, Andrew J. , 200 College Avenue, Bingham, Robert, R. D. No. 5, Asheville, East Waukesha, Wis. N. C. Klock, James E. , 309 E. Jackson Street, Board of Education , Abilene, Kans. Orlando, Fla . Board of Education, Dodge City, Kans . Miller, J. H. , Fayetteville, Ark. Board of Education, Janesville, Wis. Morris, Harriet N., 4040 George St. , Uni- Board of Education, La Crosse, Wis. versity Heights, San Diego , Calif. Board of Education , Independent School Milwaukee Principals Association, Milwau- District No. 3, Northfield, Minn. kee, Wis. Board of Education, Oshkosh, Wis. New York State Library, Albany, N. Y. Board of Education, Ottawa, Kans . Nye, Charles H. , 2 Harrison Street, Viola, Board of Education, Sedgwick, Kans . Wis. Board of Regents, State Normal Schools , Parkinson, Dr. John Barber, 516 Wisconsin Madison, Wis . Avenue, Madison, Wis. Board of School Directors , Milwaukee , Wis. Philadelphian Society, State Normal School Clark, Frank Howard, Y. M. C. A. Bldg . , Platteville, Wis . Tacoma, Wash . Public School Teachers of Janesville, Wis . Clark, Lewis Herbert, Hanford, Wash. Richmond, Sarah E., 603 Evesham Avenue, Classen, Augusta W. Hobe, R. D. Box, No. Gowans, Md. 163, Menlo Park, Calif. Roach, Thomas Watson, Salina, Kans. City Superintendents and Supervising Prin- Roop . C. Y. , 2310 Bowditch Street, Ber- cipals Association of Wisconsin, Merrill, keley, Calif. Wis . Rose. George E., Rosedale, Kans. Cole, William H., Sabina, Ohio . Sawhill, Thomas A. , Concordia, Kans . County Teachers Association of Milwaukee Shawan, Jacob Albright, De Graff, Ohio. County, Milwaukee, Wis. Spero, Anna Kalfus, 1912 Virginia Street, Davidson, Charles , C., 59 West Ely Street, Berkeley, Calif. Alliance, Ohio . Stanley, Edmund, 1813 University Avenue, Eden, Philip, 202 N. Pinckney Street, Apt. Wichita, Kans . T, Madison, Wis. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madi- Emery, John Q., R. D. No. 2. Edgerton, Wis. so, Wis. English, Rebecca F. , 35 South 5th Street, State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. San Jose, Calif. Stern, Menco, 119 East 78th Street, New Evans, Charles Henry, 3715 Olive Street, York City. St. Louis, Mo. Stewart, Sarah A. , Ladysmith, Wis. Forbes, Alexander, Box 663 , Mt. Holly, N. J. Thompson, Langdon Shook , 22 Fairview Avenue, Verona, N. J. Life Members-Past Presidents Aley, Robert J. , President, Butler College, Eliot, Charles W., President Emeritus, Har- Indianapolis, Ind. vard University, Cambridge, Mass . Bicknell, Thomas W. , Secretary and Regis- Hunter, Fred M., Superintendent of Schools, trar, National Society of Sons and Daugh- Oakland, Calif. ters of the Pilgrims, Providence, R. I. Johnson, David B. , President, Winthrop Bradford, Mary C. C. , State Superintendent Normal and Industrial College, Rock of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Hill, S. C. Butler, Nicholas Murray, President, Colum- bia University, New York City. Jones, Olive M. , Principal, P. S. 120, New Corson, Oscar T. , Oxford, Ohio . York City. 1078 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Jordan, David Starr, President Emeritus, Skinner, Charles R., Librarian, Legislative Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif. Library, Albany, N. Y. Joyner, James Y. , Raleigh, N. C. Newlon, Jesse H., Superintendent of Schools, Strayer, George D. , Teachers College, Co- Denver, Colorado . lumbia University, New York City. Owen, William B. , President, Chicago Nor- Swain, Joseph, Swarthmore College, Swarth. mal College, Chicago, I11. more, Pa. Pearse, Carroll G. , Milwaukee, Wis. Preston, Mrs. Josephine Corliss, State Su- Williams , Charl Ormond, Legislative Sec- perintendent of Public Instruction, Olym- retary, National Education Association, pia, Wash. Washington, D. C. Life Members Under the Current Plan Abbott, Amanda, Grafton, W. Va. Crabtree, James W. , Secretary, National Andrews, William A. , Superintendent of Education Association, Washington, D. C. Schools, Ballston Spa. N. Y. Crane, Harold A., Principal Verona High Armstrong, Dorothy M., 1150 Esplanade, School, Verona, N. J. Chico, Calif. Cranston, J. A. , Superintendent of Schools, Aydelotte, Frank, President, Swarthmore Santa Ana, Calif. College, Swarthmore, Pa. Cromwell, Agnes, 169 East 74th Street, Bagley, William Chandler, Teachers College, New York City. Columbia University, New York City. Davidson, William M. , Superintendent of Baker, George M., Superintendent, Fayette Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. County Schools, Lexington, Ky. Delzell, W. N. , Executive Dean, State Nor- Becker, Charles Frederick, Clarion State mal School and Teachers College, Peru, Normal School, Clarion, Pa. Nebr. Bedel, R. B., Superintendent of Schools, Dillingham, James D. , Principal, Newton Ashland, Nebr. High School, Elmhurst, Long Island, Bednar, Christine, Principal, Sherwood N. Y. School, Chicago, Ill. Du Pont, Pierre Samuel, President Du Pont Bingham, Robert W., President and Pub- Powder Plant, Wilmington, Del. lisher, Courier Journal, The Louisville Dobbs , Ella Victoria, University of Missouri, Times , Louisville, Ky. Columbia, Mo. Board of Education of Perry Township , Dodson, Emma A. , 2705 South 7th Street, Perryopolis , Pa. Terre Haute, Ind. Bolenius, Emma M. , 46 S. Queen Street, Dutnell, Ethel M., 644 Lodi Street, Elyria, Lancaster, Pa. Ohio. Bowen, Harriet A. , Fall River, Mass. Ebert, Mrs. Hannah M. C., Teacher, Spring Bowen , Wayne F. , Principal, Belle Vernon Hill School, San Diego County, Ramona, School, Belle Vernon, Calif. Calif. Bowman, Earl C. , Dean, West Liberty State Eddy, John M. , Principal, Puunene School, Normal School, West Liberty, W. Va. Puunene, Maui , Hawaii. Bradfield, Edna, 117 N. Spring Street, Pen- Engleman, James O., Superintendent of sacola, Fla. Schools, Terre Haute, Ind. Brewer, John M. , 22 Gray Gardens , Cam- English, Harry, Secretary, Board of Ex- brindge, 38, Mass . aminers , Washington, D. C. Bridgett, Alice, Colony Street School, Wall- Eutsler, George W., Principal Meriwether ingford, Conn. Lewis School, Ivy, Va. Bryan, James E. , Superintendent of Schools , Finegan, Thomas E. , 350 Madison Avenue, Camden, N. J. New York City. Burke, Marguerette R., Public Schools, Finlayson, John D. , Fairmont College, Omaha, Nebr. Wichita, Kans. Caldwell, Dr. Otis W., 424 West 123rd Frazier, George Willard, President, Colo- Street, New York City. rado State Teachers College, Greeley. Calvin, Henrietta Willard, Director Home Colo. Economics, Public Schools, Philadelphia, Gaumer, Clay Freeman, Superintendent of Pa. Schools, Howard, Ohio. Canine, E. N., Superintendent of Schools, Gerberich, J. A., Superintendent, Danville- East Chicago, Ind. Buckeye Schools, Danville, Ohio. Carlson, Philip E. , Principal, Roosevelt Givens, Willard E. , Superintendent of Public High School, Minneapolis, Minn. Instruction, Honolulu, Hawaii. Carpenter, Estelle, Director of Music, San Goodall, Josephine, 5325 Edgewater Drive. Francisco, Calif. Point Place, Toledo, Ohio . Chapman, Ira T. , Superintendent of Schools , Greeson, William Albert, Superintendent of New Brunswick, N. J. Schools , Grand Rapids, Mich. Cheney, Charles H., District Superintendent, Grissinger, Tenta, 59 Clairmont, Detroit. White Plains, N. Y. Mich. Clark, M. G. , Superintendent of Schools, Groves, C. D., County Superintendent of Sioux City, Iowa. Schools, Jefferson , Ohio . Clerk, Frederick E. , Superintendent, New Hartt, Nellie C., Public School, No. 73. Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, New York City. 111. Colburn, Jessie B., Principal, Junior High Hayes, Wayland J. , Principal, Charlottes- School No. 96, New York City. ville High School, Charlottesville, Va. Cook, William Adelbert, Department of Hewett, Elizabeth, 2201 Dodge Street, Education, Vermillion, S. Dak. Omaha, Nebr. Cooper, Frank I. , 172 Tremont Street, Hines, Linnaeus Neal, President, Indiana Boston, Mass. State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Cornell, Claire B., Superintendent Shaker Ittner. Mrs. Marie Anderson, 5553 Bartmer Heights School , Cleveland , Ohio. Avenue, St. Louis , Mo. Cort, Ambrose, Principal, Public School No. Iversen, Ida Christine, 2152 South Catalina 73. Brooklyn, N. Y. Street, Los Angeles , Calif. LIFE MEMBERSHIPS 1079 Johnson, Thomas E., State Superintendent Norton, John K., Director, Research Divi- of Public Instruction, Lansing , Mich . sion, National Education Association, Kelley, James Herbert, Secretary, Pennsyl- Washington, D. C. vania State Education Association, Harris- Oberholtzer, E. E., Superintendent of burg, Pa. Schools, Houston, Texas. Kelley, Katherine, Lowell Teachers Associa- Packer, Garrah M. , Independent School tion, Lowell, Mass. District, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. Keppel, Mark, Superintendent, Los Angeles Patterson, Mrs. Edith McClure, Home Eco- County Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. nomics Division, General Federation of Koetter, Max, Everett Teachers Club , Ever- Women's Clubs, Dayton, Ohio. ett, Mass. President, New York Principals Association, Krout, Charles A., Superintendent of Brooklyn, N. Y. Schools, Tiffin, Ohio . Rohrer, F. P. , Soldan High School , St. Laramy, Robert E., Superintendent of Louis, Mo. Schools , Altoona, Pa. Root, Rosamond, 509 West 121st Street, Larson, Merville, Castlewood School, Engle- Apt. 502 , New York City. wood, Colo. Rote, Orville W.. Superintendent of Leland, Abby Porter, Principal, Public Schools , District No. 6, Littleton, Colo. School No. 1 , Bronx, New York City. Sealey, R. M. , State Inspector of High Lindborg, Arthur E., Assistant Director of Schools, Tallahassee, Fla. Education, St. Croix , Virgin