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NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION = OF THE UNITED STATES Addresses and Proceedings OF THE SIXTY- SECOND ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT WASHINGTON, D. C. JUNE 29 -JULY 4, 1924 VOLUME 62 1924 Published by the National Education Association 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. Washington, D. C. MEMBERSHIP FEES AND PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The National Education Association has three classes of membership : 1. The $2 membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive The Journal of the National Education Association for one year. (10 issues.) 2. The $5 membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive for one year : ( a) The Journal of the National Education Asso- ciation; ( b) The annual volume of Addresses and Proceedings ; ( c) The Research Bulletin; ( d) Occasional bulletins and reports. 3. The $100 life membership, which entitles one to the publications and privileges of the $5 membership for life. MEMBERSHIP FEES AND PUBLICATIONS OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Several departments of the National Education Association have separate membership fees and issue departmental publications. One must be a member of the National Education Association before he can become a member of any department of the Association. The payment of one of the membership fees of the National Education Association does not include membership in any department having membership fee. The membership of the departments which issue publications follow : 1. The Department of Superintendence-$5 membership entitles one to receive for one year : ( a) The Yearbook of the Department of Superintend- ence ; ( b) The Official Report of the Winter Meeting; and (c) bulletins. 2. The Department of Elementary School Principals-$2 membership en- titles one to receive for one year : ( a ) The Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals ; ( b) The Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals issued in October, January, and April. This volume of Addresses and Proceedings is sent to all members of the National Education Association paying an annual fee of $5, or it may be purchased by non-members for $3. A space schedule for the departments was adopted by the Executive Committee in Cleveland, February, 1923 . In accordance with this plan of space allotment the officers of the departments have cooperated in deciding the selection of material for their respective departments . Membership fees of the National Education Association and its departments and inquiries concerning all publications should be sent to 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. Foreword Since 1857 the National Education Association has been an integrating force in American education. In the early days it brought together fewer than a hundred leaders, pioneers struggling to lay the foundation for uni- versal free education. It now brings together many thousands of edu- cational workers, representing various branches of the profession. The summer convention of 1924 was held amid the historic shrines of the Nation's Capital, and brought significant messages dealing with moral education, patriotism, and preparation for citizenship. Everyone who at- tended felt the inspiration of the occasion. Its spirit is preserved in the record in this volume. The Association does much of its work through committees and depart- ments. More than one hundred pages are devoted to the reports of com- mittees and over half the volume to the departments. The Department of Visual Education, recently established, appears for the first time. For each department there has been added a brief historical note giving im- portant facts relating to its establishment and growth. Attention is especially called to the more or less complete list of the Asso- ciation's publications, from 1857 to date, which appears on page 1041, and to the list of educational books of 1923, which begins on page 1061. Sincere thanks are extended to all speakers on convention programs and chairmen of committees who have generously coöperated in furnishing the material contained herein . This book is Volume Sixty-two in an eight-foot shelf of educational literature that is unexcelled. Its pages report present-day educational needs and theories, cover the principal problems of organization and ad- ministration, contain valuable material on special phases of applied educa- tion, and preserve for the historian the educational programs and policies . of today. They reflect, moreover, the inspiring devotion of a large band of men and women to the public school. Their words of understanding suggest that the love of education and not the love of money or power is the cornerstone of American civilization. JOY ELMER MORGAN, Director of the Division of Publications. Mood of Education Ferent 1-27-25 4. Contents INTRODUCTORY MATTER PAGE Act of Incorporation . 1 By-Laws... 6 Calendar of Meetings . 17 Officers in 1923-24 . 19 List of Committees, 1923-24 . 23 Officers for 1924-25 . 31 Program of General Sessions . 36 41 Program of Patriotic Pilgrimages . Minutes of Fourth Representative Assembly 45 Report of Committee on Resolutions . 54 Report of the Trustees . 58 Treasurer's Report, June 1, 1923-May 31, 1924 . 68 Report of the Executive Committee . 73 Minutes of Executive Committee . 79 Minutes of Board of Directors . 90 Secretary's Report .... 97 Business Division .. 116 Division of Records and Accounts . 118 Division of Publications . 120 Research Division . 124 Division of Classroom Service . 126 128 Legislative Service . Field Service . 131 Department of Superintendence and Division of Administrative Service .. 132 134 Life Memberships ....... GENERAL SESSIONS WASHINGTON ADDRESSES The Challenge to American Education-Smith . 137 Moral and Religious Education-Gecks ....... 140 Spiritual Values in an Educational Program for Democracy-Goldrich .... 144 Our Children's Neglected Inheritance-Knox . 150 Teaching Business Morals-Forbush . 157 Fundamentals of Character Training-Starbuck . 159 Address of Welcome-Tigert . 165 Education in the Nation's Capitol-Ballou . 171 The Nation's Teachers-Jones . 172 Functions of the Representative Assembly-Newlon . 189 The Contribution to Education of Teacher, Principal, Superintendent, and Parent: The Parent-Reeve . 192 The Principal-McSkimmon .. 195 The Citizen Teacher-Spooner . 200 The Superintendent-Sutton . 205 Relationship of the Teacher to Democratic Ideals of Government-As a Classroom Teacher Sees it-Mooney . 207 [v] vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 209 National Learning and National Life-MacCracken . Address-Coolidge 213 Patriotic Pilgrimages : 221 Tomb of the Unknown Soldier-O'Ryan . Lincoln Memorial-Blair ... 225 Memorial Continental Hall-Seerley . 232 239 Walter Reed Memorial Hospital-Gwinn . Tomb of Woodrow Wilson .... 241 Home of Frederick Douglass-Rhodes . 241 244 National Cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania-Graves . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Report of Committee on the Problem of Retirement Allowances-Carlson .... 248 Report of Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure-Hunter .. 251 Report of the Legislative Committee-Strayer ...... 254 Report of the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Prob- lems-Bradford 265 Report of the Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers' Problems-Foght 269 Report of the Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations- Thomas .. 272 Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education-Wood .... 274 Report of Committee on Character Education-Bennion .. 278 Report of Committee on A Code of Professional Ethics for Teachers-Wade . 285 Report of Illiteracy Commission-Stewart . 288 Report of the Editorial Council-Bagley . 290 Report of Committee on Visual Education-Finegan , 295 Report of Committee on Arithmetic Revision-Wilson . 311 Report of Committee on English-Searson .. 335 Report of Committee on Classification of Educational Material-Briggs . 336 Report of Committee on Educational Nomenclature-Withers ... 337 Report of Committee on Thrift Education-Chamberlain .. 338 Report of Committee to Coöperate with the American School Citizenship League-Andrews 341 Report of Committee on Necrology- Crandall . 347 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CHICAGO MEETING Secretary's Minutes ... 350 Similarities Versus Differences as Bases for Educational Programs-Gwinn .. 352 The Work of the Bureau of Education in Alaska- Tigert .... 355 Tests and Measurements of Character-Report of Sub-committee of the Char- acter Education Committee-Starbuck ... 357- Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education -Wood .... 361 Coöperation in the Continuing Program of the Joint Committee on Health Problems-Dodson 362 The Health of the Teacher-Doherty. 364 Report of the Committee on the Status of the American Woman Teacher- Force 370 The Single Salary Schedule in Practice-Hosic. 371 Recent Legislation Affecting the Status of the American Woman Teacher- Norton 377 Coördination in Part- Time Education-Alltucker . 380 Report on Summer Sessions in State Teachers' Colleges-Avent. 383 Fiscal Support of State Teachers' Colleges-Hamilton ... 389 CONTENTS vii WASHINGTON MEETING Secretary's Minutes ..... 394 Unifying Administration of Education with the Educative Processes-Gwinn 397 Final Report of Committee on Teaching of Democracy- Yocum ....... 400 Junior High Schools in Washington-Ballou ... 416 423 An Illiteracy Program-McKenny ....... DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 429 Teaching World Economics in High Schools-Abstract-Durand .. 430 Business Arithmetic from a Vocational Point of View-Abstract-Bowman .. 432 The Vocational Need for Business Writing in the Junior High School and How to Meet it-Miller .. 433 Classroom Helps in Training a Typist-Butts . 435 436 Classroom Helps for the Shorthand Teacher-Abstract- Campbell .... Business English as a Part of Stenographic Training-Abstract-Taintor .... 436 Teaching Bookkeeping so as to Realize its Most Important Education and Vocational Values-Abstract-Jones .. 437 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Secretary's Minutes . 439 Interesting School Children in Health-Abstract-Littell. 440 Nutrition of the School Child-Abstract-Clark .. 442 The Education of Crippled Children-Abstract-Allen . 443 Dental Hygiene in the Schools-Juell . 446 Mental Hygiene and the School Program-Abstract-Maxfield . 449 Games and Health-Raymond . 453 What is Needed for Better School Medical Inspection and Health Service- Howe 456 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes . 460 Constitution 468 Teacher, Whither Goest Thou?-Keppel . 470 Discussion of N. E. A. Tenure Report-Hunter . 475 Single Salary Schedule-Morrison ... 480 Report of the Committee on Evaluation of Instruction of the Department of Classroom Teachers- Wilson ... 486 The Classroom Teacher-Abstract-Blight . 498 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN CHICAGO MEETING Secretary's Minutes ... 500 How High Schools are Coöperating with Parents-Ferguson . 502 Ideals Women Should Uphold in Politics-Fraser .. 508 Women in Politics-Warren . 511 Rural School Demonstration Work in Lagrange and Johnson Counties in Indiana-Smith 515 The Needs of High School Girls and How These Needs are Metby a Dean of Girls-McDonald 520 viii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION How the Needs of the High School Girl are Being Met by the Parent- Hefferan 525 The Needs of the High School Girl and How They are Met by Social and Philanthropic Organizations-Bingham . 528 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS Educating the Public to Higher Standards of Textbook Making- Douglass .. 537 -Thomas ... 541 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CHICAGO MEETING Secretary's Minutes .... 545 The Right Relationship of Coöperation Between the Elementary- School Prin- cipal and Supervisors- The Chicago Plan-Madden ............. 548 WASHINGTON MEETING Secretary's Minutes . 552 Report of Educational Progress-Sargeant . 553 The School Library-Morgan ....... 561 Drill in Arithmetic-Abstract-Maxson . 564 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION WASHINGTON MEETING Secretary's Minutes ..... 565 The Outlook for Immigrant Education from the Standpoint of the United States Bureau of Education- Tigert .. 567 Types of Important Racial Information which Teachers of Americanization Should Possess-Jenks 569 Some Attitudes of the Foreign-Born on Their Life in America-Abstract- Drachsler 570 The Patriotic Education League of Lynn, Massachusetts-MacLean .... 570 Subject-Matter Most Vital for the Adjustment of the Non-English Speaking Woman to American Life-Woodward . 573 Lesson Materials in Reading and Writing for the Foreign-Born Illiterate- Abstract-Ahlers 576 The Citizenship Course for Naturalization Classes-Abstract-Clark........ 577 580 Score Cards for Texts in Adult Immigrant Classes-Lewis . DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 583 Conditioning and Reconditioning-An Experimental Study in Child Be- havior-Jones 585 The Present State of Progress of the Committee Determining "A Typical Kindergarten Day," An Index of Kindergarten Work-Davis ........ 590 The Need of Instruments to Measure Kindergarten Education-Reed ........ 591 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 597 The Teaching of Music Appreciation as a Phase of Modern Education- Mohler 598 CONTENTS ix . The Organization and Conduct of a School Orchestra-Abstract-Price .... 603 School Music in 1836, 1886, 1911 , 1936—Clark . 603 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES Secretary's Minutes .. 613 Working Conditions Essential to Highest Efficiency and Economy-Maxwell .. 614 The Choice of Materials entering into the Curricula of Teacher-Training In- stitutions-Baker 624 A Critique of Educational Method-McCormack . 627 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 637 Rural School Athletics-Abstract- Orem ..... 639 Athletics and their Value for Citizenship-Abstract-Maloy . 641 Girls Athletics-Abstract-Perrin . 643 Athletics in High School-North . 644 Constitution of the Department of School Health and Physical Education ..... 647 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION CHICAGO MEETING Secretary's Minutes .... : ... 651 Value and Significance of Research in Rural Education-Ashbaugh ........ 656 663 Objective Studies in Rural Schools-Cram. Discussion of the Report of the Committee on a Comparative Study of Instruc- tion in Consolidated and One-teacher Schools-Favrot .............. 667 Report of the Committee on Constructive Studies-Frost . 672 The Porter School : A New Vision of the Rural School in Country Life- 674 Harvey What Functions of a State Supervisor of Rural Schools are most Worth- while? Simpson 680 Howto Get the Most out of a Short Course for County Superintendents- Trumper 685 Problems Involved in the Administration of State Aid for Transportation- Howard 689 How to Raise the Standards of County Supervision Through a Research De- partment-Baer 693 Raising the Standards of County Supervision Through Demonstration Teach- 698 ing-Moeller 702 A Comparison of Small and Large High Schools-Roemer . Relation of Size to Cost of Operation in Certain Schools of Iowa-Holy .... 706 WASHINGTON MEETING Secretary's Minutes ..... 715 The Parent-Teacher Associations in Rural Schools-Cleaver ....... 716 721 A Brighter Future for the Rural Child-Cook ... 726 The Country-The Economic Basis of National Life-Galpin ... 730 Educational Resources of Country Life-Butterworth . DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes .. 739 Shall School Boards be Independent of Municipal Government ?-Deffenbaugh 740 Should the School Secretary be Under the Direction of the Superintendent ?- Gerwig 746 X NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Outstanding Essentials of Modern School Architecture-Gompert ............ 749 Should the School Secretary be Under the Direction of the Superintendent- Dick 750 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes ... 753 Science for the Million-Slosson .. 754 Science in the Elementary School-Sperry .. 761 Devices and Methods in Junior High School Science-Shriner . 768 Investigation of Demonstration versus Laboratory as a Method of Teaching Natural Science-Anibal ... 771 Science Instruction in Some European Schools-Downing . 772 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ...... 775 Organizing the High School and Classifying Its Pupils so as to Serve Each 776 Equitably-Wilson Alltucker 779 Ways and Means of Accrediting Secondary Schools for College Entrance- Whitman 783 McLean 784 791 The Relation of the Secondary School to Junior Employment-Stewart ... Stark .... 792 The Future of the Comprehensive High School-Counts . 796 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes . 803 Resolutions of the Department of Superintendence. 813 Moral Aims in the Training of Youth-Neumann . 817 Opening Addresses . 819 821 The Greetings of Chicago-Dever .. National Obligations in Education-Abercrombie . 823 Encouragements-Lewis 828 Next Step in World-Peace-Allen . 832 A Tribute to Warren G. Harding-Davidson . 836 A Tribute to Woodrow Wilson-Condon . 838 More Encouragements-McAndrew 839 Educational Expenditures Considered as an Investment-Hartwell . 844 Educational Fads Considered as Fundamental-Reed 849 Rural Education- Graves ... 854 859 The Need and Hope of the City-Hopkins . Hazards of the Superintendency and the Next Forward Steps in Reducing them-Beveridge 864 Relations of the' Superintendent of Schools to the Teaching Corps-Dorsey .. 869 Higher Education : New Administrative Adjustments- Coffman ..... 876 School Board Organization and the Superintendent-Studebaker . 882 What Shall be the Nation's Part-Strayer ........ 888 The Reorganization of the Curriculum of the Elementary Schools-Bonser... 890 Reorganization of the Elementary School to Meet Major Objectives- Spain ... 897 How Shall we Select the Subject-Matter of the Elementary School Cur- 903 riculum-Kilpatrick The Relation of Supervision to the Attainment of the Major Objectives of Elementary Education-Hunter ...... 908 CONTENTS xi SPECIAL TOPIC GROUPS Character Education : The School a Training Ground-Burke . 915 The Senior High School-Bennion .. 916 The Obligations of Citizenship-Coffman ...... 916 The Value of Extra- Curricula Activities-Paul . 917 The Right Spirit-Wright . 917 Physical and Health Education : Health Education in the Schools-Payne ....... 918 Physical and Mental Unfitness in Children-Emerson . 918 Visual Instruction in Education : The Value of Visual Aids in Education-Freeman . 919 Visual Aids-Weber.. 919 Visual Instruction in a City School System-Jones . 920 Visual Instruction in a State School System-Abrams . 920 Value of Visual Instruction-Hays .. 921 Material for Visual Instruction-Dorsey . 921 Visual Aids-Crandall 921 Vocational and Part-time Education : The Superintendent's Responsibility in Determining and Coördinating the Major Policies of Vocational and Part-time Education-Hartwell .... 922 Vocational Guidance as an Essential Adjunct of Vocational Education- Leavitt 922 Immigrant Education-Deming . 923 The School and The Community : Parent, Teacher, and Schools-Moore ... 925 925 City Schools and Community Service-Stetson . 927 A Rural School Community Program-Bush .. CITY, COUNTY, AND STATE GROUPS Superintendents of Cities of Population Below 5000: Differences of the Curriculum of Rural Elementary Schools for Grades One to Six and with Those for Similar Grades in City Schools-Foote 928 Discussion-Jones 928 Training of Teachers-Hale ... 928 Teacher Training-Wellman . 928 Definite Program Needed-Philhower . 929 Curriculum of the Standard Four-year High School-Ramsey . 929 Curriculum-The Junior- Senior High School-Spencer .... 931 Coordination of Education Units for Maximum Efficiency-Hillegas .... 931 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 5000 and 10,000 : What Service the School System Shall Render in the Small Community- Gates 932 The New Science of Public School Publicity-Spencer ... 933 Notable Progress in Administration in Cities with a Population Between 5000 and 10,000-Early ... 933 Selecting New Materials-French ... 934 The Selection of Essentials by Job Analysis of Life Activities Involving the Particular Subject-Kretsinger ... 935 The Selection of Essentials by an Analysis of the Ideals Desirable in Every Individual-Langworthy . 935 The Organization of Curriculum Materials for Instruction Purposes- Corning 935 xii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 10,000 and 25,000 : Some Uses and Abuses of Intelligence Tests-Risley .. 937 The Beverly Industrial School-Chace .... 937 Teaching Foreigners to Speak English-Rose . 938 Keeping Things Checked Up-Sellew . 939 A Method of Curriculum Making-Fillers . 940 Vocational Education in Small Cities-Gates .. 940 Art in the Public Schools Related to Life-Spencer . 941 Developing the Individual-Cornell .. 942 The Validity and Future of the 6-3-3 -Plan-Horton ... 942 Experience with a Single Salary Schedule-Converse .. 943 The Humanizing of the Grade-School Curriculum-Sipple . 944 The School Superintendent as a Salesman of Education-Merriam 944 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 25,000 and 50,000 : Powers and Duties of the City Superintendent-Lewis . 945 Powers and Duties-Pickell .... 946 Duties of the Superintendent-Joyce .. 946 Spelling, a Vital Factor in the Curriculum-Arnold . 947 Qualities to be Possessed by a Superintendent of Schools-Burke . 947 Comparison of the 6-3-3 -Plan and the 6-4-2-Plan-Cooper ..... 948 Merit Ratings of Teachers-Whitney ......... 948 The Value of Teacher Organizations- Thalman .. 949 Safety Teaching in Our Schools-Whitney .... 949 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 50,000 and 200,000 : Curriculum Practice-Bentley . 950 Improved Methods of Supervision-Cooper . 950 Reorganizing Secondary Education-Pickell ... 951 Secondary School Reorganization-Reavis . 951 Making the High School a Social Institution-Stetson . 952 The High School Building-Beveridge. 952 Budget Planning-Pratt... 953 Superintendents of Cities of Population Above 200,000 : Better Trained Teachers-Hartwell . 954 Better Organized Curricula-Newlon .. 954 Possible Economies Through Organization-Washburne . 954 A Longer School Year- Corson ... 955 Economies in Instruction-Jones . 955 County Superintendents : The Superintendent's Relation to His Principals- Yawberg . 956 The County Superintendent's Relation to His Teachers-Kennedy ...... 956 The Superintendent's Relation to His School Directors-Bentz . 957 Visiting Schools-Pittman ... 957 Evening Schools in Our Rural Communities-Johnson . 958 School Administration in St. Louis County-Barnes . 958 Leadership-Harman 959 959 A County-Wide Program of Extra-Curricula Activities-Pore .... State Superintendents and Commissioners : Modern Education-Butterfield . 960 960 State School Support-Marrs .... 961 State and Local Support- Trumper .... 961 Principles Underlying School Support-Holloway . DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 963 Secretary's Minutes .. The Relation of Visual Aids to Educational Objectives-Zirbes . 964 CONTENTS X111 The Value of Moving Pictures as an Aid to Teaching Languages and Citizenship to Adult Foreigners-Aiton .... 966 The Preparation of Teachers in the Use of Visual Aids-Balcom . 971 Visual Imagery in Geography-Atwood . 975 976 Making the Highways and Byways Real to Children-Watson . How to Reach the Masses with Health Education-Crampton . 980 Yale Historical Films-Stephenson .... 982 A Summary of Visual Viewpoints-Hays . 984 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CHICAGO MEETING Secretary's Minutes . 987 Amalgamation of Vocational Education Organizations-Bennett .... 989 Kitson . 989 Colvin ... 990 Present Trends and Friendly Enemies of Industrial Education-Edgerton 992 Provisions for Industrial Education in the Public Schools-Briggs ..... 993 What is the Place of Analysis in Vocational Curriculum-Building- Kitson 995 How Does the Instruction in Vocational Schools Provide for Individual Differences-Rodgers 996 The Future of Industrial Education-Abstract-Smith . 1002 The Relation of General to Vocational Education-Snedden . 1003 WASHINGTON MEETING Secretary's Minutes . 1006 The Administration of a State Program of Apprentice Training in the Building Trades-Dennis .. 1007 Our National Construction Program-Sawyer . 1008 Forestry as a Tool in Vocational Education-Abstract-Merrill . 1013 The Fourth Representative Assembly. 1015 The Education Bill ... 1033 The Publications of the National Education Association . 1041 Fifty Educational Books of 1923 ...... 1061 Some 1923 Books of General Interest ..... 1069 National Education Association of the United States 1857-1870 THE NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PURPOSE-To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes- sion of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States . The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association." 1870-1907 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to "National Educational Association," by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven- tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: SECTION 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc- tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty- six, under the Act of General Incorpora- tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *John W. Lan- List of singer, of Pennsylvania ; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama ; Arthur Incorporators J. Matthews, of Arizona ; John H. Hinemon, *George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado ; •Deceased. [1] 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; *George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware ; *J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Columbia ; Clem Hampton, of Florida ; *William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook , *Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois ; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory ; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, *A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas ; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky ; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana ; *John S. Locke, of Maine ; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland ; Charles W. Eliot, Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts ; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan ; *William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi ; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana ; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico ; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, *William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes of New York ; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio ; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hick- ham, of Oklahoma ; * Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon ; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina ; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota ; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas ; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont, Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia ; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington ; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robin- son, of West Virginia ; *Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin ; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico ; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii ; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands; and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Education Association of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succes- sion with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. SEC. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro- mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following depart- Purpose and ments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to-wit: The Departments, first, of Superintendence ; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elemen- tary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education ; ninth, of Secondary Education ; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration ; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws. SEC. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be * Deceased. ACT OF INCORPORATION 3 sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction ; to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or re- Powers of ceive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any Corporation real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation ; and to accept and admin- ister any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. SEC. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all per- sonal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce Property to be income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from Tax-Exempt taxation; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corpora- tion; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. SEC. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members-viz., active, associate, and Members corresponding-whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. SEC. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, Officers a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board ofTrustees. TheBoard of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each State, Territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, andof all life directors of the National Educational Association . Board of The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Directors presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respect- ive terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows : the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. Executive The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to Committee act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who 4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Board of Association, at which they were elected, they shall elect one Trustees trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his nembership. SEC. 7. That the invested fund now known as the " Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the Permanent safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other Fund funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommenda- tion of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expendi- ture has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organi- zation of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment Duties of of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the Trustees President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Asso- Election of ciation, who shall also be Secretary of the Executive Committee, Secretary and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. SEC. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, D. C.; provided, That the meetings of the corpora- Location of tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and Office that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. SEC. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by- laws shall be adopted; and Acceptance of that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Associa- This Charter tion shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or ACT OF INCORPORATION 5 are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Education Associa- tion of the United States " ; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro- vided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia ; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corpora- tion of the District of Columbia . SEC. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, Rights of or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, Creditors be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. SEC. 11. The Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, Amendments or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual to Charter right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. SEC. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment to its by-laws, that the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meeting in the election of officers and the transaction of busi- Creation of ness shall be vested in and exercised by a representative as- Representative sembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov- Assembly erned in accordance with the provisions of the by-laws adopted by said corporation. Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa- tionAssociation of the United States by the active members of the National Educa- tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BY- LAWS (Complete as amended at the Annual Business Meeting of the Representative Assembly, Washington, D. C., July 3, 1924. Amendments made at the Washington meeting are in italics.) ARTICLE I-MEMBERSHIP SECTION 1. The membership of the National Education As- Membership sociation of the United States shall consist of three classes, Defined Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. SEC. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work at the time of their becoming members . SEC. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2.00, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several departments, to receive The Journal free, and, on application, to secure all publications of the Association at a price fixed by the Publication Committee, which Obligations and shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues Privileges of $5.00 an active member shall receive, in addition to The Journal, without application or other condition, the volume of Proceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, including re- ports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all Life Members and the rights and privileges of active members without the payment Life Directors of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. SEC. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not actively engaged in the profession of teaching, but interested Associate in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate Members member shall be the same as the dues of an active member, and he shall have the same rights and privileges excepting the right to vote and hold office. SEC. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be Corresponding elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. Members The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. SEC. 7. The membership year shall be from September 1 Membership to August 31. All membership dues paid during the mem Year bership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. SEC. 8. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Payment of Secretary on or before November 1. An active member failing Dues to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and after being in arrears one half year be dropped from the list of members. SEC. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each Membership member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him Card to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the charter and by-laws of the Association. SEC. 10. The right to vote shall be limited to active members of the Associa- tion whose dues are paid. The right to hold office in the Asso- Right to Vote ciation or in any department shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Each active member shall have one vote. BY- LAWS 7 ARTICLE II-ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS SECTION 1. The election of officers and transaction of busi- ness at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Election of Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov- Officers erned as hereinafter provided. SEC. 2. At the first Business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the following officers shallbe made: President, Vice-Presidents, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the States. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, the delegates of each State, terri- tory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Rep- resentative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the States. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candidates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly, by ballot. Said ballot shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 A. M. to 6 P. M., at such place or places as the Presi- dent of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each State, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vice- President receiving the highest num- ber of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall ap- point tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. And that Article 6, entitled " Committee," Sec- tion 2, be amended by striking out in lines four and five of this section the word "Nominations" ; that Section 3 of Article 6 be omitted, and that Sections 4, 5, and 6 of Article 6 be numbered "3, 4, and 5 " respectively, and that anything in the By-laws of the Association inconsistent with the provisions of these amendments is hereby repealed. SEC. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a State, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa- tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a State unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Affiliated State to representation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter Associations provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Association shallbe $10 for each delegate to which said State shall be entitled, with a maximum of$100. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 4. A local educational association or teachers' organization within a State, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Associa- tion shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to represen- Affiliated Local tation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter provided. Associations The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condi- 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tion, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the volumeofProceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both State and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup- port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members in so far as such interest Relationships: come within the purpose and object of the National Education National, State, Association as set forth in its charter. The Secretary of the and Local National Education Association shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance theinterests of the teaching profession. SEC. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its mem- bers, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association, up to five hundred such active members, and there- State Delegates after one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. SEC. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one Local Delegates hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association . Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. SEC. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the election of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Selection of Affiliated Local Association. For determining the apportionment Delegates of delegates, an active member may be counted in two affiliated associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. SEC. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter and the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each State, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Repre- Ex Officio sentative Assembly. The President of the Association shall Delegates preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. SEC. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso- ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days before the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such informa- Delegates; tion thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Asso- Credentials; ciation. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge Voting; of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have Freedom of equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meetings of the Floor Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative Assembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and by- BY-LAWS 9 laws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for paying the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. SEC. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for business purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III-DUTIES OF OFFICERS SECTION 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall pre side; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the Duties of the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the President Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Com- mittee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Associa tion and of the various departments not definitely fixed by these by- laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or author- ized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Di rectors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become First Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. SEC. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Asso- ciation as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by- laws, and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall Duties of the be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the Secretary absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under thedirection of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Asso- ciation and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee inthe interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his posses- sion belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor dis- tribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Publica- tion Committee. SEC. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Asso 10 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ciation; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees ; shall notify the President of the Association and the Chairman of the Duties of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession Treasurer exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July 1, and when approved by said com- mittee they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association . SEC. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 6 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Duties of Board of Trustees ; shall recommend to the Executive Com- Board of mittee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Associa- Directors tion, the Council of Education, and the departments . The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under au- thority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive Com- mittee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and pro- vided for at the annual business meetings, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees ) to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honor- able institution. SEC. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments . The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special com- Duties of mittees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may Executive have been suggested by the National Council or by the active Committee membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments ; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treas- urer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Com- mittee thereon, to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees , and the office of Secretary. BY-LAWS 11 SEC. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful per- formance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee not later than Further July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which Duties of report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Trustees Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. It shall choose annually its own Chairman and Secretary. ARTICLE IV-THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SECTION 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques- tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Execu- tive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for in- Function of vestigation and research ; have a report made at its annual National meeting on "Educational Progress During the Past Year" ; Council and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. SEC. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member Membership of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and in Council each member shall be elected for six years and until his suc- cessor is elected . SEC. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota Election of of members. No State, territory, nor district in the United Committee States shall have at one time more than seven regular mem- Members bers in the Council . SEC. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held Time of Meeting during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. SEC. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi- nated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of at- Loss of tending the regular sessions of the Council and participating Membership in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. SEC. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vice-President, a Secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the Council duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Officers Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for pub- lication. SEC. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by- laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of in- corporation or the by-laws of the Association ; provided, That By- Laws and such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Powers of Directors of the Association before they shall become opera- Council tive. 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SEC. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association ; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V-DEPARTMENTS SECTION 1. The following departments are now ( 1924) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Adult Education; second, of Business Education ; third, of Classroom Teachers ; fourth, of Deans of Women; fifth, of Educational Publi- cations; sixth, of Elementary School Principals ; seventh, of List of Kindergarten Education ; eighth, Library ; ninth, of Music Edu- Departments cation; tenth, of Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges ; eleventh, of Rural Education ; twelfth, of School Health and Physical Education ; thirteenth, of Secondary School Principals ; fourteenth, of Science In- struction; fifteenth, of Superintendence; sixteenth, of Visual Education ; seven- teenth, Vocational Education. There is also the National Council of Education. SEC. 2. Each Department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the department ; provided, Active members of the Association, Members of and no others, shall be eligible to such department member- Departments ship, and provided also that all active members of the Asso- ciation shall be permitted to attend the professional programs and discussions of any department. SEC. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the meeting of the Association, except as the Executive Committee may approve other arrangements. SEC. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro- grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective Presidents in confer ence with, and under the general direction of, the President of Object of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two Department sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by Meetings the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers . SEC. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a President, a Vice- President, and a Secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Officers of Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President Departments of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other depart- mental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the de- partment. Any department may provide for the creation of an executive committee and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the department, and the charter and by-laws of the Association. SEC. 6. The Secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary Department of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings Headquarters of the department for publication. Provided, No department shall establish an office outside of the general headquarters of the Association without the consent of the Executive Committee of the Association. BY-LAWS 13 SEC. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the excep- tion stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and Rights of shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each depart- Departments ment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws . SEC. 8. A new department may be established by a two thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the Board, or by a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any annual business meeting ; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meet- How ing of the Board next preceding the one at which action is Established taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established. A department already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a How two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any busi- Discontinued ness meeting of the Association ; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the pre- ceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years . SEC. 9. Any department, by a two thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the department who shall transmit them monthly Fees for to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added Department to the department's allowance from the Association and shall Members be used for the work of said department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. ARTICLE VI-COMMITTEES SECTION 1. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the president shall appoint an Auditing Committee con- sisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee Auditing shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together Committee with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article ; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of the Representative Assembly. SEC. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the State and local delegates from Delegates meet each State shall select one member for each of the following com- by States mittees: Credentials, Nominations, Resolutions, and Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of the delegates from the Secretary and report thereon to the Representative Assembly. SEC. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the third day of the annual meeting at 9.00 A. M., at a place designated by the President of the Associa- tion, and shall nominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for President, eleven persons for Nominations Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each State, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of Directors. It shall report to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. SEC. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meet- ing of Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This Resolutions committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. SEC. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the Necrology published Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year accompanied by me- morial sketches whenever practicable. SEC. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do business as expert accountants ; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, paper, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Examination of Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, Accounts and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE VII-MEETINGS SECTION 1. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Com- Meetings to be mittee acting for the Board in accordance with these by-laws. Held Annually An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. SEC. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin on the second day of the annual meeting at 9.00 A. M. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10.30 А. м. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Meetings of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty- Assembly four hours after the close of the last session of the annual Directors , and meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in Trustees the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately fol- lowing the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. BY-LAWS 15 ARTICLE VIII-PROCEEDINGS SECTION 1. The proceedings of the Association, the Council, the departments, the commissions and committees, shall be published at the dis- cretion of and under the direction of a committee appointed by Publication of the Executive Committee, provided, That in the opinion of the Proceedings Executive Committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. SEC. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of the Absence of author, without the approval of the President of the Association, Author or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Publication Committee. ARTICLE IX- QUORUM SECTION 1. Representatives from twenty-five States and terri- tories shall constitute a quorum in all meetings of the Represent- Quorum ative Assembly and of the Board of Directors . ARTICLE X-APPROPRIATIONS SECTION 1. Unless otherwise ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meetings, not less than 10 per Limit on cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be Investigations set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI -AMENDMENTS SECTION 1. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting ofthe Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly if the alteration or Amendments amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual to By-Laws business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of.July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers ; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by- laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Presiding Officer IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Educa- tion Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907 ." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or- ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress . Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem- ber 4, 1907. [16] CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857- PHILADELPHIA, PA, (Organized) JAMES L. ENOS, Chairman. 1865- HARRISBURG, PA . S. S. GREENE, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. 1858- CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. RICHARDS, President. Z. RICHARDS, Treasurer. J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. 1866- INDIANAPOLIS, IND . A. J. RICKOFF, Treasurer, J. P. WICKERSHAM, President. 1859-WASHINGTON, D. C. S. H. WHITE, Secretary, A. J. RICKOFF, President. S. P. BATES, Treasurer . 1867- No session . J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. 1868- NASHVILLE, TENN. C. S. PENNELL, Treasurer. 1860-BUFFALO, N. Y. J. M. GREGORY, President. J. W. BULKLEY, President. L. VAN BOKKELEN , Secretary. Z. RICHARDS, Secretary. JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Treasurer. 1869- TRENTON, N. J. O. C. WIGHT, Treasurer. L. VAN BOKKELEN, President. 1861, 1862-No session. 1863-CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. CROSBY, Secretary. John D. PHILBRICK, President. A. L. BARBER, Treasurer . 1870- CLEVELAND, OHIO JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Secretary. DANIEL B. HAGAR, President. O. C. WIGHT, Treasurer . 1864- OGDENSBURG, N. Y. A. P. MARBLE, Secretary. W. H. WELLS, President. W. E. CROSBY, Treasurer. DAVID N. CAMP, Secretary. Z. RICHARDS, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871-ST. LOUIS , MO. - SARATOGA SPRINGS , N. Y. 1883 J. L. PICKARD, President. E. T. TAPPAN, President. W. E. CROSBY, Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. 1872-BOSTON, MASS. N. A. CALKINS , Treasurer. 1884- MADISON, WIS . E. E. WHITE, President. THOMAS W. BICKNELL, President. S. H. WHITE, Secretary. H. S. TARBELL, Secretary. JOHN HANCOск, Treasurer. N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. 1873- ELMIRA, N. Y. 1885- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. B. G. NORTHROP, President. F. LOUIS SOLDAN, President. S. H. WHITE, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer. N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. 1874- DETROIT, MICH . 1886-ТОРEKA, KANS. S. H. WHITE, President. N. A. CALKINS , President. A. P. MARBLE, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON , Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer . E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. 1875-ΜΙΝΝΕΑPOLIS, MINN. 1887- CHICAGO, ILL . W. T. HARRIS, President. W. E. SHELDON , President. М. К. Аввотт, Secretary . J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. A. P. MARBLE, Treasurer. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. -BALTIMORE, MD, 18;6 1888-SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF, W. F. PHELPS, President. AARON GOVE, President. W. D. HEN KLE, Secretary. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. A. P. MARBLE, Treasurer. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. 1877- LOUI SVILLE, KY. 1889- NASHVILLE, TENN. M. A. NEWELL, President. ALBERT P. MARBLE, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. II. CANFIELD, Secretary. J. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer . E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. 878-No session. 1890- ST . PAUL , MINN . 1879-PHILADELPHIA, PA . J. H. CANFIELD, President, JOHN HANCOCK, President. W. R. GARRETT, Secretary. E. C. HEWETT , Treasurer. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. 1891- TORONTO , ONT. J. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer. 1880- CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. W. R. GARRETT, President. J. ORMOND WILSON, President. Е. Н. Соок, Secretary . W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. - SARATOGA SPRINGS , N. Y. 1892 F. T. TAPPAN, Treasurer. TAN - ATLANTA, GA . Е. Н. Сооk, President. JAMES H. SMART, President. R. W. STEVENSON, Secretary. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. E. T. TAPPAN , Treasurer. 1893--CHICAGO , ILL . 1882- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. (International Congress of Education.) G. J. ORR, President. W. E. SHELDON , Secretary. ALBERT G. LANE, President. H. S. TARBELL, Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. [17] 18 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1894-ASBURY PARK, N. J. 1901-DETROIT, MICH. ALBERT G. LANE, President. JAMES M. GREEN, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. L. C. GREENLEE, Treasurer, 1895 - DENVER, COLO . 1902- MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Pres. WILLIAM M. BEARDSHEAR, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. CHARLES H. KEYES, Treasurer. 1896-BUFFALO, N. Y. 1903-BOSTON, MASS. NEWTON C. DOUGHERTY, President. CHARLES W. ELIOT, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. W. M. DAVIDSON, Treasurer. 1897 - MILWAUKEE, WIS . 1904-ST . LOUIS, MO. CHARLES R. SKINNER , President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . JOHN W. COOK, President. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. 1898-WASHINGTON , D. C. MCHENRY RHOADS. Treasurer. J. M. GREENWOOD, President. 1905-ASBURY PARK AND OCEAN IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . GROVE , N. J. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, President. 1899- LOS ANGELES , CALIF. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary . E. ORAM LYTE, President. JAMES W. CRABTREE, Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. 1906-No session. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. 1900- CHARLESTON, S. C. 1907- LOS ANGELES, CALIF. OSCAR T. CORSON, President. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. CARROLLG. PEARSE, Treasurer. J. N. WILKINSON , Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908- 1908-CLEVELAND , OHIO 1916-NEW YORK, N. Y. EDWIN G. COOLEY, President. DAVID B. JOHNSON, President. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treas . GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. 1909-DENVER, COLO . 1917-PORTLAND , ORE. LORENZO D. HARVEY, President. ROBERT J. ALEY, President. IRWIN SHEPARD , Secretary. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. ARTHUR IH. CHAMBERLAIN, Treas . THOMAS E. FINEGAN , Treasurer. 1918-PITTSBURGH, PA. 1910-BOSTON, MASS . MARY C. C. BRADFORD, President. JAMES Y. JOYNER. President. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. А. Ј. МАТТHEWS , Treasurer. ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treas. 1919-MILWAUKEE, WIS. 1911-SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF . GEORGE D. STRAYER, President. ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, President. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD. Secretary . A. J. MATTHEW'S , Treasurer, DURAND W. SPRINGER, Treasurer. 1920- SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 1912-CHICAGO , ILL. JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, Pres . CARROLL G. PEARSE, President. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary . IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. A. J. MATTHEWS , Treasurer. KATHERINE D. BLAKE , Treasurer. 1921-DES MOINES , IOWA 1913- SALT LAKE CITY , UTAH FRED M. HUNTER, President. EDWARD T. FAIRCHILD, President. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer. GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. 1922- BOSTON , MASS . CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS , Pres . 1914- ST. PAUL, MINN. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary. JOSEPH SWAIN, President. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. 1923-OAKLAND - SAN FRANCISCO GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. WILLIAM B. OWEN , President. 1915-OAKLAND , CALIF. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. (International Congress of CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer. Education) 1924-WASHINGTON , D. C. DAVID STARR JORDAN. President. OLIVE M. JONES, President. DURAND W. SPRINGER. Secretary. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS, 1923-24 GENERAL ASSOCIATION OLIVE M. JONES . President. New York City J. W. CRABTREE . Secretary Washington, D. C. CORNELIA S. ADAIR . Treasurer . Richmond, Va. Executive Committee OLIVE M. JONES ....... President .. New York City WILLIAM B. OWEN .... Vice-President ... Chicago, I11. WALTER R. SIDERS .... Chairman , Board of Trustees . Pocatello , Idaho CORNELIA S. ADAIR . Treasurer . Richmond, Va. CORA WILSON STEWART .. Member by Election .... Frankfort, Ky. Board of Trustees WALTER R. SIDERS, Chairman ... Superintendent of Schools . Pocatello, Idaho OLIVE M. JONES ... .President.. New York City AGNES E. DOHERTY. Teacher, Central High School . St. Paul , Minn. THOMAS E. FINEGAN ... 613 North Front Street. Harrisburg, Fa. CARROLLG. PEARSE .... 3209 Grand Avenue.. Milwaukee, Wis . Vice-Presidents WILLIAM B. OWEN, President, Chicago Normal College . Chicago , Il1 . C. B. GLENN, Superintendent of Schools . Birmingham, Ala. C. E. ROSE. Superintendent of Schools. ...Tucson, Ariz. ANNIEG. GRIFFEY, Primary Supervisor .. Little Rock, Ark. MARY F. MOONEY, Vice- Principal, Washington School . San Francisco, Calif. ANNA L. FORCE, 216 Sherman Street.... Denver, Colo. C.F. GARRETT, Superintendent of Public Schools .... Fairfield, Iowa FLORENCE M. HALE, State Agent for Rural Education, State House . Augusta, Maine E. RUTH PYRTLE, McKinley School ... Lincoln, Nebr. CARROLL R. REED, Superintendent of Schools ... Akron, Ohio R. O. STOOPS . Superintendent of Schools . York, Pa. S. L. SMITH, General Field Agent for Rural Schools, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Nashville, Tenn. Board of Directors Directors Ex Officio OLIVE M. JONES, President, New York CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer, Richmond, City Va. WILLIAM B. OWEN, First Vice-President, WALTER R. SIDERS , Chairman of the Board Chicago, III. of Trustees, Pocatello, Idaho. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary, Washington, D. C. Life Directors ALEY, ROBERT J., President of Butler College ..... Indianapolis, Ind. BRADFORD, MARY C. C., 1735 Bellaire Street .. .Denver, Colo . BICKNELL, THOMAS W., 207 Boyle Avenue ... Providence, R. I. BOARD OF EDUCATION .. Nashville, Tenn. BROWN, ELMER ELLSWORTH, President of New York University. New York City BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY, President of Columbia University . New York City CLAXTON, P. P., Superintendent of Schools ... Tulsa, Okla. COCLEY, EDWIN G., Union League Club . Chicago , Ill. CORSON, OSCAR T., R. F. D. No. 2 .... Oxford, Ohio ELIOT, CHARLES W. , President Emeritus of Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass . GRAHAM, H. A..... Mt. Pleasant, Mich. HUNTER, FRED M., Superintendent of Schools . Oakland, Calif. JOHNSON, DAVID B., President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College ...... Rock Hill, S. C. JORDAN, DAVID STARR, President Emeritus of Stanford University . Calif. JOYNER, JAMES Y........ ..... La Grange, N. C. MARSHALL, T. MARCELLUS . Stouts Mills, W. Va. [19] 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OWEN, WILLIAM B., President of Chicago Normal College. Chicago, Ill. PRESTON, JOSEPHINE CORLISS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .. Olympia, Wash. PEARSE, CARROLL G., 3209 Grand Avenue .. Milwaukee, Wis . SKINNER, CHARLES R.. Librarian , Legislative Library, Capitol Bldg. ...Albany, N. Y. MOORE, ROBERT C. , Secretary, State Teachers Association . Carlinville , Ill . STRAYER, GEORGE D. , Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N. Y. SWAIN, JOSEPH, Swarthmore College . Swarthmore, Pa. TAYLOR, A. R.... Decatur, I11 . TEACHERS' INSTITUTE . Philadelphia, Pa. TIGERT, JOHN J. , U. S. Commissioner of Education Washington , D. C. WHITE, CHARLES G.... Menominee, Wis . WILLIAMS, CHARL ORMOND, Field Secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. State Directors Alabama. C. B. GLENN , Superintendent of Schools ..... Birmingham Alaska.. LESTER D. HENDERSON , Commissioner of Education . Juneau Arizona .. A. J. MATTHEWS, President, State Normal School ... Tempe Arkansas , ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, Primary Supervisor .. Little Rock California . WILLIAM P. DUNLEVY, 2924 Ash Street . San Diego Colorado . H. B. SMITH, Secretary, Colorado Education Association ...... Denver Connecticut EDWARD B. SELLEW, Superintendent of Schools . .MiddletoWI Delaware... H. V. HOLLOWAY, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Dover Florida. AGNES BALLARD, Superintendent of Palm Beach County Schools West Palm Beach Georgia . K. T. ALFRIEND, Department of Education and Psychology, Bessie Tift College. Forsyth Idaho. ELILABETH RUSSUM , State Superintendent of Public Instruction... Boise Illinois. MRS . SARAH L. THOMAS, 401 Kishwaukee Street . Rockford Indiana . H. LESTER SMITH, Dean of School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington Iowa. THOMAS R. ROBERTS, Superintendent of Schools ........ Independence Kansas . M. E. PEARSON, Superintendent of Schools ..... Kansas City Kentucky . R. E. WILLIAMS, Secretary, Kentucky Education Association .. Louisville Louisiana . LORETTA R. DOERR, 1323 North Rampart . New Orleans Maine.. JOSIAH W. TAYLOR, State Agent for Secondary Education ...... Augusta Maryland...... WILLIAM BURDICK, State Supervisor Physical Education .. Baltimore Massachusetts MARY MCSKIMMON, Principal of Pierce School . Brookline Michigan. .T. E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Lansing Minnesota W. H. SHEPHARD, North High School .. Minneapolis Mississippi .... J. S. VANDIVER . Moorhead Missouri .. THOMAS J. WALKER, Missouri State Teachers Association. Columbia Montana . A. H. DOUGLASS, 111 Montana Street .. Butte Nebraska. C. ROY GATES, Superintendent of Schools . Grand Island Nevada.. E. L. MCKEOWN , Principal, Public Schools... Carson City New Hampshire ..... WALLACE E. MASON , Keene Normal School. Keene New Jersey ...... CHARLES B. DYKE, Stacy-Trent Building. Trenton New Mexico . ISABEL L. ECKLES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction.. Santa Fe New York ....... ..AMBROSE CORT, Principal, Public School No. 73 ..... Brooklyn North Carolina ...... ROBERT H. WRIGHT, President, East Carolina Teachers College Greenville North Dakota.... M. E. McCURDY, North Dakota Education Association ... Washburn Ohio . FRANK E. REYNOLDS , Secretary, State Teachers Association ... Columbus Oklahoma. A. C. PARSONS, Superintendent of Schools . Oklahoma City Oregon..... GEORGE HUG, Superintendent of Schools . .Salem Pennsylvania ..... J. H. KELLEY, Secretary, State Education Association ........ Harrisburg Rhode Island ..... WILLIAM O. HOLDEN, Head, Commercial Department, High School .Pawtucket South Carolina ...... GEORGE HARRIS WEBBER, Superintendent of Schools . Beaufort South Dakota. HAROLD W. FOGHT, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School Aberdeen Tennessee . S. L. SMITH, General Field Agent for Rural Schools, Julius Rosenwald Fund for Rural Schools ... .Nashville Texas . CATHERINE GORBUTT, " The Wright" El Paso Utah .... C. N. JENSEN , State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City Vermont DONALD W. MCCLELLAND, President, State Teachers Assn .... Bennington Virginia . S. A. MCDONALD, Principal, Ruffner School ... Norfolk Washington . ... MRS. JENNIE M. FRENCH, Principal, Point Defiance School... Tacoma West Virginia ....... J . H. HICKMAN , State Department of Free Schools ........ Charleston Wisconsin. JOHN F. SIMS, President State Normal School ... Stevens Point Wyoming . A. A. SLADE, Superintendent of Schools .. Casper District of Columbia .. HARRY ENGLISH, Head of Department of Mathematics, Frank- lin Building . Washington Hawaii. W. E. GIVENS, Superintendent of Public Instruction . Honolulu Manila Philippine Islands .... LUTHER B. BEWLEY, Commissioner of Education .. Porto Rico ....... JUAN B. HUYKE, Commissioner of Education .... San Juan OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 21 HEADQUARTERS STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. J. W. CRABTREE , Secretary Directors of Divisions HELEN T. HIXSON, Records and Accounts JOHN K. NORTON, Research JOY ELMER MORGAN, Publications J. O. ENGLEMAN, Field Secretary AGNES WINN, Classroom Service HAROLD A. ALLAN , Business CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, Legislative Secretary S. D. SHANKLAND, Administrative Service and Secretary, Department of Superintendence NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President .J. M. GWINN , Superintendent of Schools ...... San Francisco , Calif. Vice President HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean of School of Education, Indiana University . Bloomington, Ind. Secretary ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Federal Board for Voca- tional Education ... Washington, D. C. Executive Committee ... ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal Lincoln School .. .Denver, Colo . (term expies 1924) DAVID B. CORSON, Superintendent of Schools ... Newark, N. J. (term expires 1925 ) A. J. MATTHEWS, President, Tempe Normal School.... Tempe, Ariz . (term expires 1926 ) OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Business Education President FREDERICK G. NICHOLS, Graduate School of Educa- tion , Harvard University Cambridge, Mass. Vice-President ...... FREDERICK R. BEYGRAU, Evander Childs High School . New York City Secretary ........ HELEN M. PRICE, South Philadelphia High School for Girls.. ... Philadelphia, Pa. Child Hygiene President ........... WILLIAM A. HOWE, State Medical Inspector of Schools.... .Albany, N. Y. Vice-President E. A. PETERSON, Public Schools..... .........Cleveland, Ohio Secretary ...... CHARLES H. KEENE, Director, Bureau of Health Edu- cation, State Department of Public Instruc- tion ....... Harrisburg, Pa. Classroom Teachers President .......... IDA CHRISTINE IVERSEN, Hotel Trinity .......... Los Angeles , Calif. Vice-President ... LUCY M. HOLT, 121 West Twenty-eighth Street ....... Norfolk, Va. Secretary ....ANNA RIDDLE, 217 North Thirteenth Street ........ St. Joseph, Mo. Other members of the Executive Committee..JULIA E. SULLIVAN, 9 Marion Street .. Charlestown, Mass . ANNA M. THOMPSON, Haddon Hall, Linwood & Tracy..... Kansas City, Mo. JULIA SPOONER, 331 Chamber of Commerce Bldg .... Portland, Oreg . Deans of Women President .......... AGNES E. WELLS, Dean of Women, Indiana Univer- sity Bloomington, Ind. First Vice-President ...ANNA V. DAY, Dean of Women, Milwaukee-Downer College ...Milwaukee, Wis. Second Vice-President ... MARY ROSS POTTER, Dean of Women, Northwestern University Evanston, III. Secretary .............. ............FLORENCE KELLOGG ROOT, Dean of Women, The Col- lege of Wooster ... Wooster, Ohio Treasurer ..... MARY HOOKER JOHNSON, Dean of Girls, Washington Irving School ...... .... New York City Educational Publications Elementary Education 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Elementary School Principals President ...... W. T. LONGSHORE, Greenwood School . Kansas City, Mo. First Vice-President ...J. D. WILLIAMS, Woodlawn School . .. Birmingham, Ala. Second Vice-President .. ELI. ABETH BATES, Sixty- Sixth Street School ..... Los Angeles, Calif. Third Vice-President GEORGE A. BEERS, Clarke School . ..Chicago , III . Secretary .MRS. JESSIE M. FINK, Palmer School .. Grand Rapids , Mich. Treasurer COURTLAND V. DAVIS, J. E. B. Stuart School ... Norfolk, Va. Executive Committee ... JOHN W. ANTHONY, Franklin School . Pittsburgh, Pa. (term expires 1924) MARY MCSKIMMON , Pierce School .... Brookline, Mass . (term expires 1925) ANNA LAURA FORCE, Lincoln School . .Denver, Colo . (term expires 1926) LUISE KRAUSS, Gratton School .... .. San Francisco, Calif. (term expires 1927) Higher Education Immigrant Education President CHARLES M. HERLIHY, Supervisor of Adult Alien Education Boston, Mass. Vice-President ......... FLORA D. SMITH, Director of Immigrant Educa- tion.. .... Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary .. ROBERT C. DEMING, Director of Americanization .... Hartford, Conn. Treasurer ..ELLA THORNGATE, Supervisor of Americanization .....Omaha, Nebr. Kindergarten Education President Vice-President ...MARION B. BARBOUR, 4928 Third Street... .... Chico, Calif. GRACE BROWN, School of Education . ::: .. Cleveland, Ohio Secretary ........ CATHARINE R. WATKINS, Director of Kindergarten, 1720 Oregon Avenue .. ..Washington, D. C. Library President ...... W. H. KERR, Librarian, State Normal College ....... Emporia, Kans. Vice-President . ELLA MORGAN, Librarian, Lincoln High School ... Los Angeles, Calif. Music Education President ..MRS. ELIZABETH CARMICHAEL, Butler Apts ....... Fort Dodge, Iowa Secretary LAURA BRYANT, 403 East Seneca Street .... Ithaca, N. Y. Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges President ..MANFRED HOLMES, Illinois State Normal University .... Normal . Ill . Vice-President ...... ROY L. SMITH, State Normal School . ...... North Adams, Mass. Secretary ...NED H. DEARBORN, 509 W. 121st Street ...... New York City Physical and Health Education President .J. B. NASH Supervisor of Physical Education of the Public Schools .. Oakland, Calif. Vice-President . WILLIAM BURDICK, M. D. , State Supervisor of Physical Education, 7 E. Mulberry Street .... Baltimore, Md. Secretary ........ CHARLES H. KEENE, M. D. , Director , Bureau of Health Education, State Department of Public Instruction ..... Harrisburg, Pa. Rural Education President JOHN M. FOOTE, State Dept. of Education ... Baton Rouge, La. Vice-President ....... N. R. BAKER, Superintendent of Jefferson County Schools Birmingham, Ala. Secretary MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity.. New York City Treasurer ...... MRS . A. F. BEVERLY, Principal of the Farm Life School Whitmell , Va. Executive Committee, members-at- large ..... ERNEST BURNHAM , Western State Normal School . Kalamazoo, Mich. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, Field Secretary, National Edu- cation Association Washington, D. C. LEE L. DRIVER, State Department of Education ... Harrisburg, Pa. MACY CAMPBELL, State Teachers' College .... Cedar Falls, Iowa OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 23 School Administration President ......... ... CHARLES EVANS, President, Board of Education, Oklahoma City, Okla. Secretary ..... .. WILLIAM C. BRUCE, Editor, American School Board Journal .... Milwaukee, Wis . Science Instruction President ......... W. L. EIKENBERRY, State Normal School ... E. Stroudsburg, Pa, Vice-President .... .. THOMAS J. MCCORMACK, Principal, La Salle-Peru Township High School .... ..La Salle, Ill. Secretary ..... ARTHUR H. FRENCH, California School of Mechanical Arts .... San Francisco, Calif. Secondary Education President ..C. L. BIEDENBACH, Principal, Berkeley High School, Berkeley, Calif. wwePresident Secretary ...... ..MARY HARRIS, Cent al High School .. LILLIAN JOHNSON, Lincoln High School Minneapolis, Minn. .. Seattle, Wash. Superintendence Premient ..WILLIAM MCANDREW, Superintendent of Schools ...... Chicago, Ill. First Vice-President ... PAYSON SMITH, State Commissioner of Education .... Boston, Mass. Second Vice-President ..JOHN J. MADDOX, Superintendent of Schools ...... St. Louis , Mo. Excutive Secretary ... S. D. SHANKLAND, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W .. Washington , D. C. recutive Committee ... RANDALL J. CONDON, Superintendent of Schools .... Cincinnati, Ohio (term expires 1925) FRANK W. BALLOU, Superintendent of Schools ... Washington, D. C. (term expires 1926) F. D. BOYNTON , Superintendent of Schools . Ithaca, N. Y. (term expires 1927) M. G. CLARK, Superintendent of Schools ....... Sioux City, Iowa (term expi.es 1928 ) Visual Instruction President we President ..H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of Schools ....... Berkeley, Calif. ... ..A. W. ABRAMS, State Department of Education ...... Albany, N. Y. Secretary .... DUDLEY GRANT HAYS, Director of Visual Education, City Schools ..... ..Chicago , III. Vocational Education President ........... . JOHN N. GREER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. kwePresident ......... J . G. COLLICOTT, Superintendent of Schools ........ Columbus, Ohio eretary CARL COLVIN , State Department of Education ...... SpringGeld, III. Wider Use of Schoolhouses President ......... . JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON , State Superintendent of Public Instruction... Olympia, Wasn. Vue President JAMES T. MULROY, Director of the Extended Use of Public Schools . Boston, Mass . Secretory EUGENE C. GIBNEY, Director of Extension Activities , Board of Education . New Yok City Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems (AUTHORIZED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ) MIS. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Chairman, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colorado ZALA HALL, Birmingham, Ala. J. H. RISLEY , Pueblo, Colo . WATA DEXTER, Prescott, Ariz. AMY DICKINSON, Sterling, Colo. Bess EVANS, Little Rock, Ark. EMILY GRIFFITH, Denver, Colo . ANNA MORRIS, Hot Springs, Ark. JESSIE A. MACWILLIAMS, New Haven, Conn. FONA WHITE, Piedmont, Calif. HARRIET K. STORER, New Haven, Conn. PERNICE BANTER, Oakland, Calif. MARGUERITE H. BURNETT, Wilmington, Del. LOSA COTREL, San Francisco, Calif. EMMA A. JENSEN , Washington, D. C. LULE A. SHELTON, Oakland, Calif. HARRY ENGLISH, Washington , D. C. ALBERT HARWELL, Berkeley, Calif. J. H. WORKMAN , Pensacola , Fla. WILLIAMC. SHUTE, Denver, Colo . INGA OLLA HELSETH , Tallahassee, Fla. MIS. MARY ENOCH WARMING, G and Junc- JESSIE MUSE , Atlanta, Ga. ton, Colo. CLARA RECTOR, Pocatello, Idaho 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MRS. ALICE COSGROVE, Pocatello, Idaho CHRISTOPHER PRESTOPINO, New York City CARRIE MAGEE, East St. Louis, Ill. LENA B. STINSON , Mt. Vernon, N. Y. CORA MULL, Chicago, Il1 . MARTHA WILSON, New York City FRANCES E. HARDEN, Chicago, Ill. FRANK PAIN, New York City H. C. MUTH, Rockford, Ill. EDWARD W. STITT, New York City ELEANOR BAPTIST, Hammond, Ind. CLAIRE LATHROP, Wilmington, N. C. ESTELLE SWEN , Cedar Rapids, Iowa M. BEATRICE JOHNSTONE, Grand Forks, N. D. A. J. BURTON , Des Moines, Iowa BERTHA RUESS, Mansfield, Ohio ELIZABETH GRAVES, Mason City, Iowa EDNA JOSEPH, Elyria, Ohio EULA BRIDGER, Kansas City, Kans . JESSIE D. NEWBY, Oklahoma City, Okla. JULIA B. DAVIS, Topęka, Kans . JOSEPHINE DUVALL, Ponca City, Okla. MRS. OTTIE NICKELL, Ashland, Ky. VIOLA ORTSCHILD, Portland, Ore. JULIA SPOONER, Portland , Ore. ELLA LEWIS, Leitchfield, Ky. JESSIE A. SKINNER, Portland, Ore. ANNIE T. BELL, Baton Rouge, La . WILL G. CHAMBERS, State College, Pa. MRS. FRANCES BOYD , Fort Fairfield, Maine BERTHA B. WAGNER, Watsontown, Pa. HELEN M. KING, Portland, Maine CHARLES E. DICKEY, Pittsburgh, Pa. OLIVE MOUNT, Mt. Airy, Md. ELLA LOUISE KING , Central Falls, R. I. GEORGE FOX , Annapolis, Md. FANNIE F. MACDONALD, Providence, R. I. ADA E. CHEVALIER, Brookline, Mass . R. C. BURTS, Rock Hill, S. C. ANNIE C. WOODWARD. Somerville, Mass . MRS. EDITH BEAUMONT, Pierre, S. Dak. ANNIE G. SCOLLARD, E. Braintree 84, Mass . MILDRED E. ENGLISH, Nashville, Tenn. MRS. DESALEE RYAN DUDLEY, Battle Creek, MISS CHARLIE M. NOBLE, Fort Worth, Tex. Mich. MRS . OTHO HANSCOM, Denton, Tex. ANNIE TUCKER, Grand Rapids, Mich, ORA JOHNSON, San Antonio, Tex. JOHN L. BRACKEN, Duluth, Minn. HERMESE PETERSON, Provo, Utah LILIAN STERRETT, Minneapolis, Minn. CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, St. Johnsbury, Vt. HELEN E. BLAISDELL, Minneapolis, Minn . ROBERT M. NEWTON, Franklin, Va. EDITH A. KLEIN, St. Paul, Minn. NANNIE W. THOMPSON, Richmond, Va. MARY LEE BOYD, Jackson, Miss. ALICE MACY, Spokane, Wash. JESSIE BURRALL, Columbia, Mo. NELLIE B. STERRETT, Seattle, Wash . ANNA RIDDLE, St. Joseph, Mo. MRS. ETHEL HILL, Huntington, W. Va. MARTHA HAINES, Glasgow, Mont. ANTHONETTE DURANT , Platteville, Wis. MISS MERLE BEATTIE, Lincoln, Nebr. W. A. CLARK, Stevens Point, Wis. OLIVE BAYLES, Omaha, Nebr. ETHEL GARDNER, Milwaukee, Wis . EVA TIMMONS, Ely, Nev . ANNA YOUNGQUIST, Sheridan, Wyo. J. AGNES CONNORS, Portsmouth, N. Η. LESTER D. HENDERSON, Juneau, Alaska HARRIET J. OUTWIN, Paterson, N. J. EMILY EWALIKO, Hilo, Hawaii L. HILDA ROSE, Newark, N. J. AGNES WINN, consulting member, Washing. MRS. LENA B. SEXTON, Las Cruces , N. Mex. ton, D. C. Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Retirement Allowances (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) PHILIP E. CARLSON, Chairman , 2547 10th Avenue, Minneapolis, Minnesota MRS. MARY M. DAVIS, Ensley, Ala. ADELAIDE FINCH, Lewiston, Maine C. B. GLENN, Birmingham, Ala. MRS. PHEBE A. MATHEWS, W. Somerville, NINA CHRISTIAN, Little Rock, Ark. Mass. A. B. HILL, Little Rock, Ark. E. W. BROOME, Rockville, Md. A. J. MATTHEWS , Tempe, Ariz . MOLLIE R. HOBBS, Baltimore, Md. HELEN LAMB, Flagstaff , Ariz. A. E. WINSHIP, Boston , Mass . CARRIE DALEY, San Francisco, Calif. ELLEN F. O'CONNOR, Boston, Mass . JAMES FERGUSON , Chico, Calif. E. C. WARRINER, Mt. Pleasant, Mich. HANNAH C. BYNON, Fresno, Calif. MARGARET STRAHAN, Grand Rapids, Mich. MARGUERITE VINEYARD , Oakland, Calif. ELLA M. PROBST, Minneapolis, Minn. WILHELMINA VAN DE GOORBERG, Los Angeles, CHARLES L. RICHARDSON , Minneapolis , Minn. Calif . ETHEL EMERSON, Kansas City, Mo. JOHN J. JOHNSON, Gunnison, Colo. ELLA V. DOBBS, Columbia, Mo. MRS. GRACE SHOE SMITH, Denver, Colo. MINA PETRASHEK, Helena, Mont. JANET M. PURDUE, New Haven, Conn. DR. FREEMAN DAUGHTERS, Missoula, Mont. HAROLD E. CHITTENDEN , Naugatuck, Conn. O. L. WEBB, David City, Nebr. H. V. HOLLOWAY, Dover, Del. COSIMA ZACK, Columbus, Nebr. EDITH LOUISE GROSVENOR, Washington, D. C. B. D. BILLINGHURST, Reno , Nev. S. M. ELY, Washington, D. C. LIBBY C. Bоотн , Reno, Nev. RUBY LORANCE, West Palm Beach, Fla . W. ERNEST BUTTERFIELD, Concord, N. H. A. C. CLEVELAND, Valdosta, Ga. CATHERINE A. DOLE, Keene , N. H. ELIZABETH RUSSUM, Boise, Idaho JOHN ENRIGHT, Trenton, N. J. D. WALTER POTTS, East St. Louis , Ill. ELLEN HERRON, Roswell, N. Mex. SARAH L. THOMAS, Rockford, III. MAGNUS GROSS , New York City HELEN DOTY, Evansville, Ind. GEORGIA ALEXANDER, New York City M. G. CLARK, Sioux City, Iowa ISABEL A. ENNIS, New York City LUCY HOBBS, Sioux City, Iowa MRS. R. A. CARLS, New York City J. J. MAXWELL, Kansas City, Kans. GRACE GILLETTE, Albany, N. Y. ANNA RANDLES, Kansas City, Kans . JULE B. WARREN, Raleigh, N. C. ANNIE M. YOUNG, Louisville, Ky. GEORGE HOWARD, JR. , Raleigh, N. C. C. E. LABORDE, Marksville, Ia. GERTRUDE HOAG, Fargo, N. Dak. P. H. GRIFFITH, Baton Rouge, La. MILTON NUGENT, Larimore, N. Dak. COMMITTEES FOR 1923-24 25 .M. EMMA BROOKES, Cleveland, Ohio W. E. GARNETT, College Station, Tex. JOSEPHINE HAMMOND, Steubenville, Ohio MELVIN WILSON , Payson , Utah HARRY E. HAZEL, Cleveland, Ohio FRANCES QUALTROUGH, Salt Lake City, Utah E. D. MURDAUGH, Edmond, Okla . MILDRED SPOONER, Brattleboro, Vt. MARGARET J. MITCHELL, Norman, Okla. A. H. HILL, Richmond, Va. C. E. FERGUSON , Portland, Ore. LUCY M. HOLT, Norfolk, Va. BELLE BISHOP, Gladstone, Ore. ARTHUR L. MARSH, Seattle, Wash . OLIVER P. CORNMAN, Philadelphia, Pa. MYRA L. SNOW, Seattle, Wash . LUCY W. GLASS, Harrisburg, Pa. ELSIE MAXAM , Tacoma, Wash. JOSEPH SWAIN , Swarthmore, Pa. MARGARET RICHARDSON, Spokane, Wash. WILLARD H. BACON, Westerly, R. I. MRS. ETHEL HILL, Huntington, W. Va. MRS. MARY M. NUGENT, E. Providence, R. I. MRS . C. H. HAMILL, Elkins, W. Va. R. C. BURTS, Rock Hill, S. C. E. G. DOUDNA, Madison, Wis . BEULAH DAVIDSON, Beaufort, S. C. ELIZABETH MCCORMICK, Superior, Wis. SARA JOHNSTON, Rapid City, S. Dak. E. B. SKINNER, Madison, Wis. LYDIA LEISTEKOW, Aberdeen, S. Dak. ANNA YOUNGQUIST, Sheridan, Wyo . KATHARINE INGRAHAM , Bolivar, Tenn. IDA MACDONALD, Honolulu, Hawaii R. L. JONES , Memphis, Tenn. JOY E. MORGAN, consulting member, Wash- MAMIE BASTIAN, Houston, Tex. ington, D. С. Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) FRED M. Hunter, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California JOHN W. ABERCROMBIE, Montgomery, Ala. CLIFTON A. TOWLE, Exeter, N. H. C. C. DENNY, Conway, Ark. J. AGNES CONNORS, Portsmouth, N. H. ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, Little Rock, Ark. IDE SARGENT, Paterson, N. J. EMMA BROSAM , Phoenix, Ariz. HILDA ROSE, Newark, N. J. JORN D. LOPER, Phoenix, Ariz. ISABEL ECKLES, Santa Fe, N. Mex. MARK KEPPEL, Los Angeles, Calif. JACKSON GALLUP, Rochester, N. Y. MRS. EMMA A. DACRE, San Francisco, Calif. JOHN F. HARRIS, Brooklyn, N. Y. ETHEL RICHARDSON, Sacramento, Calif. MRS. BRIDGETT C. PEIXOTTO, New York City W.D. BLAINE, Glenwood Springs, Colo. BEULAH SEARING, Brooklyn, N. Y. EDWARD B. SELLEW, Middletown, Conn. A. J. HUTCHINS, Asheville, N. C. FLORENCE E. MEACHAM , Glastonbury, Conn. SUE NASH, Salisbury, N. С. CLARA MENDEN HALL, Wilmington, Del. MINNIE J. NIELSON , Bismarck, N. Dak. JAMES S. RICKARDS, Fort Lauderdale, Fla. M. E. MCCURDY, Washburn, N. Dak. MRS. JANE A. DAVIS, Tampa, Fla. A. T. CARR, Cleveland, Ohio JULIA PRENTISS, Fitzgerald, Ga. A. L. EYLER, Norwood, Ohio ETHEL REDFIELD, Boise, Idaho ANNA L. PETERSON , Cincinnati, Ohio FLORA EDDY, Rockford, III. ETTA DALE, El Reno, Okla. A. L. IVES, Apache, Okla. MARGARET MURPHY, Carlinville, III. NELL DAVISON, Astoria, Ore. M. R. MCDANIEL, Oak Park, Ill. ADDIE M. CLARK, Portland, Ore. H. LESTER SMITH, Bloomington, Ind. KATHERINE MAUTH, Fort Dodge, Iowa H. W. DODD, Allentown, Pa. CLARA JOHNSTON, Topeka, Kan. JESSIE GRAY, Philadelphia, Pa. JOHN ADAMS, Pittsburgh, Pa. L. A. LOWTHER, Emporia, Kan. R. E. WILLIAMS, Louisville, Ky. CHARLES CARROLL, Providence, R. I. HERBERT W. LULL, Newport, R. I. MISS REID POTTER, Bowling Green, Ky. DAVID B. JOHNSON, Rock Hill, S. C. LORETTA DOERR, New Orleans, La. NICHOLAS BAUER, New Orleans, La. A. H. SEYMOUR, Aberdeen, S. Dak. W. B. WOODBURY, Skowhegan, Maine SARA JOHNSTON, Rapid City, S. Dak. C.W. BICKFORD, Lewiston, Maine O. H. BERNARD, Springfield, Tenn. MRS. L. S. GILLETINE, Murfreesboro, Tenn. MIS. ELIZABETH POISAL, Ellicott City, Md. MRS. LUCY WALTON, El Paso, Tex. STELLA E. BROWN, Frederick, Md. R. B. COUSINS, Houston, Tex. W. K. KLINGAMAN, Frederick, Md. W. KARL HOPKINS, Ogden, Utah J'LIA SULLIVAN, Charlestown, Mass. CLARENCE H. DEMPSEY, Montpelier, Vt. JEREMIAH E. BURKE, Boston, Mass. MILDRED E. SPOONER, Brattleboro, Vt. MILDRED M. HARTWELL, Greenfield, Mass. MRS . ALICE W. LOVETT, Richmond, Va. R. W. WARD, Mount Clemens, Mich. ELIZABETH MCCRICKETT, Ypsilanti, Mich. HANNAH COHN, Richmond, Va. MARGARET KING, St. Paul, Minn . STEPHEN L. DWAN, Seattle, Wash . NORA BARRON, St. Paul, Minn. DORA HERREN, Seattle, Wash. HELEN SHOVE, Minneapolis, Minn. ELMER L. BRECKNER, Olympia, Wash. CHARLES A. LEE , Jefferson City, Mo. BESS J. ANDERSON, Parkersburg, W. Va. A. G. CAPPS , Columbia, Mo. JOSEPH ROSIER, Fairmont, W. Va. Mas E. L. KENT, Winona, Miss. META JONAS, La Crosse, Wis. FRANK LONGANECKER, Racine, Wis. R. J. CUNNINGHAM , Bozeman, Mont. F. O. HOLT, Janesville, Wis. JCILE HOEHNE, Beatrice, Nebr. MRS. KATHARINE A. MORTON, Cheyenne, Wyo. FLORENCE CASE, Kearney, Nebr. ANNE GODING, Washington, D. C. D. E. PORTER, Omaha, Nebr. J. A. WILSON, Honolulu, Hawaii W. W. ANDERSON , Tonopah, Nev. MARGARET M. ALLTUCKER, consulting member, MAS. ALICE ROSE, Battle Mountain, Nev. Washington, D. C. 26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers' Problems (REPLACING THE COMMITTEE OF THE COUNCIL ON RURAL EDUCATION) HAROLD W. FOGHT, Chairman, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, South Dakota BESSIE WELLS, Ensley, Ala. G. H. WILLMAN, Chinook, Mont. N. R. BAKER, Birmingham, Ala. LYLE GUYER, Blair, Nebr. A. B. HILL, Little Rock, Ark. IDA B. SHUMAN, Fairbury, Nebr. W. E. HOLBROOK, Little Rock, Ark. G. C. DILWORTH, Virginia City, Nev. MRS. EVA EHRENFELD, Hillside, Ariz. MRS, FLORENCE LOWRY, Golconda, Nev. LOUISE B. LYND , Tempe, Ariz. SAMUEL S. BROOKS , Winchester, N. Η. SAM H. COHN, Sacramento, Calif. WILLIAM K. ENGLISH, Walpole, N. Н. CAROLYNE M. WEBB, Sacramento , Calif. J. M. ARNOLD, Trenton, N. J. E. C. CASH, Pueblo, Colo. JOHN ENRIGHT, Trenton, N. J. C. G. SARGENT, Fort Collins, Colo. A. MONTAYA, Albuquerque, N. Mex. MRS. GRACE CUMMINGS, Delta, Colo. R. W. FOARD, Santa Fe, N. Mex. A. B. MEREDITH, Hartford, Conn. MABEL CARNEY, New York City RUSSELL F. LUND, Glastonbury, Conn. CARTER ALEXANDER, New York City H. V. HOLLOWAY, Dover, Del. GEORGE W. WORKS, Ithaca, N. Y. EDITH LATHROP, Washington, D. C. ILA JOHNSTON , Asheville, N. C. CHARLES M. FISHER, Miami, Fla. N. W. WALKER, Chapel Hill, N. C. GERTRUDE MCARTHUR, Tallahassee, Fla . A. C. BERG, Bismarck, N. Dak. W. G. SCOTT, Atlanta, Ga. AGNES JONES, Hettinger, N. Dak. WALTER B. HILL, Atlanta, Ga. CATHERINE CULLETON, Wapakoneta, Ohio MARGARET SWEET, Lewiston, Idaho E. O. McCOWEN, Portsmouth, Ohio. FANNIE SPAITS MERWIN , Havana, I11. A. G. YAWBERG, Cleveland, Ohio. HARRIETT BIRMINGER, Allendale. Ill. J. C. MUERMAN , Durant, Okla. JASPER L. MCBRIEN , Terre Haute, Ind. H. E. WATSON , Olustee, Okla. HILDA M. HUGHES, Lagrange, Ind. MAUDE NORTHCUTT, Norman, Okla. MACY CAMPBELL, Cedar Falls, Iowa MRS. ALICE M. BACON, Grants Pass, Ore. AGNES SAMUELSON, Cedar Falls, Iowa J. A. CHURCHILL, Salem, Ore. BERTHA TYLER, Orient, Iowa LEE L. DRIVER, Harrisburg, Pa. OLIVE THOMPSON , Kansas City, Kans . MARY C. MURPHY, Johnstown, Pa. MRS. MARY MULLIGAN STROUD, Bunker Hill, J. BUELL SNYDER, Perryopolis, Pa. Kans. IRVING C. MITCHELL, Valley Falls, R. I. FLORA GUETHLIN , Lyons, Kans. LILLIAN E. KNOWLES , Narragansett Pier, J. V. CHAPMAN, Frankfort, Ky. R. I. F. C. BUTTON, Frankfort, Ky. D. L. LEWIS, Columbia, S. C. JOHN M. FOOTE, Baton Rouge, La. RONNIE MARTIN, Pierre. S. Dak. W. C. ROATEN , De Ridder, La. SUE M. POWERS, Memphis, Tenn. WALTER J. RIDEOUT, Dover-Foxcroft, Maine NORMAN FROST, Nashville, Tenn. EVELYN HODGDON , Gorham, Maine M. E. MOORE, Beaumont, Tex. RUTH HOLGATE, Lewiston, Maine TAYLOR BROCKBANK, Murray, Utah RUBY HAYMAN, Rock- a-walkin' , Md. CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, St. Johnsbury, Vt. JENNIE JESSOP, Towson, Md. ROBERT M. NEWTON , Franklin, Va. HARRY H. LOWRY, Lexington, Mass. MRS. R. C. BEVERLY, Whitmell, Va. DAVID MALCOLM, Hinsdale, Mass . MRS. MINNIE G. BEAN, Tacoma, Wash. FRED C. FISCHER, Detroit, Mich. Ζ. MAY ΜΕEIGHEN , Chehalis, Wash. LELA M. MCDOWELL, Kalamazoo, Mich. A. S. BURROWS, Seattle, Wash. ERNEST C. BURNHAM, Kalamazoo, Mich . I. D. MULDOON , Charleston, W. Va. AMALIA M. BENGSTON, Olivia, Minn. ELSIE HILDEBRANDT, Schofield, Wis. ANNA SWENSON , St. Paul, Minn. O. M. NEALE, Stevens Point, Wis. MABEL HONDO, Minneapolis, Minn. JOHN F. SIMS, Stevens Point, Wis. V. JOSEPHINE FITTS, Natchez, Miss . MAY HAMILTON, Casper, Wyo . J. T. CALHOUN, Jackson, Miss. H. M. WELLS, Hamakaupoko, Maui, Hawaii GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Maryville, Mo. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, consulting member, W. T. CLAYSTON, Pineville, Mo. Washington, D. C. Committee on the American Program of Education (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) WILLIAM B. OWEN, Chairman, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Illinois STANLEY H. HOLMES , New Britain, Conn. E. E. CORTRIGHT, Bridgeport, Conn. JOHN W. WITHERS, New York City E. M. SIPPLE, Burlington, Iowa GEORGE D. STRAYER, New York City FRANK CODY, Detroit, Mich. WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, New York City HERBERT S. WEET, Rochester, N. Y. E. L. THORNDIKE, New York City. GEORGE N. CHILD, Salt Lake City, Utah FRANKLIN BOBBITT, Chicago, Ill . MARGARET NOONAN, New York City ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, Stanford University, MAY TRUMPER. Helena, Mont. Calif. MARGARET P. RAE, Brooklyn, N. Y. CHARLES H. JUDD, Chicago, Ill. ROSE PESTA. Chicago , Il1. A. B. MEREDITH, Hartford, Conn . HELEN PARKHURST, New York City BENJ . J. BURRIS, Indianapolis, Ind. ETHEL I. SALISBURY, Los Angeles, Calif. ( 1. B. WILSON, Berkeley, Calif. COMMITTEES FOR 1923-24 27 Committee on Arithmetic Revision (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) GUY M. WILSON, Chairman, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts MARGARET E. NOONAN, New York City W. S. MONROE, Urbana, Ill. RUBY MINOR, San Diego, Calif. S. A. COURTIS, Detroit, Mich. ETHEL SALISBURY, Los Angeles, Calif. CLIFFORD B. UPTON, New York City R. G. CONDON, Cincinnati, Ohio JOHN H. COOK , Greensboro, N. C. H. S. WEET, Rochester, N. Y. R. M. TRABUE, Chapel Hill, N. C. J. M. GWINN, San Francisco, Calif. J. W. STUDEBAKER, Des Moines, Iowa E. C. HIGBIE, Madison, S. Dak. JOHN S. ROBERTS, New York City KATHERYN BURGGRAF, Albion, Idaho J. O. ENGLEMAN, consulting member, CLIFFORD WOODY, Ann Arbor, Mich. Washington, D. C. Committee on Character Education (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) MILTON BENNION, Chairman, Dean, School of Education, University of Utah , Salt Lake City, Utah SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD, Boston, Mass . H. B. WILSON , Berkeley, Calif. MRS. FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, Boston 17, A. DUNCAN YOCUM, Philadelphia, Pa. Mass. CHARLES E. RUGH, Berkeley, Calif. MIS. MARY D. BRADFORD, Wilmington, Del . E. O. SISSON, Berkeley, Calif. TEREMIAH E. BURKE. Boston, Mass. T. W. GALLOWAY, New York City. IRA L. CAMMACK, Kansas City, Mo. MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Los Angeles, Calif. OLIVE M. JONES, New York City EFFIE MACGREGOR, New York City JOHN R. KIRK, Kirksville, Mo. J. L. MERIAM , Los Angeles , Calif. I W. SEARSON, Lincoln, Nebr. MARGARET RAE , New York City EDWIN D. STARBUCK, Iowa City, Iowa S. D. SHANKLAND, consulting member, WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, New York City Washington, D. C. ARTHUR L. BEELEY, Chicago, Ill. Committee on the Classification of Educational Material (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) THOMAS H. BRIGGS, Chairman , Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City B. R. BUCKINGHAM, Columbus. Ohio J. W. STUDEBAKER, Des Moines, Iowa STUART A. COURTIS. Detroit, Mich. LUCY GAGE. Nashville, Tenn . ALBERT S. COOK, Baltimore, Md. JOHN K. NORTON, consulting member, Wash- W. F. RUSSELL, Iowa City, Iowa ington, D. С. Committee to Coöperate with American School Citizenship League (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) MRS. FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, Chairman, 405 Marlborough Street, Boston 17, Massachusetts JOSEPH SWAIN , Swarthmore, Pa. MAE E. FRANCIS, Des Moines, Iowa MRS. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON , Olympia, Wash. ELLA M. PROBST, Minneapolis , Minn. MARY MCSKIMMON, Brookline 46, Mass. FRANK A. REXFORD, New York City H. B. WILSON, Berkeley, Calif. AGNES WINN, consulting member, Washing- JAMES F. HOSIC, New York City ington, D. С. Committee to Coöperate with General Federation of Women's Clubs (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) MRS. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Chairman, State House, Denver, Colorado SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD, Boston, Massachusetts ANNA LAURA FORCE, Denver, Colorado MAMIE S. BASTIAN, Houston, Texas KATHARINE A. MORTON , Cheyenne, Wyo . BELLE M. RYAN , Omaha, Nebraska NINA C. VANDEWALKER, Washington, D. C. Committee to Coöperate with Conference on the Limitation of Armaments (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) HUGH S. MAGILL, Chairman, 5 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Illinois KATHERINE D. BLAKE, New York City J. А. С. СHANDLER, Williamsburg, Va. 28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, Chairman, State House, Augusta, Maine JAMES F. HOSIC, New York City JAMES W. GOWANS, Hutchinson, Kans . KATHERINE D. BLAKE, New York City ARTHUR J. MATTHEWS, Tempe, Ariz. CHARLES H. WILLIAMS, Columbia, Mo. ANNIE C. WOODWARD, Somerville, Mass . JOHN H. FINLEY, New York City FLORENCE HOLBROOK, Chicago, Ill. STEPHAN B. DUGGAN , New York City JEANNETTE JACOBSON, LOS Angeles, Calif. H. D. SHOWALTER, Cheney, Wash. ARCHIBALD J. CLOUD , San Francisco, Calif. ROBERT H. WRIGHT, Greensville, N. C. J. W. STUDEBAKER, Des Moines, Iowa ABBY PORTER LELAND, New York City CHARL O. WILLIAMS, consulting member, W. K. DWYER, Anaconda, Mont. Washington, D. C. Editorial Council (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, Chairman, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD, Boston, Mass . JOHN A. Η . ΚΕΙΤΗ, Indiana, Pa. KATHERINE D. BLAKE, New York City JAMES H. KELLEY, Harrisburg, Pa. JAMES C. BOYKIN, Washington, D. С. FLORENCE MANN , Seattle, Wash. KENYON L. BUTTERFIELD, Amherst, Mass. JESSE II . NEWLON, Denver, Colo , ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, San Francisco, M. V. O'SHEA, Madison, Wis . Calif. CHARLES F. PYE, Des Moines, Iowa LOTUS D. COFFMAN, Minneapolis, Minn. W. CARSON RYAN , JR. , Swarthmore, Pa. MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Los Angeles, Calif. HAZEL B. STEVENS, Salt Lake City, Utah MRS. JANE A. DAVIS, Tampa, Fla. GEORGE L. TOWNE, Lincoln, Nebr. LEE L. DRIVER, Harrisburg, Pa. H. E. WILLIAMS, Columbus , Ohio MRS. JESSIE M. FINK, Grand Rapids, Mich. JESSIE B. COLBURN, New York City CARLETON H. GIBSON , Savannah, Ga. JOY E. MORGAN, consulting member, Wash FRANK P. GRAVES, Albany, N. Y. ington, D. С. IDA C. IVERSEN , Los Angeles, Calif. Committee on Educational Nomenclature (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) JOHN W. WITHERS, Chairman , Dean, School of Education, New York University, New York City J. R. MCGAUGHEY, New York City WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, New York City FRANKLIN BOBBITT, Chicago, Ill . W. W. CHARTERS, Pittsburgh, Pa. FRANK G. PICKELL, Cleveland, Ohio JOHN K. NORTON, consulting member, Wash- W. W. THEISEN , Milwaukee, Wis . ington, D. С. ELIZABETH HALL, Minneapolis, Minn. Committee on English (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) J. W. SEARSON, Chairman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska HOWARD R. DRIGGS, New York City CORA VAUGHN, Winfield, Kan. EMMA BECK, Berkeley, Calif. RUSSELL SHARP, Kansas City, Mo. R. W. PENCE, Greencastle, Ind. ORTON LOWE, Harrisburg, Pa. E. H. KEMPER MCCOMB , Indianapolis, Ind. HENRIETTA PRENTISS, New York City HERBERT E. FOWLER, Bellingham, Wash . HARRY G. PAUL, Urbana, Ill. O. B. SPERLIN , Rolling Bay, Wash. O. B. STAPLES, Baton Rouge, La. ALLAN ABBOTT, New York City ANGELA KEYES, Brooklyn, N. Y. J. P. SIMMONS, Austin, Tex. THEDA GILDEMEISTER, Winona, Minn, C. C. CERTAIN, Detroit, Mich. CECIL A. KIDD, New York City HARDIN CRAIG, Ames , Iowa JOY E. MORGAN, consulting member, Wash- JOHN R. MACARTHUR, Pasadena, Calif. ington, D. С. Illiteracy Commission (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) MRS. CORA WILSON STEWART, Chairman , Illiteracy Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky A. H. CHAMBERLAIN, San Francisco, Calif. JOHN V. CONWAY, Santa Fe, N. Mex. JOHN II . FINLEY, New York City MINNIE JEAN NIELSON , Bismarck, N. Dak. MRS. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Denver, Colo. MISS WILL LOU GRAY , Columbia, S. C. M. L. BRITTAIN , Atlanta, Ga. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, Lansing , Mich. COMMITTEES FOR 1923-24 29 S. K. MARDIS, Athens, Ohio ETHEL RICHARDSON, Sacramento, Calif. AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, Augusta, Maine EDWARD W. STITT, New York City MRS. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, Olympia, Wash. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, consulting member, T. G. BENNETT, Centerville, Md. Washington, D. C. ELIZABETH ASH WOODWARD, Albany, N. Y. Committee on Racial Well-Being (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) HELEN C. PUTNAM, M. D., Chairman, 312 Laurel Avenue, Providence, Rhode Island MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Los Angeles, Calif. CARROLL G. PEARSE, Milwaukee, Wis. Committee for the Revision of the Departments of the National Education Association (AUTHORIZED BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS ) JAMES H. KELLEY, Chairman, 10 South Market Square, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania CORELG. PEARSE, Milwaukee, Wis. AGNES WINN, consulting member, Washing . MANCALL J. CONDON, Cincinnati, Ohio ton, D. C. ORAMELL, Chicago, Ill. S. D. SHANKLAND, consulting member, Wash- MAS. JESSIE M. FINK, Grand Rapids, Mich. ington, D. С. Research Advisory Committee (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) JESSE H. NEWLON, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado VIRAL E. DICKSON , Oakland, Calif. RUTH PYRTLE, Lincoln, Nebr. JHN А. Н. KEITH , Indiana, Pa. MARY MCSKIMMON , Brookline 46, Mass. F. S. EVENDEN , New York City. JOHN K. NORTON , consulting member, Wash. GEORGE MELCHER, Kansas City, Mo. ington, D. С. ELGESE NIFENECKER, New York City Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) THOMAS D. WOOD, Chairman, Columbia University, New York City RHERT J. ALEY, Indianapolis, Ind. HOMER H. SEERLEY, Cedar Falls, Iowa NATHERINE D. BLAKE, New York City JOHN J. TIGERT, Washington, D. C. Mas. MARY C. C: BRADFORD, Denver, Colo . ALBERT E. WINSHIP, Boston, Mass . WILLIAM H. BURNHAM, Worcester, Mass . MARY MURPHY, Chicago, Ill. 1. B. DRESSLAR, Nashville, Tenn. EMILY GRIFFITH , Denver, Colo. CLARK W. HETHERINGTON, New York City RUTH PYRTLE, Lincoln, Nebr. F. KEATING, Pueblo, Colo. WILLIAM A. HOWE, Albany, N. Y. CHARLES H. KEYES, Saratoga Springs, N. Y. J. B. NASH, Oakland , Calif. WILLIAM B. OWEN, Chicago, Ill . J. O. ENGLEMAN, consulting member, Wash Mas. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, Olympia, Wash. ington, D. С. Legislative Commission 1 ( AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) GEURGE D. STRAYER, Chairman, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Denver, Colo. D. B. WALDO, Kalamazoo, Mich. A. C. CHANDLER, Williamsburg, Va. WILL C. WOOD, Sacramento, Calif. RANDALL J. CONDON, Cincinnati , Ohio PAYSON SMITH, Boston, Mass . LIAM M. DAVIDSON, Pittsburgh , Pa. IDA CHRISTINE IVERSEN , Los Angeles, Calif. THOMAS E. FINEGAN , Washington, D. C. W. T. LONGSHORE, Kansas City, Mo. COOPER, Towson , Md. ARTHUR C. PERRY, JR. , New York City WLLARD E. GIVEN, Honolulu, Hawaii. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, consulting member, INOMAS E. JOHNSON, Lansing, Mich. Washington, D. C. 30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Committee on Thrift Education (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Chairman, 933 Phelan Bldg., San Francisco, California L. B. ALDERMAN, Washington, D. C. HOMER H. SEERLEY, Cedar Falls, Iowa FLORENCE BARNARD, Brookline, Mass. S. W. STRAUS, New York City J. A. BEXELL, Corvallis, Ore. A. E. WINSHIP, Boston, Mass . KATHERINE D. BLAKE, New York City EMMA A. JENSEN, Washington, D. С. MRS. HENRIETTA W. CALVIN, Philadelphia, Pa. EDNA COTRELL, San Francisco, Calif. H. R. DANIEL, New York City ANNA M. THOMPSON, Kansas City, Mo. C. H. DEMPSEY, Montpelier, Vt. MAY TRUMPER, Helena, Mont. J. M. GWINN, San Francisco, Calif. HELEN SHOVE, Minneapolis, Minn. FRED M. HUNTER, Oakland, Calif. BESSIE EVANS, Little Rock, Ark. JESSE H. NEWLON, Denver, Colo. AGNES WINN, consulting member, Washing. WILLIAM B. OWEN, Chicago , Ill. ton, D. C. Committee on Visual Education (AUTHORIZED BY THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY) THOMAS E. FINEGAN, Chairman, Transportation Bldg., Washington, D. C. ARTHUR G. BALCOM, New Providence, N. J. ELIZABETH HALL, Minneapolis, Minn. LORA L. CLARK, Los Angeles , Calif. JAMES J. WALSH, New York City DUDLEY GRANT HAYS, Chicago, I11. H. B. WILSON, Berkeley, Calif. EDWIN H. REEDER, New York City JOE COFFMAN, Atlanta, Ga. DAVID GIBBS, Meriden, Conn. J. V. ANKENY, Columbia, Mo. A. W. ABRAMS, Albany, N. Y. CARROLLG. PEARSE, Milwaukee, Wis. CHARLES H. JUDD, Chicago, Ill. ARTHUR C. WATKINS, Washington, D. C. ELIZABETH BRECKENRIDGE, Louisville, Ky. H. A. ALLAN, consulting member, Washing- ERNEST L. CRANDALL, New York City ton, D. C. MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Los Angeles, Calif. ngo National Education Association OFFICERS FOR 1924-25 JESSE H. NEWLON, President, Superintendent of Schools . .Denver, Colo. 1. W. CRABTREE, Secretary, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W". ........ Washington, D. C. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer, 3208 Hawthorne Avenue . Richmond, Va. EXECUTIVE COMMITTE JESSE H. NEWLON, President .. .Denver, Colo . OLIVE M. JONES, Vice-President, Principal, Public School No. 120........ New York City WALTER R. SIDERS, Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent of Schools ..Pocatello, Idaho CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer, C208 Hawthorne Avenue ... Richmond, Va. ILLAC. IVERSEN, Member by Election, 215/ ½ So. Catalina Ave...... Ave.............Los Angeles, Calif. BOARD OF TRUSTEES WALTER R. SIDERS, Chairman ...... Pocatello , Idaho JESSI H. NEWLON, President.. Denver, Colo . AGNES E. DOHERTY, 2078 Summit Avenue . St. Paul , Minn. THOMAS E. FINEGAN, 350 Madison Avenue . New York City CARROLLG. PEARSE, 3209 Grand Avenue, Apartment C9 . Milwaukee, Wis . VICE-PRESIDENTS OLIVE M. JONES .... New York City ALBERT S. COOK, State Superintendent of Schools . Baltimore, Md. HAROLD W. FOGHT, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School Aberdeen, S. Dak. J. M. FOOTE, State Rural Supervisor . Baton Rouge, La. FLORENCE M. HALE State Agent for Rural Education . ..Augusta, Me. 1. O. MARBERRY, 409 S. First Street ... Rockford , I11. MARY F. MOONEY, 251 Missouri Street . San Francisco, Calif. HELEN B. SHOVE, 3116 Clinton Ave.... Minneapolis, Minn. R. M. SEALEY, State High School Inspector Tallahassee, Fla. A.A. SLADE, Superintendent of Schools .. Casper, Wyo . CORA STEELE, 300 Potomac Avenue. Terre Haute, Ind. F. E. WEBB, Superintendent of Schools. Globe, Ariz . BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors Ex Officio JESSE H. NEWLON , President ... Denver, Colo . OLIVE M. JONES Vice-President . New York City CORNELIA S. ADAIR Treasurer . .Richmond, Va. WALTER R. SIDERS. Chairman, Board of Trustees . Pocatello , Idaho J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary ... Washington, D. C. Life Directors ROBERT J. ALEY, President of Butler College . Indianapolis, Ind. THOMAS W. BICKNELL, 207 Boyle Avenue .. Providence, R. I. BOARD OF EDUCATION .. Nashville, Tenn. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, State Supt. of Public Instruction . Denver, Colo . ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, President of New York University. New York City NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, President of Columbia University . New York City P. P. CLAXTON, Superintendent of Schools . ..Tulsa, Okla. OSCAR T. CORSON , R. F. D. No. 2 ..... Oxford, Ohio . CHARLES W. ELIOT, President Emeritus of Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass . H. A. GRAHAM .. Mt. Pleasant, Mich. FRED M. HUNTER, Superintendent of Schools . Oakland, Calif. DAVIDB. JOHNSON, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College ...... Rock Hill, S. C. OLIVEM. JONES, Principal, Public School No. 120. New York City DAVID STARR JORDAN, President Emeritus of Stanford University Calif. AMES Y. JOYNER ...... .. La Grange, N. C. T. MARCELLUS MARSHALL... Stouts Mill, W. Va. WILLIAM B. OWEN, President of Chicago Normal College . Chicago, Ill . CARROLL G. PEARSE, 3209 Grand Ave.. Milwaukee, Wis . JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction ...... Olympia, Wash. CHARLES R. SKINNER, Librarian, Legislative Library, Capitol Building ..……… .Albany, N. Y. STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF ILLINOIS, Robert C. Moore, Secretary ....... Carlinville, Ill. GEORGE D. STRAYER, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, Ν. Υ. [31] 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JOSEPH SWAIN Swarthmore, Pa. A. R. TAYLOR ...... Decatur, Ill. TEACHERS' INSTITUTE . Philadelphia, Pa. JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bureau of Education.. Washington, D. C. CHARLESG. WHITE .... Menominee, Wis, CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, Field Secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. State Directors Alaska... ...LESTER D. HENDERSON, Commission of Education. Juneau Alabama. ..P. W. HODGES Secretary, Certification and Placement, State Department of Education.. Montgomery Arizona . SUTTON H. MARTIN, Superintendent of Schools . Prescott Arkansas . ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, 2110 Battery Street.... Little Rock California. .W. P. DUNLEVY, 2924 Ash Street .. .San Diego Colorado . .H. B. SMITH, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 520 Commonwealth Building.. Denver Connecticut . EVERET E. CORTRIGHT, Superintendent of Schools ...Bridgeport Delaware... H. V. HOLLOWAY, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover District of Columbia .....HARRY ENGLISH, Secretary, Board of Examiners, Franklin School Building Florida . ...W. S. CAWTHON , State Superintendent of Public Instruction Tallahassee Georgia ..KYLE T. ALFRIEND, Dean, Bessie Tift College. Forsyth Hawaii . WILLARD E. GIVENS, Superintendent of Public Instruction.. Honolulu Idaho . ...ELIZABETH RUSSUM, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise Illinois . SARAH L. THOMAS, 401 Kishwaukee Street . Rockford Indiana.. H. LESTER SMITH, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington Iowa.. THOMAS R. ROBERTS, Superintendent of Schools ...... Independence Kansas . M. E. PEARSON, Superintendent of Schools... Kansas City Kentucky . R. E. WILLIAMS . Secretary, Kentucky Education Association, 319-320 Starks Building . Louisville Louisiana . LORETTA R. DOERK, 1323 North Rampart... New Orleans Maine.. JOSIAH W. TAYLOR, State Agent for Secondary Education..Augusta Maryland... WILLIAM BURDICK, State Director of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street .... Baltimore Massachusetts .... MARY MCSKIMMON , Principal Pierce School, 20 Clinton Road Brookline Michigan. ..THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Schools . Lansing Minnesota .W. H. SHEPHARD, 1115 Thomas Avenue... Minneapolis Mississippi . JOSEPH N. POWERS, State University . University Missouri. .THOMAS J. WALKER, 800 Conley Street . Columbia Montana . .A. H. DOUGLAS, 820 West Mercury Street . Butte Nebraska . .M. C. LEFLER Superintendent of Schools.. .Lincoln Nevada .. MAUDE FRAZIER , Deputy, State Department, Fifth District, Las Vegas New Hampshire . •FLORENCE HEWITT, 112 Highland.. Portsmouth New Jersey . CHARLES B. DYKE, Superintendent of Schools ...... Short Hills New Mexico ........ ISABEL L. ECKLES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Santa Fe New York ..... SARA L. RHODES, Principal, Public School 28 ... Brooklyn North Carolina .... R. H. WRIGHT, President, East Carolina Teachers College .. Greenville North Dakota... M. E. MCCURDY, Secretary , State Teachers Association..Washburn Ohio... R. J. KIEFER, Superintendent of Schools . Niles Oklahoma . A. C. PARSONS , Superintendent of Schools. Oklahoma City Oregon... W. L. VERRY, 520 East 10th North . Portland Pennsylvania ........ JAMES H. KELLEY, Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 10 South Market Square . Harrisburg Philippine Islands . LUTHER B. BEWLEY, Commissioner of Education ..... Manila Porto Rico ... JUAN B. JUYKE , Commissioner of Education . San Juan Rhode Island. WILLIAM O, HOLDEN, 46 Gooding Street ... Pawtucket South Carolina GEORGE HARRIS WEBBER, Superintendent of Schools .. ....Beaufort South Dakota.. HAROLD W. FOGHT, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School ..Aberdeen Tennessee . .S. L. SMITH, General Agent, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Commercial Club Bldg. Nashville Texas . CATHERINE GORBUTT, "D, " The Wright ... El Paso Utah... W. KARL HOPKINS , Superintendent of Schools . Ogden Vermont . ERNEST A. HAMILTON , Superintendent of Schools . Newport Virginia. S. A. MCDONALD, Principal, Ruffner School . Norfolk Virgin Islands . ARTHUR E. LINDBORG , Director of Education .. .... St. Thomas Washington . MRS. JENNIE M. FRENCH, Principal, Point Defiance School. Tacoma West Virginia. J. П. ПІСКMAN, Ass't State Superintendent of Schools ... Charleston Wisconsin. JOHN F. SIMS, President, State Normal School. Stevens Point Wyoming .. ..A. A. SLADE, Superintendent of Schools .. Casper NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President....... J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools. San Francisco, Calif. Vice-President ......... HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean of School of Education, Indiana University ....... Bloomington, Ind. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 33 Secretary ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Federal Board for Vocational Education Washington, D. C. Executive Committee .... DAVID B. CORSON, Superintendent of Schools (term ex- pires 1925) ... .Newark, N. J. A. J. MATTHEWS, President Normal School of Arizona (term expires 1926) .Tempe, Ariz. ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal Lincoln School (term ex- pires 1927) .... ..Denver, Colo OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Adult Education President ... CHARLES M. HERLIHY, Supervisor of Adult Alien Educa- tion, State Department of Education .... ...Boston, Mass. Vice- President ..... FLORA D. SMITH, Director of Americanization .... Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary ROBERT C. DEMING, Director of Americanization, State Department of Education .. Hartford, Conn. Treasurer ..ELLA THORNGATE, Supervisor of Americanization ...... Omaha, Nebr. Business Education President ........ L. L. JONES, High School of Commerce .... Cleveland, Ohio Vice-President IRVING R. GARBUTT, Director of Commercial Education and Penmanship, Woodward High School ...... Cincinnati, Ohio Secretary ....... J. O. MALOTT, Commercial Department, Yeatman High School .... ..... St. Louis, Mo. Classroom Teachers President ............. JULIAA. SPOONER, Box 188, R. No. 3, Lents Station... Portland, Ore. Fue-President ......... EULA F. HUNTER, 1324 E. Morphy Street ........ Fort Worth, Texas Secretary ...ROSE M. BURMASTER, 217½ W. Main Street . Muncie, Ind . Other members of the Executive Committee ..JULIA A. SULLIVAN, 9 Marion Street . Charlestown, Mass . ΑΝΝΑ Μ. ΤHOMPSON, Haddon Hall, Care of Linwood & Tracy.. Kansas City, Mo. JEAN L. SOULES, 2003 W. First Avenue . Spokane, Wash.. Deans of Women President ..... AGNES E. WELLS, Dean of Women, Indiana Univer- sity ..... Bloomington, Ind. Secretary ... MARTHA DOAN, Earlham College ...... Richmond, Ind. Treasurer .... ..MARY HOOKER JOHNSON, 512 W. 123d Street New York City Educational Publications President Secretary ......... J. W. SEARSON, University of Nebraska. ...... Lincoln, Nebr. ..C. W. TABER, Western Manager of Lippincott & Co ...... Chicago, Ill. Elementary School Principals Presvient .. MRS. JESSIE M. FINK, Principal, Palmer School ..Grand Rapids, Mich. IstVice-President .. SARA L. RHODES, Principal, Public School 28 Brooklyn, N. Y. adVice-President . ..ARTHUR S. GIST, Principal, B. F. Day School . Seattle, Wash. Vice-President ........ H. B. NORTON, 7922 Underwood Avenue . .... .Birmingham, Ala. Secretary IDE G. SARGEANT, Principal, Public School 10 ........ Paterson, N. J. Treasurer ..COURTLAND V. DAVIS, Principal, J. E. B. Stuart School .. Norfolk, Va. Executive Committee .... MARY MCSKIMMON, Principal, Pierce School (term ex- pires 1925) .... .. Brookline, Mass . ANNA LAURA FORCE, Lincoln School (term expires 1926) , Denver, Colo. LUISE KRAUSs, Gratton School (term expires 1927) ..... San Francisco, Calif. W. T. LONGSHORE, Greenwood School (term expires 1928) ....... Kansas City, Mo. Kindergarten Education President .......... EDNA DEAN BAKER, President, National Kindergarten and Elementary College ... Vice-President ........ MARGARET HOLMES, Assistant Director of Kindergartens .Chicago, . Ill. Secretary New York City .......... FANNIE A. SMITH, Principal, Fannie A. Smith Training School ... Bridgeport, Conn. 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Music Education NOTE-Last year's officers . These officers will serve as a committee to appoint officers for 1924-25. President ............Mrs. ELIZABETH CARMICHAEL, Butler Apartments ... Fort Dodge, Iowa ......... Secretary .............. LAURA BRYANT, 403 East Seneca Street... ....... Ithaca, N. Y. Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges President ...... GEORGE W. FRASIER, President, Colorado State Teachers College Greeley, Colo. Vice-President ......... THEDA GILDEMEISTER, Department of Education, State Teachers College . Winona, Minn . Secretary ..... NED H. DEARBORN, Formerly Director of Training School, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. , I East 57th Street ... New York City Rural Education President MACY CAMPBELL, State Teachers College .Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President .N. SEARLE LIGHT, Department of Education. .Hartford, Conn. Secretary MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity New York City Treasurer MARY E. HOWE, Detroit Teachers College. Detroit, Mich. Executive Committee .M. S. PITTMAN, Normal College . Ypsilanti, Mich. JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH, Cornell University . ... Ithaca, N. Y. NORMAN FROST, George Peabody College .. Nashville, Tenn. MAY TRUMPER, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Helena, Mont. C. G. SARGENT, College of Agriculture... Fort Collins, Colo. CHLOE BALDRIDGE, Superintendent of Nance County Schools .. Fullerton, Nebr. JOHN M. FOOTE, Department of Education . Baton Rouge, La. CORA PEARSON, County Supervisor of Elementary Schools Montgomery, Ala. J. S. HOFFMAN, Superintendent of Hunterdon County Schools .Flemington, N. J. RICHARD J. LIBBY, Department of Education Augusta, Maine ERNEST BURNHAM , Western State Normal School .. Kalamazoo, Mich. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, Legislative Secretary, National Education Association . Washington, D. C. LEE L. DRIVER, Department of Public Instruction....Harrisburg, Pa. KATHERINE M. Cook, Bureau of Education ....... Washington, D. C. J. L. MCBRIEN, Department of Rural Education, State Normal School ..... .. Terre Haute, Ind. School Health and Physical Education President ..... CHARLES H. KEENE, Director, Health Education, State Department of Public Instruction. Harrisburg, Pa. Vice-President .... MELVILLE STEWART, State Supervisor of Physical Educa- tion Wheeling, W. Va. Secretary- Treasurer ..... Dr. KATHARINE H. K. WOLFE, Director of School Health, Board of Education .. .Lincoln, Nebr. Science Instruction President Vice-President GEORGE W. HUNTER, Knox College ...... ...... Galesburg, Ill. Secretary EMMA M. GRIEBEL, Head of General Science Depart- ment, Lincoln High School ..... .Portland, Ore. Secondary Principals President Vice-President ...... JAMES TAYLOR, Principal, Denfield High School Duluth , Minn . Secretary LILLIAN V. JOHNSON, Girls' Advisor, Lincoln High School .. Seattle, Wash. Superintendence President WILLIAM MCANDREW, Superintendent of Schools ... Chicago, III . Ist Vice-President ..... PAYSON SMITH, Commissioner of Education ... Boston , Mass. 2d Vice-President ..... JOHN J. MADDOX , Superintendent of Schools . ..... St. Louis, Mo. Secretary ..... S. D. SHANKLAND, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W.... Washington, D. C. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 35 Executive Committee .... RANDALL J. CONDON, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1925) .. ..Cincinnati, Ohio F. W. BALLOU, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1926).. Washington, D. C. F. D. BOYNTON, Superintendent of Schools (term ex- pires 1927) ... Ithaca, N. Y. M. G. CLARK, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1928) .. Sioux City, Iowa Visual Instruction President ERNEST L. CRANDALL, Director of Lectures, Public Schools New York City Vice-President ........ DUDLEY GRANT HAYS, Director of Visual Education, Public Schools . Chicago, Ill. Secretary .... А. W. ABRAMS, Chief of Visual Instruction, State De- ment of Education . .Albany, N. Y. Other members of the Executive Committee .. A. G. BALCOM, Assistant Superintendent of Schools....Newark, N. J. H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of Schools . Berkeley, Calif. Vocational Education President ........... JOHN N. GREER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools... Minneapolis, Minn. Vice-President BENJAMIN W. JOHNSON, University of California ..... Berkeley, Calif. Secretary ...J. D. BLACKWELL, State Director of Vocational Educa- tion ..... Baltimore, Md. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON, D. C. June 29-July 4, 1924 GENERAL PROGRAM Sunday Morning, June 29 Services were conducted in the churches of Washington, many clergymen having arranged to make education their theme for the morning services. Sunday Afternoon, June 29, 4 o'clock Steps of the Capitol, East Front Vesper Service Music by the United States Army Band-Captain I. G. Sherman, Com- manding Officer ; Warrant Officer W. J. Stannard, Band Leader. COMMUNITY SINGING-Hymns. Conductor-George H. Gartlan, Director of Music, New York City. O Worship the King O God, Our Help in Ages Past America, the Beautiful INVOCATION ADDRESS-The Challenge to American Education. Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. HYMN- Day is Dying in the West. Sunday Evening, June 29, 7:30 o'clock Stadium, Central High School, 13th and Clifton Streets Northwest Music by the United States Marine Band-William H. Santelman, Leader ; Taylor Branson, Second Leader. COMMUNITY SINGING-Hymns. Conductor-George H. Gartlan. Onward, Christian Soldiers Now the Day is Over Come, Thou Almighty King Moral and Religious Education MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Mathilde C. Gecks, Director of Primary Department, Harris Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo. SPIRITUAL VALUES IN AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR DEMOCRACY ( Twenty Minutes) Leon W. Goldrich, Executive Director, Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society, Pleasantville, N. Y. [36] PROGRAM OF WASHINGTON CONVENTION 37 OUR CHILDREN'S NEGLECTED INHERITANCE ( Twenty Minutes ) Margaret Knox, Principal, Public School 15, Borough of Manhattan, New York City. TEACHING BUSINESS MORALS ( Fifteen Minutes ) William Byron Forbush, The University Society, New York City. FUNDAMENTALS OF CHARACTER TRAINING (Fifteen Minutes ) Edwin D. Starbuck, Professor of Philosophy, State University of Iowa, Iowa City . Platform Guests : Vice-Presidents of the Association; Chairmen and Presi- dents of National groups organized for moral and religious education. First Day-Monday Morning, June 30, 8:30 o'clock Auditorium, Central High School Music Program Chairman-Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Education, Augusta Maine. Conductor-George H. Gartlan, Washington Teachers Choral Club. A Midsummer Night...... ...Bliss The Landing of the Pilgrims . ..Coerene Three Great Professional Problems Presiding Officer-Olive M. Jones, President of the Association. RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Sixty Minutes ) Leader- Philip E. Carlson, Principal, Roosevelt High School, Minneapolis, Minn.; Chairman of Committee of One Hundred on Retirement Allowances . TENURE: REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Sixty Minutes ) Leader-Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif.; Chair- man of Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure. THE EDUCATION BILL: REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Sixty Minutes ) Leader-George D. Strayer, Professor of School Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Chairman of Legislative Commission . ANNOUNCEMENTS In order to be included, all announcements should be given to the Secretary of the Association in advance of the opening of the session. Monday Evening, June 30, 7:30 o'clock Stadium, Central High School Formal Opening Session Music by the United States Navy Band-Charles Benter, Director. Presiding Officer-William B. Owen, Past President National Education Asso- ciation. ADDRESS OF WELCOME John J. Tigert, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. EDUCATION IN THE NATION'S CAPITAL Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. THE NATION'S TEACHERS Olive M. Jones, Principal, Public School 120 and Annexes, Probationary Schools, New York City; President of the Association. 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Platform Guests : Past Presidents of the National Education Association. Following the program there will be a general reception in the Ballroom of the New Willard Hotel. This reception has been arranged by the teachers of the District of Columbia and the State of Virginia in honor of the present officers and past presidents of the Association. All members and friends of the Association are welcome. Second Day-Tuesday Morning, July 1, 8:30 o'clock Auditorium, Central High School Music Program Chairman-Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado. STATE SONGS-Conductor-George H. Gartlan. First Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. Chairman of the Committee on Rules and Official Parliamentarian-William B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CREDENTIALS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RULES ADOPTION OF ORDER OF BUSINESS ADOPTION OF MINUTES OF OAKLAND MEETING CLASSROOM TEACHERS' PROBLEMS ; REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Thirty Minutes) Leader-Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo.; Chairman of Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems . RURAL TEACHERS' PROBLEMS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Thirty Minutes ) Leader-Harold W. Foght, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. Dak.; Chairman of Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers ' Problems . WORLD FEDERATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Thirty Minutes ) Leader-Augustus O. Thomas, State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Maine ; Chairman of Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations . HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes ) Leader-Thomas D. Wood, Columbia University, New York City ; Chairman of Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. CHARACTER PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes) Leader-Effie MacGregor, Teacher, Longfellow School, Minneapolis ; Mem- ber, Committee on Character Education, Milton Bennion, chairman. A CODE OF ETHICS FOR TEACHERS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes) Leader-May Wade, Teacher, Emerson School, Berkeley, Calif. ILLITERACY : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes) Leader-Mrs . Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Ky.; Chairman of Illiteracy Commission. ANNOUNCEMENTS PROGRAM OF WASHINGTON CONVENTION 39 Tuesday Afternoon, July 1 Meetings of Departments and Allied Organizations Tuesday Evening, July 1, 7:30 o'clock Stadium, Central High School Music by the United States Army Band-Captain I. G. Sherman, Commanding Officer; Warrant Officer W. J. Stannard, Band Leader. Presiding Officers-W. T. Longshore, President, Department of Elementary School Principals, Kansas City, Mo.; Ida Christine Iversen, President, Department of Classroom Teachers, Los Angeles, Calif.; William McAndrew, President, Department of Superintendence, Chicago, Ill. The Contribution to Education of Teacher, Principal, Superintendent, and Parent THE PARENT (Fifteen Minutes) Mrs. A. H. Reeve, President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Philadelphia, Pa., introduced by W. T. Longshore. THE PRINCIPAL ( Fifteen Minutes ) Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, Brookline, Mass., introduced by W. T. Longshore. THE CITIZEN TEACHER ( Fifteen Minutes ) Julia Spooner, Classroom Teacher, Portland, Oregon, introduced by Ida Christine Iversen. THE SUPERINTENDENT ( Fifteen Minutes ) Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Georgia, introduced by Ida Christine Iversen. Platform Guests : Executive Committees of the three departments . Third Day-Wednesday Morning, July 2, 8:30 o'clock Auditorium, Central High School Music Program Chairman-Minnie Jean Nielson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bis- marck, North Dakota. Conductor-J. Francis MacNichol, State Supervisor of Music, Augusta, Maine. Second Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. EDITORIAL COUNCIL: REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Twenty Minutes) Leader-William C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Chairman of Editorial Council. VISUAL EDUCATION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Twenty Minutes ) Leader-Thomas E. Finegan, Education Division, National Transportation Institute, Washington, D. C.; Chairman of Committee on Visual Education and Coöperation with the Motion Picture Producers. ARITHMETIC REVISION : REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Ten Minutes ) Leader-Guy M. Wilson, Professor of Education, Boston University, Boston, Mass.; Chairman of Committee on Arithmetic Revision. 