Islands. Seerley, Homer Horatio, President, Iowa Locke, Offutt Hunter, Superintendent of State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls , Schools , Woodlawn, Pa. Iowa. MacCracken, John Henry, President, La- Shove, Helen V., 3116 Clinton Ave., Minne- fayette College, Easton, Pa. apolis, Minn. McCallum, Arthur Newell, Superintendent Sims , John Francis, President, State Nor- of Schools , Austin, Texas. mal School , Stevens Point, Wis. McCormick, Elizabeth R. , Principal, Tim- Smith, George O., Superintendent County othy O. Howe School, 2023 East 6th Schools, Quincy, Ill. Street, Superior, Wis . Smith, Henry Lester, Dean, School of Edu- McCoy, Emma A. , 230 Livingston Ave., cation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. New Brunswick, N. J. McCrory , Ray, Instructor in Civics, West Stewart, Paul E., Superintendent of Schools, Div. High School, Milwaukee, Wis. Santa Barbara, Calif. McDonald, A. A. , Superintendent of Schools, Strayer, Mrs. George D., Teachers College, Sioux Falls, S. Dak . Columbia University, New York City. Suhrie, Ambrose L., Cleveland School of McKenna, Ella, 321 Annabelle Street, Mt. Education , Cleveland, Ohio . Washington, Pittsburgh , Pa. Swan, Natalie, 18 East 83d Street, New Magill, Hugh Stewart, International Sunday York City. School Council of Religious Education, Taff, Lucy, 412 N. 7th Street, Fort Dodge, Chicago, Ill. Iowa. Mathes, Fannie Pendexter, II Cushing Thalman, John W., Superintendent of Street, Dover, N. H. Schools, St. Joseph, Mo. Moody. A. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Thalman, Joseph Luther, Principal, Proviso Bedford, Ohio . Township High School, Maywood, I11. Moore, M. H., Superintendent of Schools, Tuttle, Harold S., Instructor, Training Dept. Fort Worth, Texas. Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon. Morgan, Joy E., Managing Editor, Journal Walters, Rolland J. D., Superintendent of of the National Education Association, Schools , Rocky Ford, Colo. Washington, D. C. Webber, Elmer H., Superintendent of Muir, James N. , Superintendent of Schools , Schools, Mapleton, Maine. Bethlehem, Pa. Williston, Edith Holmes , Department of Murakami, Kanroy, 1881 Pine Street, San Modern Languages, Providence Technical Francisco , Calif. High School, Providence, R. I. Murphy, S. S., Superintendent of Schools , Wilson, Harry Bruce, Superintendent of Mobile, Ala. Schools, Berkeley, Calif. Neale, Oscar W. , Director of Rural School Winship, Albert E., Editor, Journal of Edu- cation, Boston, Mass . Department, State Normal School, Stevens Wood, Will C. , State Superintendent of Point, Wis. Neller, Earl H. , Cleveland High School, St. Public Instruction, Sacramento , Calif. Louis, Mo. Woodward, Annie Carleton, High School, Somerville, Mass. Newlon, Mrs. Jesse H., Superintendent's Wright, Robert H. , President, East Caro- Office, Denver, Colo. lina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Nichols, Walter H., Principal, Palo Alto York, Lewis E., Superintendent of Schools, Union High School, Palo Alto, Calif, Massillon, Ohio , 1080 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Publications of the National Education Association Historical Note-In 1906 there was published an index by authors , titles, and subjects to the publications of the National Education Association for its first fifty years, 1856-1906, compiled by Martha Furber Nelson, 211 pages. There is an index in each Volume of Proceedings. The December number of The Journal for each year includes a title page and index for the year. The current Volume of Proceedings and The Journal are in- dexed in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. The Association's publications from 1857 to 1924 are listed in detail in the Proceedings of 1924, pages 1041-1060. It should be noted that the early proceedings of the Department of Superintendence were published by the Bureau of Edu- cation, not by the Association. Table of Publications, 1924-1925 Number Total Title When pages Number number published each copies pages JOURNAL of The N. E. A., Sept. -Oct. 1924-June 1925 68 1,177,000 80,036,000 Addresses and Proceedings . Dec. , 1924 1108 6,000 6,648,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 5 .... Nov. , 1924 48 9,000 432,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 3 ... July, 1924 32 11,000 352,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 4 ... Sept., 1924 40 10,000 400,000 Research Bulletin, Vol . 2, No. 5 .... Nov. , 1924 40 30,000 1,200,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 3, Nos. 1-2 . Jan.-Mar. '25 72 28,000 2,016,000 Reprints from JOURNAL 45,000 Program of Washington Meeting . July, 1924 80 12,000 960,000 Official Manual for Delegates July, 1924 80 2,000 160,000 July, 1924 40 2,000 80,000 Report of the Secretary Report of the Executive Committee July, 1924 8 2,000 16,000 Report of Trustees July, 1924 16 2,000 32,000 Report of Treasurer July, 1924 8 2,000 16,000 Report of Treasurer (Reprint) July, 1924 8 2,000 16,000 Report of Legislative Commission July, 1924 16 12,000 192,000 Report of Committee on Revision of Depart- partments July, 1924 4 2,000 8,000 Report of Committee on Retirement Allow- ances July, 1924 24 2,000 48,000 Collected Reports July, 1924 60 2,000 120,000 Report on Visual Education July, 1924 16 2,000 32,000 Report of Committee on Evaluation of In- struction July, 1924 16 2,000 82,000 Illiteracy Report July, 1924 48 1,500 72,000 National Conference on Thrift ( Program) July, 1924 4 500 2,000 Report of Committee on Tenure July, 1924 64 2,000 128,000 Health Education July, 1924 172 2,000 344,000 Health Education (Reprint) Dec., 1924 172 5,000 860,000 Health Education ( Reprint) Apr., 1925 172 5,000 860,000 Report on School House Planning Feb. , 1925 168 15,000 1,008,000 Thrift Education Sept. , 1924 80 2,000 160,000 Department of Superintendence-Third Year- book Feb., 1925 428 6,000 2,568,000 Program of Cincinnati Meeting Feb. , 1925 48 11,000 528,000 Official Report of Department of Superin- tendence-Cincinnati March, 1925 236 3,000 708,000 What the Colleges can do for the People, F. D. Boynton March, 1925 16 8,000 48,000 The Exhibit -Directory and Guide Feb., 1925 24 10,000 240,000 The Keenest Minds, etc. Feb., 1925 4 8,000 12,000 Aims and Responsibilities . Aug., 1924 6 12,000 72,000 Bulletin of Department of Elementary School Principals, Vol. 4, No. 1 .... Oct., 1924 64 3,500 224,000 Bulletin of Department of Elementary School Principals , Vol. 4, No. 2 .... Jan., 1925 64 3,500 224,000 Bulletin of Department of Elementary School Principals , Vol. 4, No. 3 .. April,. 1925 64 4,500 288,000 Yearbook of Department of Elementary School Principals, Bulletin Vol. 4, No. 4 July, 1925 484 4,500 2,178,000 William T. Harris Nov. , 1924 275 5,000 1,875,000 Circulars for Harris Book Oct., 1924 18,000 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATIONS 1081 Number Total Title When pages Number number published each copies pages Information for Delegates to World Federation May, 1925 4 1,500 6,000 List of N. E. A. Publications Jan. , 1925 4 2,000 8,000 Plan for Teachers Home Oct., 1924 4 1,000 4,000 Ν . Ε. Α. Booklet of Information Sept. , 1924 16 5,000 90,000 Ν. Ε. A. Booklet of Information Dec., 1924 16 5,000 90,000 An Appeal to Prejudice and Ignorance . 1924 6 65,000 390,000 Dr. Pritchett and Child Labor Oct., 1924 4 13,000 52,000 Washington Souvenir Booklet July, 1924 8 2,000 16,000 Suggested Constitution for Local Associations Sept. , 1924 6 3,000 18,000 Inquiry of Salary Commission Sept., 1924 4 6,000 24,000 The Nation's Teachers July., 1924 24 2,000 48,000 Life Enlistments April, 1925 6 8,000 48,000 The Education Bill-Report and Discussion July, 1924 24 20,000 480,000 How the $2 is Spent Aug., 1924 4 200,000 800,000 Constitution of the Department of Classroom Teachers 1924 4 300 1,200 July, The Tocsin Sept., 1924 4 50,000 200,000 Leaflet with answers to questions Feb., 1925 6 2,500 15,000 Membership literature and circulars 2,500,000 Total... 1,805,300 109,548,200 Index [Names of authors are set in SMALL CAPITALS ] ABERCROMBIE, JOHN W. Interpreting the BARTH, GEORGE P. Twenty years of State program, 52 medical inspection in the public schools Act of incorporation, 929 of Milwaukee, 578 ADAIR, CORNELIA S. Teacher participa- BEALS, F. L. Safeguarding peace, 772 tion in the determination of school BENNION, MILTON. Report of committee policies from the viewpoint of the on character education, 182 classroom teacher, 98 BEVERIDGE, ALBERT J. Steady as she Adapting the curriculum to individual goes- abstract, 81 and community needs (JOHN W. BLAIR, FRANCIS G. The National Edu- WITHERS) , 815 cation Association as formative a Address of welcome ( W. P. DEARING) , 1 force, 84 Administration and supervision of rural BLITŻ, ANNA DUDLEY. Report of chair- schools under the county unit plan in man on relations of the department Ohio ( O. E. PORE) , 564 of deans of women to other organiza- Administration of visual education-ab- tions, 409 stract (GEORGE D. STRAYER) , 870 BLOODWORTH, CLUTIE. Outstanding needs Administrative service, Report of divi- in developing a program of adult edu- sion of ( SHERWOOD D. SHANKLAND) , cation for native illiterates, 345 1052 Board of directors, minutes of the meet- Adult education, 332, 340, 342, 345, 348 ing of the, Indianapolis , 1006 AIKEN, WILFORD W. Education and in- Board of directors, new, Minutes of the ternational relations, 614 meeting of, 1008 Aims of the nature study movement, BOGAN, WILLIAM J. How the schools The (ANNA BOTSFORD COмятoск) , 608 may provide for the common defense, 749 ALLAN, HAROLD A. Report of the busi- BORDEN, W. W. How we use vocational ness division, 1034 information , 781 American education week, 798 BOWMAN, LOUIS A. Public support of American Legion, Greetings of, 2 adult education from the standpoint AMOS, THYRSA W. Report of member- of the employer, 342 ship committee of the department of BOYNTON, FRANK D. What the colleges deans of women, 412 ; Student govern- can do for the public schools, 845 ment, 440 BRADFORD, MARY C. C. The wider wel- Analysis of the principalship as a basis come and response, 3 for the preparation of elementary BRADSTREET, HOWARD. Inculcation of school principals ( J. CAYCE MORRI- ideals in civics, 352 SON) , 453 BROOME, EDWIN C. The commission on ANDREWS, FANNIE FERN. Report of the the curriculum, 804 committee to co-operate with the BRYAN, WILLIAM L. Schools and the American school citizenship league, building of character, 22; The func- 254 tion of the university, 838 Are we in step ?-abstract (SHERMAN Building the child's philosophy of life PERRY) , 358 (J. O. ENGLEMAN ) , 127 Art expression, 855 BURNS, S , T. Rural school music and Athletics , 618, 628 county supervision, 512 Auditor's report, 1015 Business aspect of school activities- AYER, ADELAIDE M. A study of rural abstract ( PAUL H. SEAY) , 359 school attendance, 526 Business division, Report of ( HAROLD A. ALLAN) , 1034 BALCOM, A. G. The organization of BUTTERFIELD, ERNEST W. In the north, visual instruction, 302 equality of educational opportunity, 686 BALLOU, FRANK W. Introducing educa- tional research into Washington pub- By-laws , 934 lic schools, 783 ; Progress in the Calendar of meetings, 945 science of education in the last twenty- CARRIS, LEWIS H. Responsibility of five years, 11 schools for conservation of vision, 281 Baltimore's new school building program CARROTHERS, GEORGE E. Report of com- (HENRY S. WEST) , 793 mittee on community relations, 249 [1083] 1084 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CHAMBERLAIN, ARTHUR H. Report of Common defense, 751, 759, 768, 772 committee on thrift education, 188 Community relations, 249 Changes in curricula and method dur- Comstock, ADA L. New devices and ing the past twenty-five years in kin- desires in colleges for women, 426 dergarten education ( PATTY S. HILL) , COMSTOCK, ANNA BOTSFORD. The aims 484 of the nature study movement, 608 Character building (ALEXANDER C. CONDON, RANDALL J. The faith of the PURDY), 414 founders , 648 Character education, 22, 139, 182, 130, CONLEY, EMMA. Use of measurements 414, 462 and objective tests in home economics, CHEWNING, JOHN O. Student self-gov- 902 ernment, 737 Consolidated and one-teacher schools, Clerical work, Reduction of (JULIA E. 539 SULLIVAN ) , 377 Constitution of the World Federation of Colleges and the people (ERNEST HIRAM Education Associations, 914 LINDLEY) , 63 Continuity of education, outline for open Colleges and the public schools, 845 forum (J. M. GWINN) , 336 Commission on the curriculum, The Controversial subjects in the schools (EDWIN C. BROOME) , 804 (HERBERT S. HOUSTON) , 742 Committees, Reports of (Figures in COOK, KATHERINE M. Distribution of italics refer to lists of committee mem- consolidated and one-teacher schools, bers) : 539 American Education Week, 216, 959 Coöperative plan for curriculum revi- American school program, 959 sion, A, 834, 859 Arithmetic revision, 960 Coöperative plan for curriculum revi- Character education, 182, 960 sion, A (Z. E. Scort) , 834 Child labor, 172, 954 Coördinating business education with vo- Classification of educational ma- cational opportunities-abstract ( STAN- terial, 961 LEY ROTH) , 356 Classroom teachers' problems, 200, CRABTREE, J. W. Report of the secre- 954 tary, 1025 Co-inclusive membership, 253, 961 CRANDALL, ERNEST L. President's ad- Community relations, 249, 962 dress, department of visual instruc- Coöperation with World Federation tion-abstract, 868 of Education Associations, 196, Culture and brass tacks ( MEREDITH 962 NICHOLSON) , 74 Editorial council, 963 Curriculum, The, a paramount issue Educational nomenclature, 963 (CHARLES H. JUDD) , 805 English, 963 Curriculum problem attacked scientific- Ethics of the profession, 241, 964 ally, The ( ERNEST HORN ) , 812 Health problems in education, 261, Curriculum revision, 802, 803 , 804, 805, 965 812, 815, 826, 834, 859 Home for retired teachers, 185 Curriculum revision: how a particular Illiteracy, 140, 965 city may attack the problem (A. L. Legislative, 244, 965 THRELKELD) , 826 Necrology, 1058 Partial payment of expenses to an- DAVIS, MARY DABNEY. General practice nual convention, 264, 264 in kindergartens in the United States, 492 Racial well-being, 966 Relationships , 184, 966 DEARING, W. P. Address of welcome, 1 Research advisory, 966 Defense against accidents (ZACH C. Retirement allowances, 955 ELKIN ) , 768 Revision of departments, 1054, 966 Defense through the educated quota: Rural teachers' problems, 956 the all-year school (H. C. WEBER ) , 751 Standards and requirements and credits for teachers in service, Delegates to the fifth representative as- 237, 967 sembly, list of, 1060 Teacher tenure, 220, 958 Department of superintendence and di- Teaching of democracy, 191, 967 vision of administrative service, Re- Thrift education, 188, 967 port of (SHERWOOD D. SHANKLAND) , To coöperate with American Citi- 1052 zenship League, 254, 959 Departments , Reports of meetings of: Visual education, 968 Adult education, 337 INDEX 1085 Business education, 354 Educational research in Washington, Classroom teachers , 365 D. C., 783 Deans of women, 403 Educational values derived from the Elementary school principals, 450, 451 teaching of science in grades I to VI Kindergarten education, 478 in the elementary schools ( CLIFFORD Music education, 504 L. WOODY) , 468 Rural education, 522, 563 ELKIN, ZACH C. Defense against acci- School health and physical education, dents, 768 577 ELLIOTT, EDWARD C. Progress in col- Science instruction, 598 leges and universities, 32 Secondary school principals, 609 ENGLEMAN, J. O. Building the child's Superintendence, 633, 644 philosophy of life, 127; Report of the Teachers' colleges, 863 committee on the teaching of democ- Visual instruction, 864 racy, 191 Vocational education, 872, 911 Equal rights to community benefits in Development of the teachers' college (J. the field of rural education in Ala- A. HILL) , 394 bama ( A. F. HARMAN) , 682 DIETRICH, H. O. Justice for children, Equality of educational opportunity 710 (JOHN J. TIGERT) , 676 ; (E. W. Discussion of the value and implications BUTTERFIELD ) , 686 of the study for future progress ( JANE Executive committee, report of, 989 ELIZABETH JOSLIN ) , 500 Executive committee, summary of min- Discussion of the value and implication utes of, 1924-25, 998 for supervisors of the report on the Extra-curricular activities ( FRANKLIN S. study of kindergarten practice (MAR- LAMAR) , 609 GARET C. HOLMES) , 498 Discussion on responsibility of schools Faith of the American people in public for conservation of vision ( MARY E. education ( JOHN J. TIGERT) , 5 MURPHY) , 287 Faith of the Founders , The ( RANDALL Distribution of consolidated and one- J. CONDON) , 648 teacher schools ( KATHERINE M. COOK) , Federal aid to education ( MABEL V. 539 WILSON) , 388 Division of classroom service, Report of Fifth representative assembly, The, 1060 (AGNES WINN ) , 1046 Financing State teachers' associations Division of publications, Report of ( JOY (MRS. T. V. GOODRICH) , 114 ELMER MORGAN) , 1039 FORCE, ANNA LAURA. Report on status Division of records and accounts, Re- of the American woman teacher, 321 port of ( HELEN T. HIXON) , 1036 Fortification by public opinion (ERIC C. Division of records and membership, HOPWOOD) , 759 Report of ( T. D. MARTIN ) , 1053 FRANK, GLENN . Responsibility of the DOBBS, ELLA VICTORIA . The functions press in interpreting the schools to of teachers' organizations in inter- the public-abstract, 73 preting the schools to the public, 68 FRASER, ANNA GRAEME. Interpreting the DOLFINGER, EMMA. Improvement of school to the home, 56 teacher training for health education Functions of teachers' organizations in in schools, 278 interpreting the schools to the public Dollar for dollar ( CARLETON B. GIB- (ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS), 68 SON) , 779 Function of the central library for a DOUDNA, E. G. What the colleges can school system ( HENRY C. JOHNSON ) , 787 do for the public schools, 841 DYER, FRANK B. Salutation, 646 Function of the commercial supervisor- abstract ( E. F. KILLAM) , 364 EDGERTON, A. H. Uses and limitations Function of the university, The ( WIL- of standardized tests in junior high LIAM L. BRYAN ) , 838 school industrial arts , 890 GAGE, LUCY. Kindergarten progress Education and international relations during the past twenty-five years, 480 ( WILFORD W. AIKEN ) , 614 General practice in kindergartens in Educational outlook at the end of the the United States ( MARY DABNEY first quarter of the twentieth century DAVIS ) , 492 (JESSE H. NEWLON ) , 38 General sessions, 1 Educational opportunity, 676, 682, 686 General sessions, program of, 974 Educational progress, 11, 17, 32, 480, 484 GIBSON, CARLETON B. Dollar for dollar, 779 1084 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CHAMBERLAIN, ARTHUR H. Report of Common defense, 751, 759, 768, 772 committee on thrift education, 188 Community relations, 249 Changes in curricula and method dur- Comstock, ADA L. New devices and ing the past twenty-five years in kin- desires in colleges for women, 426 dergarten education ( PATTY S. HILL) , COMSTOCK, ANNA BOTSFORD. The aims 484 of the nature study movement, 608 Character building (ALEXANDER С. CONDON, RANDALL J. The faith of the PURDY) , 414 founders, 648 Character