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE PROBLEMS OF ENGLISH TEACHING: REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes) Leader-J . W. Searson, Professor of English, University of Nebraska, Chair- man of the Committee on English. SOCIAL STUDIES : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes) Leader-Lida Lee Tall, Principal of the Maryland State Normal School, Towson, Md. CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL : REPORT AND DISCUSSION (Ten Minutes ) Leader-Thomas H. Briggs, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Chairman of Committee on Classification of Educational Ma- terial. EDUCATIONAL NOMENCLATURE : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes ) Leader-John W. Withers, Dean, School of Education, New York University, New York City; Chairman of Committee on Educational Nomenclature. THRIFT PROBLEMS : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Fifteen Minutes ) Leader-Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California State Teachers' Asso- ciation, San Francisco, Calif.; Chairman of Committee on Thrift Problems . AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP LEAGUE : REPORT AND DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes) Leader-Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.; Chairman, Committee on Coöperation with the American School Citizenship League. ANNOUNCEMENTS Fourth Day-Thursday Morning, July 3, 8:30 o'clock Auditorium, Central High School Music Program Chairman-Albert E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass . STATE SONGS-Conductor, George H. Gartlan. Third Business Session of the Representative Assembly Presiding Officer-President of the Association. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY, 1923-24. Ernest L. Crandall, Director of Lectures and Visual Education, Public Schools, New York City; Chairman of Committee on Necrology. REPORT OF THE TREASURER Cornelia S. Adair, Teacher, Junior High School, Richmond, Va.; Treasurer of the National Education Association. REPORT OF SECRETARY J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, National Education Association. REPORT OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Walter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello, Idaho; Chairman of Committee on Audit and Budget; Chairman of Board of Trustees. UNFINISHED BUSINESS NEW BUSINESS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS PROGRAM OF WASHINGTON ConventION 41 Thursday Afternoon, July 3 Meetings of Departments and Allied Organizations Thursday Evening, July 3, 7:30 o'clock Stadium, Central High School Music by the United States Army Band-Captain I. G. Sherman, Commanding Officer; Warrant Officer W. J. Stannard, Band Leader. Presiding Officer-President of the Association. Relationship of the Teacher to Democratic Ideals of Government AS A CLASSROOM TEACHER SEES IT Mary F. Mooney, Vice-Principal, Washington School, San Francisco, Calif. THE DUTY OF THE TEACHER CONCERNING POLITICS, CITIZENSHIP, AND WORLD PEACE Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, Honorary President, League of Women Voters, New York City. ADDRESS-Invited. Samuel Gompers, President, American Federation of Labor, Washington, D. C. NATIONAL LEARNING AND NATIONAL LIFE John H. MacCracken, President, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Platform Guests-Presidents of all Departments; State Directors ; and Chairmen of all Committees . Fifth Day-Friday Morning, July 4, 9:30 o'clock Stadium, Central High School Music by the United States Navy Band-Charles Benter, Director. Singing by 1000 Washington School Children. America, the Beautiful Sweet and Low Old Folks at Home Battle Hymn of the Republic Love's Old Sweet Song Onward, Christian Soldiers Star Spangled Banner Presiding Officer- President of the Association. ADDRESS- Honorable Calvin Coolidge, President of the United States . PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES Friday Afternoon, July 4, 2:30 o'clock The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Chairman, Ambrose Cort, State Director, National Education Association, New York City Speaker, John F. O'Ryan, Major General, Officers Reserve Corps, New York City InArlington Cemetery is the tomb of the Unknown Soldier-a soldier unknown 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in name, but known in the hearts of the people as the embodiment of all that stands for service, self-sacrifice, loyalty, patriotism, and valor. When standing by this tomb, we are touching, as it were, the heart of America-the America that is ever ready to respond to the call of the highest ideals. Indeed, we are touching the heart of the World, whose appreciation of America's sacrifices in the cause of liberty in the recent war is clearly manifested by the tributes constantly placed at this sacred shrine. The influences which have made America great are largely due to its educational institutions, and it therefore seems fitting that teachers should visit the tomb of this Unknown Hero and thereby gain added inspiration for the further advancement of the high ideals which underlie our Government. The Lincoln Memorial Chairman, R. E. Williams, State Director, National Education Association, Louis- ville, Kentucky Speaker, Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois The Lincoln Memorial, in Potomac Park, is striking in its simplicity, and is a fitting tribute to the leader whose character was typified by clearness of vision and singleness of purpose. The architect was Henry Bacon, and the sculptor of the statue, Daniel Chester French. Memorial Continental Hall Chairman, Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook, President General, Daughters of the American Revolution Speaker, Homer H. Seerley, President, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Perhaps the most beautiful building ever erected by women for women, is the national headquarters of the Daughters of the American Revolution at Seven- teenth and D Streets Northwest. In 1921 the building was turned over to the State Department for use by the Conference on Limitation of Armaments. The great audience hall has been the scene of some of the most momentous discussions of modern times. The American Red Cross Chairman , Mary McSkimmon, Brookline, Massachusetts Speaker, R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio National headquarters of the American National Red Cross, Seventeenth and E Streets Northwest, is a worthy shrine. The beautiful white marble building stands as a memorial to the heroic women of the Civil War-North and South. It is a treasure house of historic momentos, intimately interwoven with the spirit of Independence Day. An exhibit has been especially arranged for the National Education Association, exemplifying the varied contributions of the American National Red Cross to American education. Walter Reed General Hospital Chairman, Hon. Hubert Work, Secretary of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Speaker, Joseph M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, California Walter Reed General Hospital, located at Takoma Park, near the northern limit of the District of Columbia, is a monument to the memory of Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U. S. A. , a noted surgeon, sanitarian, and bacteriologist, especially noted for his investigations and researches in typhoid fever, cholera, and yellow fever. It is also an unfinished monument to the Medical Department of the Army, whose aim ultimately is to make it not only a place equipped for the care of all classes of patients, but an educational center for the advancement of PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 43 knowledge of the different branches of the Medical Department. It is here that the disabled soldier of the World War, through the splendid work done in the department of Occupational Therapy, is helped to find himself and function again as a whole man-physically, socially, educationally, and economically. Tomb of Woodrow Wilson Chairman, Anna Laura Force, Principal of Lincoln School, Denver, Colo. Speaker, James Y. Joyner, La Grange, N. C., and Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. In the crypt of Bethlehem Chapel of the National Cathedral at Mount St. Albans, lies Woodrow Wilson, great War President, truly a soldier of the World War, that war into which he carried the lofty idealism which never failed him in this most awful crisis from which he emerged with "World Peace" as his own great dream. Mount Vernon Chairman, Mrs. Horace Van Deventer, Vice-Regent, Mount Vernon Ladies Asso- ciation, Knoxville, Tennessee Speaker, J. A. C. Chandler, President, College of William and Mary, Williams- burg, Virginia, and John J. Maddox, Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. On a crest overlooking the Potomac River, sixteen miles south of Washington, is Mount Vernon, the home and tomb of George Washington. The estate is main- tained as a National memorial by the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, which in 1859 purchased it by a popular subscription. Mount Vernon is reached by an hour's trolley ride over the Washington-Virginia Railway, or by boat down the Potomac on the Steamer Macalester. The Frederick Douglass Memorial Home Chairman, M. Grant Lucas, President of the Columbia Educational Association, Washington, D. C. Speakers, Garnet C. Wilkinson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C., and Sara L. Rhodes, President, New York Principals' Association, New York City. The Frederick Douglass Memorial Home is situated on Cedar Hill, Anacostia, D. C., overlooking the picturesque Eastern Branch of the Potomac. It is the home of Frederick Douglass who, though born a slave, became one of America's greatest orators, statesmen, and defenders of human rights. The home was purchased and set apart as a permanent historic shrine, symbolizing, as nothing else could do, the great ideals of American democracy and American opportunity. In this beautiful colonial structure are preserved many mementos connected with the history of the anti-slavery struggle, the history of the Negro race and the history of the struggle for Women's Suffrage in America. Douglass' life furnishes much to stimulate the ambitious American youth of present and future generations. Occupying the highest positions of honor and trust, nevertheless, he was always approachable to the humblest child. The home on Fourteenth and W Streets Southeast is about twenty minutes' ride from the Capitol. National Cemetery, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Chairman, William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania. Speaker, Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education, Albany, New York Natural beauty, man's artistic planning, and reverential care make the Na- tional Cemetery at Gettysburg a shrine worthy of the men who gave their lives 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION here. The ride to Gettysburg from Washington is over country sacred in our Nation's history and beautiful to look upon. Washington Monument Chairman, Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, State Superintendent of Public In- struction, Olympia, Washington Speaker, John J. Maddox, Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Missouri The Washington National Monument is a gleaming, white shafted, marble obe- lisk, the highest work of masonry in the world-over 555 feet high, from floor to apex. It is visible from every point of the compass around Washington. The view from the top includes all the other National memorials in Washington, as well as a circle of level country of from fifteen to twenty miles. The meeting place for this Pilgrimage is the Sylvan Theater in the southeast corner of the Monument grounds . The Home of Thomas Jefferson Chairman, Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan Speaker, Charles G. Maphis, Dean, University of Virginia, Summer Quarter A program under the joint auspices of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Founda- tion, the University of Virginia, and The National Education Association, will be held at Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, near Charlottesville, Vir- ginia, an aristocratic establishment of the best Colonial traditions , magnificently situated upon a mountain-side in the center of a large estate. Charlottesville, seat of the University of Virginia, the college home of Edgar Allen Poe and Wood- row Wilson, is one hundred twelve miles from Washington. MINUTES OF THE WASHINGTON CONVENTION¹ Washington, D. C., June 29-July 4, 1924 First session-The first session of the annual meeting was called to order by the President, Miss Olive M. Jones, Monday morning, June 30, 1924, in the auditorium of the Central High School, Washington, D. C. Miss Jones explained that ac- cording to the provision of the By-laws, the first regular business session of the Representative Assembly would occur on Tuesday morning, July 1, beginning with the report of the Credentials Committee, and that during the present session reports could be received but not acted upon. Miss Jones introduced Miss Florence M. Hale, State agent for rural education, Maine, to preside over the first part of the exercises. A musical program was rendered by the Washington Teachers Choral Club, under the direction of Mr. George H. Gartlan, director of music, New York City. In a brief speech Miss Hale called attention to the historic setting of the convention and bespoke for its sessions a unity, devotion, and vision worthy of this rich setting and a spirit worthy the great teaching forces of the Nation represented in its assembly. Miss Jones then introduced Mr. Philip E. Carlson, principal of the Roosevelt High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Retirement Allowances, to present the report of that Committee, which had been printed and distributed to delegates. Mr. Carlson introduced to the Representative Assembly Mr. Herman L. Ekern, Attorney General of Wisconsin, who was Commissioner of Insurance in Wisconsin when the first system of teacher retirement was established in that State. Mr. Ekern described the effort to obtain the first retirement law in Wisconsin and ex- plained the subsequent revision which placed it on a sound basis, acceptable both to the teachers and public. Mr. Carlson then resumed his report, calling attention to the various planks in a sound retirement platform by means of charts, which he explained. Mr. Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Oakland, California, chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure, presented the report of that Committee, which had been printed and distributed to delegates, explaining the purpose of the Committee's work and the various points in the report. Oppor- tunity was then given for discussion of the report. The following are among those who participated in the discussion: Mr. Davidson, of Brooklyn, New York ; Mr. A. H. Chamberlain, of San Francisco, California; Mr. Tanner, of Los Angeles ; Miss Outcault, of Cincinnati, Ohio ; Miss Jessie Colburn, of New York City; Miss Houseman, of Hoboken, New Jersey; Miss McKane, of Pennsylvania; Miss Reeder, of Chicago, Illinois; Miss Holladay, of West Virginia ; Mr. Cranston, of California. Dr. Payson Smith, State commissioner of education for Massachusetts, was then introduced and with appropriate reference to its high significance, presented the Association with a gavel to be used at the session on July 4, 1924, the session at which the President of the United States would speak. The gavel contained this inscription: 1775-1924. The head of this gavel is made from the wood of the original North Bridge, Concord, Massachusetts, by boys of the Concord High School, and presented to the National Education Association by the Concord Public Schools. This is a brief statement of the business sessions at the sixty-second annual meeting of the National Education Association, as prepared by the Secretary. The complete copy of the notes taken by the Reporter is in the Secretary's Office. [45] 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Miss Jones accepted the gavel on behalf of the Association and then introduced Dr. George D. Strayer, chairman of the Legislative Commission, who presented the report of the Commission, which had been printed and distributed to delegates, and ably explained its provisions urging all teachers to read the Bill carefully. Among those who took part in the discussion that followed are : Miss Agnes Doherty, of St. Paul, Minnesota ; Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, of Denver, Colo- rado; Miss Hamilton, of Denver, Colorado ; Mr. Davidson, of New York ; Mr. Ambrose Cort, of New York ; Mr. William T. Longshore, of Kansas City; Mr. Raybold, of Los Angeles ; and Miss McDermott, of San Francisco, California. Announcements were then made by the Secretary. A motion to adjourn was made and carried and President Olive M. Jones declared the meeting adjourned at 12:40 o'clock P. M. FIRST BUSINESS SESSION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Tuesday morning, July 1 , 1924 The first business session of the Representative Assembly was held in the Auditorium of the Central High School , Washington, D. C., Tuesday forenoon, July 1, 1924, beginning at 8:30 o'clock, with Mr. Jesse H. Newlon, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colorado, in the chair. Mr. Newlon introduced Mr. George H. Gartlan, who had charge of the music. "America the Beautiful" and "Old Folks at Home" were sung by the audience, followed by the singing of State songs by delegates from California and Texas. Mr. Newlon then made an address on the functions of the Representative As- sembly of the National Education Association, after which Miss Jones took the chair. Mr. Downey, of Illinois, chairman of the Committee on Credentials, was intro- duced, and reported for the Commtitee that the Credentials of 835 delegates had been submitted, passed on, and accepted, and recommended that any delegates re- porting later than June 30, whose credentials were satisfactory to the Credentials Committee, be properly seated. A motion was made and carried to adopt the report of the Committee. The President then introduced Mr. William B. Owen, principal of the Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Illinois, chairman of the Committee on Rules, who presented the report of that Committee. The Rules were adopted as printed on page 6 of the Official Manual for Delegates . Miss Jones announced that the adoption of the order of business as contained in the Official Program would be the next considered. The order of business was adopted as printed. Miss Jones then called for the minutes. The Secretary, Mr. J. W. Crabtree, explained that the minutes of the Oakland meeting were in the Manual which each delegate had received, beginning on page 40, and moved that they be adopted. The motion was carried. Miss Jones introduced Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, State superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colorado, past president of the National Education Associa- tion, and chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems . Mrs. Bradford explained the report of the Committee, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates. Mrs. Bradford introduced Mr. Shoup, of Denver, Colorado, a member of the Committee, who emphasized the fact that where teachers are well organized the problems of the classroom teacher are least. Mrs. Bradford introduced another member of the Committee, Miss Harding, of Chicago, Illinois, who stated that the most serious problem of the classroom teacher is the problem of interruptions. Among other problems mentioned by Miss Harding were the overcrowded schoolroom, too much clerical work, teacher MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONVENTION 47 rating, lack of tenure, low salary, and lack of organization. A motion to adopt the report of the Committee was then carried. Miss Jones then introduced Mr. Harold W. Foght, president of the Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, South Dakota, chairman of the Com- mittee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers' Problems, who explained the report of that Committee, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates. Referring to the present economic stress among rural people, Mr. Foght said : "We have one equation of National life in the United States. It has two mem- bers, like all equations. The rural is one member, the other is the city member. Throw one out of balance and they both suffer." Miss Jones next introduced Dr. Augustus O. Thomas, State commissioner of edu- cation, Augusta, Maine, chairman of the Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associations, who presented the report of that Committee. Dr. Thomas emphasized the importance of sound edu- cation as the foundation of right world relationships and proposed the adoption of three recommendations: ( 1) That the president of the Association be authorized to appoint delegates to the meeting of the World Federation, in Edinburgh, Scot- land, in July, 1925 ; (2) That the National Education Association continue its membership in the Federation ; ( 3 ) That the Committee be continued. Each of the three propositions contained in the report was voted on separately and carried, following which, a motion was made to adopt the report as a whole, which was carried. Miss Jones called for the Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. In the absence of the chairman, Dr. Thomas D. Wood, the report was presented by Dr. William B. Owen, who referred to the 162-page printed report, which had been placed in the hands of delegates . Dr. Owen reported that the Joint Committee was appointed in 1911 on the request of the American Medical Association and complimented the work which the Committee had done since that time. He then moved the adoption of the Committee's report and the continuance of the Committee. The motion was carried. Miss Jones called for the Report of the Committee on Character Education. In the absence of the chairman of the Committee, Mr. Milton Bennion, of Salt Lake City, Utah, the report was discussed from the viewpoint of the classroom teacher by Miss Effie MacGregor, of Minneapolis, who moved the adoption of the printed report and the continuance of the Committee. Following a brief dis- cussionby Miss McVey, of New York, the motion was carried. Miss Jones then introduced Miss May Wade, a classroom teacher of Berkeley, California, who presented a report on Ethics on behalf of the State Council of Education of California. Miss Wade moved the acceptance of this report and the appointment of a committee to formulate a code of ethics for teach- ers. The motion was carried. Miss Jones then introduced Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, chairman of the Il- literacy Commission, who stated that the printed report in the hands of delegates was the fourth report that the Illiteracy Commission had prepared during the six years of its existence. Mrs. Stewart called attention to ten points against illiteracy that were adopted by the National Illiteracy Conference held in Wash- ington, in cooperation with the General Federation of Women's Clubs, the Ameri- can Legion, and the United States Bureau of Education. A motion to adopt the report was made and carried. Miss Jones next introduced Dr. James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina, a past president of the National Education Association of 1910, for a word of greeting, explaining that he had not been able to be present at the preceding evening session, whenpast presidents were called upon. Secretary J. W. Crabtree made announce- ments. A motion to adjourn was made and carried. The Assembly adjourned at12:20 o'clock, P. M. 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SECOND BUSINESS SESSION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Wednesday forenoon, July 2, 1924 This session was called to order by the President, Miss Olive M. Jones, Wednes- day morning, July 2, 1924, at 8:30 o'clock, in the auditorium of the Central High School, Washington, D. C. Miss Jones introduced Mr. Glenn H. Woods, of California, who conducted the musical services of the morning. The audience sang "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" and "Just a Song at Twilight." Delegations from Illinois, Oregon, Minnesota, and Iowa sang their State songs. Miss Jones then introduced Mr. Frank E. Reynolds, secretary of the Ohio State Teachers' Association, who moved that recognition be made of President Coolidge's birthday, the Fourth of July. The motion was carried and a committee appointed, with Miss Charl O. Williams as chairman. Miss Jones introduced Dr. Thomas H. Briggs, professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, chairman of the Committee on Classification of Educational Material, who gave the report of that Committee, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates. He recommended that the publication of index cards of all educational books and most important periodicals be undertaken by the National Education Association, to be issued to subscribers . Mr. Newlon, of Denver, Colorado, moved that the report be adopted and that the Committee be continued. The motion was carried. Miss Jones then introduced Dr. William C. Bagley, professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, chairman of the Editorial Council, to present the report of that Council. Referring to the report of the Managing Editor, Mr. Joy E. Morgan, as printed on pages 26, 27, and 28 of the Secretary's Report, Dr. Bagley stated that the Editorial Council wished to submit the statements of editorial policy contained therein as its report, following which he gave an able discussion of the purpose of The Journal. He referred to the scant attention given education by the National nominating conventions in contrast with the courteous treatment of the Association's rep- resentatives at the hands of the President and Congress, and declared that it was clear that teachers should play a larger part in the selection of candidates for office and of delegates to conventions. Among those who took part in the discus- sion of the report of the Editorial Council were Mr. A. H. Chamberlain, of Cali- fornia, Mr. MacCracken, of Pennsylvania, Mr. Sims, of Wisconsin, and other delegates. A motion to adopt the report was made and carried. Miss Jones then introduced Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, chairman of the Committee on Visual Education, who presented the report of that committee, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates. He discussed the five recommenda- tions of the Committee, including one that the present committee be discharged and another committee appointed by the incoming president to carry out such work as may be desirable. On motion the report of the committee was adopted. Miss Jones introduced Mr. Guy M. Wilson, professor of education, Boston University, and chairman of the Committee on Arithmetic Revision, who pre- sented the report of that Committee, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates. The report was discussed by Mr. Samuels, of Wisconsin, and other delegates. A motion was made to adopt the report and to continue the Committee. Motion carried. Miss Jones introduced Miss Lida Lee Tall, principal of the Maryland State Normal School, Towson, Maryland, chairman of the Committee on Social Studies, who presented the report of that Committee, and moved that it be adopted and the Committee continued. Motion carried. Miss Jones then introduced Miss Mary McSkimmon, principal of the Pierce School, Brookline, Massachusetts, who presented the report of the Committee on MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONVENTION 49 Cooperation with the American School Citizenship League in the absence of Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, chairman of that Committee. Miss McSkimmon referred to the printed report in the hands of delegates and moved that it be adopted and the Committee continued for another year. Motion carried. Miss Jones then introduced Mr. Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary of the Cali- fornia State Teachers Association, and chairman of the Committee on Thrift Education, who presented the report of that Committee, explaining that inasmuch as the report was based on a conference just concluded in Washington, it could not be printed in time for distribution to the Representative Assembly. Following discussion by Mr. Hunter, of California, and Mr. Seerley, of Iowa, a motion to adopt Mr. Chamberlain's oral report was carried. Mr. Francis G. Blair, of Illinois, suggested that each committee make a recom- mendation as to whether the work of the committee should be continued, leaving to the Assembly the question of whether the committee itself should remain in charge of it. Following announcements by the Secretary, Miss Jones declared the meeting ad- journed, at 11:00 o'clock, A. Μ. THIRD BUSINESS SESSION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Thursday forenoon, July 3, 1924 This session was held in the auditorium of the Central High School, Washington, D. C., Thursday forenoon, July 3, 1924. The session was called to order at 8:30 o'clock by Miss Minnie J. Nielson, State superintendent of public instruction, Bis- marck, North Dakota. Under the direction of Mr. Maupert and Mr. Gartlan, the audience rose and sang "America" and "The Long, Long Trail." One of the Hawaiian delegates sang Hawaiian songs in the native language. The following State delegations sang their State songs: Colorado, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Alabama, North Dakota, and Hawaii. Miss Nielson then asked Mr. Gartlan to say a few words about music. Mr. Gartlan emphasized the important place which music should have in the public schools as a cultural and creative element in the development of the child. Miss Nielson made a brief speech in which she stated: "It has been my privilege and pleasure to have attended a number of the National Education Association meetings, and I am sure I am voicing the feeling of all of you present this morning when I say that there has never been a more hopeful, more inspiring, more profit- able meeting than we have had here at this sixty-second annual convention of the Association. The appointments have been. beautifully carried out in every way, everything has been done for our comfort, everything anticipated for our wants has been fulfilled, and the wonderful night meetings have been most convenient. " Miss Olive M. Jones then took the chair and explained the arrangements that had been made for the reception of the President of the United States in the Stadium on the following morning. The chairman of the Committee on Necrology, Mr. Ernest L. Crandall, of New York City, was introduced and presented the report of that Committee, which is printed elsewhere in the Proceedings. At this point a basket of flowers was pre- sented to Miss Jones, with a card bearing the inscription: "Greetings to the Na- tional Education Association from Oregon. " The Treasurer of the Association, Miss Cornelia S. Adair, was next introduced and explained the printed report of the Treasurer, which was in the hands of delegates. Miss Adair referred particularly to the chart on the first page of the report, and to the summary of expenditures on the last page. She stated that the report had been audited by the Association's official auditors , Marwick, Mitchell and Company, of New York, and that it had been approved by the Association's Audit Committee. Miss Adair urged the prompt payment of dues as one means 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of improving the finances of the Association. The report of the Treasurer is printed in the Volume of Proceedings . On motion it was adopted by the Representative Assembly. Miss Jones explained, "You have listened to the Treasurer's Report. Before the Treasurer's Report is adopted it is essential that you hear the Auditor's report, so that the two may be considered together. I therefore call upon Mr. Carter, of Missouri, chairman of the Audit Committee." Mr. Carter explained that the Audit Committee had examined the books of the Association and the report of the Treasurer and found them to be correct. A motion was made to adopt the report of the Audit Committee and the Treasurer . Following discussion, the motion was carried. Miss Jones then introduced Mr. Crabtree, secretary of the Association, to present the report of the Secretary, which had been printed and placed in the hands of delegates. Mr. Crabtree explained that the report had been presented to the Executive Committee and also to the Board of Directors , and that these boards would bring before the Representative Assembly for consideration such items as they deemed proper. He then moved that the report be received and placed on file. The motion was carried . Miss Jones next introduced Mr. Walter R. Siders, chairman of the Board of Trustees, member of the Executive Committee, and chairman of the Budget Com- mittee, explaining that the Budget Committee consisted of persons named by the presidents of the three leading departments, a State Association Secretary, a State Director, a past president, and Mr. Siders. Mr. Siders presented the report of the Trustees and the Executive Committee, which were printed and in the hands of delegates. This report appears in the Volume of Proceedings. Mr. Siders called especial attention to the three funds of the Association : First the.permanent fund, which is an endowment and of which only the interest can be used. Some of this fund has been invested in property on M Street. Second, the regular fund containing moneys which are expended during the year. Third, a revolving fund of $ 15,000, from which the current expenses of the Association are paid. The Secretary makes expenditures from the revolving fund and presents vouchers to the officers of the Association, who reimburse the fund as the vouchers are ap- proved. A motion to adopt the Report of the Trustees as approved by the Auditors was carried. Mr. Siders next took up the report of the Executive Committee, including the Budget Committee, which was in the hands of delegates and which appears in the Volume of Proceedings. After explaining the report, Mr. Siders moved its adop- tion. Among those who took part in the discussion of the motion were Mr. F. G. Blair, of Illinois ; Mr. Fred M. Hunter, of California ; Mr. T. Marcellus Marshall, of West Virginia ; Mr. Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Mr. McNamara , of Pennsylvania ; Dr. Davidson, of New York ; and Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, of Colorado. After considerable discussion the previous question was moved and carried. A motion to adopt the report was then carried. Mr. Davidson, of New York, moved a vote of thanks and confidence in the Budget Committee and the financial authorities of the Association. Motion carried. Miss Jones explained : "On Monday we listened to three reports. We could not adopt these reports on Monday because it was not a regular business session. I will now recognize Mr. Carison, chairman of the Committee on Retirement Al- lowances." Mr. Carlson introduced Dr. Joseph Swain, of Swarthmore, Pennsyl- vania, formerly chairman of the Association's Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, who moved the adoption of the report, and the continuance of the Committee . There was discussion by Mr. Blair, of Illinois ; Miss Harding and Miss Duggan, of Chicago ; and Mr. Reynolds, of Ohio. On motion the previous question was adopted and the motion to adopt the report was voted on and carried. MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONVENTION 51 Mr. Hunter, of California, chairman of the Committee on Tenure, was then in- troduced and moved the adoption of the report of that Committee. Motion carried. Dr. George D. Strayer, chairman of the Legislative Commission, moved the adoption of the report of that Commission. The motion was carried. There was discussionby Miss Isray, of Illinois ; Mr. Marshall, of West Virginia ; and other delegates. Miss Jones announced that the next order of business was the consideration of proposed amendments to the Association's By-laws as found on pages eight and nine of the Official Manual. She explained that she had asked the persons in- terested in those amendments to form a committee to go over them and report to the Representative Assembly, introducing Mr. Reynolds, of Ohio, chairman of the Committee. The Committee recommended that the first amendment as printed in the Official Manual be voted down. The amendment was accordingly rejected on motion. The Committee recommended that the second amendment, proposed by Miss Blake, of New York, be not adopted. On motion the amendment was rejected. The Committee also recommended that the amendments proposed by Superin- tendent Callahan, of Wisconsin, be not adopted. There was discussion by Mr. Marshall, of West Virginia; Mr. Fred M. Hunter, of California ; Mr. Thomas, of Maine; Mr. Tanner, of California; Miss McReady, of Illinois ; and other dele- gates. The debate was closed by the adoption of the previous question, after which on motion the amendment was rejected. Mr. Reynolds next called up the amendment proposed by Mr. B. F. Stanton, of Ohio, relating to the election of officers. The committee recommended the adop- tion of this amendment. Those participating in the discussion were Mr. Reynolds, of Ohio ; Mr. Fred M. Hunter, of California ; Mr. Van Dyke, of Minnesota ; Mr. Cort, of New York ; Mr. Wilson; Mr. Hale, of Indiana; Dr. Owen, of Illinois ; Miss Blake, of New York; and Mr. Marshall, of West Virginia. Miss Jones then put the question on the amendment to the amendment proposed by Mr. Cort and printed on page nine of the Official Manual. The amendment to the amend- ment was voted down. The discussion of the main amendment was then resumed, the following par- ticipating: Mr. Walker, of Missouri ( opposing ) ; Mr. Marshall, of West Virginia (favoring) . Following the passage of a motion for the previous question, the proposal to adopt the amendment was carried. The amendment is as follows : Amend Article 2, Section 2, of the By-laws, entitled, "Election of Officers, Representative Assembly and Affiliated Associations," to read as follows: " At the first business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the following officers shall be made: President, Vice- Presidents, and Treasurer . Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the States . On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, the delegates of each State, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Di- rectors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the States. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candidates by the delegates to the Representative Assmbly, by ballot. Said ballot shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as pro- vided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 A. M. to 6 P. M. , at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from cach State, territory , or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vice-President receiving the highest number of votes shall bedeclared elected. The President of the Association shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly . The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their elec- thon, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly tected." And that Article 6, entitled " Committee," Section 2 2,. he amended by striking out in lines four and five of this section the word " Nominations" ; that Section 3 of Article 6 be omitted, and that Sections 4. 5, and 6 of Article 6 be numbered "3. 4, and 5." respectively, and that anything in the By-laws of the Association inconsistent with the provisions of these amendments is hereby repealed. 52 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatiON Mr. Reynolds then asked the unanimous consent to amend Section 3, Article 5, which reads: "Departments shall hold annual meetings at the time and place of the Association, except as the Executive Committee may approve other arrange- ments." On motion the amendment was adopted. Mr. Reynolds called up the last amendment on page nine of the Official Manual. There was discussion by Dr. Owen, of Illinois ; Mr. Marshall, of West Virginia; Dr. Kelley, of Pennsylvania, and others. Dr. William B. Owen, parliamentary advisor, reported that since the amend- ment had not been before the Association for a year, it could be adopted only by unanimous consent. Miss Jones then asked for unanimous consent, which was refused. She then ruled that the amendment must lie over for a year. The amendment which is to come before the Representative Assembly in 1925 follows : "That in Section 8, of Article 5, of the By-laws of the Association relating to the formation of new departments, the words 'two hundred fifty ' be substituted for the words 'twenty-five' and that following the phrase 'proposed to be estab- lished there be added the clause 'provided that no group shall be admitted to departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. " Miss Jones then called for new business. Mr. J. M. Gwinn, of California, speaking for the National Council of Education, asked that the President of the Association appoint a committee on the teaching of democracy to continue the work done by the Council's Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Yocum, of the University of Pennsylvania. It was voted that the Committee be appointed. Mr. Reynolds, of Ohio, moved that it be the sense of this delegate body that all committees be ready to make their reports next year. The motion was carried. Mr. Kelley, of Pennsylvania, chairman of the Committee on the Revision of Departments , then moved the adoption of the report of that Committee. There was discussion by Mr. Thatcher and Mr. Cort, of New York. Mr. Kelley reported that a joint committee of the departments having to do with health and physical education recommended that it be merged under the name of School Health and Physical Education. The motion to adopt the report was carried . Dr. William B. Owen then announced the following amendment to lie on the table for consideration in 1925 : Amend Article 4, Section 2, of the By-laws, by adding the following words : "In addition to the 120 members thus selected from the active membership, the National Council may in its by-laws provide for the admission to membership of representatives from the several Departments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each Department." Miss Jones then introduced Dr. Chandler, president of the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions , who presented the report of that Committee. The various items in the report of the Resolutions Committee were discussed and voted upon, item by item, following which the report as a whole was adopted. Mr. Muller, of Oakland, California, moved that the Association extend its ap- preciation to President Jones for her work in organizing and presiding over the meeting. The motion was put by Dr. Owen and unanimously adopted by a ris- ing vote. Miss Jones then resumed the chair and presented Mr. Uel B. Lamkin, president of State Teachers College, Maryville, Missouri, who read the report of the Com- mittee on Nominations. The report of the Committee was adopted and the Secre- tary instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the Association for the persons whose names were recommended by the Committee. The Secretary cast the ballot and Miss Jones declared the officers duly elected. Miss Jones then introduced the newly-elected president, Mr. Jesse H. Newlon, MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONVENTION 53 superintendent of schools, Denver, Colorado, who expressed his appreciation of the honor and his determination to measure up to its responsibility. Miss Jones ex- plained that the convention did not end until after the speech by President Coolidge on July 4 and declared the meeting adjourned at 1:50 o'clock, P. M. Friday morning, July 4, 1924 Delegates to the Representative Assembly, members of the National Education Association, and friends, gathered in the Stadium of the Central High School, Friday morning, July 4, 1924. Miss Olive M. Jones presided. Asong service was conducted by Mr. Gartlan, of New York, and Mr. Woods, of California. Miss Jones spoke as follows : "Fifty-two years ago the guest of honor of the National Education Association was born on the Nation's birthday. Ithappens that there are fifty-two States and territories of the United States who have sent representatives to this great National Convention. In honor and rec- ognition of the significance of this fact, the National Education Association in convention assembled yesterday appointed a committee consisting of representatives of Vermont, Massachusetts, and the District of Columbia to give the President of the United States a slight token of our appreciation of his great services to us." At this point Mr. Jesse H. Newlon, of Colorado, presented a basket of flowers to President Coolidge. Miss Jones continued : "One hundred and forty-eight years ago a new Nation was born. The leaders in that great history-making declaration of July 4, 1776, foresaw and emphasized the inseparable, inescapable relationship of education to the equality of man. In my hand I hold a gavel which fittingly typifies this relationship. It was made by school boys of Concord, Massachusetts , from the wood of that rude bridge which arched the flood where once the embattled farmers stood and fired the shot heard round the world. Today a citizen of that State represents the spirit of democracy there established, and in the Capital of that Nation born July 4, 1776, are as- sembled to hear him speak the teachers on whose consecration to duty the preserva- tion of true democracy must forever depend. "Ladies and Gentlemen, the President of the United States." The President's speech, which appears in the volume of Proceedings, was re- ceived with enthusiastic applause. Following the speech of President Coolidge Miss Jones announced that "at the conclusion of the Patriotic Pilgrimages this afternoon the sixty-second annual Convention of the National Education Associa- tion will adjourn ." The audience then rose and sang the "Star Spangled Banner," after which, at 11:25 o'clock, A. M. , the meeting adjourned. J. W. CRABTREE, OLIVE M. JONES, Secretary President REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS J. A. C. CHANDLER, PRESIDENT, WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA, CHAIRMAN The Education Bill-We, the members of the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association, assembled in the National Capital reaffirm our devoted and unqualified support of the Education Bill now pending in Congress. We believe that Federal leadership as provided by the creation of a Department of Education with a Secretary in the Presi- dent's Cabinet is essential to the development of the highest degree of efficiency in the schools of the Nation. We know that the Federal Gov- ernment has an obligation to support research and investigation, and to disseminate information with regard to public education comparable to that undertaken by other Federal departments. We are convinced that the Nation should contribute to the development of a Nation-wide pro- gram for the removal of illiteracy, the Americanization of the foreign- born, the training of teachers, the development of a program of physical education, and the equalization of educational opportunity. This leader- ship, to be provided by a Secretary of Education in the President's Cabinet and the Federal aid required to promote the program of education on a broad scale, can and should be accomplished without any interference on the part of the Federal Government in the constitutional rights of the States to organize, administer, supervise, and control their own schools. It is gratifying to note that the two great political parties have in their platform recognized that education is one of the chief concerns of the Nation, and that the President of the United States is favorable to the es- tablishment of a new department emphasizing the importance of education. Private institutions-The National Education Association, while recog- nizing the American public school as the great nursery of broad and tolerant citizenship and of a democratic brotherhood, acknowledges also the contributions made to education by private institutions and enterprises, and recognizes that citizens have the right to educate their children in either public or private schools, when the educational standards of both are approved by the State educational authorities . Professional ethics-We believe that the time has come in the develop- ment of the teaching profession for the preparation of a professional code of ethics to govern the general attitude of teachers to teachers and to school officials as well as their general relation to society. In this we should be following the practice found so necessary and beneficial to the great professions of medicine and law. To this end we suggest that the Secretary of the National Education Association correspond with the officials of the various State associations to encourage them in the prepara- tion of professional codes, and we recommend that a special committee be 1These resolutions were passed by a unanimous vote of the Representative Assembly, Wash- ington meeting, July 3, 1924. [54] COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS 55 appointed to prepare a national code of ethics for the teaching profession . Status of teachers-The security of the professional status of teachers . and supervisors has not been adequately provided for. Too often are teachers, principals, and superintendents dismissed without due notice or any adequate statement of the cause of such action. In the last year there have been reported numerous instances of teachers, principals, and superintendents who have failed of reappointment in utter disregard of professional and lay public opinion for no other than political reasons. The teachers of America were shocked at the action of the New York City Board of Education in failing to reappoint the faithful and efficient superintendent of schools of that city though he was practically unanimously endorsed for reëlection by parents' associations and other civic bodies, and by the teachers, principals, and district superintendents. We believe the time has come when this association should have definite and systematic investigations made of such cases by the Tenure Committee in order that this body may be in a position to recommend such remedial measures as will tend to take the schools of the country out of politics. We recommend that the Tenure Committee of the National Education Association be empowered to give its active support to the association of any State in which there is pending legislation for the protection of teach- ers and supervisors and for the promotion of the efficiency of the service. We again deplore the tendency of some States to reduce appropriations for teacher-training institutions and for the support of the public high and elementary schools. We call upon the State teachers' associations to exert every effort to improve standards of teacher-training institutions. If the schools are to be what the American people desire, better trained teachers must be secured, adequate salaries must be paid, and teachers must bepromoted on merit, and not because of political influence. The teachers' retirement systems must be improved in order that a teacher shall receive annuity that will be based upon living conditions. We believe that there should be no discrimination in the schools as to sex, but that men and women teachers should be on the same basis-equal qualification, equal service, equal salary. The teaching of the Constitution and the history of public education- Teachers welcome the coöperation of the American Bar Association and similar agencies in a task with which the schools have always been vitally concerned-" to establish and maintain the Constitution of the United States and the principles and ideals of our government in the minds and hearts of the people." We believe therefore that the Constitution should be taught in all the upper grades of the elementary schools . We further maintain that in the schools instruction should be given in the history and ideals of our public-school system. Character education-Our boys and girls are the greatest assets of the Nation. It is essential that they shall receive proper character training. Honesty, integrity, and truthfulness should be emphasized in all the work ofthe schools. We believe, however, that the responsibility for character building must fall primarily upon the home. At the same time, teachers must by precept and example do everything possible to develop the highest 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION type of character in the boys and girls under their influence. We believe that religious education is fundamental in the development of character. Holding to these views, we urge that the school, the home, and the church coöperate fully in the training of our youth. The day has come when parents, teachers, and leaders in religious, moral, and educational work must coöperate for the protection of our boys and girls of high-school age. Manners and morals today need safeguarding and direction. Many forms of recreation now prevailing should be eliminated and all recreation should be supervised. We recommend as a preliminary step to this end that efforts be made to secure for high-schools teachers whose sole duty shall be to give moral and social guidance to pupils, and to confer with parents and teachers regarding such forms of recreation as will prove wholesome. Everything should be done to inspire in our children a love for and sympathy with the children of other nations. We therefore endorse the efforts to secure help through the American children for the destitute and orphan children of foreign lands. National Conference on Outdoor Recreation-The National Education Association heartily endorses the National Conference on Outdoor Recrea- tion and believes it will furnish a wholesome opportunity for the proper development of our youth physically and morally. Literacy tests-We believe that the reading and writing of English understandingly should be a qualification for citizenship and also a qualifi- cation for voting. We, therefore, urge upon Congress and the President the wisdom of adding the ability to read and write English understandingly, as an ad- ditional qualification for citizenship and that such a test be administered by existing federal agencies in conjunction with the Bureau of Education. We further recommend to such States as are not already provided with a literacy test for voting that they adopt such a test of reading and writing English understandingly, to be administered by the educational authorities of the State. International relations-The National Education Association is opposed to war except as a means of national defense. We strongly urge that our nation shall take steps to prevent any more wars. We ask that by agree- ment and coöperation, the American Government shall lead in securing from the civilized world a complete denunciation of war as a means for the settlement of international differences. For this purpose our Govern- ment should endeavor to secure the establishment of coöperative tribunals to regulate international relations. Child-labor amendment-Believing in Governmental responsibility, we endorsed in our last Convention an amendment to the Constitution em- powering Congress to make laws regarding child labor. We now advocate the prompt ratification by the States of the Child Labor Amendment passed by the present Congress and urge the members of this Association to make every effort to obtain its ratification by the legislatures of their respective states at the earliest possible date. Narcotic education service-We give our hearty endorsement to the Bureau of Education for having agreed to establish a Narcotic Education COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS 57 Service recognizing that in narcotic addiction, especially in the spread of the use of heroin among the youth, there is a grave peril to the boys and girls of America. We urge the National Education Association and the departments and boards of education of States, counties, and municipalities to coöperate fully with this service. Law enforcement-We regret that in many communities there has de- veloped a spirit of disregard of laws, especially those dealing with per- sonal conduct. This attitude is reacting unfavorably upon the youth of America by causing laxness in respect for and enforcement of law. Teach- ers everywhere should endeavor to inspire respect for law and should advocate strict enforcement thereof. We refer in particular to National and State laws, forbidding the liquor traffic and the distribution of obscene literature, posters, and pictures. This is equally true with regard to the enforcement of laws in many States forbidding the sale of cigarettes to children. American Education Week-In order to bear in upon the consciousness of all citizens the importance of education in our national life, we urge the widest observance of American Education Week in the schools, churches, and civic centers of all communities. The Territories of Alaska and Hawaii-The National Education Asso- ciation recommends to the Congress of the United States that the teachers in the territories of Alaska and Hawaii be not required to pay Federal income tax. Schools of the District of Columbia-The National Education Associa- tion reaffirms the resolution passed at the Oakland-San Francisco meeting of 1923 relative to the schools of the Nation's Capital. We heartily en- dorse the action of the present Congress of the United States in passing a salary schedule providing increases for officials, teachers, and other em- ployees of the public schools of the District of Columbia. The National Education Association urges that Congress, at its next session, pass legisla- tion which will enable the educational authorities of Washington to in- stitute and carry to completion an adequate program of school buildings. Resolution of thanks-We express our sincere apprecation of the courtesy and hospitality extended to the members of the Association by the teachers, the civic organizations, and by private citizens of Washington, of the State of Virginia, and other near-by States. We acknowledge the great service rendered to the teachers and the cause of education by the intel- ligent and public-spirited reports on our deliberations, published not only by the local press but by many other great papers of the Nation. We heartily thank our Government for its generous assignment of band music tothe many occasions when the teachers met in convention. We are deeply sensible of the honor conferred upon the Nation's teach- ers by the President of the United States in consenting to address their representatives on the Nation's birthday. We feel that such public rec- ognition of the dignity and importance of the profession of teaching by our Chief Magistrate at this and future conventions of the National Educa- tion Association would give inspiration and stimulus to teachers in their great endeavor. REPORT Oof the trustees FOR THE FISCAL YEAR, JUNE 1, 1923, TO MAY 31, 1924 To the Executive Committee, to the Board of Directors, and to the Rep- resentative Assembly : The Board of Trustees herewith submits the Annual Report on the finances and property of the Association. THE FUNDS OF THE ASSOCIATION The Permanent Fund is the money which has been put into a reserve fund. The income from this fund pays for repairs, upkeep, insurance, etc., on the property in which part of this fund is invested. The balance goes into the Regular Fund for current expenses. The Permanent Fund is in- vested in Stocks, Mortgages, Bonds, and Real Estate. The Regular Fund is the money received from memberships, from the sale of volumes and pamphlets, from commercial exhibits, advertising, etc. The Revolving Fund is a part of the moneys of the Regular Fund placed in the hands of the Secretary to pay salaries and current bills. The Secretary presents vouchers for the money he expends. The Revolving Fund is reimbursed monthly from the General Fund. Detailed information follows. Respectfully submitted, BOARD OF TRUSTEES. REPORT OF THE AUDITOR Miss OLIVE M. JONES, President, National Education Association of the United States, Washington, D. C. DEAR MADAM : In accordance with instructions received, we have made an examination of the cash receipts and disbursements of the National Education Asso- ciation of the United States for the year ended May 31, 1924, and now submit our report thereon. [58] REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES 59 INCOME AND EXPENSES The following is a summarized statement of the income and expenses for the period under review, further details being submitted in Exhibit "A" : Income $292,625.73 Less Expenses : Board of Trustees . $1,405.98 Executive Committee .... 4,967.88 General Secretary's Office . 19,777.92 Home Office .. 26,163.38 Institutional Expenses .. 8,239.77 World Conference on Education . 1,963.38 Representative Assembly Expense . 1,428.35 Expense inCollecting Membership Dues ..... 8,894.69 Publicity Expenses, etc... 20,044-34 N. E. A. Journal . 96,017.32 Volume of Proceedings . 9,010.32 Research Bulletin . 7,692.83 Special Appropriations . 16,139.83 Division of Records and Accounts . 14,736.69 Division of Field Secretaries . 25,563.89 Division of Business .. 20,419.43 Division of Publications . 13,866.03 Division of Research . 17,020.48 Division of Classroom Service .... 7,100.94. Division of Administrative Service . 2,654.85 323,108.30 Deficit for the year....... $30,482.57 The total income for the year is $34,411.96 in excess of that of the prior year, but this was offset by an increase in the total expenditures of $52,660.38. Thus, the operations for the year have resulted in a deficit of $30,482.57, as shown above, compared with a deficit for the previous year of $ 12,234.15. The size of the membership now is such that prob- ably the income will be stationary in future; consequently we are of the opinion that, in preparing the expenditure budget for 1924/5, the 1923/4 income should be used as a basis, and not on an estimated further growth of membership which may or may not materialize. These expenditures should be made so as to have a substantial margin each year to create a reserve for any emergencies which may happen in future years. During the past two years various changes have been made in the classi- fication of the accounts, and it is impracticable, at this time, to make com- parisons with prior years. The Surplus Account as at May 31, 1923, has been changed to a deficit of $5,461.47 at May 31, 1924, as under : Surplus as at May 31, 1923 ... $28,634.54 Amount due to Department of Superintendence and Elementary School Principals as at May 31, 1923, written back... 3,613.44 Adjusted Surplus as at May 31, 1923..... $25,021.10 Deficit for Year ended May 31, 1924 ..... 30,482.57 Deficit as at May 31, 1924... $5,461.47 60 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS The following is a summary of the cash receipts and disbursements of the Treasurer's account for the year: Cash Balance as at May 31, 1923 .... $12,696.65 Receipts: Incomes as per Income and Expenses Statement . $292,625.73 .. Accounts and Notes Receivable as at May 31, 1923 ....... 6,494.75 $299,120.48 Less Accounts and Notes Receivable unpaid as at May 31 , 1924 10,070.34 . $289,050.14 Departments of Superintendence and Elementary School Principals : As at May 31, 1923 ... $3,613.44 As at May 31, 1924 ...... 4,854.71 1,241.27 $290,291.41 Loan from Continental Trust Co ..... 7,500.00 297,791.41 $310,488.06 Disbursements : Expenses as per Income and Expenses Statement ........ $323,108.30 1923 bills paid during current year ...... 12,280.67 $335,388.97 Less : Bills Unpaid as at May 31, 1924. $31,068.58 Depreciation-Office Furniture and Fixtures ... 2,505.20 33,573.78 $301,815.19 Furniture and Fixtures Purchased during Year ......... 4,984.44 Office Stationery and Supplies, etc., on Hand May 31, 1924 1,271.73 308,071.36 Excess of Cash Receipts over Cash Expended ........ $2,416.70 Accounted for as follows : Revolving Fund: In Bank $38.68 Transfer from Continental Trust Co. Regular Account to Reimburse Fund 14,947.05 On Hand 14.27 $15,000.00 Continental Trust Co. Regular Account overdrawn ...... 12,583.30 $2,416.70 REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES 61 We examined the cash receipts after making an investigation of the methods of handling the income derived from memberships, subscriptions to the Journal of the National Education Association, advertising and sundry income, and so far as the system permitted, we satisfied ourselves that all the funds received have been properly accounted for. Vouchers in support of cash disbursements were examined and found in order, but a few receipts were missing for payments made toward the end ofMay, 1924, which had not been returned to the Treasurer's office at the date of our visit. ASSETS AND LIABILITIES The following is a statement of the assets and liabilities as at May 31 , 1924, as shown by the books : Cash: Assets Secretary's Fund-In Bank, on Hand and to be reimbursed from Regu- lar Account . $15,000.00 Regular Account (Overdrawn) 12,583.30 2,416.70 Permanent Fund 6,773.38 9,190.08 Accounts Receivable . 