education, 22, 139, 182, 130, CONLEY, EMMA. Use of measurements 414, 462 and objective tests in home economics, CHEWNING, JOHN O. Student self-gov- 902 ernment, 737 Consolidated and one-teacher schools, Clerical work, Reduction of ( JULIA Ε. 539 SULLIVAN ) , 377 Constitution of the World Federation of Colleges and the people (ERNEST HIRAM Education Associations, 914 LINDLEY) , 63 Continuity of education, outline for open Colleges and the public schools, 845 forum (J. M. GWINN ) , 336 Commission on the curriculum, The Controversial subjects in the schools (EDWIN C. BROOME) , 804 (HERBERT S. HOUSTON ) , 742 Committees, Reports of ( Figures in COOK, KATHERINE M. Distribution of italics refer to lists of committee mem- consolidated and one-teacher schools, bers) : 539 American Education Week, 216, 959 Coöperative plan for curriculum revi- American school program, 959 sion, A, 834, 859 Arithmetic revision, 960 Coöperative plan for curriculum revi- Character education, 182, 960 sion, A (Z. E. Scort ) , 834 Child labor, 172, 954 Coördinating business education with vo- Classification of educational ma- cational opportunities-abstract ( STAN- terial, 961 LEY ROTH ) , 356 Classroom teachers' problems, 200, CRABTREE, J. W. Report of the secre- 954 tary, 1025 Co-inclusive membership, 253, 961 CRANDALL, ERNEST L. President's ad- Community relations, 249, 962 dress, department of visual instruc- Coöperation with World Federation tion-abstract, 868 of Education Associations, 196, Culture and brass tacks ( MEREDITH 962 NICHOLSON ) , 74 Editorial council, 963 Curriculum, The, a paramount issue Educational nomenclature, 963 (CHARLES H. JUDD) , 805 English, 963 Curriculum problem attacked scientific- Ethics of the profession, 241, 964 ally, The ( ERNEST HORN) , 812 Health problems in education, 261, Curriculum revision, 802, 803, 804, 805, 965 812, 815, 826, 834, 859 Home for retired teachers, 185 Curriculum revision: how a particular Illiteracy, 140, 965 city may attack the problem (A. L. Legislative, 244, 965 THRELKELD) , 826 Necrology, 1058 Partial payment of expenses to an- DAVIS, MARY DABNEY. General practice nual convention, 264, 264 in kindergartens in the United States, 492 Racial well-being, 966 Relationships, 184, 966 DEARING, W. P. Address of welcome, 1 Research advisory, 966 Defense against accidents (ZACH C. Retirement allowances, 955 ELKIN ) , 768 Revision of departments, 1054, 966 Defense through the educated quota: Rural teachers' problems, 956 the all-year school (H. C. WEBER) , 751 Standards and requirements and credits for teachers in service, Delegates to the fifth representative as- 237, 967 sembly, list of, 1060 Teacher tenure, 220, 958 Department of superintendence and di- Teaching of democracy, 191, 967 vision of administrative service, Re- Thrift education, 188, 967 port of (SHERWOOD D. SHANKLAND) , To coöperate with American Citi- 1052 zenship League, 254, 959 Departments, Reports of meetings of: Visual education, 968 Adult education, 337 INDEX 1085 Business education, 354 Educational research in Washington, Classroom teachers, 365 D. C., 783 Educational values derived from the Deans of women, 403 Elementary school principals, 450, 451 teaching of science in grades I to VI Kindergarten education, 478 in the elementary schools ( CLIFFORD Music education, 504 L. WOODY) , 468 Rural education, 522, 563 ELKIN, ZACH C. Defense against acci- School health and physical education, dents, 768 577 ELLIOTT, EDWARD C. Progress in col- Science instruction, 598 leges and universities, 32 Secondary school principals, 609 ENGLEMAN, J. O. Building the child's Superintendence , 633, 644 philosophy of life, 127; Report of the Teachers' colleges , 863 committee on the teaching of democ- Visual instruction, 864 racy, 191 Vocational education, 872, 911 Equal rights to community benefits in the field of rural education in Ala- Development of the teachers' college (J. A. HILL) , 394 bama ( A. F. HARMAN) , 682 DIETRICH, H. O. Justice for children, Equality of educational opportunity 710 (JOHN J. TIGERT) , 6763 (E. W. Discussion of the value and implications BUTTERFIELD ) , 686 ofthe study for future progress (JANE Executive committee, report of, 989 Executive committee, summary of min- ELIZABETH JOSLIN ) , 500 Discussion of the value and implication utes of, 1924-25 , 998 for supervisors of the report on the Extra - curricular activities (FRANKLIN S. study of kindergarten practice ( MAR- LAMAR) , 609 GARET C. HOLMES ) , 498 Faith of the American people in public Discussion on responsibility of schools education (JOHN J. TIGERT ) , 5 for conservation of vision (MARY E. Faith of the Founders, The ( RANDALL MURPHY ) , 287 J. CONDON ) , 648 Distribution of consolidated and one- Federal aid to education ( MABEL V. teacher schools (KATHERINE M. COOK ) , WILSON) , 388 539 Fifth representative assembly, The, 1060 Division of classroom service, Report of Financing State teachers' associations (AGNES WINN ) , 1046 (MRS. T. V. GOODRICH) , 114 Division of publications, Report of ( JoY FORCE, ANNA LAURA. Report on status ELMER MORGAN ) , 1039 of the American woman teacher, 321 Division of records and accounts , Re- Fortification by public opinion (ERIC C. port of (HELEN Τ. ΗΙΧΟΝ), 1036 HOPWOOD ) , 759 Division of records and membership, FRANK, GLENN. Responsibility of the Report of ( T. D. MARTIN ) , 1053 press in interpreting the schools to DOBBS, ELLA VICTORIA. The functions the public-abstract, 73 of teachers' organizations in inter- FRASER, ANNA GRAEME. Interpreting the preting the schools to the public, 68 school to the home, 56 DOLFINGER, EMMA. Improvement of Functions of teachers' organizations in teacher training for health education interpreting the schools to the public in schools, 278 (ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS ) , 68 Dollar for dollar ( CARLETON B. GIB- Function of the central library for a SON ) , 779 DOUDNA, E. G. What the colleges can school system ( HENRY C. JOHNSON) , 787 do for the public schools, 841 Function of the commercial supervisor- DYER, FRANK B. Salutation, 646 abstract ( E. F. KILLAM) , 364 EDGERTON, A. H. Uses and limitations Function of the university, The ( WIL- of standardized tests in junior high LIAM L. BRYAN ) , 838 school industrial arts, 890 GAGE, LUCY. Kindergarten progress Education and international relations during the past twenty-five years , 480 (WILFORD W. AIKEN ) , 614 General practice in kindergartens in Educational outlook at the end of the the United States ( MARY DABNEY first quarter of the twentieth century DAVIS ) , 492 (JESSE H. NEWLON ) , 38 General sessions, 1 Educational opportunity, 676, 682, 686 General sessions, program of, 974 Educational progress, 11, 17, 32, 480, GIBSON, CARLETON B. Dollar for dollar, +84 779 1088 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Minutes of the Executive committee for NORRIS, J. ANNA. Moral obligation to the year 1924-25 , 998 be physically fit- abstract, 592 Minutes of the Fifth Representative as- NORTON, JOHN Κ. Report of research sembly, 983 division, 1042 Minutes of the meeting of the board of directors- Indianapolis , 1006 Objectives in industrial education ( Μ. M. Proffitt ) , 905 Minutes of the meeting of the new board of directors , 1008 Officers for 1924-25, 947 ; 1925-26, 969 MONROE, BELLE M. Strategic position Orchestra in the public schools, The. of the principal in interpretation of (GAYLORD R. HUMBERGER ) , 520 the school to the public, 57 Organization of visual instruction (A. Moral code for children ( W. O. SAUN- G. BALCOM) , 302 Our Association and Its Work-Presi- DERS) , 139 Moral education 127, 130, 133, 135, 139 dent's Report (JESSE H. NEWLON) , 47 Also see character education. Our constituents ( OLIVIA POUND) , 90 Moral obligation to be physically fit- Outcomes of our curriculum program abstract ( J. ANNA NORRIS) , 592 (JESSE H. NEWLON) , 802 Morals of modern youth ( HENRY NOBLE Outlawry of war-the next step in civili- SHERWOOD) , 133 zation ( RAYMOND ROBINS) , 775 MORGAN, JOY ELMER. Report of divi- Outstanding accomplishments in the field of adult education since the war sion of publications, 1039 ; Responsi- (CHARLES M. HERLIHY) , 340 bilities of educational journalism in interpreting the schools to the public, Outstanding needs in the development of programs of adult education for 69; The journals of teachers' associa- tions, 119 native illiterates ( CLUTIE BLOOD- MORGAN, KATHERINE M. Report of com- WORTH) , 345 mittee on sabbatical year, 369 Parents' responsibility for moral educa- MORRISON, J. CAYCE. Analysis of the tion (MRS. A. H. REEVE), 135 principalship as a basis for the prep- Peace, Safe-guarding, 772, 775 aration of elementary school princi- PERRY, ARTHUR C., JR. Justice in high pals, 453 places, 729 MUIR, SARAH T. Committee on ethics PERRY, SHERMAN. Are we in step ?- of the profession, 241 abstract, 358 MURPHY, MARY E. Discussion on the Personnel audit of the teaching staff, responsibility vationofvisi of schools for conser- The ( E. E. Lewis ) , 795 vision, 287 MYERS, CHARLES EVERETT. The rela- PETERSON, ANNA LOCKWOOD. Teacher tion of measurements to vocational participation in the determination of education and agriculture, 898 policies from the viewpoint of the National council of education, Secre- classroom teacher, 93 tary's minutes, 266, 308 ; Officers for PITTS, DORA H. Secretarial training in 1925-26, 311 the high school-abstract, 356 Place of interscholastic athletics on the National Education Association as a high school program, The (C. W. formative force ( FRANCIS G. BLAIR) , WHITTEN ) , 618 84 Place of the typewriter in history and Nature study movement, 608 education-abstract ( HARRY COLLINS Need the council has for departments of SPILLMAN ) , 355 the National Education Association PORE, O. E. Administration and super- (J. M. GWINN ) , 269 vision of rural schools under the New devices and desires in colleges for county unit plan in Ohio, 564 women (ADAL. COMSTOCK), 426 POUND, OLIVIA. Our constituents, 90 NEWLON, JESSE H. Educational outlook POWELL, GARLAND W. Greetings of the at the end of the first quarter of the American Legion, 2 twentieth century, 38 ; Outcomes of Preparation for school life-abstract our curriculum program, 802 ; Presi- (H. M. YOUNG ) , 588 dent's Report-our association and its Presidential message to the delegate as- work, 47; Service the national council sembly of the World Federation of can render the National Education Education Associations (AUGUSTUS O. Association, 271 ; Why is superintend- THOMAS ) , 919 ence ? 657 President's address, department of vis- NICHOLSON, MEREDITH. Culture and ual instruction-abstract (ERNEST L. brass tacks, 74 CRANDALL) , 868 INDEX 1089 President's opening address, department Report of Executive committee to the of superintendence, Cincinnati meet- board of directors and to the repre- ing (WILLIAM MCANDREW ) , 655 sentative assembly, 989 President's report, department of deans Report of membership committee of the of women (AGNES E. WELLS) , 407 department of deans of women President's Report - Our Association ( THYRSA W. Amos ) , 412 and its work ( JESSE H. NEWLON ) , 47 Report of the auditor, 1015 Pressing needs in the field of the dean Report of the committee on resolutions of girls ( SARAH M. STURTEVANT) , 434 ( UEL W. LAMKIN ) , 1009 PROFFITT, M. M. Objectives in indus- Report of the committee on the revision trial education, 905 of the Constitution of the World Fed- Program of General Sessions, 974 eration of Education Associations Progress in colleges and universities relative to the Herman-Jordan plan, 916 (EDWARD C. ELLIOTT) , 32 Progress in the administration and sup- Report of the committee on women as port of schools during the first quar- administratives in the educational ter of the twentieth century ( GEORGE field ( JULIA E. SULLIVAN ) , 378 D. STRAYER ) , 17 Report of the secretary of the National Progress in the science of education in Education Association (J. W. CRAB- the last twenty-five years ( FRANK W. TREE) , 1025 BALLOU) , 11 Report of the treasurer, 1011 Progress report of the committee on re- Report of trustees, 1015 tardation costs due to overcrowded Report on status of American woman classes ( EULA HUNTER) , 380 teacher ( ANNA LAURA FORCE) , 321 Propaganda and dogma, 598 Reports of committees (See committees, Public support of adult education from reports of) Representative Assembly-a guarantor the standpoint of the employer ( LOUIS (HENRY LESTER SMITH ) , 87 A. BOWMAN ) , 342 Publications of the National Education Representative Assembly, minutes of, 983 Association, 1080 Publicity, School, 52, 56, 57, 62, 63, 68, Representative assembly, the fifth, 1060 69, 73, 383, 801 Research division, Report of ( JOHN K. NORTON) , 1042 Pupil administration and character Resolutions of the World Federation of training ( HARRY C. GILLET) , 462 Education Associations, 916 PURDY, ALEXANDER C. Character build- Resolutions , report of the committee on ing, 414 (UEL W. LAMKIN ) , 1009 Reduction of clerical work ( JULIA E. Responsibilities of educational journal- SULLIVAN ) , 377 ism in interpreting the schools to the REEVE, MRS. A. H. The parents' re- public ( JOY ELMER MORGAN ) , 69 sponsibility for moral education, 135 Responsibility of the press in interpret- REJALL, ALFRED E. A literacy test for ing the schools to the public-abstract ( GLENN FRANK ) , 73 voters and for citizenship, 163 Responsibility of schools for conserva- Relation of local to State organization tion of vision ( LEWIS H. CARRIS ) , 281 and of both to the national (JESSE RICE, THURMAN B. School health pro- GRAY), 120 gram in relation to mental hygiene, Relation of measurements to vocational 596 education and agriculture, The RIDDLE, ANNA. Report of committee of (CHARLES EVERETT MYERS) , 898 one hundred on classroom teachers ' Report of chairman on relations of the problems-teacher rating, 200 department of deans of women to ROBINS, RAYMOND. The outlawry of war other organizations ( ANNA DUDLEY -the next step in civilization, 775 BLITZ ) , 409 ROSIER, JOSEPH. Report of committee on Report of committee on American teach- standards , requirements , and credits ers' colleges-abstract ( CHARLES H. of teachers in service, 237 MCKENNY) , 289 ROTH, STANLEY. Coördinating business Report of committee on sabbatical year education with vocational opportuni- (KATHERINE M. MORGAN ) , 369 ties-abstract, 356 Report of committee on single salary Rural school attendance, 526 schedule ( ANNA M. THOMPSON) , 372 Rural school music and county super- Report of committee on teacher rating vision ( S. T. BURNS ) , 512 ( ΑΝΝΑ Μ. ΤHOMPSON ) , 375 Rural school publicity, 62 1090 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION RYAN, HENRY J. Ignorance, 159 Standardized tests in industrial arts , Safeguarding peace (F. L. BEALS ) , 772 890 ; in vocational education, 898 ; in SALSER, CARL W. Still picture in edu- home economics, 902 cation, The, 294 State and local support and leadership Salutation ( FRANK B. DYER ) , 646 for adult education (WILLIE LAWSON ) , SAUNDERS, W. O. Moral code for chil- 348 dren, 139 State association journal ( A. L. MARSH ) , School health program in relation to 117 mental hygiene (THURMAN B. RICE ) , State program of training rural teach- 596 ers, A ( JAMES E. HILLMAN ) , 554 School policies, 98 State's financial responsibility to the Schools and the building of character public schools ( T. H. HARRIS ) , 549 ( WILLIAM L. BRYAN ) , 22 Steady as She Goes- abstract ( ALBERT Science of education, 11 J. BEVERIDGE) , 81 Science teaching in the schools , 468, 607 STEWART, CORA WILSON. Report of the Scientific education as a defense against illiteracy commission, 140 propaganda and dogma ( BENJAMIN Still picture in education, The ( CARL C. GRUENBERG ) , 598 W. SALSER) , 294 SCOTT, Z. E. A coöperative plan for Strategic position of the principal in curriculum revision, 834 the interpretation of the schools to the SEAY, PAUL H. The business aspect of public ( BELLE M. MONROE) , 57 school activities-abstract, 359 STRAYER , GEORGE D. Administration of Secretarial training in the high school- visual education, 870 ; Illiteracy, 158 ; abstract ( DORA H. PITTS ) , 356 Importance of Miss Davis' general Secretary's report ( J. W. CRABTREE ) , survey of kindergarten practice in 1025 the United States, 497; Progress in the Service the national council can render administration and support of schools the National Education Association during the first quarter of the twen- (JESSE H. NEWLON ) , 271 tieth century, 17; Report of the legis- Service the national council can render lative commission, 244; The superin- the National Education Association tendent of instruction and the business and its several departments ( JULIA A. manager of schools-an anomaly, 797 SPOONER ) , 276 STUART, MILO H. High school music SHANKLAND, SHERWOOD D. Report of from an administrative viewpoint, the department of superintendence and 508 division of administrative service, Student government, 440, 737 1052 Student government ( THYRSA W. AMOS ) , SHERWOOD, HENRY NOBLE. The morals 440 of modern youth, 133 Student self-government ( JOHN O. CHEM- Significant developments in schools and NING) , 737 curricula ( J. M. GWINN ) , 27 Study of rural school attendance, A SIMS, JOHN F. Report of committee of (ADELAIDE M. AYER) , 526 one thousand on child labor, 172 STURTEVANT, SARAH M. Pressing needs SMITH , FLORA D. The illiteracy prob- in the field of the dean of girls, 43+ lem in a large city, 165 SUHRIE, AMBROSE L. Health problems SMITH, HENRY LESTER. The representa- in teacher-training institutions-ab- tive assembly-a guarantor, 87 stract, 583 SMITH, PAYSON. What progress has Suitable texts for adult beginners ( H. V. superintendence made ? 669 HOLLOWAY) , 332 SPILLMAN, HARRY COLLINS. The place SULLIVAN, JULIA E. Reduction of cleri- of the typewriter in history and edu- cal work, 377 ; Report of the commit- cation- abstract, 355 tee on women as administratives in SPOONER, JULIA A. Service the national the educational field, 378 council can render the National Edu- Superintendence, 657, 664, 669 cation Association and its several de- Superintendence, Department of (See partments, 276 departments) SPRINGMAN, J. C. The teaching of Superintendent of instruction and the bookkeeping and calculating machines business manager of schools, The- and its relation to business-abstract, an anomaly ( GEORGE D. STRAYER) , 797 360 Standard procedures in functionally or- TAFT, LORADO. The gospel of beauty , ganized business and their application 858 to business training-abstract ( C. A. Taking the school to the parents ( FRANK HYRE) , 363 E. MATHEWSON ) , 801 INDEX 1091 Teacher growth in service ( A. L. THREL- TOOPS, HERBERT A. Theoretical prin- KELD) , 329 ciples underlying tests and measure- Teacher participation in the determina- ments in vocational education, 873 tion of policies, 93, 98, 102, 107, 110 Treasurer's report, 1011 Teacher participation in the determina- TRESTER, ARTHUR L. The high school tion of policies from the principal's principal's job in athletics, 628 viewpoint ( MARY MCSKIMMON ) , 102 Trustees, report of, 1015 Teacher participation in the determina- Twenty years of medical inspection in tion of policies from the viewpoint the public schools of Milwaukee of the classroom teacher ( ANNA LOCK- (GEORGE P. BARTH) , 578 WOOD PETERSON ) , 933 ( CORNELIA S. ADAIR), 98 University, The function of the, 838 Teacher participation in the determina- Use of calculating machines in classes in commercial arithmetic - abstract tion of policies from the viewpoint of the principal ( W. T. LONGSHORE ) , (HIRAM B. LOOMIS ) , 360 107 Use of measurements and objective tests Teacher participation in the determina- in home economics ( ЕмMA CONLEY ) , 902 tion of policies from the viewpoint Uses and limitations of standardized of the superintendent ( F. E. WIL- LARD), 110 tests in junior high school industrial Teacher rating-Report of committee of arts (A. H. EDGERTON ) , 890 one hundred on classroom teachers' VAN BUSKIRK, EDGAR F. Is sex educa- problems, 200 Teacher rating, Report of committee on tion properly a part of our program (ANNA M. THOMPSON ) , 375 of health education ?