9,991.61 Notes Receivable : Life Members . $1,650.00 Others 78.73 1,728.73 Stationery, Supplies, Stamped Envelopes, etc.. 1,271.73 Old Volumes of Proceedings ..... 500.00 Securities at Book Value ( Schedule "I") 110,428.80 Real Estate : At Cost Price.... $153,000.00 Improvements and Alterations during Year-M Street Property 16,089.13 169,089.13 Less Mortgages and Loan .. 83,000.00 Furniture and Fixtures : 86,089.13 Expenditures to May 31, 1923 .... $25,051.94 Expenditures during Year to May 31 , 1924 .... 4,984.44 30,036.38 $249,236.46 Liabilities Accounts Payable $31,068.58 Notes Payable 7,500.00 Department of Superintendence. 3,972.85 Department of Elementary School Principals . 881.86 Reserve for Depreciation on Furniture and Fixtures . 6,333-33 Trust Fund-Permanent Investment . 204,941.31 Deficit as at May 31, 1924 5,461.47 $249,236.46 We verified the secretary's fund partly by count and partly by certificate obtained from the depository. The overdraft on the regular account rep- resents floating checks; we reconciled the Cash Book with the bank state 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ment and verified the balance with the bank as shown by the latter, by certificate obtained from the depository. We also verified the balance in the Permanent Fund by the Report of the Trustee. Certain of the accounts receivable appear to us to be doubtful, and we recommend that all accounts be examined and that those ascertained to be uncollectible be charged off or a reserve established. The notes receivable on hand were examined by us and found in order. The stationery, supplies, stamped envelopes, etc., on hand are book figures, supported by lists, which we examined. The values are stated at cost. The old volumes of proceedings are carried on the books at the same arbitrary value of $500.00. This stock is added to each year, and there appears to be a fair demand for these publications. At the present time this item represents over 18,000 volumes, dating from prior to 1917, which would indicate that this asset is placed at a conservative valuation, pro- viding there is a continued demand for these publications. We inspected vouchers for all the additions to the furniture and fixtures during the year, and found the amounts proper charges to that asset. We made a sufficient check to satisfy ourselves that all known liabilities are shown on the books. The notes payable amounting to $7,500.00 comprise two demand notes of $5,000.00 and $2,500.00 dated September 4 and 24, 1923, respectively, due to the Continental Trust Co. We confirmed these amounts by letter received from the company. PERMANENT FUND We have audited the receipts and disbursements of the Permanent Fund and have inspected the securities in the custody of the Trust Officer of the Continental Trust Co., Washington, D. C. There was no change in the securities from our previous report, and a detailed list is attached hereto as Schedule "1" showing the par and cost values. The market values were not ascertained at this time. All income from investments was received during the year. The old mortgage of $29,500.00 was paid off during the year by $4,000.00 from the Permanent Fund Cash and $25,500.00 from the proceeds of a new real estate loan of $45,000.00 from the Continental Trust Co. The balance of this loan remaining, i. e., $19,500.00, as per Trustees' resolution of November 13, 1923, was to provide for the installa- tion of a new heating plant and alterations of the recently acquired property at M Street. At May 31, 1924, the amount spent was (as per Balance Sheet ) $ 16,089.13, leaving a balance of $3,410.87. The following statement shows the changes in the Permanent Fund during the year : Balance as at May 31, 1923 .......... $201,466.31 Added during year : Cash received for Life Members' Fees $3,200.00 Notes accepted for Life Members' Fees ......... 275.00 3.475.00 Balance as at May 31, 1924 ... .... .$204,941-31 Γ L REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES 63 Made up as follows : Cash 6,773.38 Notes receivable (Life Members) 1,650.00 Securities 110,428.80 Improvement at M Street . 16,089.13 Real Estate, less Mortgage Loans thereon . 70,000.00 86,089.13 $204,941.31 The income from the investments and the disbursements for the period may be summarized as follows : Receipts: Interest from Securities Owned ( Schedule " I ") $4,725.00 Rentals Received from Real Estate Owned .... 10,071.25 14,796.25 Disbursements : Interest on Mortgages .. $5,417.14 Repairs to Buildings, etc..... 899.01 Legal Expenses re New Loan ..... 109.95 Trustees' Commission .. 995.17 Loan Repaid. 7,500.00 14,921.27 Excess of Expenditures Over Receipts . $125.02 The receipts were properly accounted for and vouchers were produced in support of all disbursements. GENERAL As in former years, no examination was made of the monies received and disbursements made by the Departments of Superintendence and Elemen- tary School Principals. We shall be glad to furnish any further information that may be de- sired, relative to the accounts. Yours truly, MARWICK, MITCHELL Co. 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Exhibit "А" INCOME AND EXPENSE For the Year ended May 31, 1924 Income : Memberships from Secretary's Office . $100,625.00 Memberships from Annual Conventions. 7,374.50 N. E. A. Journal : Subscriptions (Part of Membership Dues ) $90,927.00 Advertising 58,028.60 Sales 14.65 148,970.25 Sales of Proceedings . 1,060.50 Sales of Special Reports . 495.77 Commercial Exhibits .. 16,412.79 Research Bulletin : Subscriptions 3,774.00 Sales 874.16 4,648.16 Honorariums 3,000.05 Rentals 2,123.75 Interest and Discount Earned . 169.59 Cash Sales . 156.66 Net Income transferred from Permanent Fund . 7,374.98 Sundry Income .... 213.73 Total Income $292,625.73 Expenses : Board of Trustees ...... 1,405.98 Executive Committee : President : Dr. Owen .. $349.36 Miss Jones 2,560.34 First Vice-President . 228.86 Treasurer 738.78 Chairman, Board of Trustees . 837.83 Member by Election : Mr. Hunter . 66.63 Mrs. Stewart ... 186.08 4,967.88 General Secretary's Office : General Expense ( Clerical Service, Travel- ing, Stationery, etc.) $11,613.92 Salary of Secretary .... 8,164.00 19,777.92 Home Office : General Expense $719.91 Express and Freight . 834.86 Telephone Service . 2,249.18 Carried forward .. $3.803.95 $26,151.78 REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES 65 Brought forward ................ $3,803.95 $26,151.78 Telegrams 498.56 Repairs Office Furniture and Fixtures .. 365.12 Depreciation-Office Furniture and Fixtures 2,505.20 Interest and Discounts Allowed . 1,238.24 Surety Bonds 210.00 Insurance 390.25 Audit Fee, etc..... 737.96 Physical Plant Expenses : Rent $10,085.00 Light and Power . 1,674.95 Heat 1,210.26 Janitor Service 1,970.18 Maintenance, etc.... 1,473.71 16,414.10 26,163.38 Institutional Expenses : Annual Conventions : Department Expenses . 632.50 State Directors . 1,475.31 Registration 990.26 Stenographic Service 141.57 Publicity 1,642.84 Printing-Programs and Miscellaneous . 2,442.16 Express and Freight..... 18.25 Telephone and Telegrams . 76.86 Miscellaneous Expenses ( Speakers, etc. ) 740.36 Badges 79.66 8,239.77 World Conference on Education . 1,963.38 Representative Assembly Expense . 1,428.35 Expense in Collecting Membership Dues 8,894.69 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership . 18,769.39 General Publicity . 726.91 Special Committee appointed by the President . 245.08 American Education Week . 302.96 N. E. A. Journal ( Printing and Distribution) 96,017.32 Volume of Proceedings .. 9,010.32 Research Bulletin (Printing and Distribution) 7,692.83 Special Appropriations : Nomenclature Report ...... $595.02 Committee on Character and Citizenship ... 351.21 Committee on Foreign Relations . 182.02 Committee on Health Education . 2,362.86 Illiteracy Commission . 2,650.29 Legislative Commission . 1,934.43 Committee on Rural Education . 331.13 Committee on Standardization of School House Planning 68.50 Committee on Salaries, Tenure and Pensions 2,436.29 Committee on Thrift Education ...... 260.00 Committee on Reorganization of Elementary Education 748.31 Committee on Coördination of Research Agencies 75.04 Department of Classroom Teachers ....... 4,126.12 Financing Delegates, etc... 18.61 16,139.83 Carried forward. $221,745.99 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought forward .. $221,745.99 Division of Records and Accounts : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, etc.) 14,736.69 Division of Field Secretaries : Legislative Secretary 15,469.71 Field Secretary . 10,094.18 25.563.89 Division of Business : General Expenses ( Salaries, Traveling, Stationery, etc.) 9,668.86 Typing Section 1,522.68 Mailing Section 2,870.91 Multigraphing Section 632.73 Addressographing Section . 5.724.25 20.419.43 Division of Publications : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, etc. ) ) ........ 13,866.03 Division of Research : General Expenses ( Salaries, Traveling, Stationery, etc.) 17,020.48 Division of Classroom Service : General Expense ( Salaries, Traveling, Stationery, etc. ) 7,100.94 Division of Administration Service : General Expenses ( Salaries, Stationery, etc.) ... 2,654.85 Total Expenses .... 323,108.30 Deficit for the Year . $30,482.57 SECURITIES ON HAND As at May 31, 1924 Schedule "I" Value Par Book Income Municipal and School Bonds : Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works Bonds, 5 per cent due : 1930 $1,000.00 $1,000.00 $50.00 Nos. 18 to 23 .......... 1931 1932 } Kansas City, Mo., School District 32 per { 2,000.00 3,000.00 2,000.00 3,000.00 100.00 150.00 cent Bonds due 1925 : Nos. 3127, 3128, 3129, 3133, 3135, 3136, 3190, 3191, 3192, and 3200 10,000.00 9,500.00 350.00 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water Bonds, 4½ per cent due 1934: Nos. 310 to 319 .. .... 10,000.00 10,000.00 450.00 Seattle, Washington, School Bonds, 4½ per cent due 1931 : Nos . 586 to 595 ............ 10,000.00 10,266.30 450.00 Railroad Bonds: Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co. Ist Cons. Mtge. Bonds 4 per cent due 1952 : Nos. 5130, 6494, 11638, 11639, 14335, 14339, 17579, 24001, 37565, 50251 ... 10,000.00 9,600.00 400.00 Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. ( Pittsburglı, Lake Erie & West Virginia System) Ref. Gold Bonds 4 per cent due 1941 : Nos . 13496 to 13500, 21236 to 21250 , 20,000.00 19,942.50 800.00 Chicago, Indiana & Southern Ry. Co. 4 per cent due 1956 : Nos . 11,385 to 11394 and 13786 10,000.00 9,500 00 400.00 Carried forward .... $76,000.00 $74,808.80 $3,150.00 REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES 67 Value Par Book Income Brought forward . $76,000.00 $74,808.80 $3,150.00 Manhattan Railway Co. Cons Mtge. Gold Bonds 4 per cent due 1990 : Nos . 2043, 6522, 16083, 16087 4,000.00 3,900.00 160.00 Oregon Short Line R. R. Co. Ref. Gold Bonds 4 per cent due 1929 : Nos. 4013 to 4017. 4025 to 4027, 4976, 13810 ... 10,000.00 8,895.00 400.00 St. Louis & San Francisco R. R. Co. Ad- justment Bonds 6 per cent due 1955 : Nos . M14552, D845 , ¥1033 1,750.00 1,443-75 105.00 St. Louis & San Francisco R. R. Co. Prior Lien Mortgage Bonds 4 per cent due 1950 : Nos . M56051 to 56055, Y1527 . . . . . . 5,250.00 4,331.25 210.00 Terminal R. R. Association of St. Louis, Gen. Ref. Sink. Fund Gold Bonds 4 per cent due 1953 : Nos. 16311 to 16325 ...... 15,000.00 15,050.00 600.00 Corporation Bonds : Maine Real Estate Title Co. Ist Mtge. Gold 5per cent due 1932 : Nos. 151-152 ........ 2,000.00 2,000.00 100.00 Total $114,000.00 $110,428.80 $4,725.00 TREASURER'S REPORT FROM JUNE 1, 1923 ΤΟ MAY 31, 1924 Deficit Brought Forward from Treasurer's Report for Year ended May 31, 1923 ... $2,303.35 Receipts : From Annual Meetings : Oakland Meeting 4,194.50 Chicago Meeting 3,180.00 7,374.50 For Account-Department of Superintendence ( Net ) . 3,972.85 For Account-Department of Elementary School Principals ( Net) .... 881.86 From Secretary's Office during the Year : Membership Fees $100,625.00 Subscriptions to the Journal of the National Educa- tion Association 90,927.00 Subscriptions to Research Bulletins . 3,774.00 Sale of volumes of Proceedings . 1,060.50 Sale of Journal of the National Education Association 14.65 Sale of Special Reports ...... 652.43 Sale of Research Bulletins ... 874.16 197,927.74 From Income on Permanent Fund . 7,500.00 From Commercial Exhibits (Net) 16,412.79 From Advertising-Journal of the National Education Association (Net) 58,028.60 From Interest and Discounts Earned . 169.59 From Rentals Received . 2,123.75 From Honorariums ( Field and Legislative Secretaries ) 3,000.05 From Miscellaneous Income (Exchange, etc. ) . 173.06 From Sundry Income (Sale of Scrap, Paper, etc. ) ..... 40.67 From Loan Continental Trust Co...... 7,500.00 292,876.25 $305,105.46 Expenses : Board of Trustees-Expenses . 1,405.98 Executive Committee : President ( Dr. Owen) 349.36 (Miss Jones) 2,560.34 First Vice- President 228.86 Treasurer 738.78 Chairman, Board of Trustees .... 837.83 Member by Election (Mr. Hunter) 66.63 (Mrs. Stewart) 186.08 4,967.88 Carried Forward 6,373.86 [68] REPORT OF THE TREASURER 69 Brought Forward $6,373.86 Expenses, continued: Office of General Secretary : General Expense ( Clerical Service, Traveling, and stationery) $11,613.92 Salary of Secretary . 8,164.00 19,777.92 Home Office : General Expense 719.91 Express and Freight 834.86 Telephone Service 2,249.18 Telegrams (General) 498.56 Repairs-Office Furniture and Fixtures 365.12 Interest and Discounts Allowed . 1,238.24 Surety Bonds 210.00 Insurance 390.25 Auditing Accounts of Association 737.96 Physical Plant: Rents, Light, Heat, Power, and Janitor Service ..... 16,196.26 Fire Loss 217.84 23,658.18 Institutional Expense: Annual Conventions : Departmental Expenses 632.50 State Directors 1,475.31 Registration Bureau 990.26 Stenographic Service 141.57 Publicity 1,642.84 Printing: Programs $2,179.36 Miscellaneous 262.80 2,442.16 Express and Freight ...... 18.25 Telephone and Telegrams .... 76.86 Miscellaneous Expense ( Speakers, etc. ) .. 740.36 Badges 79.66 8,239.77 World Conference in Education ... 1,963.38 Representative Assembly Expense . 1,428.35 Expense in Collecting Membership Dues ... 8,894.69 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership 18,769.39 General Publicity 726.91 Special Committees appointed by the President ..... 245.08 American Education Week .. 302.96 National Education Association Journal (Printing and Distribution) 96,017.32 Volume of Proceedings ( 1923 ) 9,010.32 Research Bulletin (Printing and Distribution) 7,692.83 153,291.00 Carried Forward $203,100.96 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought Forward $203,100.96 Special Appropriations : Nomenclature Report $595.02 Committee on Character and Citizenship. 351.21 Committee on Foreign Relations .. 182.02 Committee on Health Education . 2,362.86 Illiteracy Commission 2,650.29 Legislative Commission 1,934.43 Committee on Rural Education . 331.13 Committee on Standardization of School House Planning 68.50 Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions . ... 2,436.29 Committee on Thrift Education. 260.00 Committe on Reorganization of Elementatry Education 748.31 Committee on Coördination of Research Agencies ..... 75.04 Department of Classroom Teachers .... 4,126.12 Financing Delegates 15.50 Kindergarten 3.11 16,139.83 Division of Records and Accounts : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) .. ...... 14,736.69 Division of Field Secretaries : Legislative Secretary-General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) 15,469.71 Field Secretary-General Expense ( Salaries, Sta- tionery, Etc.) 10,094.18 Division of Business : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) 9,668.86 Typing Section 1,522.68 Mailing Section 2,870.91 Multigraphing Section 632.73 Addressographing Section 5,724.25 10,750.57 Division of Publications: General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) 13,866.03 Division of Research: General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) 17,020.48 Division of Classroom Service : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc. ) ........... 7,100.94 Division of Administrative Service : General Expense ( Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) .. 2,654.85 Purchase of Office Furniture and Fixtures . 4,984.44 Purchase of Library Books .. 9.21 Purchase of Stamps and Stamped Envelopes ( on Hand ) .. 272.55 Purchase of Stationery and Supplies (on Hand ) .......... 989.97 Depreciation on Furniture and Fixtures ..... 2,505.20 $329,364.47 REPORT OF THE TREASURER 71 Summary of Expenditures Current Expenses and Equipment . $295,790.69 Depreciation Reserved .. 2,505.20 Expenses Unpaid ( Vouchers Payable) 31,068.58 Total $329,364.47 Cash Summary Receipts for the Year.... $305,105.46 Overdraft -May 31, 1923 2,303.35 $302,802.11 Deduct : Deficit on Permanent Fund Income Account (Net) ...... $125.02 Cash applicable to Accounts Receivable .. 3,575.59 Departments of Superintendence and Elementary School Principals, May 31, 1923, included above ... .... 3,613.44 7,314.05 $295,488.06 Disbursements for Current Year ... 295,790.69 Disbursements for Previous Year's Operations ...... 12,280.67 308,071.36 Cash Overdraft as at May 31, 1924 ... $12,583.30 Summary Regular Fund ( Overdraft) $12,583.30 Revolving Fund 15,000.00 Total Cash ( Treasurer) $2,416.70 Certificate of Auditors To the President of the National Education Association : We have audited the accounts of the National Education Association and of the Treasurer, and of the Secretary, for the year ended May 31 , 1924, and certify that the foregoing state- ment of Income and Expenses is correct and is in accordance with the books of the Association . The Secretary's Revolving Fund of $ 15,000 has also been verified by us. MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co. 40 Exchange Place, New York, June 26, 1924. SUPPLEMENTARY TREASURER'S REPORT The Treasurer's Report opens with a deficit of $2,303.35 , although there was in the revolving fund on May 31, 1923, the sum of $12,696.65 . The total income for the year 1923-24 is $34,411.96 in excess of that of the preceding year, but this was offset by an increase in the total expendi- tures of $52,660.38 . It is necessary, therefore, for the Association to in- crease its income or cut down its expenses. A budget committee, authorized by the Executive Committee and Board of Directors, will offer a solution. 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The question of increase of income by increase in membership lies largely in the hands of the Board of Directors, the chairmen of departments, and the delegates. They alone are closely in touch with the sources of member- ship. The Treasurer wishes to urge upon the Chairmen of Committees and Departments the necessity for wisdom in expending their appropriations in order to give the greatest service to the Association. Several depart- ments-notably those of Superintendence, Elementary School Principals, and Rural Education-have opened up a wider field of service within their departments by levying departmental dues. These dues are paid into the treasury of the Association and paid out upon the order of the proper departmental authority. The Treasurer also wishes to urge the prompt payment of dues, or the notification that they will not be paid. One of the greatest sources of loss to the Association is the continuance of services, such as The Journal , to those who do not renew their membership. (See By-Laws.) Much of the expenses of dues collection would be avoided by the adoption of a Budget Plan by every local association. In conclusion, the Treasurer wishes to thank the members of the Asso- ciation and the members of the Headquarters Staff for their ready and efficient coöperation during the past year. Respectfully submitted, CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer . . HOW THE $2 IS SPENT Joofurnal membNe.rE.A UTIOL COMDITI VE NG Secret S Du ECXOENCTRE L TE A Ge TGREUNS ER teovertyhe ETC 2.79 ne are e U Sala y'Icsnusroinf osf ra A Colle Builttheers , Opera ion ngHeadquar-of l e27 xp&enosteshremireeosmfbNJearnswituorrangce Of fi ce ct di tion and 67 85 % .1 8 Service 34 Rent etc. 401% Direct Service toProfession Department & Committee Service Conventions~ Researeh Service Publications Legislative Service Headquarters Service Educational Field Service Publicity REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS TO THE REPRESENTATIVE AS- SEMBLY The Executive Committee submits for consideration the following report and recommendations : REPORT OF THE BUDGET COMMITTEE BUDGET FOR JUNE 1, 1924, BO MAY 31, 1925 This budget is based on the actual income for the last fiscal year, namely, froin June 1, 1923, to May 31, 1924. Received during the year ..... $292,625.73 Received from Accounts and Notes Receivable previous years 6,494.75 Total .... $299,120.48 Less Accounts and Notes Receivable unpaid as at May 31, 1924 10,070.34 $289,050.14 Cash on hand May 31, 1924 . 2,416.70 Total ... $291,466.84 There is also in the hands of the treasurer monies belonging to: The Department of Superintendence . $3,972.85 The Department of Elementary School Principals 881.86 $4,854.71 This money is not available for Budget purposes of the General Association. Less ....... 4,854.71 $286,612.13 The Association Owes : Current Accounts Payable . $31,068.58 Notes Payable 7,500.00 Less 38,568.58 NetAmount Available for Budget. Amount Expenditures requested $248,043.55 299,290.97 Needed to Balance Budget.... $ 51,247.42 NOTE-This entire report was submitted to the Board of Directors on July 1, 1924, who voted to authorize the Executive Committee to reduce the expenditures re- quested in such an amount as will reduce the deficit by one third of the same each year for the next three years. The schedule adopted for this fiscal year will take $ 18,725 from the deficit this year. The Executive Committee is authorized by vote of the Board of Directors, [73 ] 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION subject to the approval of the Representative Assembly, to borrow such an amount this year as will cover the remaining deficit, and to borrow next year such an amount as will cover the remaining one third of the deficit. The amount to be borrowed will be lessened by the amount in which the revenues can be increased. SCHEDULE OF EXPENSES As Amended by the Executive Committee on Vote of the Board of Directors Expenses Budget Schedule Purpose of Expense 1923-24 1924-25 1 Board ofTrustees .... $1,405.98 $900.00 2 Executive Committee 4,967.88 3,840.00 3 General Secretary's Office .... 19,777.92 18,340.56 4 Division of Records and Accounts 14,736.69 14,236.69 5 Legislative Secretary 15,469.71 14,719.71 6 Field Secretary 10,094.18 1,450.00 7 Division of Business . 20,419.43 16,516.00 8 Division of Publications 13,866.03 12,366.03 9 Division of Research . 17,020.48 14,907.00 10 Division of Classroom Service.. 7,100.94 5,950.09 11 Division of Administrative Service . 2,654.85 1,904.85 12 Plant-1201 16th Street . 19,917.21 18,250.00 13 Home Office Expense . 3,740.97 5,067.96 14 Institutional Expense 11,631.50 5,378.00 15 Collection of Dues . 27,664.08 22,164.08 16 Journal of the National Education Association. 96,017.32 86,300.00 17 Volume of Proceedings . 9,010.32 7,325.00 18 Research Bulletin 7,692.83 4,150.00 19 Special Appropriations 16,672.37 16,500.00 20 Financial Delegates 15.50 10,000.00 21 General Publicity 726.91 300.00 22 Office Furniture 5,193.65 1,000.00 Totals $325,796.75 $281,565.97 DETAIL OF SCHEDULE 1 Board of Trustees . $1,405.98 $900.00 (For 3 members.) 2 Executive Committee : President ( 1922-23 ) 349.36 President ( 1923-24) 2.560.34 First Vice-President 228.86 Treasurer 738.78 Chairman, Board of Trustees . 837.83 Member by Election ( 1922-23 ) . 66.63 Member by Election ( 1923-24) 186.08 Total $4,967.88 $3,840.00 3 General Secretary's Office: Salaries and Clerical Services (for six employees ) .. $ 17,018,26 Traveling Expenses 837.36 Stationery and Office Supplies . 634.40 Stamped Envelopes and Cards . 745.45 Telegrams 113.90 Miscellaneous Printing 428.55 Total $19,777.92 $18,340.56 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 75 Expenses Budget, Schedule Item 1923-24 1924 25 4 Division of Records and Accounts : Salaries and Clerical Services (for eight employees ) . $ 13,915.42 Stationery and Office Supplies .. 737.91 Postage and Stamped envelopes . 83.36 Total $14,736.69 $ 14,236.69 5 Legislative Secretary: Salaries and Clerical Services (for three employees ) $ 11,557.93 Traveling Expenses 1,884.09 Stationery and Office Supplies . 191.29 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 590.38 Telegrams 340.48 General Expense 905.54 Total $15,469.71 $ 14,719.71 6 Field Secretary : Discontinued after August 1, 1924. Salary and Clerical Service ( for one employee ) .... $7,573.90 Traveling Expenses 2,479.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 3.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 13.75 Telegrams 24.53 Total $10,094.18 $1,450.00 7 Division of Business : Salaries and Clerical Service . $8,597.13 (for 3 employees ) Traveling Expenses 464.11 Stationery and Office Supplies . 308.02 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 258.48 Telegrams 26.77 General Expense 2.85 Miscellaneous 11.50 Typing Section 1,522.68 Mailing Section 2,870.91 (for 2 employees ) Multigraphing Section 632.73 Addressographing Section 5,724.25 (for 6 employees ) Total $20,+19.43 $ 16,516.00 8 Division of Publications : Salaries and Clerical Services. $12,812.24 (for 6 employees ) Stationery and Office Supplies . 232.06 Postage and Stamped Envelopes 418.05 Telegrams 69.27 General Expense 69.25 Sundry Publications 38.00 Reprints 189.66 Photographs and Prints . 37.50 Total $13,866.03 $12,366.03 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Expenses Budget, Schedule Item 1923-24 1924-25 9 Division of Research : Salaries and Clerical Services . $15,354.12 (for 8 employees ) Traveling Expenses 447.27 Stationery and Office Supplies . 463.49 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 404.07 Telegrams 37.31 General Expense 314.22 Total $17,020.48 $ 14,907.00 10 Division of Classroom Service: Salaries and Clerical Service . $6,315.09 (for 3 employees ) Traveling Expenses 460.47 Stationery and Office Supplies . 110.95 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 168.03 Telegrams 46.40 Total $7,100.94 $5,950.09 11 Division of Administrative Service : Salaries and Clerical Service $2,533.27 (for 1½ employees) Stationery and Office Supplies . 74.50 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 46.24 General Expense .84 Total $2,654.85 $1,904.85 12 Plant- 1201 Sixteenth Street : Telephone Service $2,249.18 (1 operator and tolls) Telegrams 498.56 Repairs-Office Furniture and Equipment . 365.12 Insurance 390.25 Physical Plant : Rents 10,085.00 Lights and Power . 1,674.95 Heat 1,210.26 Janitor Service 1,970.18 Maintenance 1,255.87 Fire Insurance Indemnity . 217.84 Total $19,917.21 $ 18,250.00 13 Miscellaneous : General Expense $459.64 Subscriptions to Journals . 36.84 Purchased Books and Pamphlets . 48.93 Refunds of Membership . 140.00 Purchase of Back Volumes . 34.50 Express and Freight . 834.86 Interest and Discounts Allowed¹ . 1,238.24 Surety Bonds 210.00 Auditing Accounts of Association . 737.96 Total $3,740.97 $5,067.96 1 Interest item will be increased on account of money borrowed for deficit. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 77 Expenses Budget, Schedule Item 1923-24 1924-25 14 Annual Convention : Department Expenses $632.50 State Directors 1,475.31 Registration 990.26 141.57 Stenographers & Typing . Publicity 1,642.84 Printing-Programs 2,179.36 262.80 Printing-Miscellaneous 18.25 Express & Freight.. 76.86 Telephone & Telegrams . Miscellaneous 740.36 Badges 79.66 World Conference on Education . 1,963.38 Representative Assembly Expense . 1,428.35 Total $11,631.50 $5,378.00 15 Collection of Dues : Expense in Collecting Membership Dues . 8,894.69 Publicity in Anticipation of Membership . 18,769.39 Total $27,664.08 $22,164.08 16 Journal: Printing and Distribution . $95,785.84 Material for Contents . 97.63 Clerical Services 133.85 Total :.. $96,017.32 $86,300.00 NOTE-The September and October issues will be combined into a September- October number. 17 Volume of Proceedings : Printing and Distribution . $9,010.32 $7,325.00 NOTE-The numbre printed will be determined by the five-dollar memberships. 18 Research Bulletin : Printing and Distributing . $7,692.83 $4,150.00 NOTE-Reduced to 4 numbers each year. 19 Appropriations for Committees : Educational Nomenclature $200.00 Joint Health Committee . 500.00 Character Education 100.00 Classification Educational Material . 300.00 English 50.00 Legislative Commission 1,000.00 One Hundred on Retirement Allowances . 500.00 One Hundred on Classroom Teacher Problems . 600.00 Arithmetic 100.00 Illiteracy Commission 1,800.00 Vocational Education 100.00 Coördination of Departments . 75.00 American Education Week ... 25.00 Standardization of School House Planning . 400.00 One Hundred on Teacher Tenure .. 250.00 Thrift Education 300.00 Department of Classroom Teachers . 7,000.00 Kindergarten Department 200.00 American School Program . 500.00 Department of Elementatry School Principals . 2,000.00 One Hundred on Rural Teacher Problems . 500.00 Total $16,672.37 $ 16,500.00 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Schedule Item 1923-24 1924-25 Expenses Budget, 20 Financing Delegates : Financing Delegates ( 1922-23 . $15.50 $ 10,000,00 21 Special Publicity : General Publicity $726.91 $300.00 22 Fixed Assets : ( Office Furniture and Fixtures pur- chased under this head become part of assets . ) Office Furniture and Fixtures . $5,193.65 $1,000.00 NOTE-Building is well furnished and equipped, with comparatively few addi- tional requirements. Respectfully submitted, Budget Committee: WALTER R. SIDERS E. M CARTER CLARA L. JAHNKE CORNELIA S. ADAIR S. D. SHANKLAND J. W. CRABTREE IDE G. SARGEANT MRS. JENNIE M. FRENCH (ap- FRED M. HUNTER pointed, but not present) Submitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors, July 1, 1924. Submitted by the Executive Committee to the Representative Assembly, July 3, 1924. Committee for the ensuing year-The Executive Committee recom- mends the continuance of the following as active committees of the Asso- ciation for the year 1923-24 : Legislative Commission : Character and Citizenship ; Foreign Relations ; Salaries; Tenure; Pensions: Expenses of Delegates; Coördination of Re- search Agencies; English ; Arithmetic; Illiteracy; Health Problems ; Thrift Education; Racial Well-Being; High School Libraries ; Coöperation with American Legion; Coöperation with General Federation of Women's Clubs ; Coöperation with American School Citizenship League ; Coöperation with Conference on Limitation of Armaments; County Superintendents' Prob- lems; Editorial Council ; Visual Education; American School Program, and Sources of Revenue. Also all other Committees mentioned in list of Special Appropriations . Secretarial help for departments, committees, State directors-The Ex- ecutive Committee recommends that the policy outlined by the Executive Secretary to render much needed assistance to departments and special committees carrying a heavy burden of work as a part of the program of the Association be the recognized policy of the Association and that the Secretary be authorized to render such assistance as he and the Executive Committee deem necessary and to make such special assignments of heads of executive departments or special secretaries of the headquarters staff for this purpose as the work may, in his judgment, demand. Recommendations for coöperation with the American Legion-The Ex- ecutive Committee recommends that the Americanism and Education pro- gram of the American Legion in coöperation with the Association be approved. The Executive Committee requests the authority of the Representative Assembly to redistribute the amounts assigned by this budget where an amount remains after the completion of the work to which the sum was budgeted, or where the best interests of the Association demand a read- justment. Respectfully submitted, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE SUMMARY OF THE MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE YEAR, 1923-24 MONDAY, TUESDAY, AND WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 1, 2, AND 3, 1923 Headquarters, Washington, D. C. The meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Education Association was held at headquarters, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C., October 1, 1923. The meeting was called to order at 10:15 A. M. by the Chairman, Miss Jones. The following members were present: Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer ; Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, member elect; Walter R. Siders, Chairman, Board of Trustees; William B. Owen, first Vice-President. Dr. Thomas, of Maine, and Dr. Kelley, of Pennsylvania, were present on request. Miss Adair moved that this and other meetings of the Executive Committee be joint meetings with the Board of Trustees and the heads of Divisions. The motion was seconded and carried, Chairman Siders of the Board of Trustees extending a similar invitation to mem- bers of the Executive Committee and heads of Divisions to attend the meetings of the Board of Trustees . The minutes of the last meeting were approved and a request was made that they be put on record. Miss Jones appointed the following committee to go over the salary recommendations with the Secretary and report later : Chairman Walter R. Siders; other members , Mrs. Stewart, Miss Adair, Miss Doherty, and Dr. Finegan. The plan to have standardized letter-heads for the National Education Associa- tion and its various departments was approved. The letter-head now in use was approved as a satisfactory form. At this point Dr. Ballou, superintendent of the Washington public schools, ex- tended the invitation for the 1924 meeting in behalf of the Washington school people. He stated that he would meet with the Board of Directors of the Wash- ington Chamber of Commerce on Thursday evening, October 4, for final approval of the plans. He gave assurance that satisfactory arrangements could be made. Dr. Finegan moved that if the report made by Dr. Ballou on the Washington Chamber of Commerce is satisfactory to the President of the National Education Association, that she be designated to appoint Washington as the meeting place for 1924. The motion was seconded and carried. The matter of coöperation with the Bureau of Education and American Legion for the observance of American Edu- cation Week, was brought to the attention of the committee. Miss Jones next called on each of the heads of divisions for reports, and each- Mrs. Hixson, Mr. Allan, Mr. Norton, Mr. Morgan, Miss Winn, Mr. Shankland , and Miss Williams-touched on the high spots of their work in a most interesting and enlightening way. All these reports were approved by common consent. In connection with Mr. Shankland's report, the Secretary recommended that so far as the National Education Association work is concerned, it be called the Division of Administration Service. For the purpose of simplifying bookkeeping, Dr. Owen moved that Mr. Shankland's National Education Association work be called a Division of Administration Service. The motion was seconded by Mr. Siders and unanimously carried. It was impossible for Dr. Engleman to be present because of engagements in the field. He had sent a telegram to the Chairman, which was read at this time. The Secretary called attention to a copy of a letter written by [79] 80 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Commissioner Dempsey, of Vermont, in which he highly praised the work of Dr. Engleman in his State. On motion, the committee adjourned to meet at 4 P. M. at headquarters . The meeting was called to order promptly at 4 P. M. by the Chairman, with the same number in attendance as at the morning session. The Board of Trustees and heads of Divisions were also present. Miss Williams continued her report and also outlined her work for the next few months. Dr. Thomas was called upon to report for the World Federation of National Education Associations, and Dr. Kelley to report on the Reorganization of Departments . A motion was made by Dr. Owen, covering the duties of the Committee on Foreign Relations and the relation of the National Education Association to the World Federation of National Education Associations. After discussion and amend- ment, the motion was passed by unanimous vote in the following form: That the Committee on Foreign Relations be discontinued and that it be reconstituted as a committee to coöperate with the President of the World Federation of National Education Associations, with a view toward consideration of questions on admis- sions, constitution, finances, and future relations of the National Education Asso- ciation to the World Federation. On motion, the committee adjourned to meet at headquarters, Tuesday, at 10 А. м. The meeting was called to order by the Chairman, Tuesday at 10 A. M. , with all members present. The Board of Trustees and heads of Divisions were also present. Mr. Siders moved that the President be authorized to take out a membership for the Association in the American Council on Education. Seconded and carried. It was explained that Dr. Bagley, editor-in-chief of The Journal, had not accepted compensation for his work, although his editorials and his connection with the paper were of invaluable importance in giving high standing to The Journal. A motion was passed instructing the Secretary to notify him of the unanimous desire of the Committee to have him remain as editor-in-chief, and to fill out a voucher for $500, certifying to the services rendered, and to see that a check is sent to Dr. Bagley as soon as funds will permit. The committee then went into Executive session for the purpose of considering questions pertaining to committee work. After coming out of Executive session, the committee announced that there was no report to be made at this time. On motion, the committee adjourned to meet again at headquarters at 3 P. M. The meeting was called to order at 3 P. M by the Chairman, all members being present. The Board of Trustees were present, as were also the heads of Divisions, except during the discussions of salary recommendations for 1923-24. A request was read from Dr. J. O. Engleman for definite instructions concerning the matter of charging his traveling expenses to the organizations securing his services for addresses. After a discussion of the question, it was agreed that in paying the salary of the Field Secretaries, the Association does its full share and that the locality favored with an address should pay its part of traveling expenses. On the recommendation of Miss Adair, who had been appointed as Chairman of a sub-committee to report on the name for Miss Winn's Division, a motion was MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 81 passed authorizing the Secretary to change on the records the name of Division of Elementary School Service to the Division of Classroom Service. Mr. Siders presented the following resolution, which after discussion was adopted by a unanimous vote of the committee: "Resolved, That the Secretary is instructed to economize and standardize supplies for the Association; to furnish the same only on requisition, and to effect every economy in administration which is con- sistent with efficiency; that all claims against the Association shall be itemized and receipts for all items shall be presented therewith; that a standard form of voucher and receipt shall be prepared for general use, and all persons authorized to incur expenses shall be required to use the same." After a discussion of the request of the Chairman of the Illiteracy Commission, Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, for an increase in the appropriation for the Commis- sion, a motion was passed to increase the appropriation from $1,000 to $1,500, and that the additional $500 be used for a conference on Illiteracy in Washington in cooperation with other National organizations and the Bureau of Education, and that the funds be expended in consultation with the Secretary. The Secretary was instructed to render such other help as he considers necessary for the success of the conference. On motion, the allowance for the Committee on Character Education was in- creased from $200 to $400, and an allowance of $600 was voted to the Committee on Tenure and $600 for the Committee on Retirement allowances . The sub-committee on salaries of the headquarters staff, after having given con- sideration to the schedule of salaries for 1923-24 prepared by the Secretary, recom- mended its adoption as amended by the committee. The report of the sub-com- mittee was presented by the Chairman, Mr. Siders. It was adopted by the follow- ing vote on roll call: Miss Adair, Dr. Owen, Mrs. Stewart, Mr. Siders, and Miss Jones, all members of the committee being present and voting in the affirmative. The Secretary was authorized to appoint temporary help as needed and to fill places on the permanent roll only on the approval of the Executive Committee. Amotion was passed authorizing the Secretary to incur any necessary expense for the Division of Legislation in promoting the passage of the Educational Bill, charging the expenses to the Division or to the account of the Legislative Com- mission. On motion, the committee adjourned to meet at headquarters, Wednesday, at 10 A. M. The meeting was called to order by the Chairman at 10:30 А. м., Wednesday, October 4. After a general discussion of plans for increasing the income of the Association and for economizing in the use of funds, attention was called to the need of in- creasing the number of pages of advertising, if the 64-page Journal is to be con- tinued. It was the belief that the rates should be increased in due time. There being no further business to be transacted, a motion was passed to ad- journ and the President authorized to call a meeting at the time of the Chicago meeting of the Department of Superintendence. This meeting was then declared adjourned by the Chairman, Miss Jones . OLIVE M. JONES, J. W. CRABTREE, President Secretary 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SATURDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 23 , 1924 Congress Hotel, Chicago, Ill . The meeting of the Executive Committee announced in the program of the De- partment of Superintendence was called to order by the President, Miss Olive M. Jones, Saturday, February 23, 1924, at 2:00 P. M., in the Florentine Room in the Congress Hotel, Chicago, Illinois. The Chairman announced that arrangements had been made to hold this as a joint meeting of the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees. The following were present : Miss Adair, Mrs. Stewart, Mr. Owen, Mr. Siders, Mr. Pearse, and Miss Jones, the Chairman. Miss Doherty was absent owing to sickness, and Mr. Finegan was delayed in reaching Chicago on account of sickness in his family. Mr. Morgan, Mr. Engleman, and Miss Williams of the headquarters staff were present. The minutes of the meeting of October 1 to 3 were approved as given in the Secretary's report. Miss Williams, the Legislative Secretary, reported on the recent hearings before the Educational Committees of the Senate and House. She gave an account of the growth of sentiment for the Educational Bill throughout the country during the past year. There was general approval of the report, but no formal action was taken. The Secretary called attention to the fact that the railroads had granted the round trip rate of one and one-half fares for the Washington meeting, without allowing stop-overs and without granting the other concessions which had been requested. He was authorized to make a fight for diverse routings and for stop- over privileges for the summer. Mr. Engleman then gave a report on his work in the field, indicating the terri- tory visited and the nature of his addresses on various occasions. He outlined his purposes and plans and dwelt on the importance of this type of field work. He had collected from places visited funds to cover all traveling expenses of his division to date. There was approval and discussion, but formal action was not necessary. On motion, an adjournment was taken to Thursday morning, February 28, 8:00 o'clock, at the club room of the Auditorium Hotel. THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 28 , 1924 Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, Ill. The joint meeting of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees was con- tinued at the Club Room of the Auditorium Hotel, eight o'clock A. M. Thursday, February 28. In order to save time, the officers arranged to have breakfast together in this room and to hold the business session in connection therewith. All members of both the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees were present. Members of the headquarters staff and others were present on the request of the Executive Committee . After roll call, the Chairman, Miss Jones, called on Mr. H. B. Wilson, president of the new department on Visual Instruction, who presented the constitution and by-laws of the department for adoption. On motion, the by-laws were approved, and the department was authorized to have a program at the Washington meeting and to proceed with its work as other departments of the Association. The roll was called and all members voted " aye." The Chairman then called on Mr. Marsh, secretary of the State Teachers' Asso- ciation of Washington, who desired to bring before the joint committee a resolu- tion concerning the matter of equalizing the amount spent on roads and schools MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 83 out of the various reserve funds. After hearing his report that the schools had not been receiving their fair share in the State of Washington, a motion was passed approving of the principle of equal distribution of these funds. The motion which was made by Mr. Pearse, seconded by Miss Adair and passed, was as follows : Resolved, That the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association approve the enactment by the Congress of legisla- tion to provide that the 25 per cent of the revenues from Forest Reserves now returned to the States in which such revenues originate, be divided in such manner that not less than 50 per cent of such returned revenues shall go to the public schools of such State. Atthis point the Chairman called on Mr. Smith, a representative of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, who desired to get information for his organization on the matter of affiliation. There was a desire to affiliate with the National Education Association, but he was uncertain whether they could continue certain activities in which they were greatly interested under the by-laws as an affiliated unit. Mr. Morgan was appointed by the Chairman to go over the constitution and by-laws of both organizations with Mr. Smith and determine what, if any, changes would need to be made in order to affiliate. It was stated that Dr. Owen had extended an invitation to the Secondary School Principals to become a department last year, when he was President. Miss Jones renewed the invitation, and the Secretary was instructed to arrange for a meeting of the Secondary Principals at Washington, to complete arrangements for affiliation if a satisfactory agreement is reached. On the suggestion of the Chairman, a resolution was passed by a unanimous vote congratulating Commissioner Payson Smith, president of the Department of Superintendence, on the close coöperation between the department and the general Association, and commending him for his part in bringing about the present satisfactory relationship. The Chairman next called on Dr. Thomas, chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations, who presented a report on the World Federation of National Education Associations. The following is Item No. 1 of the report : INTERPRETATION OF CONSTITUTION OF WORLD FEDERATION The wise plan seems to be to accept one nation-wide association of general char- acter from each country to voting membership ; to accept other organizations to affiliated membership with the right to be present in conference and discussion, but not to vote. Each federated organization to send special delegates to make up the delegate assembly with power to vote. The delegate assembly will probably be composed of about 300 delegates . The discussion centered around Item No. 1, the question of construing the by- laws to mean that only one nation-wide association could be accepted to membership inthe World Federation from any country. The chairman of the committee, Dr. Thomas, explained that as president of the World Federation, he would take that view. Both President Showalter and Dr. Williams, members of the Foreign Rela- tions Committee, stated that they believed it was the understanding of those who framed the by-laws that membership in the Federation would be limited as far as possible to one nation-wide all-inclusive association. The comments on the recom- mendations of the committee were favorable, but it was agreed that the decision on the question of affiliated membership should be deferred until the meeting of the World Federation in 1925. It was moved by Mr. Siders, and seconded by Mr. Owen, that it is the sense of thisjoint meeting of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees that member- snip in the World Federation be limited to the most representative and outstanding 8+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION national education association in each country and that the decision on the ques- tion of affiliated membership should be deferred to the meeting of the World Federation in 1925. The vote was taken on roll call, all members voting " aye." A motion was made by Dr. Finegan, and seconded by Miss Adair, to authorize the Secretary to take the necessary steps to make the Association a member of the World Federation, and to make available for the use of said Federation the mem- bership fee of $ 1,000. The vote was taken on roll call. Those voting aye: Miss Adair, Miss Doherty, Dr. Finegan, Dr. Owen, Mr. Pearse, Mr. Siders, Mrs. Stewart, and the Chairman, Miss Jones. Those voting no, none. On suggestion of Miss Jones, a motion was passed to convert the Committee on Foreign Relations into a Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation. The Chairman stated that the membership of this committee would be announced later. Philip E. Carlson, chairman of the Committee of One Hundred on Retirement Allowances, then presented a report setting forth the need of immediate effective work by his committee. Following an interesting discussion of the question for an hour or more, the following motion was made by Dr. Finegan, and seconded by Mr. Siders : 1. That Mr. Carlson, as chairman of his committee, shall be authorized to go to Washington and to make such additional trips as may be necessary to confer with Mr. Norton, and that through them a bulletin be prepared and submitted to the Executive Committee for approval, which shall set forth the reasons why teachers themselves should be in favor of an annuity system. 2. That these bulletins shall also set forth the necessary argument to convince the public and legislative assemblies of the need of annuity allowances for teachers and of the soundness of the system. 3. That these bulletins shall set forth the fundamental principles of a sound annuity plan. 4. That on the approval of the Secretary and President of the National Educa- tion Association such expert services as may be necessary for the preparation of these bulletins shall be authorized. On roll call all members voted " aye." Miss Adair then reported the basis of the distribution of the $10,000 appropriated by the Representative Assembly to apply on the expenses of delegates. It was explained that the complete report would be printed in the April number of The Journal. A motion was passed approving of the plans. The vote was taken on roll call, all members voting " aye." On motion, the joint meeting adjourned to meet at 4:00 o'clock in the afternoon. THURSDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 28, 1924 Club Room, Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, Ill. Meeting called to order by the President, Miss Jones, as a continuation of the joint meeting of the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees . 'The Secretary reported that the special committee, consisting of Miss Adair, Miss Doherty, and himself, recommended that the name of Miss Winn's division be changed to the Division of Classroom Service. After discussion, a motion was passed to make the change. A motion,, made by Dr. Owen and seconded by Mr. Siders, was passed, author- izing the Secretary to permit the Committee on Schoolhouse Planning to use the plates for its report in printing a supplementary edition, paying for the same out of funds provided by the General Education Board. MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 85 The following statement was submitted for the approval of the Executive Com- mittee by Dr. Thomas D. Wood, chairman of the Joint Committee on Health : 1. Recognition of the importance and desirability of a comprehensive program of research in Health Education to follow the publication in July, 1924, of the General Report on Health Education, presenting the statement of general principles in this field. 2. Requestby the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of Teachers College toconduct a program of research, with funds to be obtained and expended by the College, with the purpose of securing data to be presented by the Joint Health Committee as a report to the National Education Association. Amotion was passed approving of the request, with the understanding that the Association would not be called upon to finance this research work. Itwas reported that several amendments to the by-laws would be considered at the next meeting of the Representative Assembly, and it was pointed out that meas- ures could not easily pass the Assembly unless members understood the issues involved beforehand. In order to give those a chance who are urging important amendments, the President of the Association was authorized as follows : The President shall call into consultation the persons interested in all the pend- ing amendments and arrive at recommendations to be made in regard to them, so that they may be prepared for consideration by the delegate assembly and decision arrived at. Onmotion, the meeting adjourned until 8:00 o'clock in the evening. The Executive Committee and Board of Trustees resumed the joint session at 8:00 o'clock, Thursday evening, February 29, with all members present except Mr. Pearse, who failed to receive notice of the place of meeting. There was a general discussion of the financial conditions of the Association. It was generally believed that the income would cover the expenses of the year, but that it would hardly be possible to lay aside a reserve fund. It was agreed that the Secretary should relieve Mr. Allan of a portion of his other duties, so that he might devote himself to advertising, neglecting other matters rather than those pertaining to advertising. The suggestion of not printing a September num- ber of The Journal met with the approval of those who spoke on the question. It was stated that the Managing Editor made the proposal. The Secretary recommended against reducing the number of pages in The Journal at present. He promised that the rate of advertising would be increased and an effort made to increase the number of advertising pages. He also stated that a certain type of reading matter would hereafter be run into the advertising and that all advertising secured would be used, even at the sacrifice in amount of reading matter. In going over the last financial statement it was found that the expenses were generally held well within the budget allowance. Miss Doherty suggested that a more extensive use of diagrams be used in the financial reports. Dr. Owen called attention to the value of charts showing comparative income with last year, month bymonth. The question was raised as to whether Mrs. Hixson's division should not, in the interest of the financial side of her work, be divided. The Secretary was advised to aid in organizing this division for a 48-hour service. No formal action was takenon any of these points. Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart here made a report of the Illiteracy Conference held inWashington recently. The chairman of the Board of Trustees, the President of the Association, and the Secretary were appointed as a committee to report any necessary changes in the organization and management of the office which would count for economy and 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION efficiency. This committee was authorized in harmony with the action of the Representative Assembly to make adjustments in the budget before the end of the year. On motion, the meeting adjourned to meet on call of the president of the Executive Committee and chairman of the Board of Trustees. OLIVE M. JONES, J. W. CRABTREE, President Secretary FRIDAY, JUNE 27, 1924 Headquarters, Washington, D. C. Meeting called to order by the President, Miss Olive M. Jones. The following members were present : Miss Adair, Mr. Siders, Mrs. Stewart, and Miss Jones. Dr. Owen absent. The minutes of the Chicago meetings were approved as prepared by the Secretary. The annual report of the Secretary was presented in printed form. It was received and referred to the Board of Directors, with approval. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. A motion was passed ratifying the appointment of the Budget Committee. Motion by Mrs. Stewart. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. A motion was passed accepting the recommendation of Dr. Hale to discharge the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature, the work of the committee having been completed. Motion by Miss Adair. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. A motion was passed ratifying the action of the Executive Committee (by mail) in accepting the manuscript of Dr. Roberts of New York City on the life of Dr. Harris. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Mrs. Stewart. Carried. After discussing the question of appointing delegates to the American Council on Education, it was decided that the appointments should be made and that the President of the Association should be one of the three. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. After reading a membership invitation from the Association for the Advancement of Science, and after learning the purpose of the organization, the Secretary was authorized to accept the invitation and to pay the affiliation fee. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Mrs. Stewart. Carried. It was decided informally that there should be a meeting of the Executive Com- mittee on Saturday, July 5, to take the place of the meeting usually held in October. Members were requested to arrange matters so as to remain long enough to complete all business. The Secretary presented the formal resignation of Dr. J. O. Engleman as Field Secretary. The resignation was accepted, to take effect August 1. The Secretary was instructed to prepare a statement for the Executive Committee expressing ap- preciation of the good work of Dr. Engleman, and to send the same to him. On the recommendation of the Secretary, it was decided not to fill the vacancy for the coming year. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. On motion, the committee adjourned to meet Saturday morning, June 28, at 9:00 o'clock at the headquarters building. The meeting was called to order at 9:00 o'clock Saturday, June 28, with the fol- lowing members present : Miss Adair, Mrs. Stewart, Mr. Siders, and Miss Jones . Dr. Owen wired that his train had been delayed by a storm and that he would not arrive until the next day. During the session, Mr. Pearse and Dr. Finegan of the Board of Trustees arrived. Miss Doherty wired from New York that she would reach Washington on Sunday. Mrs. Stewart presented a report for the Illiteracy Commission. On her recom- MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 87 mendation, the resolutions in a communication from Commissioner Tigert were adopted. Motion by Mrs. Stewart. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. The statement on peace, which had been prepared by Dr. A. O. Thomas at the request of Miss Jones, was read. The Secretary was instructed to turn it over to the Committee on Resolutions, with the advice that the statement meets the ap- proval of the Executive Committee and with the recommendation that it be con- sidered by the Committee on Resolutions . The Secretary stated that complaint had been made by several members and by Dr. Winship in particular to the effect that minor departments and individual officers had given out endorsements which are being used as representing the views of the Association. Miss Jones told of her own knowledge of the situation. The Secretary was instructed to present the matter to the Board of Directors. On motion, the officers were authorized to borrow $ 10,000 from the bank immedi- ately, to be used in payment of part of the expenses of delegates. The officers were instructed to make and sign the usual formal statement. The Secretary explained that he had turned $2,100 into the account and was authorized to draw anote for the same. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Mrs. Stewart. Carried. Mrs. Hixson was authorized to transfer the necessary funds from the regular account to this special account and to give checks out to delegates over her own signature. Motion by Miss Adair. Seconded by Mrs. Stewart. Carried. The Secretary was instructed to write a letter to Mr. Gompers expressing a desire for a member of the Association to have a place on the next program of the American Federation of Labor. Motion by Mr. Siders. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. Itwas explained that the plan for accepting a bequest for a Home for Retired Teachers had been accepted by a vote of the committee ( by mail ) and that it would be in order to ratify that action and make it a part of the minutes. On motion of Mr. Siders, seconded by Mrs. Stewart, the action was ratified. The Secretary showed a new form of membership blank and explained briefly plans for securing new members for next year. On motion, the committee adjourned to meet Monday morning, 10:00 o'clock, June 30, in the Music room, Central High School. The meeting of the Executive Committee was called at 10:00 o'clock Monday forenoon, June 30. The following were present: Miss Adair, Mrs. Stewart, Mr. Owen, Mr. Siders, and Miss Jones. The reports of the treasurer, Board of Trustees, and the Auditor's report were examined and approved for presentation to the Board of Directors. On being asked about absence in the staff because of sickness and for other causes, the Secretary stated that there was on file a complete record of everyone at the central office and that he would be pleased to show it to officers. The record is made by the head of the division, who is responsible for those in his group. The number of absences on account of sickness is very low, the average being less than five days in a year. The other absences, unless made up in over- time work, count against the vacation allowance. After discussing the progress made by the Budget Committee informally, and after instructing Mr. Kelley, chairman of the Committee on the Revision of Depart- ments, to present his report to the Board of Directors with the approval of the Executive Committee, the committee adjourned to meet Tuesday noon. The meeting of the Executive Committee was called at 12:00 o'clock, Tuesday afternoon, July 1. All members of the committee were present ; Miss Jones, the President, presided. The Budget Committee reported that it had gone over matters carefully, at- tempting to reduce the budget allowances for next year so that they would come withinthe estimated income. The estimated income was placed at the same figure as the income of last year. It had gone over the appropriation for committees 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with the chairmen of the various committees and with the heads of divisions in the headquarters staff, but had found itself unable to keep the budget within the estimated income. The amount needed to balance the budget is $51,247.42. It was recommended that one third of this be taken out of the proposed expenditures each year for the next three years. This proposal to be subject to the action of the Board of Directors and of the Representative Assembly. The Secretary and all members of the committee considered it necessary in some way to bring the budget down to that figure. Since it would take much time to go through studying the various items, the question naturally arose as to whether it would not be best to subtract the amount from the total and leave the readjustment in the various items to the Secretary and Executive Committee. But since it was the general understanding that the budget should be given in detail this year, it was decided to make tentative reductions now, leaving the matter of further ad- justment of items in the hands of the Executive Committee. This view prevailed, and the following budget was adopted for the consideration of the Board of Directors and incorporated in the report of the Executive Committee to the Representative Assembly, printed on page 73. The motion for adopting the report was made by Dr. Owen, seconded by Miss Adair, and carried. It was understood that the Secretary would enforce the budget as adopted unless changes should be made by the Executive Committee. A motion was made by Dr. Owen, seconded by Mr. Siders, and passed, instruct- ing the Secretary to get and to hold the copyright on the report of the Committee on Schoolhouse Planning and Construction, soon to be published. OLIVE M. JONES, J. W. CRABTREE, President Secretary SATURDAY MORNING, JULY 5 , 1924 Headquarters , Washington, D. C. A meeting of the Executive Committee was held at the Headquarters Building, Washington, D. C., Saturday morning, 9 o'clock, July 5, 1924. The meeting was called to order by the Chairman, with the following members present : Miss Adair, Miss Iversen, Miss Jones, Mr. Siders, and the Chairman, Mr. Newlon. No absences . The following members of the Board of Trustees were also present : Miss Doherty, Mr. Pearse, and Dr. Finegan. The following members of the headquarters staff reported on the work of their divisions for the past year, indicating plans for the coming year and answering questions on the proposed budget for their divisions : Mr. Morgan, of the Publications Division ; Mrs. Hixson, of the Division of Records and Accounts ; Mr. Allan, of the Business Division ; Mr. Norton, of the Research Division; Miss Winn, of the Division of Classroom Service ; Miss Williams, of the Legislative Division; Mr. Shankland, of the Administrative Division. A motion was passed instructing Mr. Morgan and Mr. Allan to look up the costs of paper which could be used in The Journal and to report by August 1 on the advisability of using a cheaper paper. Motion made by Miss Jones. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. The Secretary was instructed to inform committee chairmen that all committee reports are hereafter to be published by the Division of Publications of the central office. It was made clear that reports published elsewhere would not be paid for out of the Association funds. Motion made by Miss Jones. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. MINUTES OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 89 The Secretary was authorized to notify the chairmen of all committees that the reports to be presented at the next meeting of the Association must be ready for publication and in the hands of the Secretary by March 25, 1925. The motion was made by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders, and, after discussion, carried by a unanimous vote. A motion was passed authorizing Miss Jones to go ahead investigating ways and means for carrying out the plans for a Home for Retired Teachers. Miss Jones was instructed to make a written report to the Executive Committee for adoption. Amotion was made by Miss Jones authorizing the Chairman to appoint a com- mittee to consider the plan proposed by Henry J. Ryan for an organization of citizens to coöperate with the National Education Association and to report back to the Executive Committee its recommendations. The motion was seconded by Miss Adair, put, and carried. This action was taken after Mr. Ryan had out- linedhis plan. The Chairman was authorized to appoint a committee on standards, require- ments, and credits of teachers in service and to word the name of the committee as he may desire. At 12:30 a motion was passed to take a recess until 1:30 for lunch. The meet- ing reconvened at 1:30, with all members present. The Secretary was instructed to inform committee chairmen that the appropria- tions for committees are not to be used to pay traveling expenses unless emergencies arise, in which case the President shall make the decision. He was also instructed to keep committee chairmen informed as to the amounts remaining in their appro- priation. Bills are not to be incurred beyond the amount of the appropriation. He was further instructed to notify committees of the policy of the Association to finance its own committees except in cases where action has been taken by the Representative Assembly to accept other funds. The President of the Association was authorized to appoint members of all com- mittees. He was instructed to make changes in the membership as he may desire inall committees holding over from last year. It was decided informally that a statement should be made and printed in The Journal informing members that the policy of the payment of a portion of the delegates' expenses will be continued, provided the income of the Association justifies it. Amotion was made to continue the services of members of the staff on the per- manent list at present salaries, except in the case of Mr. Norton, whose pay shall be at the rate of $2,000 a year for one third time, beginning September 1, and Miss Alltucker, who , beginning with September 1, during the absence of Mr. Norton, shall have $58.332 a month added to her present salary. In view of the authority given to the Executive Committee to redistribute the budget, the Secretary was directed to prepare recommendations and submit the same before August 1 to the committee for consideration. It was understood that back bills, not considered by theBudget Committee, would be paid out of funds secured through a loan and not out of the budget allowance. Motion by Miss Jones, seconded by Miss Adair. Carried by a unanimous vote. Itwas understood that the Secretary would look after the temporary help as during previous years, keeping the number down as low as possible. The Secretary was instructed to have copies of the budget printed after the August 1 revision and to send them out in letters to officers, committees, and mem- bers. Motion by Mr. Siders, seconded by Miss Iversen. Carried. The Secretary was authorized to certify to the proper statements in securing the loan for current expenses in harmony with action taken by the Executive Com- mittee and to record the statements as part of the minutes . 90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The President was instructed to investigate accommodations at Indianapolis and such other places as he desires and to recommend a place for the next Convention as soon as possible. Motion by Miss Jones, seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. Mr. Siders suggested that a loud speaker be required in future convention halls. The Secretary was instructed to report on what the cost would be to carry out wishes of Dr. Bicknell in putting the suggested gold or silver plates on faces of the gavel presented by him to the Association. He was instructed to write Dr. Bicknell a letter for the Association expressing appreciation. He was also instructed to write a letter of appreciation to the Concord donors of the gavel presented by them to Miss Jones. A motion was made to advance Miss Spooner one hundred dollars for purchasing office equipment. After discussion, the question of a membership secretary and of dividing the work of the Division of Record and Accounts, and of making other changes in the pres- ent organization of the headquarters office, a motion was made to appoint the President, the Secretary, and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees a committee to consider the wisdom of creating a division on membership, and the committee was given power to act in the reorganization of the existing divisions. The motion was madeby Miss Jones, seconded by Miss Adair, and after discussion carried. It was decided to hold a meeting of the committee early in August. The President was authorized to call a meeting of the Executive Committee in the fall if he considers it necessary. Miss Jones, the Vice-President, and the Secretary were authorized to decide on the amount of time to allow Miss Lillian Wheelock, an assistant in the Division of Publications, who has been very sick for several weeks. Mr. Siders was directed to investigate the plan of purchasing health insurance for members of the staff and to make a written report to the Executive Committee. The Secretary was authorized to ask committees not to incur expenses before September 1. It was ordered that the report of the Committee on Schoolhouse Planning be printed by the Association, the Secretary to safeguard the rights of the Association. A motion was passed to adjourn, subject to the call of the Chairman. JESSE H. NEWLON, J. W. CRABTREE , President Secretary MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C., JUNE 28, 1924 The Board of Directors met at 2:00 o'clock Saturday afternoon, June 28, 1924, in the Library Room, Central High School, Washington, D. C., with the President, Miss Olive M. Jones, in the chair, and with the following answering to roll call : Fred M. Hunter, California ; Mary C. C. Bradford, Colorado ; H. V. Holloway, Delaware ; Harry English, Dist. Columbia; Elizabeth Russum, Idaho ; Walter R. Siders, Idaho ; Mrs. Sarah L. Thomas , Illinois ; Thomas R. Roberts, Iowa ; H. L. Smith, Indiana ; R. E. Williams, Kentucky; Mrs. Cora W. Stewart, Kentucky; Josiah W. Taylor, Maine Mary McSkimmon, Massachusetts ; C. L. Goodrich, Michigan; M. H. Shepard, Minnesota ; Thomas J. Walker, Missouri; Charles B. Dyke, New Jersey ; Ambrose Cort, New York; Olive M. Jones, New York ; Robert H. Wright, North Carolina ; George W. Hug, Oregon; Frank E. Reynolds, Ohio ; James H. Kelley, Pennsylvania ; William O. Holden, Rhode Island ; George Harris Webber, South Carolina ; Catherine Gorbutt, Texas ; Cornelia S. Adair, Virginia ; S. A. McDonald, Virginia ; Clara L. Jahnke, Washington ; J. H. Hickman, West Virginia ; C. G. Pearse, Wisconsin ; J. W. Crabtree, Wisconsin; W. E. Givens, Hawaii. MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 91 Each member who was representing one who could not attend the meeting indi- cated the same on a slip of paper which was handed to the Secretary. On motion, the resignations of absentees were accepted, and those representing them were de- clared directors . The presiding officer then called attention to the work of the year. On her request the Board of Directors expressed approval of the plans of work as outlined by Miss Jones and took action approving of the appointment of all committees listed in the manual. Mrs. Cook, of the Bureau of Educatioh, was recognized by the chair and ex- tended an invitation to all directors to visit the Bureau of Education during their stay in Washington. She called special attention to the exhibits and moving pictures. Henry J. Ryan, who was present, was asked to outline a plan which he advo- cates for calling to the aid of the schools the more active support of the laity. A motion was passed to appoint a committee to consider Mr. Ryan's plan and to reporton the same. Director English was appointed as chairman and authorized to select two others to constitute the committee. The presiding officer, Miss Jones, again called attention to the program for the week. She asked State Directors to see that their delegates attended not only the programs but the social functions, the official reception, and the patriotic pilgrimages. She called attention to the attacks made during the year on the Association and its officers. She had paid no attention to personal attacks. She devoted her time to constructive work for the Association rather than to a defense of herself or the Association. She regretted that Dr. Pritchett and Dr. Butler had taken positive stands against the public schools. Her remarks, including her estimate of those who had attacked the women presidents of the Association, met with the heartiest approval of the directors. The Secretary stated that a committee should be appointed to recommend candi- dates for vacancies in the National Council. The Chairman appointed Mr. Sims chairman, Mr. Foght and Miss McSkimmon. Mr. J. H. Kelley presented the report of the committee on the revision of departments, of which he is chairman. The recommendations, under VI in the report, were considered item by item and then approved as a whole. The prin- ciples given under VII were approved, as were the items under Procedure VIII, except the figure 1,000 was changed to 250. Approval was also given for IX. Amotion was then passed approving of the report as changed and authorizing the Chairman of the committee to present it to the Representative Assembly, with the endorsement of the Board of Directors . The following is the report as approved by the Board of Directors : VI. RECOMMENDATIONS- 1. Since the Department of Child Hygiene and the Department of Physical and Health Education are now considering a constitution for a Department of Health, we recommend such a merger as most desirable. 2. We recommend the merging of the Department of Secondary Education with the National Association of Secondary School Principals. 3. We recommend that the Department of Elementary Education be dropped as its place 1stakenby the Department of Classroom Teachers . 4. Since there appears to be an unnecessary duplication in the work of the Department of Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges and that of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, we recommend an amalgamation under some such title, as ( 1) Department of Teacher Training, or (2) Department of Teachers Colleges. 5. Since there are no officers of the Department of Higher Education this year and asvery little interest has been shown for the past few years in this department, we recommend that it be discontinued but that provision be made for academic instructors of collegiate rank 15 the organization of a Department of Colleges and Universities by the appointment of a committee to consider this problem. 6. Since the Department of Educational Publications has no officers and has shown but futle interest for some time, but since it seems undesirable to merge this department with the Educational Press Association, we recommend that a committee composed of members of the Department of Educational Publications be appointed to work with a sub- committee of this Committee on Revision for the purpose of strengthening the work of the Department of Educational Publications . 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 7. Since the Department of School Administration overlaps the Department of Super- intendence, we recommend that the Department of School Administration be discontinued after the summer meeting of 1924. 8. Since the Department of Wider Use of Schoolhouses seems largely to have served its purpose, we recommend that it be discontinued and that in its stead there be created a Com- mittee on Community Relations. VII . PRINCIPLES FOR THE REVISION OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION-The committee believes: 1. That department should correspond with the permanent branches of educational service represented in the Association such as, classroom teachers, principals, superintendents, and workers in rural education. 2. That department should not be organized on the basis of subject matter, unless the group is well established and the interest clearly defined, as for example, English, mathematics, and science. 3. In passing on the applications of groups of educational workers for departmental status the following tests should be applied: a. Has the group enlisted the permanent interest of a thousand members? b. Has it conducted well-attended meetings with constructive programs for at least five years ? c. Can it finance its own special activities? d. Does it represent a general educational need as indicated by existence of similar groups in a considerable number of State or local associations? VIII. PROCEDURE-In support of the preceding recommendations, the committee recom- mends an amendment of Section 8 of Article V of the By- Laws pertaining to the admission ofdepartments, so that it will read as follows: Article V, Sec. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the Board, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any annual business meeting: Provided, That a written applica- tion for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the pre ceding annual business meeting, by at least two hundred fifty members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established, provided that no group shall be admitted to departmental status until it shall have held ton structive meetings for at least five successive years. A department already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting of the Associ- ation; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meet ing of the Board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A depart ment shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. The new matter in the above section is in italics. IX . CONTINUANCE OF THE COMMITTEE ON REVISION-If the work of the Committee on Revision of Departments commends itself to the Board of Directors and the Representative Assembly, we recommend that it be continued for another year in order that we may con tinue our work with certain organizations and recommend desirable readjustments in their relation to the National Education Association. ‫ةعم‬ A motion was passed directing State Directors to invite the Secretaries of State Associations to attend the meetings of the Board and to participate in the discus- sions. On motion the Board of Directors adjourned to meet Monday forenoon at 10:30 o'clock. A meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order Monday morning, June 30, 1924, 10:30 o'clock, in Library Room, Central High School, Washington, D. C. Miss Jones presiding, with the following answering to roll call : Annie G. Griffey, Arkansas ; Mary C. C. Bradford, Colorado ; H. B. Smith, Colorado ; H. V. Holloway, Delaware ; Harry English, District of Columbia; Elizabeth Russum, Idaho ; Mrs. Sarah L. Thomas, Illinois ; William B. Owen, Illinois ; H. L. Smith, Indiana ; Thomas R. Roberts, Iowa ; A. J. Stout, Kansas ; Loretta R. Doerr, Louisiana ; Josiah W. Taylor, Maine ; Mary McSkimmon, Mas- sachusetts; C. L. Goodrich, Michigan ; M. H. Shephard, Minnesota; Thomas J. Walker, Missouri ; M. C. Lefler, Nebraska; Charles B. Dyke, New Jersey; Am- brose Cort, New York ; George W. Hug, Oregon ; Ezra Lehman, Pennsylvania ; William O. Holden, Rhode Island ; George Harris Webber, South Carolina ; Harold W. Foght, South Dakota; S. L. Smith, Tennessee ; Catherine Gorbutt, Texas ; C. N. Jensen, Utah , J. H. Hickman, West Virginia ; John F. Sims, Wisconsin ; C. G. Pearse, Wisconsin; A. A. Slade, Wyoming ; W. E. Givens, Hawaii. The minutes of the meetings of the Board at Oakland were adopted as prepared by the Secretary. The report of the Secretary was presented in printed form and was placed on file. MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 93 The Chairman explained that the Budget was not ready for adoption. A motion was passed to adjourn to 12:00 o'clock, Tuesday noon, and to meet at that time for the consideration of the Budget and such other items as may be presented. A meeting of the Board of Directors was held in the Library Room, Central High School, Washington, D. C., at 12:15 o'clock, Tuesday afternoon, July 1, 1924, with the president, Miss Olive M. Jones, in the chair and the following members answering to roll call: Annie G. Griffey, Arkansas ; H. B. Smith, Colorado ; Mary C. C. Bradford, Colorado; Harry English, District of Columbia ; H. V. Holloway, Delaware ; W. R. Siders, Idaho , Elizabeth Russum, Idaho ; William B. Owen, Illinois ; H. L. Smith, Indiana ; Thomas R. Roberts, Iowa; A. J. Stout, Kansas ; R. E. Williams, Kentucky; Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, Kentucky; Loretta R. Doerr, Louisiana ; Josiah W. Taylor, Maine ; Mary McSkimmon, Massachusetts ; C. L. Goodrich, Michigan ; W. H. Shephard, Minnesota ; Thomas J. Walker, Missouri ; M. C. Lefler, Nebraska ; Charles B. Dyke, New Jersey ; Ambrose Cort, New York ; Robert H. Wright, North Carolina ; George W. Hug, Oregon ; D. B. Johnson, South Carolina; George Harris Webber, South Carolina ; Harold W. Foght, South Dakota; S. L. Smith, Tennessee ; Catherine Gorbutt, Texas ; S. A. McDonald, Virginia; Clara L. Jahnke, Washington; J. H. Hickman, West Virginia; John F. Sims, Wisconsin; C. G. Pearse, Wisconsin ; W. E. Givens, Hawaii. Miss Adair presented the Treasurer's report, which, on motion, was adopted. See page 68 for full report. The Chairman of the Budget Committee, Mr. Siders, outlined the plan of the Committee. A motion was passed instructing the Committee to print the report holding the budget within the limits of last year's income and to present the same to the Representative Assembly with the endorsement of the Board of Directors . Motion by Dr. Owen; seconded by Mr. Pearse ; carried. The report of the Budget Committee is on page 73. The Budget Committee was instructed to give in its report facts and figures in detail so that the report may be the beginning of a budget plan on a historical basis. Motion by Mrs. Bradford. Seconded by Mrs. Stewart. Carried. The Executive Committee was given full power to act on all budget matters as representing the Board of Directors. Motion by Mr. Pearse. Seconded by Mr. Holloway. Carried. Amotion was passed to form budgets so as to do away with the deficit in three years. Motion by Miss Griffey. Seconded by Mr. English. Carried. After discussion, the Secretary was instructed to combine the September and October issues into one number and to mail it during the last days of September. Motion by Mr. Sims . Seconded by Mr. Foght. Carried. The resignation of Dr. Engleman was read and it was stated that the Executive Committee had accepted it. The action of the Executive Committee was approved and the Committee instructed not to fill the vacancy in the Field Secretaryship. Motion by Mr. Owen. Seconded by Miss Gorbutt. Carried. The report of the Board of Trustees was presented by its chairman, Mr. Siders, and, after explanation and discussion, approved by vote. Motion by Mr. Hol- loway. Seconded by Miss Doerr. Carried. The full report is printed on page 58. A motion was passed authorizing the Executive Committee to investigate the advisability of making the membership year coincide with the calendar year. Mo- tion by Mr. Pearse. Seconded by Mr. Johnson. Carried. The meeting adjourned subject to the call of the Chairman. OLIVE M. JONES, J. W. CRABTREE, President Secretary 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS (NEW) Washington, July 3, 1924 A meeting of the new Board of Directors was held in the Library Room, Cen- tral High School, Washington, D. C., at 2:30 o'clock, Thursday afternoon, July 3, 1924. The meeting was called to order by President-elect Jesse H. Newlon, with the following directors answering to roll call: Sutton H. Martin, Arizona ; Annie G. Griffey, Arkansas ; Fred M. Hunter, California; Wm. P. Dunlevy, California ; H. B. Smith, Colorado ; Harry English, District of Columbia; Elizabeth Russum, Idaho ; W. B. Owen, Illinois ; Mrs. Sarah L. Thomas, Illinois ; Robert J. Aley, Indiana; H. L. Smith, Indiana ; A. J. Stout, Kansas ; R. E. Williams , Kentucky ; Loretta R. Doerr, Louisiana; Josiah W. Taylor, Maine ; Thomas W. Pyle, Maryland ; Mary McSkimmon, Massachusetts ; C. L. Goodrich, Michigan ; Helen B. Shove, Minnesota ; Thomas J. Walker, Mis- souri ; M. C. Lefler, Nebraska ; Charles B. Dyke, New Jersey; Robert H. Wright, North Carolina ; R. J. Kiefer, Ohio ; Geo. W. Hug, Oregon ; W. L. Verry, Oregon ; J. H. Kelley, Pennsylvania ; William O. Holden, Rhode Island ; George Harris Webber, South Carolina ; Harold W. Foght, South Dakota ; S. L. Smith, Tennessee ; Leah Dennis, Texas ; E. A. Hamilton, Vermont ; C. S. Adair, Virginia ; S. A. McDonald, Virginia ; T. Marcellus Marshall, West Virginia ; J. H. Hickman, West Virginia ; Clara L. Jahnke, Washington ; John F. Sims, Wisconsin ; A. A. Slade, Wyoming. Mr. W. C. Smith, of the Department of Immigrant Education, presented the request of the department to change the name to "Department of Adult Education. " The Chairman announced that the change could be made by a unanimous vote of the Board of Directors, whereupon the following motion was passed : That the name of the Department of Immigrant Education be changed to the "Depart ment of Adult Education. " It is understood that the functions of the new department shall include the activities in the field of education for those native and foreign born adults who need instruction in the fundamental elementary subjects. Motion by Mr. Dunlevy. Seconded by Miss Griffey. Carried by an unanimous vote. The Chairman announced that the next in order would be the election of a trustee to succeed Trustee Finegan, whose term expired at that time. A motion was made by Mr. Hunter, seconded by Mr. Smith, to elect a trustee and a mem- ber of the Executive Committee by ballot. The motion was carried. The Chair- man stated that the vote would first be taken to fill the vacancy on the Board of Trustees. Mr. Kelley then nominated Mr. Finegan to succeed himself. Mr. Hunter then moved that the Secretary cast the ballot for Mr. Finegan. The motion was seconded, put, and carried. The Secretary then cast the ballot of the Board of Directors for Mr. Finegan and he was declared elected to succeed himself. Miss Ida C. Iversen having been nominated for membership on the Executive Committee to succeed Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, Mr. Wright moved that the Secretary cast the ballot of the directors for her. The motion was seconded. It was carried by a unanimous vote. The Secretary cast the ballot and the Chair- man declared Miss Iversen elected member-elect of the Executive Committee for the ensuing year. The Committee to report on filling vacancies in the National Council submitted the following report, which was adopted : Your Committee to which was referred the filling of vacancies in the member- ship of the National Council of Education, to be supplied by the Board of Directors of the National Education Association, begs leave to report as follows : 1. The following to succeed themselves, terms to expire in 1930 : C. E. Beach, Superintendent of Schools, Enumclaw, Wash. M. C. Brittain, President, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. E. W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, N. Η. H. W. Foght, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. Dak. MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 95 C. B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. L. N. Hines, President, State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. Thomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools, Seymour, Ind. Helen C. Putnam, M. D., American Academy of Medicine, Providence, R. J. The following new members : S. L. Smith, General Agent for Rural Schools, Nashville, Tennessee (to suc- ceed F. C. Blair, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill., whose membership has lapsed. J. A. Churchill, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Oregon; term to expire in 1927, to succeed L. H. Minkel, Fort Dodge, Iowa (membership lapsed). Emily Griffith, Opportunity School, Denver, Colorado ; term to expire in 1926, to succeed Dr. J. G. Crabbe (deceased) , Greeley, Colorado. Respectfully submitted, JOHN F. SIMS. H. W. FOGHT. MARY MCSKIMMON . The motion for the adoption of the report was made by Mr. Sims, seconded by Mr. Aley. Carried. The Committee to report on membership plans of Mr. Ryan, of which Mr. English is Chairman, made the following recommendation : In view of the foregoing, the Committee recommends that, as in the case of "Education Week," which is such a pronounced success, the National Education Association as soon as tossible take up this matter with the American Legion, so that acting conjointly they may be able to bring to pass that which Mr. Ryan so ardently desires to be done. Amotion was passed to refer the question to the Executive Committee. A motion was passed authorizing the Executive Committee to make any neces- sary changes in amounts under items in the budget. Motion by Mr. Owen. Sec- onded. Carried . On motion of Mr. Walker, the president was authorized to appoint a commit- tee to study plans for an all-inclusive membership arrangement for National, State, and local associations . On the recommendation of Miss Jones, the president was authorized to appoint a committee on relationships as outlined in the Secretary's annual report. The following motion was made by Mr. Pearse, seconded by Mr. English, and carried: Whereas, it is manifestly improper both from an ethical and from a business standpoint that the National Education Association should become a selling agency for any commercial article; and whereas the Association or its departments or its committees are not infrequently licited to give such endorsements or listings as will promote the sale of articles of this Laracter; Therefore Beit resolked, that it is against the policy of this Association either as an Association or rough its departinents or committees to endorse or list as "approved" any text or reference book or piece of apparatus or article of school supplies; Resolved, that any such approval or listing which may have been, or may be given, is disavowed as against the policy of the Association and not permissible ; Resolved, that the Secretary of the National Education Association supply a copy of these resolutions to the officers of each department and to the Chairman of each Association and Department Committee. Amotion was passed expressing appreciation for the work of Mr. Siders, Mr. Owens, and Mr. Crabtree for putting improved financial plans and for installing an up-to-date budget plan. The members of the Budget Committee were com- mended for their excellent report. Invitations for the next annual meeting were declared in order. Director Aley extended an invitation for Indianapolis and, after discussion, moved that the Board of Directors declare its preference for Indianapolis for the next meeting. Motion was seconded. Carried. 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Executive Committee was then authorized to investigate conditions at In- dianapolis and other places and to decide on the place for the next convention. On motion of Mr. Kelley, the Departments of Child Health and Physical Educa- tion were merged into one department, that of School Health and Physical Educa- tion, and the Secretary was instructed to make the change in the records of the Association. On motion, the Executive Committee was authorized to permit the change of Department of Secondary Education to that of Department of Secondary School Principals . Motion by Mr. Owen. Seconded. Carried. A motion was passed authorizing the Secretary to drop from the list of depart- ments the Department of Elementary Education, the Department of Wider Use of School Houses, the Department of Higher Education, and the Department of School Administration. This was followed by passing a motion authorizing the Execu- tive Committee to make changes, if it so desires, in the organization of the Depart- ment of Normal Schools, Department of Publications, and to pass on other points in the report of the committee on the revision of departments in harmony with the action of the Representative Assembly. The resignation of Directors was now acted upon and their places filled. The list of State Directors for next year is on page 32. Respectfully submitted, W. W. LAMKIN , Chairman. JOSEPH ROSIER, Secretary. The following motion was made by Mr. Walker, seconded by Mr. Owen, and passed: That the president be authorized to appoint a committee for the purpose of recommending such revision of Articles I and II of the By-Laws of the National Education Association as shall provide for co-inclusive membership in local, State and National teachers associations . The meeting then adjourned subject to the call of the president. OLIVE M. JONES, J. W. CRABTREE, President Secretary THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION J. W. CRABTREE, SECRETARY It again becomes a pleasant duty to make a report on the growth, activities, and ideals of the Association, and to present policies and plans for its continued growth and improvement. We are following the plan of previous years in presenting the report first to the Executive Com- mittee and to the Board of Directors, presenting to the Representative Assembly only such recommendations as are approved by both the Execu- tive Committee and Board of Directors. As usual, however, copies of the report will be included with the material given out to delegates for their information and use. Included as a part of this report are carefully pre- pared statements by heads of divisions, outlining objectives, showing what has been accomplished, setting forth needs and suggesting improvement in the service. GROWTH AND SIXTY- SEVEN YEARS' SERVICE The Association was organized in 1857. Its active membership in- creased gradually from less than 100 in 1857 to about 8000 in 1917 . During the year 1918 and the five years following the enrollment increased by leaps and bounds. In this time it has gone beyond the 100,000 mark. While the unprecedented growth of the Association has been due to a Whytheassociation number of causes, all readily see that such marvelous has grown development must have resulted from something much more fundamental than simply moving to Washington and the other causes usually mentioned. We begin to realize now more than we could realize in 1918 that the reconstruction in education had begun even before the end of the World War. All at once we discovered new needs to be met and found the pro- tession challenged by a new set of demands. The Association met the test and immediately took hold of the problems of the hour. Had it not done so, some other organization would have assumed that responsibility. The same conditions which created these demands gave the opportunity for the growth and increased service which has been rendered. The reor- New opportunity ganization of the Association was more largely the result grasped than the cause of the growth. The membership had more than doubled before the reorganization was accomplished in 1920. The reorganization was necessary for the enlarged Association and contributed materially to its continued growth and effectiveness . The membership had more than doubled before The Journal was started. The vision and wise [97] 98 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION planning of the officers and the faithful and efficient work of members of the staff have been contributing factors in recent prosperity. But back of this was the opportunity which resulted from the new conditions following the war. The enlarged Association is, therefore, due first of all and funda- mentally to sensing and taking advantage of an opportunity. The enlarged and reorganized Association is meeting remarkably well the varied demands which are made on the profession, considering the handicaps always encountered in blazing the way for great advances and new steps of progress. It will do well to meet present needs just as the smaller Association met the demands made upon it. The membership in the Association during the years before the changed conditions was com- posed almost exclusively of leaders in education and those in administra- tive positions. The history of the activities of the Association during its Long record of first half century will always stand as a marvelous record. notable service No educational organization in any other country can be cited as a parallel. With this substantial foundation the new Associa- tion with its larger policy of participation should be all the more effective. While we take honest pride in what has been accomplished during the past decade, it cannot be said that the Association is meeting the problems of today more effectively than it met the more limited but equally important problems of earlier years. 160000 150000 National Education Association 140000 130000 Active and Associate Members 420000 1911 - 1923 110000 100000 90000 Courtmade atend of each calendar year 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 1911 1912 1918 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 HARRYTT A CHAN FIG. 1. ACTIVE AND ASSOCIATE MEMBERS, 1911-1923 . ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP REPRESENTED BY THE BLACK PORTION OF THE COLUMN AND ASSOCIATE MEMBERSHIP BY THE LIGHT PortIoN THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 99 ACTIVE AND ASSOCIATE MEMBERS The membership count is made at the end of each year. That has been the practice for many years . The count for the past year, 140,191 , was made December 31 , 1923. About one fourth of this number were unpaid at that date. If the count had been made in September about three fourths of the number would have been unpaid. Many of those unpaid on Decem- ber 31 have paid since that date. There were 5,292 withdrawals last year and 12,931 who permitted membership to lapse. The number who are withdrawing or permitting membership to lapse during the year 1924 is ASSOCIATE MEMBERS ACTIVE MEMBERS ASSOCIATE MEMBERS CORRESPONDING MEMBERS (NO VOTE) (NO VOTE) AFFILIATED STATE ASSOCIATIONS AFFILIATED LOCAL ASSOCIATION'S STATE DELEGATES MEET BY STATES TO ELECT LOCAL DELEGATES N.E.A. OFFICERS PER 100 MEMBERS TOSOO COMMITTEE MEMBERS 4PER 100 MEMBERS STATE SUPERINTENDENTS CREDENTIALS NOMINATIONS RESOLUTIONS NECROLOGY HEADQUARTERS ORGANIZATION (SECRETARY'S OFFICE) REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY DIVISIONS TRANSACTS BUSINESS AND (BY CHARTER) RECEIVES REPORTS LIFE DIRECTORS FIELD AND LEGISLATIVE NAT'L . COMMISSIONER STATE 44 VICE- TREASURER PRESIDENT FIRST VICE - PRESIDENT DIRECTORS PRESIDENTS RECORDS AND PUBLICATIONS DENTS RESEARCH BUSINESS BOARD OF DIRECTORS INENTARY SCHOOL SERVICE NATIONAL COUNCIL BOARD OF TRUSTEES ELECTED EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE PRES EX OFFICIO 60 BY DIRECTORS 4MEMOTAS 4 YEAR TERM PRESIDENT FIRST VICE- 60 BY COUNCIL PRESIDENT CHAIRMAN PERMANENT FOND BOARD OF TRUSTEES,& ELECTS SECRETARY ONE MEMBER ELECT COOPERATIVE SPECIAL COMMITTEES AGENCIES DEPARTMENTS SUPERINTENDENCE ELEMENTARY MUSIC VOCATIONAL PHYSICAL BUSINESS LIBRARY SCIENCE PUBLICATIONS EDUCATION EDUCATION EDUCATION DER USEOF KINDERGARTEN HIGHER DEANS OF CLASSROOM RURAL ELEM SCHOOL IMMIGRANT SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILD EL HORSES EDUCATION EDUCATION WOMEN TEACHERS EDUCATION PRINCIPLES EDUCATION EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION HYGIENE NORMAL SCHOOLS ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY COOPERATIVE AND ADVISORY FRLPARED BY RESEARCH DEPARTMENT. DEIKIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS ALWALD IODATE BY HARRILII IL CHAJE FIG. 2. ORGANIZATION OF THE ASSOCIATION much greater owing to discouraging conditions in various parts of the country. Figure 1 shows the growth of the Association since 1911 . ORGANIZATION OF THE ASCOCIATION The organization of the Association is more easily understood by a glance at the provisions in the Charter and By-laws as shown in the chart on this 100 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION page. A study of the chart shows the democracy, logic, and soundness of the organization. Relationships are definite. Authority is distributed but comes directly from the Representative Assembly and all action goes back to it for approval. The whole scheme of organization is displayed remark- ably well in this outline. The chart was carefully prepared a few years ago for the Association by the Research Department of the Detroit Public Schools under the direction of Dr. Courtis. It is revised and brought up to date each year by a member of the staff. There should be added to the chart the new Department of Visual Education, which meets this year for the first time. HEADQUARTERS ORGANIZATION The provisions in the charter and by-laws make it possible to secure the savings and efficiency which come from a carefully thought-out plan of coöperation between the different divisions, between the divisions and the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY COMPOSED OF STATE AND LOCAL DELEGATES BOARD OF DIRECTORS BOARD OFTRUSTEES. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 23 FUNDS, ELECT SECRETARY BUSINESS DEPARTMENTS HEADQUARTERS ORGANIZATION (SECRETARY'S OFFICE ) J.W.CRABTREE , SEC. MISS CHASE, ASS'T TO SEC. DIVISIONS 1 RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS N PUBLICATIONS HELEN T. HIXSON , DIRECTOR; MISS WRIGHT, ASST. JOY E. MORGAN, DIRECTOR; MISS ROBBINS, ASS'T Π FIELD RESEARCH FIELD WORK , J. O. ENGLEMAN , DIRECTOR J. K. NORTON , DIRECTOR; MISS ALLTUCKER ASS'T LEGISLATIVEWORK, CHARL O WILLIAMS, DIRECTOR MISSWALDRAN , ASS'T VI ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SERVICE AGNES S.WINN, DIRECTOR; MRS. HAND, ASS'T III BUSINESS H.A.ALLAN , DIRECTOR; MISS SLYER , ASS'T VII HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE SUBDIVISIONS S.D.SHANKLAND, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY; MISS SOMDAL,ASS'T TO SEC. SHIPPING TYPING W.P. REILY MABEL E. WHEELOCK 18 SPECIAL COMMITTEES 23 DEPARTMENTS ASSISTED BY DIVISIONS ASSISTED BY DIVISIONS ROMAN NUMERALS REPRESENT THE ORDER IN WHICH DIVISIONS WERE ESTABLISHED ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY COOPERATIVE AND ADVISORY HARRIETT M CHASE FIG. 3.-HEADQUARTERS ORGANIZATION THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 101 departments, and between divisions and the standing committees. The headquarters scheme stands the test of analysis, and the work stands the test of expert inspection and investigation. All who visit the central office are impressed with the daily volume of work turned out and with the spirit of work and coöperation in each division. Words of commendation for the heads of divisions, their first assistants, and other help in previous reports are not half so convincing as actually to see the work in progress and to witness with one's own eyes what is being accomplished. The Reasons for head- group contains men and women of exceptional ability quarters efficiency who are unusually well fitted for the responsibilities in each division. That which attracts most attention, however, and which counts for greatly increased efficiency is the spirit of coöperation which even a stranger observes in spending a short time at headquarters. Figure 3, showing the headquarters organization and its relationships , was used in the October, 1923 , Journal. The following changes have been made since that time: Elementary School Service changed to Classroom Service; and Miss Troxel and Miss Saunders in place of Miss Slyer in the Business Division . TEACHERS AND THEIR PROFESSION Teachers are quick to act in doing things for other people. They are slow in actually doing things to promote their own welfare. The leaflet on the Fight to Reduce School Privileges was mailed to every principal and superintendent of schools in each of the States. It was placed in the hands of 200,000 teachers. Every one who read it realized that it set forth Teachers are slow a situation which should be met at once in order to pre- in promoting the vent great harm to the profession. Each one appreciated welfare of the profession that the Association saw and pointed out the danger. Many wrote letters of appreciation expressing the hope that the Association would leave no stone upturned in its efforts to avert danger. Only a few of these 200,000, however, did their part to make it possible for an organized profession. About 15,000 took hold and did effec- tive work. They secured membership enlistments. They impressed upon their associates the needs of the hour. They aided in organizing to meet the opposition locally. They saw the parents and citizen friends of the schools were provided with reliable information. What did the others do? They had good intentions. They promised to do telling work next year and thousands are likely to make good in Not next year their promise. But teachers are slow. How will we but now arouse them to do the thing now instead of waiting until next year? Almost every delegate of last year's convention was in the list of the 15,000 workers. Let every delegate at the Washington meeting return home determined to see that their people respond immedi- ately to the call of the profession. Let us tell our associates so that it will ring in their ears, that it requires a solidarity in the profession never before experienced and harder 102 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION work than has ever before been attempted to cope with present economic and Determination political conditions. It requires additional wisdom, necessary energy, and numbers to meet the onslaughts which are being made to reduce school costs and privileges. Let us insist that they put their shoulders to the wheel not next year but now. Will you not be responsible for additional success in your community ? Such determination and only such will meet the present situation. HOW CONDITIONS AFFECT MEMBERSHIP The economic conditions are much worse in many sections of the country than people in favored places know about. This letter is only one of many which show an alarming situation throughout large areas of our country. State of New Mexico DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Isabel Lancaster Eckles, Superintendent Timoteo C. Luna, Assistant Superintendent Santa Fe June 13, 1924. MR. J. W. CRABTREE, 1201 Sixteenth Street , Washington , D. C. DEAR MR. CRABTREE : Before leaving for Washington for the National Education Association Meet- ing, I wish to write you about the falling off in enrollment in the National Educa- tional Association here in New Mexico. This cannot be helped in any way, though I regret it very deeply. You can have no conception of what this State has been up against this year. Thirty-eight banks have failed and school funds have been tied up in every direction. The teachers too have all lost personally in these failures and it has been just as much as they could possibly do to make ends meet. I wish to assure you that this falling off in attendance is not from a lack of interest or professional spirit. It is simply the result of a condition which is de- plorable in the extreme. Yours very truly, ISABEL LANCASTER ECKLES . ILE/NBL The first impulse of teachers after such discouragements is to withdraw their membership in all associations, or at least to postpone the payment of membership dues. Thousands of members have not paid dues for 1923-24 as a direct result of discouraging conditions. This does not mean that these unpaid members lack in loyalty to the profession or to the Association. It only means that they are dis- The first impulse heartened temporarily. The members of other pro- fessions and those engaged in business enterprises respond in exactly the same way to a disastrous situation . The next reaction will be to take a more philosophical view of the situ- ation and to consider ways and means for improvement. Labor, business, and the professions have exactly the same experiences with adverse con- THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 103 ditions. These 30,000 unpaid members will be moved by a second impulse, The reaction not only to pay their membership dues but to enlist more heartily for work as never before for the betterment of the schools and for enhancing the interests of the profession. Especially is this true if these teachers have wise leadership locally. Still we must realize that many good teachers in New Mexico and in a score of other States are for bread-and-butter reasons leaving the pro- fession. Who will take their places ? The fact that the enlistment and work of the profession is weakened in broad areas of the country makes heavier demands on the members of the profession who live in the more favored places. Let each of us resolve at this convention, as the active members resolved in 1918 when facing the emergency problems of that Need of day, to return home and see to it that there is in our town united effort community a complete enlistment of the profession . There was a great revival spirit at that meeting in 1918. Inspiration went out from it into many thousand communities. The response was certain and immediate. The membership doubled during the following year. The service rendered by the Association was also more than doubled in the same period of time. History will repeat itself. Let every delegate get the facts while in Washington and return to acquaint the home people with conditions and needs and inspire them to volunteer their services in the cause of education. OPPOSITION TO SCHOOLS AND ASSOCIATION In the annual report of the Secretary for 1923, attention was called to an organized effort to reduce school privileges. Reference was made to the influence of the annual report of the Carnegie Foundation by its president, Dr. Henry S. Pritchett. Instances were given showing that a part of the plan was to attack outstanding leaders in public school educa- Attack on public tion. The year has added materially to the certainty of schools continued a united opposition to the further development of the schools. The president of the Carnegie Foundation has again repeated his criticism of the work of the public schools. Many a leader has during the year felt the force of well-organized attacks on his program and policies . Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University, whose life record as to lack of knowledge or appreciation of the common schools of the Nation is much the same as that of Dr. Pritchett, has gone out of his way to discredit the work of the schools. In an address before the Ohio Bar Association, he made the amazing statement that, "It would surprise a great The schools and lawlessness many excellent persons to be told that the school upon whose maintenance they are pouring out almost unlimited sums raised by public tax were doing all they reasonably could to implant a spirit of lawlessness in those who came under their influence." "And yet," says Dr. Butler, "that is the sober truth." This address was read into the Congressional Record by a Massachusetts Congressman and has been mailed out to all parts of the country under his frank. The fact 104 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that Dr. Butler's statement is erroneous and the fact that he is not recog- nized as a spokesman for the public schools by those who represent the schools, will not prevent laymen from being influenced by it. Whether this address is widely distributed to injure the public schools or to dissemi- nate Dr. Butler's views in opposition to the prohibition amendment, also a feature of the Ohio address, it is certain that those who are fighting the schools seek, by quoting Dr. Butler, to prove that the schools are responsible for lawlessness throughout the country. It is now surmised that some of the heartless interests who are opposing the further development of education largely to keep taxes down to the minimum are making catspaws of some of those who offer objections from a religious point of view. This particular opposition fears the rights of Catspaws parents are being taken over by the schools and that the costs of schools and school buildings are beyond reason. These people are led to oppose a Department of Education because it will develop unduly the costs of education and increase the tendency to give the schools greater authority over children. If true that there is a connection of this kind and that an element is "being used" it will be definitely known in due time and the connection will immediately become ineffective. Tax dodgers will bear watching. They are choking the life out of the schools in more than one community. There is no fight directed toward the private or religious schools. There should be none. These institutions have their place and receive the encouragement of this Association. There are thousands of teachers in private schools in the membership of the Association. These schools should have the respect of public-school authorities. Great contributions to human betterment are made by both religious and secular private schools as well as by our great system of public education. Our children and youth need these schools and many more. The big interests work great injury to private schools in attempting to prejudice them against Private and the public schools. The teachers of private schools and public schools are friends all other teachers realize that in a democracy the founda- tion for success is a democratic education. The public schools are admirably adapted to give that training; the private schools ought to teach in harmony with the same ideas. There is no fight on between these forces themselves. Nine-tenths of our public-school teachers appreciate the mission and importance of our private educational enter- prises and nine-tenths of our private school teachers value and understand the necessity of public-school education. These big interests should not be permitted to drive the wedge which might separate them. Great credit is due to wealthy men and women who have contributed generously to the support of worthy school enterprises and projects. There is a class, however, composed of the money-hearted rich and an arrogant aristocracy, which is violently opposing the adequate support of the schools. This element is now receiving unexpected help. It has the active THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 105 help of a fault-finding group. The opposition to the policies of the Asso- ciation, as well as to the progress of the public schools, therefore comes from both extremes in society. These radical fire-eating factors not only attack policies, but they question motives and reflect on the good name of Radicals and tax officers of the Association and of certain leaders in the reducers attack education profession. It is always a question as to whether such criticism should receive attention or whether it should be ignored. It is certainly embarrassing when small group gossip is per- mitted to serve as the foundation of widely circulated criticisms. Per- haps the view of Miss Nielson, State superintendent of public instruction of North Dakota, that "the more you step on mud the broader it becomes" is the wiser view to take. Where statements are clearly libelous in char- acter it may not be an easy matter for the officer to take this view. As a rule, to ignore is the severest blow that can be dealt the type of critic who lives only on opposition and who unduly craves the thrill of notoriety com- ing from it all. CAUSES OF THE DEFICIT During the past few years the load carried by the central office has been heavy, considering the amount of annual income. Because of emergency needs, the officers and the Representative Assembly have each year ordered expenditures beyond the amount of income of the preceding year, hoping that the increase in membership and advertising would provide the additional Reasons for funds. The emergency needs justified the risk which was heavy expenses taken each year. In view of the fact that membership will eventually reach the saturation point, the expenditures for the coming year should hereafter be based on the income of the past year. Will it not be wise in 1924-25 to get along on less than was used for the year 1923-24 ? The time has come when we must in some way provide a margin for safety, even though an emergency of considerable magnitude continues to call for funds. There was a deficit in the current funds of the Association June 1. It is much larger than that of last year. Owing to heavier daily receipts since June 1, the amount of the deficit may now be somewhat less than at that Causes ofdeficit date. This deficit is due to a number of causes, but mainly to the following : 1. A portion of this amount was used to pay the deficit of the previous year. Much of the rest was used to meet necessary but unusual expenses, such as those mentioned in items 4, 5, and 6. 2. Owing to reduction in teachers' salaries in places and threatened reductions inother places, a larger number of members than usual had not by June 1 paid membership dues. The same conditions prevented thousands from becoming members. Many of the unpaid members will find some way of paying dues later. The first effect of a reduction is to dishearten and cause one to cancel member. ship. The second is to lead him to realize the need of a solidified profession. 3. During the past few years the officers and Representative Assembly, owing to emergency needs in the profession, have used from $20,000 to $60,000 each year of the income from the advanced payment of dues, income properly belonging to 106 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the following year. Since membership is nearer the saturation point, there are fewer new members who pay dues in advance and hence the current year is having less and less help from the coming year. 4. Owing to the threatened reduction in teachers' salaries immense amounts of literature and information were, during the year, sent out to teachers and to school authorities . 5. Extensive repairs were made in the headquarters building. These expenses were paid out of the permanent fund, but the equipment made necessary came out of the current funds and added to the amount of the deficit. 6. All of the expenses of the World Conference at San Francisco and the heavy expenses of the Oakland meeting because of distance for officers and members of the staff to travel were paid out of the income of the year just ending. The expenses of the Washington meeting, which will be much less, are to come out of the income for 1924-25 and will show in the financial reports of the meeting a year hence. TABLE 1.-CURRENT INCOME AND CURRENT EXPENSE, 1921 το 1924 1921 1922 1923 1924 Per Per Per Per Amount cent Amount cent Amount cent Amount cent Income from Member- ship $ 107,738.00 84.0 $ 167,991.12 72.9 $ 174,391.97 69.0 $202,700.504 70.4 Income from Advertis- ing 5,180.83 4.1 41,489.12 18.0 50,033.47 19.8 54,233.04 18.8 Income from Commer- cial Exhibits 9,921.97 7.7 11,303.67 4.9 14,514.72 5.8 15,912.79 5-5 All Other Income ..... 5,407.08 4.2 9,769.48 4.2 13,641.45 5.4 15,097.81 5-3 Total Income $ 128,247.88 100.0 $230,553.39 100.0 $252,581.61 100.0 $287,944.14 100.0 Current Expense ...... 127,416.64 192,885.73 270,447.92 323,108.30 Difference . $831.24 .... $37,667.66b ... $ 17,866.31c ... $35,164.16d .... aDoes not include Life Membership Income which goes directly to permanent fund. b This profit on the year's transactions does not agree with the "surplus" given in the auditor's report as the balance of $385.30 which belonged to the Department of Elementary School Principals at the end of the year is subtracted. This was National Education Association money only in a bookkeeping sense. If this sum is subtracted from the auditor's "surplus," $38,052.96 for this year the loss on the year's transactions given here, $37,667.66, results . This loss on the year's transactions does not agree with the "deficit" of the auditor's report for this year since in calculating income for this year the balances due the Department of Superintendence and the Department of Elementary School Principals ( $4,124.42 and $1,507.74 respectively) were not included. They con- stituted income only for purposes of bookkeeping. When these amounts are added to the "deficit" of the auditor's report ( $ 12,234.15) the loss on the year's trans- actions given here ( $ 17,866.31) is attained. d This loss on the year's transactions does not agree with auditor's " deficit" as corrections affecting income similar to those described in notes a, b, and e have been made. A change in accounting procedure from a "cash" to an "income" basis, made during the last fiscal year, also prevents an exact agreement with the auditor's report. This is a part of the data to aid the budget committee in formulating its recommendations. The committee will have before it facts and sug- gestions submitted by the treasurer, Miss Adair; the assistant treasurer, THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 107 Mrs. Hixson; the auditors, Marwick, Mitchell & Co.; Mr. Allan, the business manager; and by Mr. Norton, who has been requested to go over the reports and work out special tables, make suggestions, and report conclusions. Table 1 is a part of the study made by Mr. Norton. It puts in the hands of officers and delegates some of the material prepared to assist the Budget Committee in making its report, which will later be presented for the consideration of the Representative Assembly. RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING BUDGET There are places where expenditures should be increased, but there are other places where the service can be decreased or portions of it discon- tinued, temporarily at least. The needs are so great that three times what was expended last year could be used to advantage during the coming year. But, however intense the need, the expenses must be kept within the income, and in order to build for the future the expenses must be less than the annual income. We have been living a little too close to the danger point for real comfort. If another epidemic such as the siege of Au in 1919 were to sweep the country, if there were to be a drouth extend- ing over large areas, if the Nation should suffer a general business depres- Reasons for sion as in 1907, or if anything else should transpire to limiting expense make it impossible to collect membership dues, the Asso- ciation would be forced to discontinue all lines of important service at the time of greatest need. The effect of failures to pay teachers on time and the reduction of salaries has approached such a situation this year. The emergency needs were greatest during and following the World War . Itwas the duty of the officers to use every cent of income to do the work ofthe hour and even to draw on the future, as has been done. While the needs of today are pressing, no one will maintain that they are as impera- tive as those immediately following the war . The time has come when itiswise to put a portion of each year's income into a reserve fund or into the permanent fund, because the continued success of the Association depends in the last analysis on the certainty of its financial resources and its ability to go through periods of depression. The Budget Committee will likely recommend slightly lower appropria- tions than were made last year in places where this can be done, aiming to bring the total appropriation below the total income of last year. At Lower appropriation the same time the office is organizing for a membership recommended drive which ought to meet with success. It is also form- ing plans for increasing the income from advertising. If these recom- mendations and plans are accepted by the Representative Assembly, it is believed that the present efficiency of work in every line will be maintained and there is the possibility for a good beginning in the accumulation of a reserve fund. Among the recommendations to go before the Representative Assembly if acceptable to the Executive Committee and the Board of Directors are thefollowing: 108 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. On the advice of the Editor, to combine the September and October numbers of The Journal. It has been found that The Journal issued early in September fails to reach a large number of the members and that October 1 is about as soon as teachers expect the paper. It seems neces- sary to reduce the number of issues for the year. The present size of The Journal should be retained, provided the income from advertising can be increased to cover more nearly the printer's bill. 2. To get along with one field secretary. During the last two years the Association has had two field secretaries, one assigned to field work proper and one to the legislative program and work with lay associations. When the number was increased from one to two it was expected that funds would be received from lay sources to pay the salary and expenses of one field secretary. Had these funds materialized, there would be no deficit; but they did not materialize. It is seldom wise to count on out- side help or even to ask for it. The two field secretaries cannot be con- tinued on present sources of income without affecting the efficiency of the work in other divisions in the headquarters office. The change can be made at this time because one is resigning to accept a position paying a better salary. The field secretary assigned to matters of legislation and other members of the staff can do field work in connection with other duties. The Department of Superintendence is willing for its secretary to give a portion of his time over to this work. The State associations have become larger and more powerful, making field work by this Associa- tion less necessary. It is recommended that no action be taken for a year at least to fill the vacancy. 3. To abandon for the present the payment of delegates' expenses by the Association. Any amount which the Association can afford to pay is so small that its distribution will always be unsatisfactory to the larger number of delegates. It is much easier for State and local associations to increase membership dues to provide for the expenses of delegates than for the National Education Association to increase dues so that it could pay such expenses. The amount appropriated for this meeting was $ 10,000. 4. To make fewer and smaller appropriations for committees. To limit the amount used for meetings of committees. By avoiding some duplications between committees and the Research Division, a slight sav- ing can be made. Members of committees and officers of the departments and of the Association should continue to keep expense bills down to the minimum. A few of the committees will complete their work at the Wash- ington meeting and not ask for appropriations for next year. It may be possible to save a few thousand dollars here because committees can now have much of the work done in the Research Division. Make appropria- tions every second year instead of every year except in the case of three or four of those on fundamental problems. 5. To have all unexpended balances in appropriations for committees and for other purposes lapse at the end of the fiscal year and to appropriate a THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 109 lump sum for the new year to care for outstanding bills. This will not only afford a slight saving, but it will simplify keeping the records. 