-abstract, 591 Teacher tenure in colleges and normal Vision, Conservation of, 281, 287 schools ( FREDERICK M. HUNTER ) , 220 Visual education, 294, 302, 306, 870 Teachers' college, Development of the, Vitalizing the bookkeeping recitation- 394 abstract ( J. W. MILLER) , 357 Teachers' organizations, 114, 117, 119, Vocational education, 781, 873, 890, 898, 120 , 123 902, 905 Teaching of bookkeeping and calculat- ing machines and its relation to busi- WEBER, H. C. Defense through the edu- ness-abstract ( J. C. SPRINGMAN ) , 360 cated quota : the all-year school, 751 Teaching or service load in State teach- WELLS, AGNES E. President's report, ers' colleges-abstract (L. B. Mc- department of deans of women, 407 MULLEN ) , 290 WEST, HENRY S. Baltimore's new school Tests and measurements, 890, 898, 902 building program, 793 Theoretical principles underlying tests What is it that science teaching ought and measurements in vocational edu- to accomplish in the schools ? ( HENRY cation (HERBERT A. TOOPS ) , 873 HARAP) , 607 THOMAS, AUGUSTUS 0. Presidential What is superintendence ? ( CHARLES S. message to the delegate assembly of MEEK), 664 the World Federation of Education What progress has superintendence Associations, 919 ; Report of commit- made ? ( PAYSON SMITH) , 669 tee on coöperation with the World What the colleges can do for the public Federation of Education Associations, schools (FRANK D. BOYΝΤΟΝ), 845 ; 196 (E. G. DOUDNA) , 841 THOMPSON, ANNA M. Report of com- What the educator should know about mittee on single salary schedule, 372; Report of committee on teacher rat- modern medicine ( WILLIAM D. HAG- ing, 375 GARD) , 702 THRELKELD, A. L. Curriculum revision : WHITNEY, FREDERICK L. Interpreting how a particular city may attack the the schools to the public-what to in- problem, 826 ; Teacher growth in terpret, 383 service, 329 WHITTEN, C. W. The place of inter- Thrift education, 188 scholastic athletics on the high school TIGERT, JOHN J. Equality of educa- program, 618 tional opportunity, 676 ; Faith of the Why is superintendence ? ( JESSE H. NEW- American people in public education, LON) , 657 5 ; The year's progress in education, Wider welcome and response (MARY C. 315 C. BRADFORD) , 3 1092 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WILLARD, F. E. Teacher participation WOODY, CLIFFORD L. Educational values in the determination of policies from derived from the teaching of science the viewpoint of the superintendent, in grades I to VI in the elementary 110 schools, 468 WILLIAMS, CHARL ORMOND. Report of Work of teachers' organizations, 114, 117, 119, 120, 123 legislative division, 1048 Work of teachers' organizations and its WILSON, MABEL V. Federal aid to edu- recognition by school, civic, and politi- cation, 388 cal organizations and officials ( OLIVE WINN, AGNES. Report of division of M. JONES) , 123 classroom service, 1046 World Federation of Educational Asso- WITHERS, JOHN W. Adapting the cur- ciations-Program, 913 ; Constitution, riculum to individual and community 914; Resolutions, 916 needs, 815 Year's progress in education ( JOHN J. WOOD, THOMAS D. Report of joint com- TIGERT) , 315 mittee on health problems in educa- YOUNG, H. M. Preparation for school tion, 261 life- abstract, 588 1086 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION GILLETT, HARRY C. Pupil administration HILLMAN, JAMES E. A State program of and character training, 462 training rural teachers, 554 GOODRICH, MRS. T. V. Financing State HINES,L. N. A last word, 306 teachers' associations, 114 HIXSON, HELEN T. Report of division Gospel of beauty, The ( LORADO TAFT) , of records and accounts, 1036 858 HOLLISTER , ANTOINETTE B. Life, liberty, GOWANS, J. W. How we observed and happiness through art expression. Education Week in Hutchinson, Kan- 855 sas , 798 HOLLOWAY, H. V. Suitable texts for GRAY, JESSIE. How the teacher molds adult beginners, 332 character, 130; The relation of the HOLMES, MARGARET C. Discussion of the local to the State organization and value and implication for supervisors of both to the national, 120 of the report on the study of kinder- Greetings of the American Legion garten practice, 498 (GARLAND W. POWELL) , 2 Home for retired teachers (OLIVE M. GRUENBERG, BENJAMIN C. Scientic edu- JONES) , 790 cation as a defense against propa- HOPWOOD, ERIC C. Fortification by pub- ganda and dogma, 598 lic opinion, 759 GUGLE, E. MARIE. Justice for teachers, HORN, ERNEST. The curriculum problem 722 attacked scientifically, 812 GWINN, J. M. Continuity of education, HOUSTON, HERBERT S. Controversial sub- outline for open forum, 336 ; Need the jects in the schools, 742 council has for departments of the How the schools may provide for the National Education Association, 269 ; common defense ( WILLIAM J. BOGAN) , Significant developments in schools 749 and curricula, 27 How the teacher molds character ( JES- SIE GRAY) , 130 HAGGARD, WILLIAM D. What the edu- How we observed Education Week in cator should know about modern medi- Hutchinson, Kansas ( J. W. GOWANS) , cine, 702 798 HALE, FLORENCE M. The helping teacher How we use vocational information ( W. plan in Maine, 567 W. BORDEN) , 781 HARAP, HENRY. What is it that science HUGHES, HILDA. Lessons in supervision teaching ought to accomplish in the of rural schools from the Indiana ex- schools ? 607 periment, 568 HARMAN, A. F. Equal rights to com- HUMBERGER, GAYLORD R. The orchestra munity benefits in the field of rural in the public schools, 520 education in Alabama, 682 HUNTER, EULA. Progress report of the HARRIS, T. H. The State's financial re- committee on retardation costs due sponsibility to the public schools, 549 to overcrowded classes, 380 Headquarters staff, 952 HUNTER, FREDERICK M. Teacher tenure Health education, 261, 278, 281, 287, in colleges and normal schools, 220 578 , 583 , 588 , 591, 592, 596, 696, 702 HYRE, C. A. Standard procedures in Health education versus physical edu- functionally organized business and cation (CHARLES H. JUDD) , 696 their application to business train- Health problems in teacher-training in- ing-abstract, 363 stitutions-abstract (AMBROSE L. SUH- RIE) , 583 Ideals in civics, 352 Helping teacher plan in Maine, The Illiteracy, 140, 158, 159, 160, 163, 165, (FLORENCE M. HALE), 567 166 HERLIHY, CHARLES M. Outstanding ac- Importance of Miss Davis' general sur- complishments in the field of adult vey of kindergarten practice in the education since the war, 340 United States (GEORGE D. STRAYER), High school music from an administra- 497 tive viewpoint ( MILO H. STUART) , 508 Improvement of teacher training for High school principal's job in athletics, health education in the schools (EMMA The (ARTHUR L. TRESTER) , 628 DOLFINGER) , 278 HILL, J. A. Development of the teach- Inculcation of ideals in civics (HOWARD ers' college, 394 BRADSTREET) , 352 HILL, PATTY S. Changes in curricula Indiana experiment in rural school and method during the past twenty- supervision, 568 five years in kindergarten education, Interpretation of school music to the 484 public (LORLE KRULL) , 504 INDEX 1087 Interpreting the rural schools to the LAMKIN, UEL W. Report of the com- people (LILLIA E. JOHNSON ) , 62 mittee on resolutions, 1009 Interpreting the school to the home Last word, A. ( L. N. HINES) . Con- (ANNA GRAEME FRASER) , 56 clusion of report on visual education, Interpreting the schools to the public- 306 what to interpret (FREDERICK L. WHIT- LAWSON, WILLIE. State and local sup- NEY) , 383 port and leadership for adult educa- Interpreting the State program ( JOHN tion, 348 W. ABERCROMBIE) , 52 Legislative division, Report of ( CHARL In the north, equality of educational ORMOND WILLIAMS) , 1048 opportunity ( ERNEST W. BUTTER- Lessons in supervision of rural schools FIELD) , 686 from the Indiana experiment (HILDA Introducing educational research into HUGHES) , 568 Washington public schools ( FRANK W. LEWIS, E. E. The personal audit of the BALLOU) , 783 teaching staff, 795 Introduction to curriculum commission Library, Function of the central, 787 ( WILLIAM MCANDREW) , 803 Life, liberty, and happiness through art Is sex education properly a part of our program of health education ?