6. To permit the director of the Research Division to work on one- third or one-half time during the coming year only, thus releasing the larger part of his salary for other purposes. The director of the division desires to complete his work for the doctor's degree, which he can do on the part-time basis. The Association, while paying for part-time services, would receive full-time benefit. His work for the degree will be along re- search lines of great value to the Association, having been definitely planned from that standpoint. It will require only slightly more clerical help to do the work following this plan than for last year. The director would keep in close touch with the work and would actually do a good part of it. 7. The broadcasting for American Education Week was done last year. Much less will be demanded of the Association this year. There would naturally be a saving of a few hundred dollars on this item. 8. To stop The Journal to unpaid members with the December or January number. This year the February number was sent. Changes of this kind can be made by the Executive Committee. The Journal is too expensive to be sent to an unpaid member after he has had a fair chance to remit dues. 9. Less will be needed for furniture and equipment than last year. The main items of furniture for each division were supplied during the last two years. 10. To make no reduction in the costs of operating any division which will hamper it in rendering the service for which established. A few increases in appropriations will be necessary though these amounts will be small as compared with the savings to be made. The details of the budget and the proposed savings will appear in the report of the Executive Committee, which will be presented to the Repre- sentative Assembly for consideration. This report only makes suggestions of a general nature. The auditor's report is needed to check details. It will be completed in time for the meeting of the Budget Committee, June 26. The treasurer, the assistant treasurer, and a committee of the staff are at work getting facts to serve as helps for the committee, which holds its first meeting on June 26. The plan of appointing a Budget Committee in advance of the Conven- tion, instituted this year by Miss Jones, commends itself to officers and delegates. This committee is composed of representatives of the three largest departments recommended by the presidents of the departments, A new budget and of others appointed by the president of the Associa- committee tion because of their official connections. Mr. Siders, chairman of the Board of Trustees, is chairman of the Committee. This is a responsible committee and it should be selected with care. Itshould be representative. When a new president takes office the whole program is mapped out. The budget is prepared. Appropriations are made. Policies are adopted. The new president's duties and responsibilities are 110 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION thus outlined in great detail. Very properly the duties are purely adminis- trative in harmony with the wishes of the Representive Assembly. Realiz- ing this, Miss Jones is starting the plan, which will doubtless be continued, to see that the most careful consideration is given to the question of budget and expenditures, upon which the success of any administration funda- mentally depends. This year when the President and Secretary observed the effects of economic and other conditions on membership and realized how this affected the estimated income for the year, there were few places to check expendi- tures. They influenced some committees to use less than was appropriated to them. They kept the cost of the Secretary's office several thousand dol- lars below the amount of the appropriation. That was about all that could be done. Both because the present situation presents difficulties and because TABLE 2. CURRENT EXPENSES ANALYZED AS TO PURPOSE Propor- Per tion of Amount centof each $2 Purpose expended member- total ship ex- pended General Control- (Total of Trustees , Executive Committee , State Di- rectors , and Auditing) . $8,587.13 2.7 $0.05 General Secretary's Office- (Total from Trial Balance) ... 19,777.92 6.2 .12 Operation of Headquarters Building- (Total of items so charged) ... 26,787.76 8.4 .17 Collection of Dues- (Total of items so charged) 27,664.08 8.5 .17 Journal- (Total of items so charged) . 109,225.88 1 34.1 .68 Service to Profession- (Total of the items given just below:) . 128,560.33 40.1 .81 Propor- tion of Per Amount centof each $2 Purpose expended member- total ship ex- pended Department and Committee Service $27,336.94 8.5 $0.17 Field Service...... 10,094.18 3.2 .07 Legislative Service . 16,320.74 5.1 .10 Headquarters Serv- ice 28,503.79 8.9 .18 Educational Pub- licity 6,139.22 1.9 .04 Conventions 12,556.74 3.9 .08 Volume ofAddresses and Proceedings.. 9,703.62 3.0 .06 .11 Research Service... 17,905.10 5.6 Total....... $128,500.33 40.1 .81 Total of Expenses ...... @$320,603.10 100.0 $2.00 aTo this sum should be added $2505.20 expended for furniture, but not in- cluded in the trial balance used as a basis of these calculations. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 111 the interests of the larger Association should be guarded in every possible way, it was thought that the new Budget Committee would be acceptable. Then the Executive Committee needs the help. The ground work for this action was laid a year ago when provision was made for putting the budget on an historical basis. The Committee on this new basis will do well, however, to observe the economies and secure the efficiency which resulted from the way in which matters have been handled in the past . Table 2 gives the answer to the question, "Where does my $2 go ?" It also shows in summary form the relative amounts expended for various purposes. The expenditures will appear in greater detail in the Treas- urer's and Auditor's reports. All these will in due time be placed in the hands of delegates. This table was also prepared by Mr. Norton . QUESTION ABLE USE OF ASSOCIATION'S NAME The Association has adopted a definite platform which states in a gen- eral way the big objectives of the organization. It has year by year adopted resolutions expressing its views on outstanding problems. Officers, members of the staff, departments, and committees are expected to act in harmony with the platform and with motions and resolutions passed by the Executive Committee, Board of Directors, and Representative Assembly. Additional The question has arisen as to whether a formal state- pronouncements ment of policies and relationships should not be formu- needed lated to control the activities and authority of the vari- ous factors in the Association ? There is also need of the adoption of a professional code. Until a statement of relationships is worked out there will be misunder- standing and confusion. Resolutions passed by departments and endorse- ments given by sub-committees and individual officers of departments may continue to be used by commercial agencies as representing the action of the National Education Association. Statements of officers of the general Association both before and after election may be, in a few instances, used in the same manner. Whether these sub-committees and officials mean their action to be construed as that of the Association or not, the com- mercial agency cannot fail to see financial advantage in taking that view. Points of relation- The sub-committee or an official may endorse a piece of ap- ship undefined paratus or a book or pass judgment on an issue not know- ing but that the statement could stand for that of the Association, because points of relationship between departments and the Association, between committees and the Association and departments, between sub-committees and committees have never been definitely defined. The efforts which agencies, commercial and others, make to secure Asso- ciation endorsement is a sincere recognition of its high place in the minds of members of the profession and of the public in general. Its great name must not be tarnished through questionable use by commercial concerns . Neither has it been made clear in any formal manner the extent to which 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION officers can speak for the Association. Our Association has coöperative relations with other national organizations. What does coöperation mean ? Because of coöperative relations on a particular point does that entitle the other association to use the name of ours in its letter-head ? A statement of policy along this line would prevent mistakes and give the Secretary authority to see that the regulations are complied with. There is a demand for the adoption of a professional code. The States are giving time and attention to this matter at the present time. Many cities have committees on codes appointed, and some cities have already adopted codes. It might be wise for the Association to look forward to the future adoption of both a statement of relationships and a professional code. Eventually there should be, besides the platform and the series of resolutions, a statement of relationships and a professional code. It is recommended that provision be made at the time of the Washington meet- ing for the appointment of a committee on policies and relationships and Platform another on a professional code. Neither committee resolutions should be asked to report immediately. The first could relationships bring in a report at the next annual meeting, but the professional code committee on professional and ethical standards should continue its work over a period of years. This will make possible the formulation of a code of ethics representative of the highest ideals of the whole profession. There will also be time to gain the adherence of all professionally-minded teachers to this code. The standards which it will reflect may be expected to function in action as well as in thought. AMERICAN EDUCATION WEEK American Education Week was observed last year in practically every community in the United States and in many places in territories and pos- sessions . The success of the week is now more than temporarily estab- lished. It has become a National institution. Its importance is appreci- ated by the public as well as by the schools. The American Legion takes the greater pride in doing the work in which it is genuinely interested, because the Legion was first to propose working jointly with the Associa Its importance tion in the interests of the public schools, it was first to appreciated suggest that an educational week be established and it was first to think of the name "American Education Week." The Bureau of Education and the National Education Association are deeply interested because it is their paramount duty to promote education and because they realize what it means to have the whole-hearted coöperation of the Ameri- can Legion in this field. It has cost the Association several thousand dollars to do its part in establishing American Education Week on a permanent basis throughout the country. The annual cost will be much less hereafter. The general broadcasting has been done. Other agencies now understand the needs and are rendering valuable assistance . No funds spent by the Association THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 113 have meant more for the betterment of the schools and especially in im- planting in the hearts of the people a more permanent foundation for the public-school idea. The future success of the movement is assured, provided the high ideals which led to the decision to devote a week to the promotion of education con- tinue to guide in carrying out the plans which have been adopted. The most serious danger comes from the persistent effort of agencies to use the week Main purpose to for getting propaganda betore the schools and before be safeguarded the public, regardless of its relevancy to the primary purpose of the week. The week should not be used even for such worthy ends as promoting safety or collecting funds for the use of the Red Cross, and certainly it should not be used to promote causes of less value and im- portance. Nothing should be permitted to turn the thought away from the main purpose, to acquaint the public with what the schools are doing and with their actual needs. The purpose is not so much to urge the public to decide and take action as to give all citizens that genuine interest and inspiration which can only come from first-hand knowledge and in- formation. OTHER ACTIVITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS The activities of the Association are intimately connected with the interests of State and local associations. Many of the State associations have programs of work similar in character and results to those of the National Association. Important pieces of research work are under way in several of the States. The local associations have not shown the same degree of development. Both the National and State Associations would profit from giving encouragement and inspiration to the development of these local units. Only a limited number attempt to make any continuous study of local problems. It is only when the National, the State, and the Local, State and local associations are at the same time working on im- National portant problems that the biggest results are to be Associations obtained. Think what it will mean to have what is sure to come in the near future, all minds in the profession centered on funda- mental issues and problems. Let officers of local units realize the im- portance of study and work on local, State, and National problems. The Journal will contain proposed programs for local study next year. State directors and the secretaries of State associations know of the effort to get stop-over privileges on the round-trip tickets for the Washington Convention. This effort costs both time and money. It resulted in getting stop-over privileges for the territory of the Southeastern Passenger Asso- Identification ciation only. This comprises the States south of the Certificates Potomac and Ohio Rivers and east of the Mississippi River. Members are not aware of the cost to the Association to get and carry out plans for reduced rates. The railroads require the Association to pay for the identification certificates. They require the office to keep a careful record of every certificate that goes out. All of one person's time 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for three months is needed for sending out these certificates and attending to the correspondence in connection with the work. Miss Jones, the President, has the permission of the Executive Com- mittee and Board of Trustees to accept a bequest of approximately $40,000 willed to the Association by a lady whose name has not been made known, Home for the sum to be used in founding a Home for retired retired teachers teachers, where they may find intelligent companionship and care without the traditions usually associated with old people's homes. The Ella Flagg Young Club has already expressed a desire to assist in this project if it is undertaken. Miss Jones has been informed of other agencies and individuals who desire to participate in this movement. Dr. John S. Roberts, district superintendent of schools, New York City, has, through the President, Miss Jones, presented to the Association his manuscript for a book on the philosophical and educational views of Dr. W. T. Harris, who for many years was U. S. Commissioner of Education . It has been accepted by the Executive Committee. He requests that all W. T. Harris income from the sale of this valuable work be put into Memorial Fund the permanent fund of the Association. In case a W. T. suggested Harris Memorial Fund for promoting the scientific study of education and for the continued improvement of teaching in the public schools should now or hereafter be established, he wishes the income from this book to become a part of such memorial fund. The Nation has been waiting for this book. It is well written. It is scholarly and reliable. It comes up to the highest expectations for such a work. It is still unwise to think of increasing the membership dues. It could not be done without affecting the success of departments that have arranged under the by-laws to charge departmental dues. The Department of Department dues in Superintendence, the Department of Elementary School place of increased Principals, and the Department of Rural Education membership dues already charge departmental membership dues. The Department of Classroom Teachers has appointed a committee to report on the wisdom of charging a departmental fee at the Washington meeting. If each leading department arranges for departmental dues to cover its own special activities, the present $2 fee for the general Association ought to be adequate. The departments with special fees are entirely on a self- supporting basis. Read in the Manual for Delegates what is said about life memberships and see the list of those who have already become life members. The thought in establishing this $ 100 life membership was that members would take it out as much to help create an adequate permanent fund as to help themselves. There has been some thought of amending the plan, but since the move- Life Memberships ment under the present scheme is meeting with a degree and the Permanent of success, will it not be best to wait at least another year Fund before considering amendments to this plan? Let each delegate do what he can to secure life memberships during the year. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 115 Why not accept contributions from foundations and from other sources for the permanent fund and for research and field work ? There should be no objection to receiving contributions to aid in worthy educational movements. The Association could not afford to accept funds undesirable from any agency seeking as a result of the gift to shape policies. Large contributions sometimes have provisions attached to them, designed to carry out the ambitions and selfish purposes of the donor, but more often to carry out the whims and designs of those who happen to be responsible Foundation funds for the distribution of the funds. As a rule, the pur- acceptable if pose of the one directly providing funds or establishing without conditions a foundation is unselfish and his chief incentive is to pro- mote a worthy ideal. Unfortunately the officers of the trust or founda- tion do not always have the vision, high ideals, and unselfish motives of the founder. There has been sufficient desire to control policies, to promote preconceived notions, and to gain selfish ends in these large gifts to arouse suspicion and create a deep-seated prejudice. The foundations and the rich who are unselfishly working to improve citizenship through education could render their best service by making contributions without any such conditions. High-class agencies are more and more seeing that the democ- racy of the profession can be trusted, and more and more coming to the view that if contributions are made they should be made without conditions further than to be used for a specified purpose. THE FIELD SECRETARY Dr. J. O. Engleman, field secretary, presents his resignation with the request that it take effect August 1. He is resigning to accept the superin- tendency of the Public Schools of Terre Haute, Indiana, at a substantial increase in salary over what he is receiving from this Association. The position came to him without application or solicitation. The following statement, which was made to the Executive Committee, is repeated here for the delegates : Mr. Engleman is a scholar of recognized ability. He is a leader in educational thought. He was rated high as a city superintendent. He is a man of pleasing and impressive personality. He goes out into the field to bring about a better understanding between the public and those who administer the schools. His heart is in the work. His messages are inspiring and constructive. His is a re- markably great service. There is no way of measuring the value of his two years' work for the Association. The officers would not be willing to accept his resignation were he not leaving to accept a better position. The Secretary would be unwilling to recommend that the resignation be accepted were he not con- vinced that the new position is more satisfactory to Dr. Engleman him- self, for his leaving is a distinct loss to the Association. The following is the letter of resignation which will be placed before the 116 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Executive Committee at its Washington meeting, with the recommendation that the request be granted : THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON, D. C. DIVISION OF FIELD SERVICE J. O. ENGLEMAN, DIRECTOR JOLIET, ILLINOIS May 25, 1924. MY DEAR MR. CRABTREE : The letters I wrote you and Miss Jones weeks ago are perhaps all that is necessary, but I am merely complying with the terms of my contract with the National Education Association in making formal request for release August 1, 1924. At the proper time you will please present this request to the Executive Committee for its action. In offering my resignation I want to pledge again my fealty to the N. E. A., and my desire to do all I can in my new field to strengthen it and extend its help- ful influence upon the schools of the Nation. It has long been a great professional leaven, initiating and accelerating progressive steps in education, standardizing the best measures, methods and aims, and creating national respect for teachers and teaching. It is destined to do much more in the future. Appreciating your fine personal attitude towards me and the work I've done, and heartily congratulating the N. E. A. upon the fact that it has your organizing genius, your devotion, and a great staff infused with your spirit, I am Sincerely yours, J. O. ENGLEMAN. JOE*L REPORT OF THE BUSINESS DIVISION Harold A. Allan, Director The following report summarizes the work of the Business Division for the year ended June 30, 1924 : The activities of the Business Division may be divided as follows: ( 1) Office management, including : ( a) purchasing (b) approval and distribu- tion of accounts (c) employment (d) general typing and clerical service (e) shipping and mailing. (2) Business arrangement for printing and publications, including multigraph service. (3) Journal advertising. (4) conventions, including: ( a) organization (b) business details (c) com- mercial exhibits. (5) Property supervision. OFFICE MANAGEMENT Purchasing-All purchases are handled through a system of requisition and purchase order. Material of common use is carried in a general stock which is distributed as the institutional requirements arise. Stock and ma- terial is charged against the division or activity to which it is issued. Approval and distribution of accounts-Bills rendered to the Association are examined and approved in the Business Division. All expense for the year has been distributed under the several heads recommended in the auditors' report, thus giving complete details and distribution which may serve as a guide in budgeting. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 117 The form and method of submitting bills have been improved during the year. Recommendation is made that the purposes for which funds are appro- priated for committees and departments be more clearly defined and that bills for committee and department expenses be rendered in greater detail. Employment-There has been a close coördination of the activities of the divisions and a reduction of the problem of employment in the tempo- rary staff. General typing and clerical service-A system of requisition and work orderhas been installed to cover service given in the typing section. Charges for such service have been properly distributed. The same situation holds inthe matter of service rendered in the multigraph and the addressograph sections. Shipping and mailing-Improvement of facilities has made this section more effective. PRINTING SERVICE Estimates and bids are obtained for publications of the Association. On larger projects such as The Journal and the Annual Proceedings, formal contracts are made. Printing costs compare favorably with those of pre- ceding years when consideration is given to the amounts involved. The printing cost of the 1923 Volume was $4,027.35 less than that for 1922 . Smaller forms, envelopes, and circular letters are printed in the multi- graph section. ADVERTISING The problem of advertising is most important. The director of the 1 Business Division has consistently endeavored to give it his best thought and maximum effort. The employment of an assistant who assumes re- sponsibility for all details and who will assume added responsibility in giving direct assistance in the development of new business has greatly increased the effectiveness of the division. Advertising rates are moderate. Many elements, however, enter into the consideration of an increase. Conditions within the year have been such that an increase in rates has not been practicable. CONVENTIONS Organization and business details-The preliminaries of convention organization are entrusted to the Business Division. Assistance is given in preparations for local committee organization, in arranging meeting places, exhibits, State headquarters, registration, housing and printing, and responsibility is taken for many minor business details. Commercial exhibits-Successful commercial exhibits were held in Oak- land and Chicago. PROPERTY SUPERVISION As authorized by the Board of Trustees extensive alterations and repairs have been made to the property of the Association. The three-story brick building at 1541-43 M Street and the two-story frame building at 1537-39 118 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION M Street have been remodelled and connected with the main building at 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest. This remodelling has provided two large double rooms well adapted for office purposes, one room offering an excellent arrangement for the addressograph section, and a room splendidly located for the mailing section, all of these in the brick building. The frame building serves for light storage purposes and for desirable janitor's quarters. A steam heating plant installed in the Sixteenth Street building heats the remodelled property and the north half of the main building. The main building at 1201 Sixteenth Street has been painted and refinished throughout. Details of expenditures on the above may be found in the report of the Board of Trustees. These alterations have increased the value of the property beyond the amount expended. The readjustment of division offices and the improved facilities for the service sections have increased the ef- fectiveness of the work of the headquarters staff. REPORT OF THE DIVISION OF RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS Helen T. Hixson, Director I am pleased to submit herewith a brief survey of the work of the De- partment of Records and Accounts for the fiscal year 1923-24. I shall not go into detail or make comparative tables on the finances of the Asso- ciation as shown by my books, as the receipts and expenditures covered by the current year will be clearly set up in the Treasurer's Report, which will be freely distributed for inspection and information, and the classifica- tion and comparison of certain detail items will be presented in the report of the General Secretary . CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS General purpose-Touching first upon the handling of the finances of the Association-we have now completely installed our new system of ac- counting and business methods, which was only partly in operation at the issuance of our last report. This system was outlined for us by Mr. John B. Tanner, Certified Public Accountant, of Chicago, and while it does not go into elaborate detail, it has given us a flexible system, which it appears will be entirely adequate for the needs of the Association for all time, as a complete equilibrium can now be maintained between the various divisions and functions of the Association, and furthermore, it enables the officers of the Association to judge intelligently regarding the itemization and segregation of costs under the proper classification for each department or activity, from month to month, and wisely plan for future operations. It also provides accounts which now properly reflect the responsibility for expense-namely, the accounts not only record how much expense has been sustained, but more important than this-it classifies the expense according THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 119 to the division, department, or function which is directly responsible therefor. Data regarding accounts-The accounts are now classified as follows : Daily Cash Record, Cash Receipts and Cash Disbursements Record, Voucher Register, Ledger, Journal and Accounts Receivable Register. A numbering system is now used, which makes the system more elastic and suitable to the needs of the enlarged classification. The Asset, Liability, and Reserve classifications are substantially the same as before, while the Income and Expense classifications are more elaborate and provide for the automatic distribution of income and expense to the various functions and departments. At the end of each month a trial balance and financial state- ment is prepared, which give in detail the monthly distribution of income and expenses for each division and department, and a copy is sent to each member of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees, as well as to the heads of the several divisions at the headquarters office, so that they may at all times be correctly informed regarding various operations, not only in their own divisions, but may have first knowledge of all costs and results. Budget-This new classification of income and expense now makes a budget system highly desirable and easily obtainable, as there is sufficient detail and correct distribution of income and expense to furnish the data from which the budget can be prepared. Of course, the amount of revenue for the current year should be the basis of the estimated income for the coming year, and likewise, the new budget of expense must be based upon the new budget of anticipated income. This, I believe, quite briefly but thoroughly covers our revised system of accounting. MEMBERSHIP The membership records show a steady gain over last year, which has materially increased the work of preparing and filing the record cards and addressing plates, but each year we have endeavored to eliminate as many unnecessary operations as possible until we believe that we have now established a commendable and satisfactory system of handling this work, which is operating with greater ease than ever before. It has been our chief aim and desire to keep our membership records and addressing plates revised to date, so that there will be no unnecessary delay in sending out The Journal and other material to our members. In order to accomplish this we have sent out thousands of reply postals to members whose material is reported as undeliverable, and this method, together with the assistance rendered us by the postal authorities in giving changes of address, has enabled us to keep our records comparatively clear. During the past year we have recorded approximately 2,500 changes of address sent in by mem- bers, 14,000 sent in by the postoffice department, and 3,233 letters sent to members under two-cent postage have been returned as undeliverable. 120 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This covers an expense which of necessity must be borne by the Associa- tion each year, but we are trying to reduce it to a minimum. Collection of membership dues-The collection of membership dues, as will be noted from the balance sheet, still remains a large item of expense. The budget system of handling dues has been recommended and is being adopted in one community after another. We find that during the fall months a large percentage of our membership dues was transmitted to us under this system, and we believe the general adoption of this method will save many thousands of dollars . Addressograph plates and records-This department, which coöperates with and is a part of the membership.department, is now installed in our new annex, which gives us a commodious, light room, and adds greatly to the comfort of the clerks and operators, and has also materially aided in the speedy and accurate handling of this important work. With the added equipment which was provided during the past year, we are now in a position to handle the work of this division without much additional expense . FUTURE DEVELOPMENT We do not at this time anticipate the need of additional clerical service or equipment, but to successfully carry on the work of the divisions based on our present membership, we must maintain our present working force of fifteen people, and in doing this we will be rendering maximum service at a minimum expenditure. CONCLUSION It has been wisely said that the success of any business organization de- pends not alone upon its high business standards but also upon the efficiency of its business management, and the accuracy with which all of its de- partments function. While we are made conscious at times of failure to measure up to all the requirements of our large and ever-increasing mem- bership, yet it is ever our aim to render the best service possible. The clerks who handle this great membership account are most untiring in their efforts to adjust every problem which presents itself, and they are at all times most conscientious in the discharge of their duties. The work has been most interesting and gratifying, and our enlarged quarters will add greatly to the efficiency of the work during the coming year, which we look forward to with happy anticipation. REPORT OF THE DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS Joy Elmer Morgan, Director The service of the Division of Publications for the year ended June 30, 1924, is summarized herein under the following heads : ( 1 ) The Journal, (2) Proceedings and Other Publications, (3) Publicity, and (4) Sum- mary. THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 121 THE JOURNAL The establishment of a journal was contemplated early in the history of the Association as indicated by a proposal which came up in 1859 in the form of a committee report recommending the creation of a monthly journal to be called The National Teacher. The first issue of the present Journal appeared in January, 1921. With but twenty pages and cover it was un- impressive as compared with the sixty-four-page magazine now issued, but the effect on the profession was immediate and the response most encourag- ing. By January, 1922, The Journal had reached its present size and had won a well-recognized place in the work and extension of the Association . The year when The Journal grew most rapidly in size and richness of content was the year of largest membership increase. Were it possible to make still further improvements in The Journal and to increase its size to ninety-six pages and cover it is likely that there would be a correspondingly strong appeal to both members and advertisers . Wide correspondence and the deliberations of the Editorial Council and of the officers of the Association have defined for the Editorial Staff the principles around which The Journal may be built, as well as its limita- tions. Members of the Staff in their selection and treatment of material haveever inmind that The Journal is the organ of a great and responsible national association, whose primary duty is to deal with the broader prob- lems of education which affect all teachers alike and which are vitally re- lated to the welfare of the Nation and its children. If it is to maintain its broad general field and to render the maximum service in the solution of large educational problems in which every teacher and every citizen is interested, there are certain things which The Journal cannot do. Departmentalization to be avoided-For example, suggestions sometimes come to headquarters that The Journal should be departmentalized-that space shouldbe assigned to superintendents, or principals, or classroom teach- ers as such. In that direction lies division and weakness. Pursued to its logical conclusion it would make The Journal an aggregation of depart- naental publications, a collection of special appeals, which would leave the reader somewhat confused as to the central purposes of the Association. Material is included which relates to the various departments of the organi- zation, but it is included primarily because of its appeal to the profession as awhole. Fixed editorial responsibility essential-It is sometimes suggested that certain types of material be edited by some committee outside the central office. The Journal's great strength has been in the centralization of re- sponsibility and in the coördination of suggestions received from many urces. No material should go into The Journal which the editorial staff, in consultation with the Secretary and other officers of the Associa- tion does not believe to be the best material that could be obtained and in entire accord with the Association's adopted policies as indicated by the minutes of the Representative Assembly and other bodies. The Journal does not aim primarily to express the views of the editor, of the Editorial 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Council, or of the other officers. It is the official mouthpiece of our Asso- ciation, which has a recognized program. By promoting this program The Journal can render its greatest service to the profession . Not a methods magazine-As the membership of the Association in- creases, including larger and larger numbers of elementary school teachers and principals, the suggestion is sometimes made that material on methods and devices be included in increasing quantity. Here it would seem that the line should be clearly drawn, leaving to private enterprise the develop- ment ofjournals to supply this classroom material. In this day of specializa- tion were The Journal to embark on a policy of publishing methods material it would be difficult indeed to maintain its general appeal to the profession as a whole. Personalities and local issues to be avoided-Another of the problems of the editorial staff concerns the treatment of material relating to localities or the work of individuals. It being the function of The Journal to speak for the Association, it cannot deal in personal compliment and praise and in certain materials of local appeal in the same way that would be allowable and desirable for a journal privately issued. It cannot accord to one mem- ber privileges that would not be available to all members. Every item that is included must meet the test of its interest to the whole profession and its intrinsic merit as a suggestion to educational workers throughout the country in the improvement of professional practice. Here there is a clear lesson from the experience of official organs in other countries, which have been so filled with material of narrow, personal, or local interest that they have largely lost their broad general appeal and their power as organs of national organizations responsible to the entire profession. As the spokesman of a national organization The Journal must deal with professional materials which concern all teachers and the Nation as a whole, in a spirit and with an emphasis which will unite and strengthen the forces that must be integrated if education is to have its proper place in the life of all of our people. PROCEEDINGS AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS Since 1857, the Proceedings of the National Education Association have appeared as impressive annual records of educational progress and profes- sional purposes. They now constitute an eight-foot shelf of educational literature, unrivalled for excellence, variety, and comprehensiveness. To this rich source students of education everywhere turn for information and inspiration. A casual analysis of it suggests cycles of professional advance- ment which would be well worth study and comparison with cycles of fi- nancial, economic, and political growth. Until the Association moved its headquarters to Washington in 1917 its publications consisted chiefly of the Proceedings, Reports of Committees, and programs . The period since then has been one of rapid expansion. Since the Division of Publications was established in August, 1920, there have been added The Journal, the Bulletins and Yearbooks of the Depart THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 123 ment of Elementary School Principals, the Yearbooks of the Department of Superintendence, Research Bulletins, and an increasing number of Com- mittee Reports and special bulletins, giving a total printed output of more than a hundred million pages annually. PUBLICITY The publicity which the Association has been able to obtain has shown a marked increase during the year. This is partly the cause of and partly the result of the increasing public interest in popular education. So great is the amount of newspaper publicity inspired by the activities of the Asso- ciation that it is not feasible to attempt to keep clippings of it. Merely the editorial comment on the 1924 meeting of the Department of Superin- tendence at Chicago as clipped from newspapers throughout the United States fills three large scrap books. The aim of the publicity activities of the Association has been to supply newspapers and magazines with the raw materials or with information as to possible sources, leaving them to make their own interpretations and to do their own writing. This policy has the advantage of training each year a considerable number of news- paper and magazine writers in the art of handling educational material in apopular way. A feature of the year's publicity work has been the use of radio. A letter addressed to the State superintendents and commissioners of education inthe various States in October showed that, excepting a few States, com- paratively small use was then being made of radio. But since that time there has been a great increase in popular interest and in the use of radio as ameans of bringing the schools closer to the people. Radio addresses were broadcast in connection with the Oakland-San Francisco meetings and again in connection with the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Chicago. Since November, 1923, the director of this division has fur- nished one speaker each week on some phase of public education from Sta- tion WRC, the Radio Corporation of America, at Washington, D. C. SUMMARY This report merely suggests the importance of the Association's extensive publishing activities. The Proceedings are evidence of the sweep and power of its annual meetings. Its Research Bulletins show the force of facts made useful by prompt collection and expert interpretation. Its depart- mental bulletins and yearbooks indicate the broadening scope and specializa- tion of the Association's activities. The reports of commissions and com- mittees testify to the enlarging interest of the masses of teachers in the problems of the profession. The Journal, dedicated to the elevation of the profession as a whole and to the improvement of education on a nation- wide scale, stands at the base of the Association's publications and work- supporting, interpreting, uniting, coördinating, calling to every member of the great professional army to lay his bit of personal interest and fi 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION nancial support upon the common altar of earth's noblest profession to the end that sound and universal education may contribute its share toward the security and advancement of the Nation and the world. REPORT OF THE RESEARCH DIVISION John K. Norton, Director The Research Division was established a little over two years ago. There has been time in which to define its objectives with exactness and to make some progress in the direction of their attainment. OBJECTIVES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE RESEARCH DIVISION The objectives of the Research Division, together with indications of the progress made in their attainment during the past year, follow: 1. Conduct studies vital to the improvement of public-school legislation and financial support. Two major studies have been completed in the field of school finance during the past year, one dealing with teachers' salaries and the other with city school costs in general. The results of these studies have been widely used by teachers and administrators in dealing with the problems of school finance. Another major study assembled data valuable in the consideration of educational legislation. This material was given wide circulation during American Education Week and following that week. 2. Furnish information to Association members and affiliated organiza- tions for use in advancing the welfare of the teaching profession . Many specially prepared tables based upon the data made available by the salary and city school cost study have been furnished individual mem- bers and affiliated organizations of the Association. In addition several hundred minor studies have been conducted so that special information needed by Association members might be made available. 3. Coördinate the research work of the Association's committees and departments. The Division has participated in the work of most of the active com- mittees and departments. Major pieces of work have been carried on under the direction of the following committees and commissions : Retire- ment, Salaries, Tenure, and Legislative. Service was rendered the Depart- ment of Superintendence in connection with the preparation of the Second Yearbook entitled "The Elementary School Curriculum. " Special pieces of work were also conducted for the Department of Elementary School Principals and the Department of Visual Education. The close touch which the Division has maintained with committee and departmental work has enabled it to coördinate the large amount of work carried on under Association auspices and in many cases to prevent dupli- cation. 4. Supply special material needed by the Association's headquarters staff. A total of 27 pages of material prepared by the Research Division has appeared in The Journal during the past year. Much data has been col THE SECRETARY's REPORT 125 lected for the Legislative Division and Legislative Commission for use in the Hearings on the Education Bill before the Senate and House Com- mittees. This material appears in the Hearings now available in printed form. The following special pamphlets in support of the bill were also prepared: "Who is Supporting the Education Bill and Why ?" and "Why the Education Bill Should Receive Your Support." 5. Serve as a clearing-house for studies in the field of educational research. Progress has been made in establishing close coöperation with 84 bureaus of educational research scattered throughout the country. Exact informa- tion concerning these bureaus as to personnel, functions, and publications is available in the Division. The active coöperation of many of these bureaus was secured by the Division in organizing the exhibit of educa- tional research activities at the Chicago meeting of the Department of Superintendence. The contacts made with these bureaus and the splendid cooperation received have made it possible for the Research Bureau to take some practical steps toward coördinating work in the field of educa- tional research. 6. Collect and disseminate current facts for the promotion of education . Lay organizations and prominent laymen interested in the advancement of education are calling upon the Research Division in increasing numbers for special educational information, articles, etc. In responding to these demands the Division is able effectively to promote the cause of public education. Special information has been placed in the hands of officers of State and local teacher associations and has been used in advancing their educational programs. 7. Fill each issue of the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association with timely information. In the Research Bulletins issued to date have been concentrated the results of the investigations carried on by the Division. There are indi- cations that the material they contain has been of definite value to members ofthe profession and to the lay public. Owing to the reduction of teachers' salaries in a few places and the threatened reduction in other places, there has not only been a demand for facts concerning salaries and school costs, but the Division has felt the need of getting this necessary information into the hands of teachers and school authorities. The Bulletins listed below include all those issued since the establish- ment of the Division : Facts on the Cost of Public Education and What They Mean, Bulletin One, June, 1922. 64 pp. (Out of print.) 10,000 issued. Facts for American Education Week, Bulletin Two, November, 1922. 40 pp. 26,000 issued. Facts on State Educational Needs, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 1923. 6+ pp. 10,000 issued. Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. 1, No. 2, March, 1923 . 72 pp. 12,000 issued. 126 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Teachers' Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923, Vol. 1, No. 3, May, 1923. 118 pp. 10,000 issued . Five Questions for American Education Week, Vol. 1, No. 4, September, 1923. 56 pp. 23,000 issued. Facts on the Elementary School Curriculum, Vol. 1, No. 5, November, 1923. 48 pp. 7,000 issued. Current Facts on City School Costs, Vol . 2, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1924. 64 pp. 10,000 issued. BUDGET FOR 1924-25 The budget estimate, which has been recommended by the Division and placed in the hands of the Secretary and Executive Committee, has been prepared after a careful study of the budgets and expenditures of the Divi- sion for the two previous years. In its preparation two facts have been kept in mind, namely : ( 1) the need of maintaining the Division's present standard of efficiency and (2) the desirability of exercising economy in the Association's expenditures during the coming year . FUTURE POLICY It is believed that the Division may render the greater service to the Association during the coming year by moving forward in the direction of a more complete attainment of the objects stated above. While the staff works toward a fuller realization of these objectives it should look forward to larger fields of service and accomplishment which will be pos- sible as the personnel and equipment of the Division increases. The oppor- tunities for service offered by our great Association with its many active departments, commissions, divisions, and affiliated organizations are unlim- ited. The Division should strive to set a standard for skilled and timely work in the field of educational research. It should endeavor to exercise an influence in connection with all research work carried on under the jurisdiction of the Association that will make it deserving of the fullest confidence. REPORT OF THE DIVISION OF CLASSROOM SERVICE Agnes Winn, Director Herewith is a brief summary of the activities of the Division of Class- room Service during the past year. The primary work of this division, as its name implies, is to render service to the classroom teachers of the country. Although other activities have developed since the organization of the di- vision two years ago, service to the teacher has always been kept in the fore- ground. The work of the division for the year just closed may be sum- marized under the following heads : ( 1 ) Classroom Teacher Service, ( 2) Departments, Allied Organizations, and Committees, ( 3) The Journal and other publications, (+) American Education Week, (5) Annual Meeting, (6) Information Service, and (7) Growth and Expansion. Classroom teacher service-The service rendered to the classroom teach- ers has been carried on (a) through the Department of Classroom Teachers, THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 127 (b) through establishing contacts with local organizations of teachers, (c) through correspondence with individuals, and (d) through local publica- tions of teachers' organizations. The director has kept in touch with the president and other officers of the Department of Classroom Teachers and under their direction has carried on much of the clerical work of the Department, including correspondence with the seven hundred local affiliated organizations of classroom teachers. Assistance has been given to the officers of this Department in carrying out their plans for the summer meeting and its regional conferences. Assistance in working out profes- sional programs has been given to local organizations. Progress of or- ganization work has been carefully followed through local publications and close relationships with large groups of teachers have been established. No opportunity has been lost to emphasize the advantages of membership in the National Association . Departments, allied organizations, and committees-In keeping with the policy recommended by the Secretary of having members of the head- quarters staff assigned to look after interests of the departments, the work has been divided between this division and the Division of Administrative Service. It has been my pleasure and duty to give secretarial help to seventeen departments, a number of allied organizations, and several com- mittees. The aim has been to assist the officers in carrying on special projects and in preparing their summer programs . It is my conviction that in the future the growth of the Association will depend to a large extent on the sustained interest of these groups. As consulting member of a num- ber of N. E. A. committees, I have assisted the chairmen in gathering in- formation, compiling reports, and planning for conferences . The Journal and other publications-This division has worked closely with the division of publications in the preparation of material for The Journal of interest to classroom teachers and has prepared articles on the activities and professional program of the Association for other publica- tions. The Report of the World Conference on Education at San Fran- cisco last summer was compiled and widely distributed. American Education Week-Perhaps no part of the Association's pro- fessional program has served to arouse and consolidate the sentiment of the American people toward their greatest investment, the education of their children, as has the celebration of American Education Week during the past four years. This year a brief survey of the observance of the week throughout the State was made. The information collected will be in- cluded in a bulletin to be issued for use during American Education Week. Annual meeting-Many of the pre-convention activities have been car- ned on in this division, including the following : ( a) assisting the President with the general program and plans ; (b) taking care of the forty group programs and assisting with the local arrangements for their meetings ; (c) preparing the material for the Official Program; and (d) working with the local organization committees. 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Information service-Hundreds of requests for special information have been handled promptly. The collection of information for a single request often involves hours of work, but this is time profitably spent, for service of this kind to individuals and organizations should mean much to the future of the Association . Growth and expansion-With the development of this division have come new responsibilities and these have been cheerfully assumed. There are now two permanent helpers, both of whom have given valuable and efficient service. Much of the detail work is carried by these assistants. One of our aims has been to organize our files in such a way that we can be of service to the other divisions of the headquarters staff. A card catalogue file of classroom teachers is kept, local publications are kept on file, and a comprehensive list of the seven local classroom organizations affiliated with the Association has been worked out. Our division is look- ing forward to a year of increased usefulness to the Association in further- ing the cause of education . REPORT OF LEGISLATIVE SERVICE Charl Ormond Williams, Director The National Education Association has been greatly interested during the past year in two pieces of National legislation-the Education Bill and the Child Labor Amendment to the Federal Constitution. The campaign for this amendment came to a dramatic close at ten o'clock the evening of June 2 when the Senate of the United States passed the following amendment with a vote of 61 to 23 : Section 1. The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate, and prohibit the labor of persons under 18 years of age. Section 2. The power of the several States is unimpaired by this article except that the operation of State laws shall be suspended to the extent necessary to give effect to legislation enacted by Congress. The Senate adopted the wording of the House Resolution 184, which was passed by the House of Representatives, April 26, 1924, by a vote of 297 to 69. Although the measure was supported by every well-known public-spirited organization in the country, its passage was delayed and at the last numerous amendments were proposed the purpose of which was to defeat or nullify the intent of the resolution. It must be ratified by 36 States before it becomes a part of the Constitution. Vigorous and insidious opposition is already being waged in the States, and it behooves every teacher to be on guard prepared to strike a blow in its defense. The ratification of the amendment followed by appropriate Federal legislation makes it all the more necessary that the Education Bill be passed by Congress, for 1,000,000 children will be taken out of labor and placed in schools already overcrowded and undertaught in many instances . Extended Federal coöperation in education is the logical outcome of this THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 129 legislation and it was so regarded by many of its supporters. For this further reason it merits the support of the teachers' organizations through- out the States and local communities. The legislative secretary was employed to "develop lay support for the program of the National Education Association and to promote in par- ticular the Education Bill." Believing that the way to do successful legis- lative work was to do it, the secretary has, with the approval of the Execu- tive Committee, confined her activities largely to the National Capital, making trips into the field only when they proved of immediate advantage to the legislative work. In developing support for the Education Bill 43,617 pieces of literature were distributed, 2,680 personal letters sent out. In addition 1,340 letters. werewrittenin answer to requests for information on the Bill, 9,521 form letters in 32 sets were sent out to various coöperating groups, 36 meetings of the two sub-committees of the Women's Joint Congressional Committee supporting the two measures were attended, 105 individuals of prominence were interviewed, 4 large group conferences were held, 21 addresses were made to educational and lay groups in 11 States, 7 national conventions of allied organizations were attended and endorsements of five new national organizations were secured. A detailed account of these activities will be filedwith the secretary and officers of the National Education Association and the Legislative Commission. The Education Bill known as the Towner-Sterling Bill was reintroduced in the 68th Congress, without amendment, by Senator Thomas Sterling of South Dakota, and Congressman Daniel A. Reed of New York on December 17, 1923. Hearings on the bill have been held before three committees of Congress. The Senate Committee on Education and Labor held its hearing January 22 to January 25, 1924. The proponents of the bill filed a clear and unmistakable protest against a Department of Educa- tion and Welfare before the Committee on the Reorganization of the Executive Departments on January 25 and 26, 1924. In spite of this protest this committee, on June 3, 1924, made its report to Congress and recommended a Department of Education and Relief different only in name from the other plan. According to Secretary Work, of the Department ofthe Interior, who is also opposed to a Department of Education and Wel- fare, " relief" is even more offensive than "welfare. " A supplemental report signed by Senator Harrison, of Mississippi, and Congressman Moore, of Virginia, in which further study of this particular department was advised, was also filed. Before the 1st day of August every teacher should notify her own Congressman that the incorporation of "Relief" into the Department of Education is objectionable to all persons, both lay and professional, who are deeply interested in education. If that is done promptly and effectively, there will be no difficulty in disposing of this plan when Congress reassembles in December. It is the firm conviction of the Legislative Secretary that members of Congress want to do the thing for education that is considered best by the 130 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION greatest number of well-informed people in this country. The profession is derelict in its duty if it does not act at once. The House Committee on Education began its hearing on February 20, and the committee met every Wednesday with two exceptions until June 4, when the hearing was closed. Every shade of opinion was expressed by the witnesses who spoke at these hearings. The incident that will linger long in the memory of those privileged to be present was the appearance before the House Committee of three grown people from South Carolina who had in the past five years learned to read and write. The ex-service man of twenty-five years of age, who had offered his life for his country, by his simple testimony gripped the hearts of his hearers; the grandfather offifty-two, strong and stalwart, evoked the admiration of the group when he said that "he had never looked a man in the eye that he thought was a better man than he was," but the grandmother of sixty-four, the mother of ten children, stirred our emotions to their depths when she told of her longing for the learning that would enable her to write to her children and of her heroic efforts to obtain it. The volume of the Senate hearing numbers 402 pages and the House hearing will probably number 1,000 pages . The Research Department of the National Education Association prepared 26 charts on the various needs and weaknesses of our educational systems which were reproduced in the Record. Altogether an exceedingly strong case has been made and it now remains for us to educate public opinion in the 435 congressional districts of the United States. This is the immediate task and it must be done this summer while Congressmen are at their homes. Delegations, personal letters, and petitions must be sent to them. Special work must be done with the education committees of both Houses to have the bill reported out early in the short session. Here is a challenge for every individual teacher and for every organization of teachers. Who will fail to meet it? The one argument that must be met is that "the bill will mean Federal control of the schools." No individual or group of individuals is seeking Federal control. Congress is likewise opposed to it. Who, then, will im- pose it? A study of the bill itself is the best answer-but the answer must be made and the 700,000 teachers in the country must make it. The sup- port for the bill grows day by day, both in and out of Congress. Five new national organizations have endorsed this bill and two new bills for a Department of Education have been introduced in this Congress-one by Congressman Watkins, of Oregon, and one by Senator Owen, of Okla- homa. No doubt other similar bills will be introduced in the short session. The opposition is organized and at work. They have made known to Congress their objections, which will not in the final analysis stand because they are based on wrong assumptions. The members of Congress want to know and have a right to know that a wholesome majority of their con- stituents are eager for the passage of this bill. THE SECRETARY's REPORT 131 After all the campaign for the bill resolves itself into a very simple mat- ter. If each advocate of the Education Bill, the teacher in particular, does bus part, the passage of the measure will be assured in the short session of the 68th Congress. REPORT OF FIELD SERVICE J. O. Engleman, Director The following statement of my work in the field the past year as Di- rector of the Division of N. E. A. Field Service I have made as brief as possible, in compliance with your request. Aims of the work-There are many evidences that the N. E. A. has justified itself and is adding today to its membership by virtue of the fact that it is rendering real service to the teaching profession and the cause of education throughout the Nation. I have attempted, therefore, to com- mend the N. E. A. to the profession, not so much by pleas for members, as by telling the story of its major achievments of the past, its various types of service at present, and its possibilities for needed service in the years to come if organized effort and financial support may be continued. Through an exposition of the actual work of the present-day schools and through addresses directed against shortsighted policies of retrenchment and decreased school support, I have endeavored to promote public-school interestsbefore a score and more of civic organizations