-ab- expression ( ANTOINETTE B. HOLLIS- stract ( EDGAR F. VAN BUSKIRK) , 591 TER) , 855 JOHNSON, HENRY C. Function of the Life memberships, 1077 central library for a school system, 787 LINDLEY, ERNEST HIRAM, Colleges and JOHNSON, LILLIA E. Interpreting the the people, 63 rural schools to the people, 62 List of Committees, 1924-25, 954 JOHNSON, THOMAS E. Report of com- LONGSHORE, W. T. Teacher participa- mittee on American education week, tion in the determination of policies 216 from the viewpoint of the principal, 107 JONES, OLIVE M. Home for retired LOOMIS, HIRAM B. The use of calculat- teachers , 790; Report of committee on homes for retired teachers, 185 ; Re- ing machines in classes in commercial port of committee on relationships of arithmetic- abstract, 360 the National Education Association, MACCAUGHEY, VAUGHAN . First radio 184; The work of teachers' organiza- talk on illiteracy, 159 tions and its recognition by school, MALOTT, J. O. Junior business training civic, and political organizations and -its content and scope-abstract, 361 officials, 123 MARDIS, S. K. Shall illiterates vote ? JOSLIN, JANE ELIZABETH. Discussion of 160 the value and implications of the study MARSH, ARTHUR L. Report of commit- for future progress , 500 tee of one hundred on co-inclusive Journals of teachers' associations-ab- membership of the National Educa- stract (JOY ELMER MORGAN ) , 119 tion Association, 253 ; the State as- JUDD, CHARLES H. Health education sociation journal, 117 versus physical education, 696 ; The MARTIN, T. D. Report of division of curriculum: a paramount issue, 805 Junior business training-its content and records and membership, 1053 MATHEWSON, FRANK E. Taking the scope- abstract ( J. O. MALOTT) , 361 school to the parents, 801 Justice for children ( H. O. DIETRICH) , MCANDREW, WILLIAM. Introduction to 710 curriculum commission, 803 ; Presi- Justice for teachers (E. MARIE GUGLE) , dent's opening address, department of 722 superintendence, 655 Justice in high places (ARTHUR С. MCKENNY, CHARLES H. Report of com- PERRY, JR. ) , 729 mittee on American teachers' col- KILLAM, E. F. The function of the com- leges, 289 mercial supervisor- abstract, 364 MCMULLEN, L. B. Teaching or service Kindergarten practice, 492 load in State teachers' colleges, 290 Kindergarten progress during the past MCSKIMMON, MARY. Teacher partici- twenty-five ve years ( LUCY GAGE) , 480 ; pation in the determination of policies (PATTY S. HILL) , 484 from the principal's viewpoint, 102 KRULL, LORLE. Interpretation of school Medical inspection in Milwaukee, 578 music to the public, 504 MEEK, CHARLES S. What is superin- tendence ? 664 LAMAR, FRANKLIN S. Extra-curricular MILLER, J. W. Vitalizing the bookkeep- activities, 609 ing recitation-abstract, 357 1088 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Minutes of the Executive committee for NORRIS, J. ANNA. Moral obligation to the year 1924-25 , 998 -abstract, 592 be physically fit Minutes of the Fifth Representative as- NORTON, JOHN K. Report of research sembly, 983 division, 1042 Minutes of the meeting of the board of directors-Indianapolis, 1006 Objectives in industrial education (M. Minutes of the meeting of the new board M. Proffitt) , 905 of directors, 1008 Officers for 1924-25, 947 ; 1925-26, 969 MONROE, BELLE M. Strategic position Orchestra in the public schools, The. of the principal in interpretation of ( GAYLORD R. HUMBERGER) , 520 the school to the public, 57 Organization of visual instruction (A. Moral code for children ( W. O. SAUN- G. BALCOM), 302 DERS), 139 Our Association and Its Work-Presi- Moral education 127, 130, 133, 135, 139 dent's Report (JESSE H. NEWLON), 47 Also see character education. Our constituents (OLIVIA POUND) , 90 Moral obligation to be physically fit- Outcomes of our curriculum program abstract ( J. ANNA NORRIS) , 592 (JESSE H. NEWLON) , 802 Morals of modern youth ( HENRY NOBLE Outlawry of war-the next step in civili- SHERWOOD) , 133 zation ( RAYMOND ROBINS) , 775 MORGAN, JOY ELMER. Report of divi- Outstanding accomplishments in the field sion of publications, 1039 ; Responsi- of adult education since the war bilities of educational journalism in (CHARLES M. HERLIHY) , 340 interpreting the schools to the public, Outstanding needs in the development of programs of adult education for 69; The journals of teachers' associa- tions, 119 native illiterates ( CLUTIE BLOOD- MORGAN, KATHERINE M. Report of com- WORTH) , 345 mittee on sabbatical year, 369 MORRISON, J. CAYCE. Analysis of the Parents' responsibility for moral educa- tion (MRS. A. H. REEVE) , 135 principalship as a basis for the prep- aration of elementary school princi- Peace, Safe-guarding, 772, 775 pals, 453 PERRY, ARTHUR C., JR. Justice in high MUIR, SARAH T. Committee on ethics places, 729 of the profession, 241 PERRY, SHERMAN. Are we in step ?- MURPHY, MARY E. Discussion on the abstract, 358 responsibility of schools for conser- Personnel audit of the teaching staff, vation of vision, 287 The ( E. E. Lewis ) , 795 MYERS, CHARLES EVERETT. The rela- PETERSON, ANNA LOCKWOOD. Teacher tion of measurements to vocational participation in the determination of education and agriculture, 898 policies from the viewpoint of the National council of education, Secre- classroom teacher, 93 tary's minutes, 266, 308 ; Officers for PITTS, DORA H. Secretarial training in 1925-26, 311 the high school- abstract, 356 Place of interscholastic athletics on the National Education Association as a high school program, The (C. W. formative force ( FRANCIS G. BLAIR) , WHITTEN ) , 618 84 Place of the typewriter in history and Nature study movement, 608 education-abstract ( HARRY COLLINS Need the council has for departments of SPILLMAN ) , 355 the National Education Association PORE, O. E. Administration and super- (J. M. GWINN ) , 269 vision of rural schools under the New devices and desires in colleges for county unit plan in Ohio, 564 women (ADA L. COMSTOCск) , 426 POUND, OLIVIA. Our constituents, 90 NEWLON, JESSE H. Educational outlook POWELL, GARLAND W. Greetings of the at the end of the first quarter of the American Legion, 2 twentieth century, 38; Outcomes of Preparation for school life-abstract our curriculum program, 802 ; Presi- (H. M. YOUNG) , 588 dent's Report-our association and its Presidential message to the delegate as- work, 47; Service the national council sembly of the World Federation of can render the National Education Education Associations ( AUGUSTUS O. Association, 271 ; Why is superintend- THOMAS) , 919 ence ? 657 President's address, department of vis- NICHOLSON , MEREDITH. Culture and ual instruction-abstract ( ERNEST L. brass tacks, 74 CRANDALL) , 868 INDEX 1089 President's opening address, department Report of Executive committee to the of superintendence, Cincinnati meet- board of directors and to the repre- ing (WILLIAM MCANDREW ) , 655 sentative assembly, 989 President's report, department of deans Report of membership committee of the of women (AGNES E. WELLS ) , 407 department of deans of women President's Report - Our Association (THYRSA W. Амоя ) , 412 and its work (JESSE H. NEWLON ) , 47 Report of the auditor, 1015 Pressing needs in the field of the dean Report of the committee on resolutions of girls ( SARAH M. STURTEVANT) , 434 ( UEL W. LAMKIN ) , 1009 PROFFITT, М. М. Objectives in indus- Report of the committee on the revision trial education, 905 of the Constitution of the World Fed- Program of General Sessions, 974 eration of Education Associations Progress in colleges and universities relative to the Herman-Jordan plan, 916 (EDWARD C. ELLIOTT) , 32 Progress in the administration and sup- Report of the committee on women as port of schools during the first quar- administratives in the educational ter of the twentieth century ( GEORGE field ( JULIA E. SULLIVAN ) , 378 D. STRAYER) , 17 Report of the secretary of the National Progress in the science of education in Education Association ( J. W. CRAB- the last twenty-five years ( FRANK W. TREE) , 1025 BALLOU), 11 Report of the treasurer, 1011 Progress report of the committee on re- Report of trustees, 1015 tardation costs due to overcrowded Report on status of American woman classes ( EULA HUNTER) , 380 teacher ( ANNA LAURA FORCE) , 321 Propaganda and dogma, 598 Reports of committees ( See committees, reports of) Public support of adult education from Representative Assembly- a guarantor the standpoint of the employer ( Louis A. BOWMAN ) , 342 (HENRY LESTER SMITH) , 87 Publications of the National Education Representative Assembly, minutes of, 983 Association, 1080 Representative assembly, the fifth, 1060 Publicity, School, 52, 56, 57, 62, 63, 68, Research division, Report of ( JOHN K. 69, 73, 383 , 801 NORTON ) , 1042 Pupil administration and character Resolutions of the World Federation of training ( Harry C. GILLET) , 462 Education Associations, 916 PURDY, ALEXANDER C. Character build- Resolutions, report of the committee on ing, 414 ( UEL W. LAMKIN ) , 1009 Reduction of clerical work ( JULIA E. Responsibilities of educational journal- SULLIVAN ) , 377 ism in interpreting the schools to the public ( JOY ELMER MORGAN ) , 69 REEVE, MRS. A. H. The parents' re- Responsibility of the press in interpret- sponsibility for moral education, 135 ing the schools to the public-abstract REJALL, ALFRED E. A literacy test for (GLENN FRANK ) , 73 voters and for citizenship, 163 Responsibility of schools for conserva- Relation of local to State organization tion of vision ( LEWIS H. CARRIS ) , 281 and of both to the national (JESSE GRAY) , 120 RICE, THURMAN B. School health pro- Relation of measurements to vocational gram in relation to mental hygiene, 596 education and agriculture, The RIDDLE, ANNA. Report of committee of (CHARLES EVERETT Myers ) , 898 one hundred on classroom teachers' Report of chairman on relations of the problems-teacher rating, 200 department of deans of women to ROBINS, RAYMOND. The outlawry of war other organizations ( ANNA DUDLEY -the next step in civilization, 775 BLITZ), 409 ROSIER, JOSEPH. Report of committee on Report of committee on American teach- standards , requirements, and credits ers' colleges-abstract ( CHARLES H. of teachers in service, 237 MCKENNY) , 289 ROTH, STANLEY. Coördinating business Report of committee on sabbatical year education with vocational opportuni- (KATHERINE