in a dozen States. Seven county institutes in Maine; thirty-one meetings of city teachers in ten different States; seventeen teachers colleges and universities in | eleven States; and eighteen State teachers associations or large divisions of State associations in fifteen States were addressed one or more times, some of them from three to six times. Before most of the larger groups just named, an effort was made to stimulate interest in the bearings of education upon character, conduct, citizenship, and national and international relationships and needs. Scores of addresses were given of a practical sort, dealing with the immediate interests and problems of the group to which I was assigned, including rections in English, Primary, Principals, City Superintendents, County Superintendents, College, School Boards, Parent-Teachers, and High School groups. Four commencements, several churches, many high school and junior high assemblies, and other miscellaneous gatherings offered an opportunity for educational addresses suited to the occasion . The Sterling-Reed Bill-In promoting this bill I have coöperated with Miss Williams and the Legislative Commission as fully as possible. This has been done through addresses as requested, through correspondence, through newspaper articles, through personal conference with workers in the field, and through hearings before the committees of the House and Senate in Congress . Statistical The field work has been done in twenty-seven States ; in 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION every geographical section of the country from Maine to California, and North Dakota to Texas, inclusive. It has reached an aggregate audience of seventy-five thousand, and has required nearly forty thousand miles of travel. Financial-Detailed reports of receipts and expenses in the field have been sent to the Executive Secretary from month to month, examined, ap- proved, and made a matter of record. It is gratifying to be able to report that a total of $3196.23 has been turned in since the Oakland-San Francisco meeting, and that this amount has covered the aggregate expense of the Di- rector, including railway, pullman, hotel, meals, postage, telegrams , and stenographic help, leaving a negligible balance. Recommendations-Though I have offered my resignation, asking that it take effect August 1, for reasons already known, I recommend that the work be continued. But the value of the field service as conducted since November 1, 1922, can be learned from others. Any request, therefore, for a continuance of this type of service can come with much better grace from others than from me. If the service is continued more satisfactory financial relations must be established between the N. E. A. and its affiliated units. Many members have assumed that their membership in the N. E. A. and in an affiliated association entitled them to such service as this division gives, without even a thought of their incurring any obligation in receiving it. A few organizations have expressed surprise, and a very few, indignation, that they were expected to bear the field expense, even if the N. E. A. did supply the worker and pay his salary. Some requests for service were canceled, and others, doubtless, were never extended, merely because of objection to the method or principle that was involved in the arrangement that has prevailed between the Ν. Ε. Α. and its affiliated units. A just and satisfactory arrangement needs to be worked out, and then given the widest publicity, so that institutions and organizations using the field secretary will understand and approve the terms in advance of the field service. In conclusion, may I add that the consciousness of doing something to popularize and universalize ideals of scholarship; of scientific and coöpera- tive study of educational questions ; of knowledge, morality and religion as "a way of life," whether of the individual or of the State, has been the largest compensation for the work. This has been freely, supplemented by the pleasure that has come from contact with the staff at headquarters and with representative men and women at work throughout the country. REPORT OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AND DIVISION OF ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE S. D. Shankland, Executive Secretary The Department of Superintendence-The formal report and list of members of this Department for the calendar year 1923 was published in the Second Yearbook, which was distributed at the winter meeting in THE SECRETARY'S REPORT 133 Chicago. The financial statement for the year ended December 31, 1923, showed receipts of $14,507.26 and expenditures of $14,231.42, leaving a balance on hand of $275.84. The receipts from membership fees were $9,640. By mutual agreement, the profits from the commercial exhibit atthe winter meeting are divided equally between the Department and the parent Association, each organization thus deriving funds for convention expenses. At Cleveland the department received $4,267.40 from this source. The Second Yearbook dealt largely with problems of the curriculum. It included a general analysis of present elementary school curriculum practice, together with several valuable articles on topics relating to the curriculum. By vote of the Department, this study will be continued during the present year by the Commission on the Curriculum . An official report of the Chicago Convention was distributed to members soon after adjournment. Special circulars are issued as occasion requires. The Department of Elementary School Principals-This Department has made remarkable progress since it was first recognized at the Des Moines Convention in 1921. It enrols over two thousand members . The president of the Department, Mr. W. T. Longshore, of Kansas City, Missouri, has wisely administered its affairs. He has provided excellent programs, both for the summer and winter meetings. Every session of this Department at Chicago attracted a capacity crowd. A quarterly bulletin, which deals constructively with the problems of the elementary school principal, is issued under the editorship of Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Grand Rapids, Michigan. The yearbooks of the Department have been in great demand. The Third Yearbook, just published, is a study of the Status of the Elementary School Principal. The editor is Mr. Arthur S. Gist, of Seattle, Washington, and all of the contributors are principals of ele- mentary schools . The Division of Administrative Service-A member of the headquarters staff at Washington is assigned to care for the interests of each of the allied departments and organizations of the National Education Associa- tion. These naturally consist of two groups, one particularly interested in classroom problems and one in questions of administration. The ad- ministrative group has been assigned for my attention, under the title ofDivision of Administrative Service. This work includes aid in making convention plans, information service to individuals and organizations, and assistance in the solution of special problems which arise from time to time. An appreciation-The most cordial relations have existed between the officers of the Department of Superintendence and of the National Educa- tionAssociation. The various allied departments and organizations have cooperated fully. The necessity for united action has been felt deeply by all. This Department has sought diligently to do its share, not only for the good of the Association but that the children of the Nation may be better served. LIFE MEMBERSHIPS There are three kinds of life memberships in the National Education Association : ( 1) A group of life members created under the old By-Laws between 1884 and 1898 ; (2) a group of all living past presidents, who, under the By-laws, become life members; and (3) those who have enlisted under the plan adopted at the Des Moines meeting in 1921, which provides that upon the payment of one hundred dollars a person may be granted a life membership, which will entitle him to receive throughout his lifetime the publications of the Association, including The Journal and the volume of Proceedings. Fees paid for life memberships go into the permanent fund and add to the financial security of the Association. Life Members (First Group) Alumni Association, State Normal School , Harvey, George I. , 215 North K Street, Milwaukee, Wis . Muskogee, Okla. Athenaeum Society, State Normal School, Hayward, Emily A. , 1437 Glenarm Street, Platteville, Wis . Denver, Colo . Bartholomew, William Henry, 426 East Gray Hutton, Andrew J. , 200 College Avenue, Street, Louisville, Ky. East Waukesha, Wis . Beloit City School Board, Beloit, Wis. Bingham, Robert, R. D. No. 5, Asheville, Klock, James E. , 309 E. Jackson Street, Or- N. C. lando, Fla. Board of Education, Abilene, Kan. Miller, J. H. , Fayetteville, Ark. Board of Education, Dodge City, Kan. Morris, Harriet N., 4040 George St. , Uni- Board of Education, Janesville, Wis. versity Heights, San Diego, Calif. Board of Education, La Crosse, Wis . Milwaukee Principals Association , Milwau- Board of Education, Independent School Dis- kee, Wis. trict No. 3 , Northfield, Minn. New York State Library, Albany, N. Y. Board of Education, Oshkosh, Wis. Nye, Charles H., 2 Harrison Street, Viola, Board of Education , Ottawa, Kan . Wis. Board of Education, Sedgwick, Kan. Parkinson, Dr. John Barber, 516 Wisconsin Board of Regents, State Normal Schools , Avenue, Madison, Wis . Madison, Wis . Philadelphian Society, State Normal School, Board of School Directors , Milwaukee, Wis. Platteville, Wis. Clark, Frank Howard, Y. M. C. A. Bldg. , Public School Teachers of Janesville, Wis. Tacoma, Wash . Richmond, Sarah E. , 603 Evesham Avenue, Clark, Lewis Herbert, Hanford, Wash . Gowans , Md. Classen, Augusta W. Hobe, R. D. Box, No. 163, Menlo Park, Calif. Roach, Thomas Watson, Salina, Kan. City Superintendents and Supervising Prin- Roop , C. Y. , 2310 Bowditch Street, Berkeley, Calif. cipals Association of Wisconsin, Merrill, Wis. Rose, George E., Rosedale, Kan. Cole, William H., Sabina, Ohio. Sawhill, Thomas A. , Concordia, Kan. County Teachers Association of Milwaukee Shawan, Jacob Albright, De Graff, Ohio. County, Milwaukee, Wis. Spero, Anna Kalfus, 1912 Virginia Street, Davidson, Charles C. , 59 West Ely Street , Berkeley, Calif. Alliance, Ohio . Stanley, Edmund, 1813 University Avenue, Eden, Philip, 202 N. Pinckney Street, Apt. Wichita, Kan. T, Madison, Wis. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madi- Emery, John Q. , R. D. No. 2, Edgerton , Wis. son, Wis. English , Rebecca F. , 35 South 5th Street, State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. San Jose, Calif. Stern, Menco , 119 East 78th Street, New Evans, Charles Henry, 3715 Olive Street, St. Louis , Mo. York City. Forbes, Alexander, Box 663, Mt. Holly, N. J. Stewart, Sarah A., Ladysmith , Wis. Gratz, Simon , 1919 Spruce Street, Philadel- Thompson , Langdon Shook , 22 Fairview phia, Pa. Avenue, Verona, N. J. [ 134] LIFE MEMBERS 135 Life Members-Past Presidents Aley, Robert J. , President, Butler College, Jordan, David Starr, President Emeritus , Indianapolis, Ind. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif. Bicknell, Thomas W. , Secretary and Regis- Joyner, James Y. , La Grange, N. С. trar, National Society of Sons and Daugh- Owen, William B., President, Chicago Nor- ters of the Pilgrims, Providence, R. I. mal College, Chicago, Ill. Bradford, Mary C. C., State Superintendent Pearse, Carroll G. , The F. E. Compton Co., ofPublic Instruction, Denver, Colo . Milwaukee, Wis . Butler, Nicholas Murray, President, Colum- Preston, Mrs. Josephine Corliss, State Su- bia University, New York City. perintendent of Public Instruction, Olym- Corson, Oscar T., Oxford, Ohio . •pia, Wash. Eliot, Charles W. , President Emeritus, Har- Skinner, Charles R., Librarian, Legislative vard University, Cambridge, Mass. Library, Albany, N. Y. Hunter, Fred M. , Superintendent of Schools , Strayer, George D., Teachers College, Col- Oakland, Calif. umbia University, New York City. Johnson, David B., President, Winthrop Nor- Swain, Joseph, Swarthmore College, Swarth- mal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, more, Pa. S. C. Williams, Charl Ormond, Legislative Secre- Jones, Olive M. , Principal, P. S. 120, New tary, National Education Association, York City. Washington, D. C. Life Enlistments Under Current Plan Abbott, Amanda, Grafton, W. Va. Crabtree, James W. , Secretary, National Edu- Armstrong, Dorothy M. , 1150 Esplanade, cation Association, Washington, D. C. Chico, Calif. Cranston, J. A. , Superintendent of Schools , Aydelotte, Frank, President, Swarthmore Col- Santa Ana, Calif. lege, Swarthmore, Pa. Cromwell, Agnes , 169 East 74th Street, New Bagley, William Chandler, Teachers College, York City. Columbia University, New York City. Davidson, William M. , Superintendent of Baker, George M., Superintendent, Fayette Schools, Pittsburgh , Pa. County Schools, Lexington, Ky. Delzell, W. N. , Executive Dean, State Nor- Becker, Charles Frederick, Clarion State mal School and Teachers College, Peru, Normal School, Clarion, Pa. Nebr. Bedel, R. B., Superintendent of Schools, Ash- Dillingham, James D. , Principal, Newtown land, Nebr. High School, Elmhurst, Long Island, N. Y. Bednar, Christine, Principal, Sherwood School, du Pont, Pierre Samuel, President, du Pont Chicago, Ill. Powder Plant, Wilmington, Del. Bingham, Robert W., President and Pub- Eddy, John M. , Principal, Puunene School, lisher, Courier Journal, The Louisville Puunene, Maui, Hawaii. Times, Louisville, Ky. Engleman, James O. , Superintendent of Board of Education of Perry Township, Schools, Terre Haute, Ind. Perryopolis, Pa. English, Harry, Secretary, Board of Exam- Bolenius, Emma M., 46 S. Queen Street, iners, Washington, D. C. Lancaster, Pa . Eutsler, George W., Principal, Meriwether Bowen, Wayne F. , Principal, Belle Vernon Lewis School, Ivy, Va . School, Belle Vernon, Calif. Finlayson , John D. , Fairmont College, Wich- Brewer, John M. , 22 Gray Gardens, Cam- ita, Kansas. bridge, 38, Mass . Gerberich, J. A. , Superintendent, Danville- Bryan, James E. , Superintendent of Schools, Buckeye Schools, Danville, Ohio. Camden, N. J. Greeson, William Albert, Superintendent of Burke, Marguerette R., Public Schools, Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich. Omaha, Nebr. Groves, C. D., County Superintendent of Canine, E. N., Superintendent of Schools, Schools , Jefferson, Ohio. East Chicago, Ind. Haas. Francis B., Bureau of Administration, Carlson, Philip E., Principal, Roosevelt High Department of Public Instruction, Harris- School, Minneapolis, Minn. burg, Pa. Carpenter, Estelle, Director of Music, San Hartt, Nellie C., Public School No. 73 , New Francisco, Calif. York City. Chapman, Ira T., Superintendent of Schools, Hewett, Elizabeth, 2201 Dodge Street, New Brunswick, N. J. Omaha, Nebr. Clark, M. G., Superintendent of Schools, Hines, Linnaeus Neal , President, Indiana Sioux City, Iowa. Clerk, Frederick E. , Superintendent , New State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Trier Township High School, Kenilworth , Hosman, Everett M. , Secretary, Nebraska 111. State Teachers Association, Lincoln, Nebr. Colburn; Jessie B., Principal, Junior High Ittner, Mrs. Marie Anderson, 5553 Bartmer School No. 96, New York City. Avenue, St. Louis , Mo. Cook, William Adelbert, Department of Edu- Iversen, Ida Christine, 215½ South Catalina cation, Vermillion, S. D. St., Los Angeles, Calif. Cort, Ambrose, Principal, Public School No. Johnson, Thomas E., State Superintendent of ま , Brooklyn, N. Y. Public Instruction, Lansiner 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kelley, James Herbert, Secretary, Pennsyl- Patterson, Mrs. Edith McClure, Home Eco- vania State Education Association , Harris- nomics Division, General Federation of burg, Pa. Women's Clubs , Dayton, Ohio. Krout, Charles A. , Superintendent of Schools, President, New York Principals Associa- Tiffin, Ohio. tion, Brooklyn, N. Y. Laramy, Robert E. , Superintendent of Rohrer, F. P., Soldan High School, St. Louis, Schools , Altoona, Pa . Mo. Larson, Merville, Castlewood School, Engle- Root, Rosamond , 509 West 121st Street, Apt. wood, Colo. 502, New York City. Leland, Abby Porter, Principal, Public School Rote, Orville W., Superintendent of Schools, No. 1 , Bronx, New York City. District No. 6, Littleton, Colo . Lindborg, Arthur E., Assistant Director of Sealey, R. M., State Inspector of High Education, St. Croix, Virgin Islands. Schools , Tallahassee, Fla. MacCracken, John Henry, President, Lafay- Seerley, Homer Horatio, President, Iowa ette College, Easton, Pa. State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls , Iowa. McCallum, Arthur Newell, Superintendent of Shove, Helen B., 3116 Clinton Avenue, Min- Schools , Austin, Tex. neapolis , Minn. McCormick, Elizabeth R. , Principal, Timothy Sims, John Francis, President, State Nor- O. Howe School, 2023 East 6th Street, mal School, Stevens Point, Wis. Superior, Wis . Smith , Henry Lester, Dean, School of Edu- McKenna, Ella, 321 Annabelle Street, Mt. cation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Washington, Pittsburgh , Pa. Ind. Magill, Hugh Stewart, International Sunday Strayer, Mrs. George D., Teachers College, School Council of Religious Education, Columbia University, New York City. Chicago, Ill. Suhrie, Ambrose L., Cleveland School of Mathes, Fannie Pendexter, II Cushing Street, Education , Cleveland, Ohio . Dover, N. Н. Swan, Natalie, 18 East 83d Street, New York Moore, M. H., Superintendent of Schools, City. Fort Worth, Tex. Thalman, John W. , Superintendent of Morgan, Joy E. , Managing Editor, Journal Schools , St. Joseph, Mo. of the National Education Association, Thalman, Joseph Luther, Principal, Proviso Washington, D. C. Township High School , Maywood, I11. Muir, James N., Superintendent of Schools, Walters , Rolland J. D. , Superintendent of Bethlehem, Pa. Murakami, Kanryo , 1881 Pine Street, San Schools, Rocky Ford, Colo . Francisco, Calif. Williston, Edith Holmes, Department of Neale, Oscar W. , Director of Rural School Modern Languages, Providence Technical High School , Providence, R. I. Department, State Normal School, Stevens Wilson, Harry Bruce, Superintendent of Point, Wis. Newlon, Jesse H. , Superintendent of Schools, Schools , Berkeley, Calif. Denver, Colo. Webber, Elmer H., Superintendent of Nichols , Walter H. , Principal, Palo Alto Schools, Mapleton, Maine. Union High School, Palo Alto, Calif. Winship, Albert E. , Editor, Journal of Edu- Norton, John K. , Director, Research Divi- cation, Boston, Mass. sion, National Education Association, Woodward, Annie Carleton , High School, Washington, D. C. Somerville, Mass. Oberholtzer, E. E. , Superintendent of Schools, York, Lewis E., Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Tex. Massillon, Ohio. GENERAL SESSIONS WASHINGTON, D. C. THE CHALLENGE TO AMERICAN EDUCATION PAYSON SMITH, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION BOSTON , MASSACHUSETTS There can be no place better than this, no time more opportune, no occa- sion more appropriate for the representatives of the school teachers of America to renew their expressions of faith in the American system of education and to rededicate themselves to the fulfilment of its high purposes. If you would seek the beginnings of the American public school you might find them there in the cabin of the Mayflower when the Pilgrim Fathers gave hand and seal to that compact which established, long before the Republic was itself created, the basis upon which that Republic was to stand. So far as we know there was no discussion at that time about the found- ing of schools. But this we know: There can be no hope of the successful issue of any experiment in democracy unless intelligence is widespread among the people. So it is not surprising that early in the colonial days this democratic society founded the public school . With the development of democracy and the increase of its problems it was inevitable that the educational program should itself develop and ex- pand. So in the beginning of the last century the public school, hitherto a local neighborhood affair with limited offerings, found itself facing the challenge of greater service to a young and growing Nation whose civic and social requirements were no longer those of a somewhat primitive civiliza- tion. The greater expectations of the people with reference to the results of education were met with a greater liberality in providing the means ofeducation and with a larger sense of responsibility. Thus came the town, county, city, and State systems of schools, expressing large conceptions of responsibility and creating more nearly just methods of support. Thus came publicly supported schools for the training of teachers-growing in a little more than three quarters of a century from the little school at Lexington with its three pupils, to the present-day enrolment of tens of thousands. Thus came a great system of secondary education, expanding from a little group of a few score in the eighteen seventies to its thousands of free public high schools with their more than two million students in [137] 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the year that has just closed. Thus came a chain of great tax-supported universities, the answer of the American States as to how far they intend to go in the education of the people. Thus came within a few years a Nation- wide, and in part nationally supported system of vocational education which not only aims to aid youth in choosing and preparing for a vocation but is also the answer to the question as to whether the American people can and will find a way of joining successfully State and Federal forces in meeting a National need. The fundamental challenge to American education through all these years and amid all these changes has been the same. It will not be different in future years. The American public school, now as always, is under express responsibility to deliver to the Republic, citizens who understand and are prepared to meet the obligations that citizenship in a Republic implies- not some of the obligations but all of them. As American teachers serving the American people in schools supported by their taxes, in schools to which they send in confidence their children we cannot and we must not forget that the public schools in which we teach have been established and are being maintained for the paramount purpose of providing for this Nation a citizenship-civic, individual, and social-that shall be sound in thought and right in action. Whatever may be the somewhat remote and incidental obligation to help American youth to understand its international obliga- tions, we as American teachers-as servants of the Republic-do well to keep always in mind that our schools must be National in character and National in purpose. We have within our borders one service of supreme importance and that is to teach American youth the history, the cost, and the meaning of America and her institutions to inculcate loyalty to them and to develop and foster the high resolve of serving them both in time of war and in time of peace. It is not enough, however, to deal in generalities. While the underlying objective of American education does not change, it must, with the changing and expanding needs of society, encounter new challenges and find new ways of meeting them. A foremost challenge of this day in education is that of producing citi- zens who respect knowledge, are eager in its pursuit and are skillful in its use. It is the business of the educational institutions to see to it that all the truth that has been garnered by men in past generations is conserved for the use of this generation and passed on for the service of succeeding ones. But that is not enough. Not only must education conserve knowl- edge, it must constantly seek new truth. It is not best that a democratic society should seek to standardize or to make uniform the thinking of its citizens. America today does not need the contented mind so much as she needs the curious, the inquiring, and the pioneering mind. But even here we must not stop. A supreme challenge to American education today is that it shall produce citizens who know how to use and to apply fact and truth, and fundamental principle. Groups and parties and communities are torn and divided because there is a turning away from the scientific method of facing and settling questions and a turning toward THE CHALLENGE TO AMERICAN EDUCATION 139 a far less satisfactory method. We attempt to apply tradition-we are moved to words and to hasty action by our emotions-we seek the weapons of personal and class prejudice-we turn most of all to personal, sectional , and other selfish interests, and we get as results not thoughtful, conclusive, constructive action, but high emotional tension, hurt and sore feelings, and wicked seeking for personal, sectional, or class advantages. I am not de- bating nor proposing to debate any issue that confronts the people. I am saying that if you and I do our full duty the schools will produce with each passing generation a larger number of citizens who will face their personal, civic, and social problems in the scientific spirit and try to solve them on the scientific basis. Therein is an educational challenge of the first magnitude. It is likewise a challenge to American education to produce an American citizenship that will have a passion for justice that will tolerate nothing less than equality before the law and that will give no place to unworthy discriminating distinctions as among citizens. Whether the public school or the American Nation will succced as a melting pot may well be questioned. Whether they will succeed in help- ing people of diverse characteristics to dwell together in unity is another question, which must be answered in the affirmative if the Republic itself is to endure. Mark you there is a difference between uniformity and unity. The first is not desirable; the second is imperative. There are unfortunately some of our adult fellow citizens in a minority we must believe-who seem to think that they can serve their country by trying to array class against class, section against section, and racial group against racial group. These citizens are wrong. They are denying to themselves the highest privilege of American citizenship, that of standing each day as one believes he should stand on the issues of that day alone. You are a free American citizen at his best when you reserve to yourself the privilege of standing with me when you believe I am right and parting with me when you believe I am wrong. The attempt to align groups of citizens by section, by class, by creed, by race, is wrong in principle and utterly destructive of the highest good of the whole. The bloc principle may be effective in a narrow and selfish way for a limited time. In the long run it will prove a menace to the stability of our institutions, and to the highest development of the best ideals of citizenship. Fellow teachers, this is true. There are many American institutions that stand for equality of opportunity and for the avoidance of unfair discrimina- tions among men. But among them all none is or can be so powerful as the public school. A challenge therefore to it and to us is to produce an American citizenship richer in the quality of coöperation, quicker and more steadfast to resist appeals that would set man against man, readier-while it insists on the right of each to his own opinion-to grant freely the right of the other man to his. I repeat, democracy does not imply uniformity of thought or of action. It does imply a unity of attitude on certain funda- mental things. Among these fundamental things none is more important 140 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION than that each citizen has the fundamental right to make in his own way his own contribution to the life and culture of the Nation so long as he does not make that contribution to the detriment of his fellows . Modern education must help the modern man to live in a modern world. That world is vast and intricate and complex. It is also vivid and moving and full of spirited challenge to those of us who are privileged to live in this age. It is not a time for the pessimist nor for the prophets of despair. The world is not a wreck and civilization is not a ruin. It is a time, how- ever, when nothing less than the most thoughtful attitude must be taken towards the youth who are to live and work and serve in the decades just ahead. It is not a simple primitive existence which they face. There is almost no simplicity about it. Political machinery is highly organized, intricately complex and con- fusing. Industrial life is so complicated, the barriers around it so difficult to scale that millions of American boys and young men stand confused before the choices they must make, with little help in the choosing. The boy of today finds his hardest task that of finding his life work and the way into it. In such a time education cannot be simple. It must be rich in content, teeming with varied opportunity, and extended in the length of its service. Helping the modern man to live in a modern world-the right adjustment of the individual to his time is a service which perhaps comprises all the rest. The intention of the American people in the matter is clear. It is shown in their generous appropriations of money for the support of schools. It is shown by the great number of young men and women who in teacher training institutions are preparing for more effective service of childhood. It is shown in the vast army of more than twenty million young Ameri- cans, who forgetting-if we but let them differences of creed and party and race, are joined in a common enterprise for themselves and for the Nation. It is shown in the question recently sent to the States from this very building in whose shadows we meet, as to whether by Constitutional amendment every child who lives between the oceans shall be guaranteed the . years of his youth for growth of body and mind and soul. The Nation looks forward only as it looks with the Nation's children . The challenge to you and to me and to the schools we represent is that we have a vision that sees afar, that we cultivate a strength equal to the task set for our hands to do, and that we have always that devotion to our Nation that brings her our service without stint and without limit. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION MATHILDE C. GECKS , HARRIS TEACHERS COLLEGE , ST . LOUIS , MISSOURI The question of moral and religious education is one of vital concern and one of ever-increasing concern because of the complexity of modern life. The coming generation must be equipped with an adequate philosophy of MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 141 life that will enable the individual to meet with stability and poise the problems that arise in the world today. The complexity of our civilization demands that attention be directed to the practical side of education. Not only must illiteracy be elimi- nated but provision must be made for training in mechanical skill, and for the acquisition of the requisite knowledge of science in order that the individual may be speedily equipped not merely to provide for his own needs, but also to contribute to the support and progress of the community. This practical side of education is receiving due attention and is well under way. Much attention is being given, and should be given, to the physical welfare of the individual. We are realizing more and more the physical strain to which we are subjected, and the need of conserving physical strength and nervous energy. In this phase of our work we have outlined definite objectives to be attained, and we have made a fair beginning toward these desirable goals . The fact that this year's program of the National Education Association opens with a discussion of moral and religious education indicates the im- portance attached to this phase of education and gives evidence of the concern that is felt in regard to the moral development of the individual. Those of us who are concerned with the education of the youth of today, realize that the multiplicity of interests in our modern life demands that the individual have at his command a definite code of conduct to which he can resort in the perplexing situations that arise, a code of conduct by which he can regulate his actions under all conditions. The subject of moral training has been discussed, in the past few years , on programs of city, county, State, and National education organizations. Courses are being offered in universities, colleges, and teacher-training institutions, and definite outlines for moral training have been published. We, as teachers, have been made aware of our responsibility in this matter, and we are earnestly attempting to meet our share of the responsibility. And yet, books, magazines, and newspaper articles of recent date are calling attention to the sad lack of morals in the young people of today. We need to take stock of what is being done, of how this is being done, and of what yet remains to be accomplished. The effectiveness of our work in this direction is being challenged, and although we need not assume the full responsibility, we must face the charge to a certain extent. Are we failing in our part of this work? If so, wherein are we failing, and how can we remedy matters ? We believe that we are giving due attention to the moral training of the children in our charge. We are not leaving this matter to chance, nor are we working in a haphazard way. We have in mind clearly defined aims, and we are trying to develop definite concepts of right and wrong, definite high ideals of action. We are intent upon furthering the develop- ment of right habits of thought and action. We have adopted a definite 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION course that should bring about a desirable result, and we believe that we are meeting our obligations as far as conditions will permit. And yet, we are often appalled at the low standards, the poor judgment of values that are displayed by individuals who have been exposed to our methods for a number of years. What is the root of the trouble? It is claimed that we are failing in our attempts to establish an adequate code of morals, because we are not taking into account the need of re- ligious education. We are told that moral and religious education must be considered as inclusive terms and that we can not attain the one without the other. Morality cannot be divorced from religion. I quote from Parker's Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning . "Historically, there has always been a close connection between moral training and religious training. We are familiar with indi- viduals in whom religious moral training has been an influence to better behavior. We shall always expect to find improvement in morals result- ing from a strong religious interest in a fine moral code." Other authorities agree with this. Morality cannot be divorced from religion, for these reasons : Morality is based on personal responsibility ; to be morally right, one must hold one's self responsible for one's actions ; one must foresee the meaning, the consequence of one's actions; there must be personal responsibilty, but there can be no personal responsibility without ultimate sanction; and there can be no sanction without a sanctioner. Who shall this sanctioner be, the one who sanctions our acts-the parent, the teacher, one's associates, the public in general ? Human nature is frail. The only acceptable sanction in our moral code of conduct is that of a Supreme Being, of a Divine Being. The only acceptable standard of thought and action that will hold good at all times is obedience to the laws of this Supreme Being, this Divine Being, obedience to the law of God. Religion has been defined as the reverent acknowledgment in heart and action of a Divine Being. This reverent acknowledgment of a Divine Being implies a willingness to conform to the Supreme Law. Herein we have a stronghold, an incentive to right action that no law, which does not include the recognition of a Supreme Divine Being can provide. Religion, then, is essential to moral education. In our public schools, no provision has been made for definite religious instruction, because of the fear of inviting criticism, and arousing suspicion and discussion from a sectarian point of view. Members of different church denominations who wish to provide for their children more than a short, once a week, tacked on, period of instruction in the teachings of their faith, have established their own schools at private expense. In doing this, they have incurred criticism and incited prejudice. They have been ac- cused of opposing the interests of public education. The Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist, Episcopal, Christian Science, and other churches have resorted to this measure in spite of opposition by the proponents of the public school system. The public school has left the responsibility for MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 143 religious education with the home and the church. Except in only a few instances, no provision has been made in the public school program for definite instruction in religion. By shifting the responsibility and ignoring the need of this definite instruction in religion, the public school has placed itself in the position of being regarded as a godless institution, and has seemingly sanctioned the neglect of religious education. If religious instruction is essential to the moral development of the individual and we claim that it is should the public school provide time and place on its program for this work? As soon as we mention such provision, opposition arises. We let ourselves be intimidated by fears and adverse predictions. We listen to those who, knowingly or otherwise, make misstatements, or who distort the truth by partial statements, and thus arouse prejudice and intolerance of the views of others. We have not the courage to face the questions, "Has the public school a right to provide time and place for definite instruction in religion ?" and " Can a practical program for such purposes be outlined ?" In a number of our cities fairly successful attempts are being made to provide for religious training. Children are permitted to use school time to go to the church centers designated by their parents for the needed instruction in their faith. In Germany, the plan is somewhat different. In that country, pupils are grouped according to grades and church denomina- tions, and instructors from different churches come into the schools . These instructors are appointed by the State upon evidence of their qualifications to teach. Reports show that the results obtained are satisfactory from all points ofview. Due consideration should be given in all public-school systems to the working out of a practical program that will permit members of different religious sects to procure for their children the desired religious instruction . But no further responsibility than the granting of time and place for this instruction must rest with the public school. No classroom teacher in the public school should attempt the work, for, just as with school nursing and school visiting, complications arise that a classroom teacher cannot cope with, and should not become involved in. The classroom teacher should never resort to dogmatic teaching or dogmatic practice of religion . She must never attempt direct religious instruction. Her part of the work should be the indirect application of such teachings and the force of example. Aprogram that will provide opportunity for religious instruction in the public school, according to the wishes of the parent of the child, is not impossible and can be worked out. Such a program will make not merely for the spiritual development of the individual, but will tend toward a better understanding of the motives, and a more liberal tolerance of the beliefs of others. Our united efforts in this worthy cause will clear the at- mosphere of much propaganda against certain churches, and especially against the church. As a people we have not, as yet, learned to work to 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION gether harmoniously for the common good. Our individual immediate interests will be lost sight of, in the ultimate big purpose of providing in the best possible way for the spiritual welfare of the children. With regard to religious and moral training, the various points which call for our earnest consideration, may be summarized as follows : (1) . The moral development of the individual must receive our first consideration at all times; (2) : Religious education is essential to moral education ; (3) . It is within the province of the public schools to provide time and place for instruction in religion. (4) . Beyond provision for time and place for this instruction, the public school must assume no further responsibility ; and (5) . The decision of the character of the instruction in religion must be left to the parent of the child. SPIRITUAL VALUES IN AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR DEMOCRACY LEON W. GOLDRICH , EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE HEBREW SHELTERING GUARDIAN SOCIETY AT PLEASANTVILLE , NEW YORK The most dangerous enemies within our gates are those who are con- stantly using their battering-rams against the very foundations of our Re- public-the American public school. The first and last line of defense of American democracy against our foes without and our foes within will always be the public school, guarded and protected by that grand army of self-sacrificing, devoted, and spiritually minded body of teachers who are constantly instilling knowledge, wisdom, and ideals into the minds of the children of our land. Forts and battleships may be increased in num- ber without end; commerce, industry, and finance may be continually extended and made more and more powerful, but these will be useless means of either protecting us or of saving us from disintegration; they certainly will never be the means whereby we may assume our God- given mission of leadership among the nations of the world. All of these material means of protection and defense will avail naught if the intel- lectual, emotional, and spiritual core of our democracy is not fully, beau- tifully, and spiritually developed. The socialized and spiritualized public schools, where all may be taught the genuine meaning of coöperation; where all may learn the full mean- ing of our American institutions ; where all may be given the greatest opportunities for the best development of their individual capacities ; where all may become truly socialized; where all may be inspired with our American ideals; where all may learn the true spirit of tolerance; where all may learn the true meaning of human service; where all may be im- pressed with the vital necessity of spiritual brotherhood; where all may SPIRITUAL VALUES IN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR DEMOCRACY 145 be made to feel our divine relationship, and where all may be inspired with the deepest reverence for God, are the safest and surest means towards the progressive development of a democratic people, and are the best guarantees of the salvation of our individual and national souls. The public schools of America have been severely attacked by selfish and vested interests at different times and from various angles. First, our courses of study were too limited in scope; later, we were told that our courses of study had become too burdensome through the introduction of so-called fads. The public schools were criticized at one time for being very poorly organized; now they are criticized because they are too highly organized. Our public schools taught too many subjects for their mere mental disciplinary values ; now our public schools are criticized because they do not teach sufficiently the classics and other cultural subjects. Our schools were attacked because they failed to socialize the child ; now they are socializing too much, and we are now told in very emphatic terms that we must individualize each child. Our schools did not provide a sufficient variety of basic courses for the free and independent choice of students ; now we are told that it is imperative that the freedom of choice of subjects by students must be limited. Our methods of teaching were attacked be- cause they were not sufficiently scientific; now we are attacked for applying too many scientific principles and cold measuring scales in testing the results of our accomplishments. At one time we were bitterly criticized for making too many demands upon the child; now we are attacked just as bitterly for not making a sufficient number of positive demands on the child. Thediscipline in our schools was considered too rigid at one time; now we are criticized because our children are too free. At one time our schools were not considered practical enough to meet the needs of the modern business and industrial world; now we are told that our schools are too technical and vocational in their nature, and that we have lost the deeper meaning of broad cultural values for our children. Our schools are Criticized because they do not teach the child how to adapt himself wisely and efficiently to his complex and progressive social environment ; our schools do not prepare for intelligent citizenship ; our schools do not suffi- ciently stress moral values and, finally, our public schools are attacked bit- terly because they are said to be godless. Destructive criticisms of all kinds have been hurled at the public schools, and as a result of unenlightened public clamor, educators have gone from one extreme course to another in an attempt to satisfy the loud cry of one group of interests and then of another group, until the teachers of the Nation are today very much at sea, not knowing whither the leading edu- cators of the Nation are tending. There is, however, a true star which should guide educators aright. Why not follow it through calm and through storm ? Why pay atten- tion to these unfriendly winds and raging waves of selfish interests ? Why should educators permit themselves to be drawn out of their true course ? 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The guiding star shines brightly for all of us, and the course is clear. The star is that of the spiritual expansion of each individual human soul ; and the course is that moral path of righteousness which leads each indi- vidual to serve his fellowmen unselfishly, regardless of class, race, creed, or nationality. America has a great opportunity, through its public schools, to lead the nations of the world and to steer for that peaceful and glorious haven of the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God. Concretely, what are the spiritual opportunities of the American public school? First and foremost among the spiritual agencies of the public school is the public school teacher. Not only must the teacher be trained to know thoroughly the subject matter which he is to teach, but he must know the best modern scientific methods of teaching these subjects ; he must have a deep insight into child psychology, and he must have the patience, sym- pathy, and skill to draw out the best qualities of each individual child. He must, above all, feel the noble mission of his professional calling, to enable him to mould the plastic characters of his children and to inspire them through his constant appeals to all that is good and true and beautiful in life. Supervisors, directors of special subjects, principals, and .superintendents of schools can do a great deal towards emphasizing the human aims, human aspects, and cultural and spiritual values in our courses of study. If super- visors demand that teachers produce definite mechanical results that can be measured and weighed accurately at the end of each school term, then, of course, teachers will strive to give those in authority the mechanical results they seek. If, on the other hand, the supervisors do not assume the un- democratic rôle of arbitrary authority, but seek rather to coöperate with teachers and to guide and encourage them to the end that good strong indi- vidual characters in children may be formed, that a beautiful tone and atmosphere of love and coöperation in the schoolroom between teachers and pupils may be established, that the spirit of mutual service may be developed, that the child may form permanent valuable habits of right living, right thinking, and right doing which will make him a permanent spiritual asset in our American democracy, then will the supervisors of our public schools render their greatest service to America. The curriculum of our public schools offers numerous splendid spiritual opportunities for the expansion of each individual human soul. History must be taught in such a way that the student may feel the warm pulse of the nation, and also the heart throbs of the people which inspired them to make their supreme efforts and sacrifices for righteous causes. History must be so taught that the great mistakes of the past may be avoided, and that human progress crystallized into the modern institutions which our citizens now enjoy may be respected and closely guarded. Students of history must learn the moral lesson that might never makes for lasting right; that cooperation among the peoples of the world is more SPIRITUAL VALUES IN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR DEMOCRACY 147 beneficial to the human race than bitter competition; that neither force, or outrages, or any form of warfare begets understanding or mutual respect or faith; that wars of aggression which arouse the bitter animosity of a conquered people become the causes of more destructive wars, and that the divine mission of civilized nations is to work together in harmonious rela- tionship towards that beautiful goal of peace on earth and good will towards all men. History properly taught should teach the child much more than dates, events, names of great men and women, inventions, dis- coveries, etc. History must stress those spiritual values which will make our boys and girls better men and better women, ready and willing to be enrolled and to serve in any righteous cause for the leadership of America in the betterment of humanity. Geography in all of its various aspects-physical, political, mathematical, | commercial, industrial, animal, and human-must be so taught as to show clearly to children the interdependence of the nations of the world in their interchange of the necessities of life. No human beings, on any portion of the earth can be disregarded; and we are all members of the same great human family, and if our neighbors are not safe and secure and happy then we cannot be safe, secure, or happy. Telephones and telegraphs, trans- continental railways, leviathans of the sea, merchant marines, wireless telegraphy, radios, airships, international commerce of all kinds have all served to shrink the world into a small space so that peoples of other lands who are physically thousands of miles away from us are today, for all practical human purposes, neighbors close to our own doors. Geographic- ally, for all human intercourse, space on earth has practically been an- nihilated. There are few spots on this earth that have not been visited and explored, and the time is coming soon when all men and women will become morally convinced that the interests of one nation are very much the same as the interests of other nations. The policy of isolation and self- sufficiency of America must give way to that larger spiritual policy of the leadership of America among the nations of the world through America's whole-hearted coöperation with all other nations of the world. Geography in its physical aspects must be so taught that the individual student may teel the awe-inspiring character of those manifold wonders of God's crea- tions in the world. Who has ever beheld immense cañons, gigantic water- talls, towering snow-covered mountain peaks, or mammoth caves without teeling the majestic power and presence of the divine spirit ? Geography, properly taught, should give the child not only a mass of facts about places and peoples of all lands, but it must stress those spiritual values which willteach our children our humble place in the world, the close relationship of the entire human family on earth, and the supreme majesty of God's works. Nature study should be so taught that the child will learn to love nature . The scientific attitude towards nature should always be supplemented with a feeling of love and reverence for the beauties and harmonies of all living 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION creatures on earth. Children should be taught to appreciate the coloring. the exquisite forms and setting and other beauties of natural scenery-the trees, the woods, the rivers, the mountains, the dawn, the sunset. Children should be taught to appreciate the God-given instincts and habits and ac- complishments of animals, the mysteries and values of plant life and ot mineral formations, and the infinite wonders of the harmonious and mathematical regularity of the heavenly bodies, so that, as the child studies nature, he may feel the expansion of his own soul as it comes into closer contact and more intimate and sympathetic relationship with life all about him. Nature study should give the child not only knowledge about nature, but spiritual values which will enable him to love the beautiful and to seek communion with the divine spirit which permeates all nature. The sciences must be so taught that the student will acquire the habit of honest inquiry; that he will be stimulated to search for more and more light on facts or mysteries presented; that he will analyze critically all premises, methods, and conclusions; that he will not maintain blind and obstinate attachment to any idea, nor follow blindly any path of action ; that he will develop a passion for truth and right. Science, properly taught, will not leave the student cold, calculating, and materialistic, but will rather teach him those spiritual values of humility, of tolerance, of freedom from bigotry, and respect for the ideas of others. Right is never wholly on one side, and the quest for truth is endless. The student of science must ultimately appreciate that the laws of order, regularity, and continuity in the universe which the sciences reveal to him, are positive and cumulative evidences which strengthen our faith in an orderly, intel- ligent, and all-wise Creator. Music, painting, sculpture, and all the other fine arts should be so taught that the imagination and the emotions of children will be stirred by the creative spirit and achievement of the composer, the artist, or the sculptor. The child should feel that fine elevating and purifying sense which ennobles emotions and gives the real joy of true spiritual living. The fine arts, if properly taught, can make a very strong and lasting spiritual appeal to children, and it is the duty of teachers to bring out the fullest and the finest spiritual values that these subjects afford. Literature must be so taught as to make a strong spiritual appeal to the individual child, or else literature loses its greatest value. Great writers of prose or poetry use words to paint lasting pictures or to sing eternal songs which will give not only joy to those who can read appreciatively, but which will give spiritual ideals and values to those who can feel sym- pathetically. The great immortal heroes and heroines in the literature of all ages and of all nations live today, and stand out in bold relief as inspir- ing characters of a nobler manhood and womanhood, which our children should love to emulate. Learning to read and reading to learn must be supplemented in our public schools by reading for appreciation, reading for refinement, reading for nobility of thought and action, and reading to SPIRITUAL VALUES IN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR DEMOCRACY 149 acquire those spiritual values and ideals which the greatest creative and gifted minds of the human race have expressed in immortal language. In other words, nearly all the subjects in the curriculum of our public schools afford splendid opportunities for developing the character of the individual child, for expanding the human soul, and for creating those lasting spiritual values that will be of incalculable benefit to all of our citizens, and, therefore, to our American democracy. The public schools of America should never attempt to teach religion with emphasis on difference of creed and ritual, but the public schools of America must teach the fundamentals of a socialized religion which em- bodies the essential spiritual elements of all of our great faiths, and which will give to each child definite moral standards of conduct and lasting spiritual values. The public school must teach each child to distinguish clearly between good and evil; between the true and the false; between the ugly and the beautiful; between evanescent superficial appearances of things, and permanent, fundamental spiritual realities; between artificial standards of living and of a noble life of true worth; between blind obe- dience and cheerful and willing service to righteous causes, so that the individual may learn to live a beautiful life filled with noble thoughts, with purified emotions, and with a rationalized and spiritualized will, motivated by the highest ideals of service to man and to God. These spiritual values are, after all, the fundamental essence of all great re- ligions, and if the public schools can create and develop these spiritual values in the hearts and souls of the children of our Nation, then we shall agree that the public schools of America are built on the strongest and safest foundations, and are the greatest socializing factors for the per- petuation of an efficient and spiritualized democracy standing ready at all times to serve whole-heartedly and unselfishly all of mankind. Religious denominational teaching with its emphasis upon differences of creeds, forms, and rituals, must be left to the homes and to the various denominational churches, so that the moral standards and spiritual values established in our public schools may be supplemented as the parents of the children deem best . If the public schools of America will keep absolutely true to their sublime mission, and continue to inspire and to create essential spiritual values which will expand and enrich individual souls, and inspire each to give the best of himself in service to his fellowmen and to God, then the public schools can easily afford to ignore the attacks of selfish and vested interests, and steer steadily along that clear course marked by the aspirations and hopes of the entire human family. "Whatever is best in our American democracy today is mostly the result of good teaching, whatever is disappointing will be bettered and at length corrected by the American public schools." 