M. MORGAN) , 369 ties- abstract, 356 Report of committee on single salary Rural school attendance, 526 schedule ( ANNA M. THOMPSON), 372 Rural school music and county super- Report of committee on teacher rating vision ( S. T. BURNS) , 512 (ANNA M. THOMPSON ) , 375 Rural school publicity, 62 1090 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION RYAN, HENRY J. Ignorance, 159 Standardized tests in industrial arts, Safeguarding peace ( F. L. BEALS ) , 772 890; in vocational education, 898 ; in SALSER , CARL W. Still picture in edu- home economics, 902 cation, The, 294 State and local support and leadership Salutation ( FRANK B. DYER ) , 646 for adult education ( WILLIE LAWSON .. SAUNDERS, W. O. Moral code for chil- 348 dren, 139 State association journal (A. L. MARSH) , School health program in relation to 117 mental hygiene ( THURMAN B. RICE ) , State program of training rural teach- 596 ers, A ( JAMES E. HILLMAN ) , 554 School policies, 98 State's financial responsibility to the Schools and the building of character public schools ( T. H. HARRIS) , 549 (WILLIAM L. BRYAN ) , 22 Steady as She Goes-abstract (ALBERT Science of education, 11 J. BEVERIDGE) , 81 Science teaching in the schools, 468, 607 STEWART, CORA WILSON. Report of the Scientific education as a defense against illiteracy commission, 140 propaganda and dogma ( BENJAMIN Still picture in education, The ( CARL C. GRUENBERG ) , 598 W. SALSER) , 294 SCOTT, Z. E. A coöperative plan for Strategic position of the principal in curriculum revision, 834 the interpretation of the schools to the SEAY, PAUL H. The business aspect of public (BELLE M. MONROE), 57 school activities-abstract, 359 STRAYER, GEORGE D. Administration of Secretarial training in the high school- visual education, 870 ; Illiteracy, 158 ; abstract ( DORA H. PITTS ) , 356 Importance of Miss Davis' general Secretary's report ( J. W. CRABTREE ) , survey of kindergarten practice in 1025 the United States, 497; Progress in the Service the national council can render administration and support of schools the National Education Association during the first quarter of the twen- (JESSE H. NEWLON) , 271 tieth century, 17; Report of the legis- Service the national council can render lative commission, 244; The superin- the National Education Association tendent of instruction and the business and its several departments ( JULIA A. manager of schools-an anomaly, 797 SPOONER) , 276 STUART, MILO H. High school music SHANKLAND, SHERWOOD D. Report of from an administrative viewpoint, the department of superintendence and 508 division of administrative service, Student government, 440, 737 1052 Student government ( THYRSA W. AMOS ) , SHERWOOD, HENRY NOBLE. The morals 440 of modern youth, 133 Student self-government (JOHN O. CHEM- Significant developments in schools and NING) , 737 curricula (J. M. GWINN) , 27 Study of rural school attendance, A SIMS, JOHN F. Report of committee of (ADELAIDE M. AYER) , 526 one thousand on child labor, 172 STURTEVANT, SARAH M. Pressing needs SMITH, FLORA D. The illiteracy prob- in the field of the dean of girls, 43+ lem in a large city, 165 SUHRIE, AMBROSE L. Health problems SMITH, HENRY LESTER. The representa- in teacher-training institutions-ab- tive assembly-a guarantor, 87 stract, 583 SMITH, PAYSON. What progress has Suitable texts for adult beginners (H. V. superintendence made ? 669 HOLLOWAY) , 332 SPILLMAN, HARRY COLLINS. The place SULLIVAN, JULIA E. Reduction of cleri- of the typewriter in history and edu- cal work, 377; Report of the commit- cation-abstract, 355 tee on women as administratives in SPOONER, JULIA A. Service the national the educational field, 378 council can render the National Edu- Superintendence, 657, 664, 669 cation Association and its several de- Superintendence, Department of ( See partments, 276 departments) SPRINGMAN, J. C. The teaching of Superintendent of instruction and the bookkeeping and calculating machines business manager of schools, The- and its relation to business-abstract, an anomaly (GEORGE D. STRAYER ) , 797 360 Standard procedures in functionally or- TAFT, LORADO. The gospel of beauty, ganized business and their application 858 to business training-abstract ( C. A. Taking the school to the parents ( FRANK HYRE), 363 E. MATHEWSON) , 801 INDEX 1091 Teacher growth in service (A. L. THREL- TOOPS, HERBERT A. Theoretical prin- KELD) , 329 ciples underlying tests and measure- Teacher participation in the determina- ments in vocational education, 873 tion of policies, 93, 98, 102, 107, 110 Treasurer's report, 1011 Teacher participation in the determina- TRESTER, ARTHUR L. The high school tion of policies from the principal's principal's job in athletics, 628 viewpoint ( MARY MCSKIMMON ) , 102 Trustees, report of, 1015 Teacher participation in the determina- Twenty years of medical inspection in tion of policies from the viewpoint the public schools of Milwaukee of the classroom teacher ( ANNA LOCK- (GEORGE P. BARTH ) , 578 WOOD PETERSON ) , 933 ( CORNELIA S. ADAIR) , 98 University, The function of the, 838 Teacher participation in the determina- Use of calculating machines in classes in commercial arithmetic - abstract tion of policies from the viewpoint of the principal ( W. T. LONGSHORE ) , (HIRAM B. LOOMIS ) , 360 107 Use of measurements and objective tests Teacher participation in the determina- in home economics ( EMMA CONLEY ) , 902 tion of policies from the viewpoint Uses and limitations of standardized of the superintendent ( F. E. WIL- LARD), 110 tests in junior high school industrial Teacher rating-Report of committee of arts (A. H. EDGERTON ) , 890 one hundred on classroom teachers' VAN BUSKIRK, EDGAR F. Is sex educa- problems, 200 Teacher rating, Report of committee on tion properly a part of our program (ΑΝΝΑ Μ. ΤHOMPSON ) , 375 of health education ?-abstract, 591 Teacher tenure in colleges and normal Vision, Conservation of, 281, 287 schools ( FREDERICK M. HUNTER ) , 220 Visual education, 294, 302, 306, 870 Teachers' college, Development of the, Vitalizing the bookkeeping recitation- 394 abstract ( J. W. MILLER) , 357 Teachers' organizations, 114, 117, 119, Vocational education, 781 , 873, 890, 898 , 120, 123 902, 905 Teaching of bookkeeping and calculat- ing machines and its relation to busi- WEBER, H. C. Defense through the edu- ness-abstract ( J. C. SPRINGMAN ) , 360 cated quota: the all-year school , 751 Teaching or service load in State teach- WELLS, AGNES E. President's report, ers' colleges-abstract ( L. B. Mc- department of deans of women, 407 MULLEN ) , 290 WEST, HENRY S. Baltimore's new school Tests and measurements , 890, 898, 902 building program, 793 Theoretical principles underlying tests What is it that science teaching ought and measurements in vocational edu- to accomplish in the schools ? ( HENRY cation (HERBERT A. TOOPS ) , 873 HARAP), 607 THOMAS, AUGUSTUS 0. Presidential What is superintendence ? ( CHARLES S. message to the delegate assembly of MEEK), 664 the World Federation of Education What progress has superintendence Associations, 919 ; Report of commit- made ? ( PAYSON SMITH ) , 669 tee on coöperation with the World What the colleges can do for the public Federation of Education Associations, schools ( FRANK D. BOYΝΤΟΝ ) , 845 ; 196 (E. G. DOUDNA ) , 841 THOMPSON, ANNA M. Report of com- What the educator should know about mittee on single salary schedule, 372 ; Report of committee on teacher rat- modern medicine ( WILLIAM D. HAG- ing, 375 GARD) , 702 THRELKELD, A. L. Curriculum revision : WHITNEY, FREDERICK L. Interpreting how a particular city may attack the the schools to the public-what to in- problem, 826 ; Teacher growth in terpret, 383 service, 329 WHITTEN, C. W. The place of inter- Thrift education, 188 scholastic athletics on the high school TIGERT, JOHN J. Equality of educa- program, 618 tional opportunity, 676 ; Faith of the Why is superintendence ? ( JESSE H. NEW- American people in public education, LON) , 657 5 ; The year's progress in education, Wider welcome and response ( MARY C. 315 C. BRADFORD) , 3 1092 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WILLARD, F. E. Teacher participation WOODY, CLIFFORD L. Educational values in the determination of policies from derived from the teaching of science the viewpoint of the superintendent, in grades I to VI in the elementary 110 schools, 468 Work of teachers' organizations, 114, WILLIAMS, CHARL Ormond. Report of 117, 119, 120, 123 legislative division, 1048 Work of teachers' organizations and its WILSON, MABEL V. Federal aid to edu- recognition by school, civic, and politi- cation, 388 cal organizations and officials ( OLIVE WINN, AGNES. Report of division of M. JONES), 123 classroom service, 1046 World Federation of Educational Asso- WITHERS, JOHN W. Adapting the cur- ciations Program, 913 ; Constitution, riculum to individual and community 914; Resolutions, 916 needs, 815 Year's progress in education (JOHN J. WOOD, THOMAS D. Report of joint com- TIGERT) , 315 mittee on health problems in educa- YOUNG, H. M. Preparation for school tion, 261 life- abstract, 588 N MICHIGAN A LIVERS MICHIGAN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY G UNIVERSITY MICHI MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN D JER ITY . I N U N SIT Y . U F OF N N A A UNIVERSITY MICHUNIVERSITY UNIVERSIT MICHIGAN UNIVERSIT V IVER IG ER S AERSI I ITY IV T SI F-MICH F.MICHIGA N UN UN TY F-MICHI G OFMICHIG F IGAN AN OMFICHIGAN T N N OM-YF N A A A UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY MICH MICH UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN F-MI NIVERSI IG IG IV ERS F-MIC N I RS T.Y . 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