150 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OUR CHILDREN'S NEGLECTED INHERITANCE MARGARET KNOX, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL 15, BOROUGH OF MANHATTAN, NEW YORK CITY This evening, in our National Capital, I come before you, the most rep- resentative body of teachers in the world, with an earnest prayer that the words of the speakers on this most important subject, " Moral and Religious Education for the Children of America," may fall into good soil, and that our message may bear fruit one hundredfold, and then may be multiplied again and again, until the whole world is touched and quickened to new life and to new endeavor to bring God and his worship as a reality into the lives of our children. I come before you, first as a teacher of little children, and then as a teacher of teachers, in my supervisory position of principal of a big public school in New York City, having learned long ago that, in the classroom and in the office, the thing that makes for successful teaching is that spiritual touch that reaches the soul, the individual soul of the child. Whatever degree of success I may have had, in my many years of teach- ing, has been always because of my being able to get very near to the hearts of those children and teachers whom it was my duty to command. And so as I come before you tonight, I want to confess to you that I have always been jealous because there was so much that I wanted to say to my class about the great realities of life, God, and worship, and prayer, and their own souls, and I was shut out from touching these deeper things for fear of arousing suspicion that my motive was that of proselytizing because of differences of creed. And now there has come a great uprising. Something has happened! Every city, every State, and the whole Nation seem to be aroused and alert and eagerly asking the same question, "What is wrong with our schools? What is wrong with our systems of education ? What is wrong with America ?" When I knew that I was to speak here tonight upon this subject, I sent out for literature here, there, and everywhere, and always there came back volumes and pamphlets and circulars showing that we all are seeking after this religious training for our children; that we want it for the children of America now, and that we want help in finding the way to get it. How shall we add to the education of every child in America today the religious training that is his inheritance, and which for too long a time he has been denied ? May I quickly sketch for you the educational progress of the last cen- tury ? Even though most of you in my audience are teachers, perhaps you may not have thought along this line. As teachers, you are all spending your time with devotion and painstak- ing care in daily preparation of model lessons in geography, history, arith- metic, nature study, and domestic science, and with physical training and OUR CHILDREN'S NEGLECTED INHERITANCE 151 commercial training that will fit our boys and girls to earn their own living. All of this correlated wealth of instruction, we have believed, has brought American education up to the very highest standard of efficiency; up to the modern ideal of what education should be : the fitting of the child to meet the demands of an onward, upward progressing civilization, fitting him to live his own life as an individual in good fellowship with his neighbors. And what is lacking ? Has the education that neglects those subjects that make for the spiritual development of our children, a well rounded platform? I hear the answer from every school teacher: "But we have a course of study in morals and ethics, in good manners and right conduct. We have a code of morals and ethics to teach." Perhaps you have, but I should like to ask how definitely and well is it being taught? In my experience and knowledge, my answer would have to be, "Not very well. " These short courses in ethics or civics which are written to direct our teachers in methods of character building are "more honored in the breach than in the observance," for there are very few teachers who know how to teach ethics; consequently that character building subject, the one that is meant to develop and strengthen the child's spiritual life, is a neglected subject. Teachers may or may not touch upon these lessons, as there is no time assigned, and there are no tests given in them at the end of the term. If the character building lesson is given at all, it is done in such a per- functory or desultory way that it is valueless. Now come questions of prime importance: What do we mean by religious education for our children ? Is this religious education necessary for the full development of a child ? If it is necessary, how can we get it for the children ? These are the questions that have come to us as American teachers with thundering intensity in these latter days when all the world seems at odds with God and His righteousness ; when great wars can be precipitated by so called religious God-fearing nations ; when great legislatures and gov- ernments can be looked at askance for an explanation of trickery and dis- honesty that blot out all high ideals of a straight-thinking and loyal states- manship; where youth of our great colleges are counted "morally insane" because of a crime unspeakably inhuman and cruel; when the older ones close their ears and shut their eyes and cry out, "Oh, woe is me!" as they look upon the loose living of our boys and girls, in their escapades in col- leges and high schools, drinking, smoking, petting parties, with the boastful laugh, as they tell how they break the law of the land, and elude the officers of the law. There are very few of us today who can truthfully say, " I have never seen or heard any of these things in real life that make the headlines of our newspapers so glaringly awful, and therefore I cannot believe that 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION they are true." Even teachers, in their rather secluded lives, must know and believe that great unrighteousness exists. Statesmen, judges, jurists, and others in high places have been appalled by the on-rush of crime, so that even these men of calm unemotional exterior have been forced into the open with a call upon the Nation to pro- vide some panecea for the ills that they look upon daily. Justice Joseph C. Cropsey, after his trial recently of four New York boys who had committed a cruel murder, and after he had sentenced them to death, rushed on into an indictment of the men and women of the city who had not provided religious training for the youth of the city. He invited them all to join with him in a crusade to teach boys the worthwhile things of life. He said, "A dozen years on the bench have shown me that our boys can be saved only by religion." Thomas C. T. Crain, one of New York's most beloved judges, has come out as an advocate of the children to see that they get their rightful inheritance. He describes, in his pamphlet, "Some Pleas for Adequate Religious In- struction for the Young," what is meant by religious education, in a para- graph that I shall quote here. He says : "Educators of all shades of religious belief lament the hampering re- strictions which permit the child to be taught geography, but not about the God who made the earth ; botany, but not about the God who clothed the flowers ; physiology, but not about the God who built the man; astronomy , but not about the God who guides the stars; history, but not about the Divine Providence in human affairs; human laws, but not the divine com- mands for human conduct." And this is what we mean by religious education. The sort of educa- tion that gives more than incidental knowledge about God. We want our children to learn to know God and to love Him. We want them to know the existence of God, His creation of the universe, His power, His justice, His love, His mercy, His commandments, the immortality of the soul ; the future state and the relation which conduct and faith bear to it; the obli- gation to pray, the efficacy of prayer, and the sources of spiritual enlighten- ment. We want our children to grow into American manhood and woman- hood bearing their religious beliefs in the open-not hidden under a mask or behind a sheet each one proud to say, " I believe in God, and I wor- ship Him in spirit and in truth, as a Jew, or a Catholic, or a Protestant, according to my understanding of his message to the world." We want the children to know the greatest thing in the world, and what it is to walk with God. Is religious training necessary for children today ? These judges that have spoken to you seem to feel that most of the lives of the criminals that come before them are failures because of lack of religious training. I can give you a homely illustration of the ethical code that thousands of little children are brought up on today, in our great cities, where the OUR CHILDREN'S NEGLECTED INHERITANCE 153 foreigner has come to this land of America, where freedom is so alluring that he has shaken off even the religion of his fathers, and has become one without religion. Two small girls, six years old, of foreign parentage, were overheard inthe following dialogue, after school the other day: Mary: My father has a new car. Yetta: My papa needs a new car. His old one is very, very old, so he ! with the insurance money. is going to leave it outside and get it stolen, and then he'll buy a new one Mary: Tell your papa if he wants his car to be stolen, he'd better paint itup; for no one would steal an old, dirty car. Parents come in to school in answer to the call of the teacher because their child has been caught cheating. And the consternation is not caused by the sin of the child but by the fact that she is to lose her place in the class, or have a bad mark on her report card, or that she has been discovered while her little classmate, who acknowledges the same sinful act, has not been found out. All of these things point to a low moral standing in the home-the home that used to be the place for moral and religious training. And so our children have fallen upon evil days, when neither the home nor the school has made provision for training in ways of righteousness , and when the churches and church schools are empty. Are you acquainted with the figures that tell of this woeful neglect ? In the United States there are 52,097,149 youth under 21 years old ; 25,189,519 people of all ages in religious schools ; 27,000,000 youth under 21 without religious instruction. In New York City there are 1,200,000 pupils in elementary schools, public and private; 454,000 pupils in church schools of some kind, day or Sunday school, Jew, Catholic, and Protestant ; 746,000 pupils in New York receive no religious instruction. Crime is increasing among children. One in 14 boys, aged 12 to 20, is arrested and brought to court. Eighty-five per cent of our criminals are between 17 and 25 years old. The average age of the criminal has dropped from 25 years to 20 years. Ninety per cent of the children brought to one court report that they never attended Sunday school. With these startling figures before you, are you ready to take up with me the third question, "How are we going to get the sort of training that our children need to make them upright men and women, and that our country needs to keep it in the straight and narrow way, so that it may stand unashamed before the world ?" How are our children to learn about God and the Bible, if 55 per cent of the homes of America are unchurched homes, where religion is never spoken of, God's name never uttered except flippantly or in taking His name in vain, and where the children are not sent to Sunday School ? What will the future citizens of America be without such knowledge ? How can the affairs of the Nation be entrusted to those who are not God 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fearing and upright? And how is our Nation to remain a great power among the nations of the world, unless we train up the children of today to ideals of justice and righteousness and religion ? In answering this last most important question, I want to sketch rapidly for you the movement for religious education in the city of New York. It is now nearly four years since an interdenominational committee made up of representatives of Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant faiths came before the Board of Education with the request that the schools of the city be closed for one hour on one afternoon each week in order that children and teachers might be free to repair to their own places of worship, church or synagogue, or parish house, for religious instruction. Their desire was to arouse the city to the great need for more religious education for all its children, and to arouse churches and Sabbath schools to activity in opening wide their doors for the gathering in of all un- churched children, and to arouse parents to a realization of their duty toward their own children in giving them religious education at home and in connection with the churches . The outstanding provision of the request was that the Board of Educa- tion, representing men and women of all creeds, should publicly call attention to the great need for religious training, and should be willing to provide the time for it, but that such instruction should not be given within the school buildings. For three evenings, this simple request was thrashed out before an audience tense with emotional bitterness. We all got a shock when those opposed to the resolution were allowed to speak. Most of those who opposed it were fearful that the separation of church and state would be interfered with. They talked loudly of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of thought; also what a crime it would be to have any religion taught in the public schools. They spoke of our country's foundation being built upon the freedom found at Plymouth Rock. As I listened, I could not help but think of how confused and garbled one's thoughts become as history is unfolded, and how we lose sight of the original purpose in many great events. What was the real meaning of the freedom that was founded in the Plymouth colony? Why did that little band brave the storms of a wintry ocean and of an unknown land? "What sought they thus afar? Bright jewels of the mines, The wealth of seas, the spoils of war ? They sought a faith's pure shrine. "Ay, call it holy ground, The ground where first they trod. They left unstained what here they found, Freedom to worship God." OUR CHILDREN'S NEGLECTED INHERITANCE 155 That was the great purpose of their adventure. They wanted freedom. Freedom to worship God. Theirs was a great religious movement, and upon such a foundation was this great Nation of ours built. That little band of Pilgrims came in search of freedom, but it was freedom with God and His worship enthroned in its heart. How far to the other extreme the pendulum has swung in these three hundred years! Then, little else but religious training in the schools ; now, no religious training in our schools. This offer on the part of the Board of Education of a great city to con- sider the setting aside of one hour a week for the purpose of religious education is a matter of nation-wide importance. It is a matter that every parent, every teacher, every church, every citizen should take into careful and prayerful consideration. I am sorry that we did not have the opportunity to experiment with that hour. I can see our Catholic friends gathering in hundreds of chil- dren into these afternoon classes, in addition to the 100,000 already receiv- ing religious instruction in the parochial schools. I can see the devoted Jewish teachers hastening, in even larger numbers, to open more and more centers for the instruction of Jewish children in Hebrew and in the Jewish doctrines, in preparation for their Barmitzvah or confirma- tion. And I can see a real awakening, and a shaking off of the lethargy and inertia of our Protestant people as they see the children hurrying past closed church doors and entering by-ways of the Roman Catholic and Jewish gateways . I feel that if we had got that hour, all religious faiths would have thrown open their own churches and Sunday schools, and would have joined the crusade to bring our great army of children under religious training. And this is my plea to you tonight. The children of America are cry- ing out for bread, for the bread of life. All creeds are hungry-Jew, Catholic, and Protestant alike. Thirty-eight hours a year, if in Sunday school, is starvation rations for the greatest army in the world. We, the National Education Association of America, should arise in our might and send abroad the message : " Our children are in great need, and we stand ready to bring relief. They must have religious training." There should be nation-wide recognition of this need, and then state and church, and home and school should work together to fill the need. The State should set aside the time for religious instruction by readjust- ing and rearranging time schedules of its secular schools in such a way that an opportunity for religious training will be found in every school system throughout the land. Close all schools throughout our country for one afternoon each week, and with a fearless trumpet call let the people know for what purpose this time has been given to them. If necessary to pay back to secular instruction these hours devoted to religious instruction, let the time thus taken be added to the other four days of the school week. 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Public opinion is a strong influence in any community, and when public opinion says that children need religious training and must have it, you will find the community arising in its might to meet that need. The place for this instruction is in the churches. Let all churches gather themselves together and prepare a warm welcome for the children who will flock to them when this religious education becomes the custom of the land. And here let me say that there should be no mean religious school sur- roundings for the children of any creed. Give them the best that you have. Put these schools into your church budget and call upon the people to provide adequate equipment and well-trained teachers. Use the churches, parish houses, and parochial schools to their fullest extent, until the time comes when our great public-school buildings may be used for this purpose just as pleasantly as any extra school activity is carried on in the school buildings now. Where shall we find the teachers for this work? "Ay, there's the rub." And yet my belief is my creed well founded. I believe in the teachers of the United States, and I am sure that when the call comes for religious teaching for our children you will find hundreds of our devoted teachers of all creeds flocking with their children to the religious schools near by. And that in a short time you will find that they are able to apply their knowledge of pedagogical methods and discipline to good account in the teaching of Bible literature and music and geography and history, leaving to the pastors and preachers that sort of training in doctrine and theology that will lead the youth of America to decide what creed they will choose when they are old enough to decide for themselves. Equip every center with four paid teachers-principal, musician, clerical, and visitor. The course of study for these religious schools should be of the simplest form for the little folks and should have things in common for all creeds. It should teach children to have respect for one another's creed and to look with reverence upon the worshipful spirit that leads children to speak of God and His church. All children should know that every child is supposed to go to a religious school, but no marks or ratings should be recorded any place else but in the religious school itself. We hope that the message this evening will be as a coal of fire from the altar to touch the lips of hundreds of our teachers so that they may speak in their own communities, and that presently it will be possible to say and to sing, "Like a mighty army moves the church of God" ; and that army is to be the boys and girls of our beloved land, trained spiritu- ally, religiously, the young soldiers who have learned to know God as the only reality and to walk with Him always, making Him the daily com- panion of their lives. We do not need more national development; we need more spiritual development. We do not need more intellectual power, but more moral power. We do not need more knowledge; we need more character devel- TEACHING BUSINESS MORALS 157 opment. We do not need more government ; we need more culture. We do not need more law; we need more religious instruction. We do not need more of the things that are seen ; we need more of the things unseen. When this vision is realized, America will be able to say and to sing : "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. " : TEACHING BUSINESS MORALS WILLIAM BYRON FORBUSH, THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY NEW YORK CITY The discussion carried on by our National high school debating society in the Capital all last winter amused, irritated , and admonished the whole country. Perhaps the most important lesson they taught was this: The standard of business morals in America is higher than that of political morals. Things were done recently by public officials that would have occasioned the expulsion from any trade association or gentleman's club of any business man who had been guilty of them. The increase in crime has been so tremendous that it constitutes a National peril. It is estimated that over three billion dollars are lost in this country every year as the result of theft, fraud, and treachery, including the expenses of courts and instrumentalities of justice. The increase of burglaries has been twelvefold and of embezzlements sixfold during the past ten years. The cleverness of thieves is such that they have organizations that constitute veritable crime trusts. The depraving of youth has gone on to such an extent that the average age of criminals has gone from thirty-two years nearly to twenty-one. Yet with all this, there has been a steady rise in business morals. The "money back" prin- ciple has been adopted by retail business. There is a powerful organiza- tion of advertising men that makes truth-telling obligatory. The bankers of America are teaching honesty by talks from business men in the public schools. What of the school children themselves ? The children are becoming confused by what they behold around them. The newspapers are full of daily accounts of apparently successful exploits of theft of large sums of money. The movies teach that the reward of strength and beauty is luxury and limousines, whatever methods strength and beauty may employ. Conversation in the home too often enforces this suggestion : "Everybody's doing it." In consequence, it has been said that the motto of the modern school child is, "Anything to get by." In the much mooted question of teaching morals in school, we encounter the absolute necessity for teaching business morals. Nearly all young people today, girls as well as boys, are going to have real contact with business. The place where moral decisions are made and used is chiefly in the shop, the store, and the counting-house. Morals today are mostly 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION business morals. And yet how poorly and indefinitely are we meeting the subject of modern morality. We disguise the subject under the vague name of " citizenship." We use textbooks based on the simple home and commercial customs of a century ago, and use as examples Benjamin Franklin and Peter Cooper. Our discussions are miles away from reality. Business morals is not a new subject; it is life itself. Perhaps the most significant fact in a modern school is that the student body is going almost without exception, within a very few years, into the world of affairs, and that world today, as never before, is demanding integrity. We have no right to use our skill as teachers in turning out educated crooks. We have no right to issue a graduation diploma to anyone for whom we would not sign a fidelity bond. How shall we do this? Josh Billings was once asked to take the bull by the horns. He remarked: "I prefer to take him by the tail. I can get hold of him just as well, and I can let go easier." We may, in teaching morals, take the bull by the horns or by the tail; we may use the direct or the indirect method. There is room and need for both. There is need of textbooks and reading books that teach modern ideals of business ethics explicitly and by practical examples. There is oppor tunity for indirect methods. We have our chances in commercial arith- metic, in history, and in current events. The children may be taught practical thrift, budget-making, and responsible accounting, and all these are ways to honesty. The children may be encouraged to conduct honesty campaigns, and evolve codes for school-room conduct. There is no more effective place than on the school ground, and no more effective agency than clean school athletics. We become powerful influences for honor when we never permit dishonesty to work in any realm of the school life. There ought to be recognition of honest conduct in school grades. In some schools already there is a column in the school record cards for "trustworthiness." All other subjects are graded, but this being a matter in which there can be no grades of perfection, since one either can or cannot be trusted, the recognition is either by a yes or a no. If the child is not trustworthy, it is a matter for conference with the parents. If he is not trustworthy, he is not promoted. The school simply refuses to put its stamp on absence of character. It refuses to turn over to the business world a tainted product. Such a person might be elected to Congress or even become a member of the President's Cabinet, but the National schools decline to label such as the product of their discipline. Perhaps the most convincing opportunity comes to the teacher in his occasional contact with enlightened modern business. Nearly every teacher in the upper grades is occasionally asked to endorse the application of some pupil for a fidelity bond. He is asked to certify: "I have never known this pupil to do anything dishonest or dishonorable." He assumes a serious responsibility in doing this. He knows that business is asking something of the school which the school is not definitely enough planning to furnish. TEACHING BUSINESS MORALS 159 And yet he is not honorable himself, if he signs such applications care- lessly. I think every high-school principal ought occasionally to read one of these application forms to his pupils. They constitute the Ten Com- mandments of modern business. I think he ought to impress upon them that they cannot pass even the threshold of the world of affairs without common honesty. It is simply not true that today, in business, you can "do anything if only you can get by." For more than a hundred years, our two National academies, Annapolis and West Point, have set a notable example in this respect. At West Point, for example, if a student ever cheats in an examination, it is regarded as an offense against the spirit of the school so enormous that its punishment is not trusted to the faculty, but is taken care of by the students themselves. The offender is visited by a committee of cadets and istold gruffly that "he does not belong here." He usually leaves that very day. The offense has no excuse or pardon, and nobody guilty of it is given a second chance. We need something more than textbooks or devices of teachers. We need this spirit in all our schools, what the cadets call "the spirit of the Service." Our young are going forth to serve our country, in times of peace, thank God, but they need-we all need-the motto of West Point as our guide: "Duty, honor, and country." FUNDAMENTALS OF CHARACTER TRAINING EDWIN D. STARBUCK, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA Mark Twain tried his fortune in the early days investing in gold stock with the usual disastrous result. His friends, always ready with advice, led him to believe that he would prosper only by forming a new company, so he could, as they phrased it, get in on the ground floor. He did so ; the luck was not improved. They found, he said, that although they were securely on the ground floor, there was a darn fool in the basement. When we try to start afresh in education and make of the public school ahouse of wisdom in which training for character is on the ground floor, we find always not one but four darn fools in the basement. They sit shaping their tools of culture and guarding their methods, threatening us always with spiritual bankruptcy. There in one corner of the basement is mechanism, the artisan, devising and providing the instruments of knowl- edge with which to develop the "skills" of learning, hedged about with countless tools, like a carpenter smothered with a wealth of appliances buthaving no zest for the building. And in that corner is a second fool called information, the anemic highbrow, assembling facts and describing laws, proud of the magnitude and diversity of his collections. In a third corner is a giant, institution by name. He is surrounded with sets of curves, tables, statistics, diagrams, programs of promotion, lists of rules, 160 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION plans of construction, in bewildering array. In a fourth corner is a hoary figure bearing the legend tradition. He kneels in a state of reverence but constantly gazes backward over his shoulder in obeisance to the wisdom of generations gone by and invites all who dwell at our educational house to pay homage to Socrates, Froebel, Horace Mann and all those who in their day pointed out the way of educational progress. The first thing to do in setting our educational house in order as a character-developing concern is to drag these gentlemen up out of the basement and put them to work. Whenever we try anything simple and fundamental in the public school it is these denizens of the basement that hoodwink us. They would drag us down to their level. They din our ears full about the need of better skills, fuller possibilities of organized knowledge, more perfect organization and the more circumspect observance of well-tried methods. They clutter our house and benumb our children with tools and facts and rules and conventions. These disturbers are all needful. Indeed, they are entirely essential to the health of the school. A fool is but a normal person, a potential genius, grown stale or gone wrong. Mechanism should live among children, instead of slumping in the cellar. He can make of our schools not work- shops of devices but houses of efficient service. Information has been con- verting our schools into museums of curious knowledge. He can trans- form them into temples of wisdom. Institution is the greatest architect and builder of modern life. He is inclined to forget his true function which is socialization, not organization. It is the high mission of tradition to open up the rich treasures of the past in order to give spiritual orienta- tion so that our pupils can meet the present work in a spirit of reverence. This, then, is the first step in character education-while developing the school as a mighty institution, while cultivating in the minds of chil- dren the skills with which to achieve success, while furnishing their minds with fact and truth, to banish everything that is not directly or indirectly of genuine significance to the developing life of individuals and groups. This suggests the second step, if the schools are to train for character. It is to set children ever afresh in the midst as the center of interest-real, live, healthy, happy, growing, purposive children, individually accomplish- ing and mutually responding. The game is being fairly won when the school becomes a society of interested personalities who, under wise guid- ance, come to react gracefully and thoughtfully to one another and to all the situations that arise naturally in their life together. The signs are pointing in this direction; the socialized school, the socialized recitation, the problem-project methods of instruction, student participation in the conduct of the school, the Dalton and other plans that respect the indi- viduality of children and make their social contacts real and vital. We have eternally to remind ourselves that in the midst of the para- phernalia of school life, the child himself, pulsing with life, smothered under the trappings of instruction, is the beginning, middle, and ending of all our endeavor and is the object of our loves and enthusiasms. It is FUNDAMENTALS OF CHARACTER TRAINING 161 an imposing question with a doubtful answer whether with the vastness and the intricacy of the organization of the modern school, the flowers and fruit of the spirit are not to be trampled and crushed out. Our so-called civilization is brought to nought unless the school can remain, as Froebel thought, like a garden for the culture of personalities. Char- acter is something that grows. It can not be produced in a factory by machine methods. The school is made for children, and not children for the school. Now for the third step in improving our educational house. The game of character education is more precarious than that of mining. In our task there are fools also in the garret who spoil the game. There are those who believe that morality is somehow apart from and above the busy day's lite. They would take time off from the ordinary occupations to give- to give, mark you-moral instruction. They take pupils away from the school life in order to enjoy for a season the real life of moral perception . They sin against the health of the school and the moral growth of children. Others would find an "upper chamber" in which, secure for the moment from the clatter and disturbance of common activities, they sentimentalize on the "good life" with the aid of story, song, recitation, and exhortation. There are those who repair to rooms in the garret in which are shown glass cases of specimens labelled "The Virtues." They set the children to the irksome task of cataloguing and counting and describing these pickled flowers and fruits of conduct. There are other upper rooms devoted to moral self-analysis under the direction of spiritual diagnosticians who teach pupils to keep their fingers on their spiritual pulse and to disci- pline their natures until they can say "I am kind," "I am obedient," " I am patriotic," " I am helpful." Still other chambers in the garret are occupied with ethical stargazers who speak in breezy terms about abstract ideals. If our schools are to be healthy places for developing the wholesome im- pulses of good personalities, we must lift off these upper chambers and dis- card most of their paraphernalia and bring these spiritual experts down on the main floor. We must stop rubbing "The Virtues" into the mental skins of our children. We must reduce to a modicum all the direct moral appeals that are apt to end in sentimentality or insincerity. We must minimize the introspection and vivisection that threaten to lead to paraly- sis, artificiality, and introversion. We must plant the good life in the motivated conduct of active children who learn by experience to cope suc- cessfully with the real situations that confront them, and who find out, by painful defeats and hard-earned insight, how to master these situations. When pupils have to wrestle and wrangle with the exigencies that arise in overcoming some difficulty or in solving some problem of social adjust- ment, they are acquiring those refined judgments leading toward insight into the meaning of right behavior that is the raw stuff out of which moral ruggedness is being made. Whenever the school becomes a society 162 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of interested personalities in which live situations take the place ofethical precepts, the virtues will take care of themselves. A virtue is a conceptual symbol of a fitting response made conscious, personal, and lovable. The kingdom of moral values is within the minds, hearts, and muscles of children. Fourth step. Teachers must have shining sun-clear in the midst of all they do the true "objectives" of character education. Otherwise their conduct is like a voyage without a port, a journey without a destination, planting and tilling without a possible harvest. In our new way of think- ing, these objectives are found in relation to the permanently significant human situations that make up the personal, social, and ideal life of human beings. They are: right attitude towards family, the social group, wealth and its uses, animals, vocation, civic relations, the facts and truths of science, the beauty of nature and art, health of body and mind, a cosmic order and all other integrating and determining centers of conduct and objects of response. The teacher is to be a masterful student of sociology, biology, economics, ethics, religion, and history, who can glimpse enough of the human program to sense these objectives and to know that every- thing she does has some significant leading in their direction. She will not talk with younger children about these objectives, these guiding suns and stars of all her endeavor, perhaps never; but they will shine so clearly and express the warmth of her heart so surely that they will condition all she does and the spirit of her activity. Our fourth step, then, is to substitute objectives and situations for virtues. It is normal and wholesome not only for children but for adults to look predominantly outward, with discipline of thought and conduct concerning proper attitudes toward objects that require adjustment, rather than inwardly upon states of mind that need to be cultivated. Fifth step. Use the entire school program for training in character. We are ceasing to regard the moral life as a special compartment of the entire personality. For the most part, we must desist from setting aside times and seasons for special instructions in morals. The good person is not good in an abstract and general way. He is one who habitually meets every vital situation gracefully, thoughtfully, helpfully, and ideally. Whenever difficult situations arise naturally in the course of studies, or in the occupations of the school, these must be met with all the tact, seasoned judgment, and sustained thinking that teacher and pupil can summon. Progressively as children grow older, these occasions will arise more frequently and demand the most acute discrimination of right from wrong attitudes, the most painstaking definitions of moral concepts and groupings and classifications of the virtues. There is hardly any limit to the acumen and refinement of thought children can command when they face a real situation. There is hardly any thinking to which they can be driven when forced up against an artificial situation. This process FUNDAMENTALS OF CHARACTER TRAINING 163 1 must not stop until, in the high school, every boy and girl is conducted by a wise teacher through a course in elementary ethics so that all our citizens learn to think their way beneath the surface flow of events and to make quick and accurate judgments about right conduct. Aside from this insistent truth, let us admit that the occupations of every minute of the day's life in school-in geography, history, literature, science, plays and games, songs and pastimes --should be permeated with such a quality that the content and spirit of it all has distinct drives in the direction of the objectives which represent special fitnesses for successful living. The school program in its entirety must be a character-developing enter- prise. This will become possible only if teachers and builders of programs ofeducation do a great amount of shoveling out from the school curriculum morally irrelevant and objectionable occupations and gain skill in reach- ing out and bringing in those materials and appliances that will enrich the school program, temper its quality, and point everything that is done inthedirectionof the true objectives. Teachers must have ready reference to the best stories that stir the impulses of courage and heroism, and the | choicest poems that awaken a sense of the beauty of natural objects, the records in history that show the possibility of service through wealth, songs that voice the spirit of love and loyalty, and so on through an end- 'ess list of the tools of culture that can vitalize and give moral significance to everything that is done. There is need of extensive classified bibli- ographies that may be placed within the hands of all teachers to show them where these materials can be secured. The Research Station in Character Training and Religious Education at the University of Iowa has under way the project of supplying these selected bibliographies, and aspires to place them, in a little more than a year, within the reach of all teachers. Sixth step. We shall have to widen the range of what we mean by morality. We must throw out the walls of our educational house until they cross those of the home, the state, the church, and the industrial order. We must incorporate in this growing society, the school, the best of all these vast institutions that have falsely been considered extraneous to our tasks. We have already taken over into it much of the spirit and most of the problems of the home. The state and practice in statecraft remain too much out there as affairs apart, while the school exists as a too shriveled in, artificial enclosure in which children are dominated under a plutocratic control. We must not stop until the pupils have, before they graduate from the people's college, the high school, fourteen years of practice in citizenship, in a true institution, the public school, which is at the same time a true society. Out there stands the church; within the school there is too much hardness and coldness. We shall keep right on planning and working until the spirit of rever- ence for high things and love of truth and righteousness that religion has so long conserved, are the natural fruitage also of the public school ; 164 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION until the facts and truths of science are radiant symbols of the poetry of the world. He is not yet a truly moral being whose heart does not respond to the meanings that lie within and beyond the stubborn facts, the hard duties, and the imposing truths with which he is hedged about. Out there are the industries and vocations, heavy, urgent, often brutal; and why not, you say ; for business is business, just as pigs is pigs. Within our enclosure all is passive, gentle, and bookish. We shall change all that. Do we not see hopeful signs of filling the school with significant occupations vibrant with a feeling of their worthwhileness ? We may make the transi- tion easy and natural, if we will form the creative activities of the school into such vitalized business as shall transform the spirit of this work-a-day world. It requires but a little imagination to hear in the hum of the wheels of industry a song of human improvement and fulfilment. It takes now but a tiny bit of wit to appreciate the gain to every one-even the international benefits of saving and earning and spending and rightly conserving the wealth of the world. He is not yet a moral person who spends most of his time and energy at forced jobs that are tough, slavish, and selfish. We must become so competent at personal direction and so skilled in specialized training that boys and girls inevitably carry over into their breadwinning something of the tense nerve, the buoyancy, the fine sportsmanship they exercise in their competitive games, glorified also by the satisfaction of highest human service. That is our sixth point, then, that the moral values cultivated in the school must be coëxtensive with the moral good of the whole range oflife. Seventh step, and lastly. Before we get very far with improving our house of wisdom, we shall have to deepen our knowledge of child nature and of the laws of its development, and gain a profounder insight into what we mean by character. This improvement will come in part in the old-fashioned way shown by those fine souls like Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Jane Addams, who have put their honest minds in touch with growing lite and told us what they have thought out. But most of all, it will have to come from the laboratory work of technicians who are observing, experi- menting, and analyzing under controlled conditions the types of behavior that we call moral. Within two decades these experts have shown us more about mental skills, for example, and how to acquire them than human beings were able to learn by ruder methods through all the preceding centuries. These technicians are moving now into this newer and more difficult field of research. There are now no fewer than two hundred of the best minds in America who are attacking by the refined methods of science this more intricate and far more important world of moral values, what they are, how they arise and how, if at all, they can be culti vated. Due to the successes already achieved and in sight, we are just now entering upon a great new era in which we are acquiring a knowledge of the hidden springs of conduct, the unexplored reaches of personality, the nature of this hitherto indefinable thing called character. ADDRESS OF WELCOME 165 Within a few years we have gained such control of growing things that it is easy to adapt the peculiarities of plants and animals to new environ- ments, and even to create, at will, new varieties. We are now gaining conscious control of human development. The future of humanity, the destiny of nations, the direction of human progress, are in the hands not so much of makers of laws or captains of industry as of teachers who are shaping the citizenry of the world. We shall be able to meet this chal- lenge only as we keep our horizon clear, our purposes pure, our ideals high, and our zeal for fuller knowledge unabated. ADDRESS OF WELCOME JOHN J. TIGERT , UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON, D. C. Twenty-six summers have passed since the teachers of the United States assembled in the Nation's Capital. William Torrey Harris, commissioner ofeducation of the United States, made one of the addresses of welcome on that occasion. J. M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools of Kansas City, was president of the National Education Association. William Mc- Kinley was President of the United States. In the note of greeting which President McKinley sent to the convention, he used this sentence : "In the important educational work which the Association has done so much to encourage I have the deepest interest, and believe that the best results must come from such meetings, with their inspiration to even greater achievements than have characterized its work in the past. " It is well that we should pause at the end of a quarter of a new century to compare this occasion with that, to take our bearings again, and review the achievements of the years. The scene is the same, but many of the actors have gone on into the mys- terious drama of the Hereafter. Others of them are still upon life's stage, but no longer play a role in the affairs of the National Education Associa- tion. A faithful few of the cast of 1898 are with us in 1924 . Among the principals on that occasion, Harris, the illustrious com- missioner and America's foremost protagonist of Hegelianism ; Greenwood , the presiding officer, a revered veteran of education; Alexander Graham Bell, perhaps the most distinguished figure in the picture, have passed on. John Dewey, Nicholas Murray Butler, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, and others who had a prominent part in that meeting, are still conspicuous in the educational arena, but have transferred their activities from the forum ofthis Association. Among those who made leading addresses in the 1898 convention and whose enthusiasm for the work of the National Education Association has not been dampened by the flight of a quarter of a century, are Homer Seerley, who spoke on the theme "The Essentials in United States History to be Taught in Secondary Schools," and of course, Albert E. Winship, who spoke on "The School of the Future." These last may 166 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION some day grow old in years, but are still young and vigorous in the work of this Association. Winship carried on the work of the Association before it was born and his memory will be undimmed as long as the Association shall last. It is interesting to note the messages delivered on this former occasion. Dr. Winship began by an evident attempt to disturb the slumbers of the audience. Addresses seemed to carry the same narcotic properties that they have today. In jocular vein, the doctor bantered his audience thus: "This audience will pardon me if there is no attempt to be profound. These heroic men upon the program have come to you one after another with profound truths, and you have not cared a picayune for anything they have said. It is a strange commentary upon the situation that these men who have spoken wisely and well upon themes in which we have common interest have appealed to you less than the musicians who for- got their classic music and indulged in a merry bit of medley, in which even the echo of the cornet was more inspiring than all the philosophy and oratory of the platform. " Evidently, the learned doctor, "dipping into the future far as human eye could see," could discern the approaching advent of the era of "jazz." Dr. Winship predicted that the future school would be interesting. He asserted that it would be impossible to hold the attention of the child with mere intellectual discipline, and prophesied the coming of the day when the truant officer and the rod would no longer exist as "schoolroom attractions. " He said that the school of the future would be "imperial," and remarked that "imperial" was a popular word. In view of our present day insistence on democracy in education, and the repeated references to the democratizing power of the school today, it might appear to some that the doctor was a false prophet. Yet we must remember that this speech was made just after Dewer had sailed into Manila Bay and the Spanish fleet had gone down at Santiago. "Imperial" was the word of the hour, but Dr. Winship used it figuratively to call up the enlarged opportunity of the school of the future which he ventured to predict "would possess the earth and the fullness thereof." If the enriched and expanded curriculum of today fails to convince the educator of the realization of this prediction, perhaps Dr. Pritchett and some of the taxpayers who have complained so vociferously of the increas- ing cost of education, might agree that the prophecy has been fulfilled. Few, if any of this audience, would ever surmise the burden of the ad- dress of welcome to the teachers in 1898 delivered by Dr. Harris. If his subject should surprise you, I venture the assertion that developments since that July day in 1898 would surprise Dr. Harris still more. His discussion must have seemed untimely to many of that audience but, with uncanny foresight, he touched upon a subject which has become a burning question of this day. Let me quote a few paragraphs from his address. You will quickly discern his theme. He said : ADDRESS OF WELCOME 167 "It has been only a question of time when we should take our place among the nations as a real power in the management of the affairs of the world; when we should be counted with the great powers of Europe in the government of Asia, Africa, and the isles of the sea. It was a moment to be postponed rather than hastened by the patriotic citizen. When our power of producing wealth is increasing out of proportion with the rest of the world, and when our population is swelled by waves of migration from Europe, why should we be in a feverish haste to precipitate the new era-the era of close relationship with the states of Europe ? For here is the parting of the ways, and the beginning of an essentially new career. "And it is this very summer that the hand on the dial of our destiny has pointed at twelve, and for better or worse we have now entered upon our new epoch as an active agent in the collected whole of great powers that determine and fix the destiny of the peoples on the planet. This new era is one of great portent to the statesmen of America. All legislation hereafter must be scrutinized, in view of its influence upon our inter- national relations. We cannot any longer have that smug sense of security and isolation which has permitted us to legislate without considering the effect on foreign nations. Hereafter our foremost National interest must be the foreign one, and consequently our highest studies must be made on the characters, inclinations, and interests of foreign peoples. It is obvious that this study requires a greater breadth of education, more specializing in history, and in the manners and customs of European nations; their methods of organizing industries, as well as their methods of organizing armies and navies. We must even master foreign literatures and see what are the fundamental aspirations of the people. This points to the func- tion of the system of education in the future of this country. This indi- cates the vocation of the schoolmaster in the coming time. "The new burden of preparing our united people for the responsibili- ties of a closer union with Europe, and for a share in the dominion over the islands and continents of the Orient this new burden will fall on the school systems in the several states, and more particularly on the colleges and universities that furnish the higher education. "There have been great emergencies, and great careers have opened to American teachers, in our former history; but you stand today on the vestibule of a still more important age, the age of the union of the new world with the old world." It is quite surprising that more than twenty-five years ago Dr. Harris should have stated the arguments so fully presented in the last Presidential campaign. Evidently he had been an isolationist but the Spanish-American war converted him to the belief that, from that day forth, our affairs must inevitably be intermixed with those of Europe and the world. Here we find the foreign policy of Woodrow Wilson stated so clearly that it is hard to dissociate it from the controversy through which we have passed 168 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION since the treaty of Versailles. If this be surprising to us, it would be still more surprising to Dr. Harris to learn that not only did we avoid par- ticipation in European and world affairs as a result of the Spanish War which appeared so significant to him, but that we have since actually en- gaged in a war involving all Europe and most of the world and are still maintaining our position of political isolation. But enough of the actors. What has the flight of twenty-six years meant to the National Education Association ? What has it meant for education in the United States ? At the time of the last convention in Washington, the National Edu- cation Association was proud to have 6000 active members and 7000 or 8000 associate members. Today, it numbers a total of 140,000 active members. That is to say, in twenty-six years the National Education Association has grown in active membership more than 2200 per cent, or at a rate almost equal to the membership of 1898 for each of the years that have passed. Such a growth could never have been expected even by its most devoted and optimistic friends, and stands today a truly marvelous achievement. In 1898 the Association had no place it could call home, but it now possesses one of the most desirable pieces of prop- erty in the city of Washington. What of education in 1898 and today ? In 1898, there were 15 million children enrolled in the schools; in 1922, the last year for which we have accurate figures, there were 2314 million children enrolled In 1898, we expended upon education 194 million dollars ; in 1922, we ex- pended 1 billion 580 million dollars. In 1898, there were 409,000 teachers in our schools ; in 1922, there were 738,000 teachers . In twenty-six years, enrolment in the schools has increased 50 per cent, the number of teachers has increased 80 per cent, and the expenditures for education have increased approximately 800 per cent. The figure on expenditures is, however, largely fictitious, because it takes no account of the great difference in the purchasing power of the dollar at that time and today. These brief statistics tell an amazing story of stupendous growth. There has never been anything comparable to it in the history of education in any part of the world.. And what of Washington ? Twenty-six years have brought a growth of nearly 200,000 people and have transformed our Capital, once spoken of slightingly in comparison with London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Rome, and other capital cities, into the fairest seat of government in all the earth. Lying in the arms of two historic streams, girdled with wooded hills and a broken plateau, Washington is like a cluster of diamonds set in a sea of beauty. Its wooded parks furnish a foil for its monuments of bronze and its temples of marble and stone. Since 1898 one of the most attractive of these parks, situated along the banks of the Potomac, has been reclaimed from a swamp. In 1901 began the beautification which is so evident today. In that year a return was made to the original plan of the great French engineer, L'Enfant, begun under the supervision of George Washington ADDRESS OF WELCOME 169 and Thomas Jefferson. Since 1898, monuments and buildings have been erected in such numbers as would be tedious to mention them. They include the Union Station, the Post Office, Continental Memorial Hall, the Red Cross Memorial, the Pan-American Building, the National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council, the House and Senate Office Buildings, the Interior Department Building, the Municipal Building, the new Bureau of Printing and Engraving, the New National Museum, the Freer Art Gallery, the Scottish Rite Temple, many magnifi- cent embassies, numerous temples of religion, and greatest of all, the Lincoln Memorial, regarded by the Fine Arts Commission as the noblest structure erected in the world in the last five hundred years. Only a tew great schools like Central High School have been built. Patriotism and proper respect for a great branch of the government forbid my saying why there have not been more schools built. Fortunately, one does not have to tell the history of Washington, as is usually done in addresses of welcome. Every teacher in the United States knows the history of Wash- ington, not only since 1898, but from the planting of the seat of the government here. Why should the Capital welcome the teachers of America ? Reading the addresses of welcome of 1898, I concluded that the speakers welcomed the teachers in the Capital primarily because of the patriotic inspiration they might receive here. An anthology of patriotic poems and songs was quoted to them, including "The Star Spangled Banner" and "Dixie. " Undoubtedly the fact that we were then at war fired much of the patriotic appeal at that time. I shall not dwell upon it now, because I know that there is no more patriotic group under the Stars and Stripes than the teachers and school children, and further because the President of the Association, in arranging this most ambitious of all educational programs, has provided for the patriotic appeal in a most happy manner, by arrang- ing for many patriotic pilgrimages to national shrines at the close of the meeting, and by inviting the President of the United States to close this convention on the Fourth of July. This will be the second time in the history of the National Education Association that it has been addressed in convention assembled by a President of the United States. The only other occasion of which I have any information was an address by Theo- dore Roosevelt, at Asbury Park, in 1905. While Grant was President, he came into the National Education Asso- ciation to hear John Eaton, the second Commissioner of Education, but did not address the convention. Certainly these patriotic pilgrimages and an address from our Chief Executive on the Nation's birthday will lend sufficient patriotic inspiration without any weak attempt on my part. One greeting and one thought I would like to implant, or rather one question I would like to raise: What does the growth of the National Education Association and the development of the school system in the last quarter of a century mean ? What does it indicate for the future ? 170 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION For the Nation it has meant material prosperity, spiritual culture, patri- otism, and the success of representative democratic government. The United States is the greatest Nation on the planet today, and its system of public instruction has been the greatest institution in the Republic. This is a deliberate, carefully premeditated thesis which I think few would attack, but which could be defended against anyone who may be bold enough to question it. For the teachers, what does the growth of an organization from 6,000 to 140,000 in twenty-six years mean ? It means that we have now become an organized profession instead of a group of individuals holding jobs . It means that educational policy has largely supplanted political expediency in the administration of our schools. It means that we are developing an ethical code such as has long existed in the older professions. It means that public welfare is placed above personal ambition. It means above all a coöperation that we have never had before. It means the progressive fight for the welfare of our future citizens by nearly a hundred and fifty thousand of the most enlightened citizens of this Nation. As I mention coöperation, I wish to express my personal and official appreciation to Miss Olive Jones, the president of the Association, who has brought in a new era of coöperation between the National Education Association and the United States Bureau of Education. By her good will, her frequent visits to the Bureau, her rare tact, her conferences, and her professional attitude, this new epoch has been ushered in. Certainly there should be the closest possible coöperation between the organized teaching profession, acting in a private capacity, and the public agency created and supported by the Congress of the United States for the pro- motion of education throughout the Nation and its Territories. There is no reason for conflict of interests. Each has a separate and definite task to perform, but each needs the other for its best success . The success of American Education Week, and the recent National Conference on Illiter- acy are illustrations of the results of such coöperative effort. Last Monday, I had the opportunity of being conducted through the two great Ford automobile plants at Detroit by Edsel Ford. After I had seen coal, limestone, iron, tin, and other raw materials poured into chutes, melted under tremendous heat, gradually assuming rough forms that re- sembled engine-cases, wheels, radiators, and other knick-knacks, passing on moving chains and platforms before men who bored a hole here, put on a nut there, each with a definite task to perform, I finally saw a man jump on the combined result, drop his boot and grasp the wheel, give a honk, and a new Ford was born running at full speed! This happened regularly every two or three seconds. What a thrill! Prometheus-like, something seemed to breath life into chaos. It was like witnessing a resurrection. I had lunch with Henry Ford and asked him this question : "Is there ever a car that comes up at that end and doesn't start ?" ("No," he said. "there's not a chance in ADDRESS OF WELCOME 171 the world for one of them to fail! Every part has been finished, tested, and inspected by experts before it gets there." If coöperation of experts is 100 per cent efficient in the Ford plant, why cannot coöperation of experts bring similar results in education? I have one prediction to make-seeing how accurate Dr. Winship was in his prophecies in 1898. I predict that the next twenty-six years will see the National Education Association with a membership of more than a million. And why not ? The last twenty-six years gave it a growth of 2200 per cent; why should not the next twenty-six years give it a growth of a little more than 700 per cent ? A million members by 1950; this is a reasonable objective. If labor, agriculture, and those who have served in the World War, are represented by organizations that run into seven figures, and these concern only a particular class or portion of the population, why should not education, which concerns all the people more vitally than any other matter, have back of it an organization of a million members ? Teachers of America! We have anticipated your arrival; we are proud of you; we are honored and happy that you are in Washington. Let me repeat again to the greatest meeting in the history of the National Edu- cation Association those words that William McKinley sent to the Con- vention of 1898, in the hope that they may be as great a stimulus for the next twenty-six years as they were for the past : "In the important educational work which the Association has done so much to encourage, I have the deepest interest, and believe that the best results must come from such meetings, with their inspiration to even greater achievements than have characterized its work in the past." EDUCATION IN THE NATION'S CAPITAL FRANK W. BALLOU , SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS WASHINGTON , D. С. More than one third of all municipal expenditures in the larger cities of the country is devoted to public education. For years, Washington has been expending comparatively less for public education than her sister cities. In one important respect, Washington differs from every other American city. The people in every other city can determine how much money shall be spent for education, and how that money shall be spent. In Washington this is not the case. The representatives and senators elected by voters in the several States of the Nation are the representatives and senators who determine legislation and appropriations for the people of the Nation's Capital. No governing body in the District is elected by the people. The commissioners are appointed by the President. The Board of Education is appointed by the Supreme Court of the District. At no time during the preparation of the school estimates or their 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION progress to and through Congress, are they dealt with by a single official who was selected by the people of the District, or who can, in any direct or usual way in a democracy, be held accountable by the people of the District for his official acts in determining the amount or character of appropriations for public education in Washington. The educational welfare of the people residing in the Nation's Capital depends on an intelligent understanding of this situation on the part of the people of the country, and sympathetic interest and action on the part of the representatives and senators whom the people elect to Congress. THE NATION'S TEACHERS OLIVE M. JONES, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION , AND PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL 120 AND ANNEXES, PROBATIONARY SCHOOLS , NEW YORK CITY One year ago, at the close of a history-making convention of the National Education Association, you chose me President of this great organization. I pledged you then that my aim would be, as a presiding officer, to execute the motions, the resolutions, the will of the membership as expressed by the elected delegates. I come before you tonight to render an account of my stewardship. I believe in the National Education Association as the only means existing today by which the teachers of the Nation can give expression to their ideals, to their self-sacrificing perception of the needs of little children , to their patriotic devotion to the education of children so that they may be fit citizens of a democracy. Among us in the National Education Association there is the equal opportunity which true democracy affords. There is no limitation on our membership, provoking clash of rank against rank and withholding from one group the intimate knowledge of what another group thinks and feels. At the same time within our membership there exists the fullest liberty for groups having similar interests to meet by themselves and to act by them- selves. Our scheme of organization functions in this way by encourage- ment to Departments, to committees, to allied and affiliated associations to meet with the National Education Association, and by reserving final decision on Association policies to the Representative Assembly, composed of elected representatives from every rank in the educational systems of the country. So well does this scheme of organization function that the enemies of democracy, more fully awake than teachers or the friends of democracy are, have seized upon it as a major point of attack. They have circulated rumors that the Association has endorsed militarism, that it has endorsed pacifism, that we are all Republicans, that we are all Democrats, that we are all of one religious creed, that we have no creed at all. A very heavy THE NATION'S TEACHERS 173 part of my correspondence has been needed to make clear that the National Education Association has a definite platform, consisting of resolutions adopted by the Representative Assembly in convention assembled, that I, myself, as President must be guided absolutely by that platform, and that no delegate or Department of the Association can commit the Association to any action or endorsement not included in that platform. The enemies of education in a democracy have given sure evidence that our scheme of organization functions in the extraordinarily strenuous effort they have made to belittle the work of classroom teachers in the Associa- tion, and no greater tribute can be offered to the teachers' rock-bottom sense and consecration to the cause of education than their response. Guided by a woman chosen because she is a woman and because as a past president of the National Education Association serving through our perilous war year, she would understand the possible limitations or ex- tensions of their activity, the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers' Problems is rendering a service so great that it deserves special mention here. Two-thirds of its membership consists of classroom teachers selected by themselves in their State and local associations, and they have become a nucleus for gathering and distributing information concerning the needs of teachers, not pedagogical theories, but the practical conditions and problems of the workers themselves. I am not scornful of or lacking interest in the purely pedagogic questions of the teachers' work. The principles of education and methods of teach- ing have reached a high development. But I believe the execution of the purely pedagogical phases of the teacher's work can rise no higher in its progress than the teacher rises, the worker upon whom that pedagogy depends for successful fruition. This belief has been my guide in the plan- ning of committee work, in the presentation of reports, in the selection of problems for special emphasis in the program of the convention. The year has been marked by auspicious developments in the three largest Departments of the National Education Association. The Department of Superintendence speaks for itself every February, and so I shall not dwell upon it here, other than to pay my tribute for a high degree of coöperation and broad, inclusive professional spirit to the past president of that Department, Payson Smith, and to the present head, William McAndrew. Of the Department of Elementary School Principals you will forgive me if I speak with pride. I cannot refrain from boasting of its rapid growth and great achievement in its five years of existence. Its Yearbook was the first to be published by any Department of the National Education As- sociation and has yet to be equaled by any group's Yearbook published since. Its quarterly bulletins are treasure troves of inspiration and in- formation. Its program for this convention is one you cannot afford to miss. I am proud of being a charter member of that group. The Department of Classroom Teachers has taken a great stride forward this year. I want to give especial menuon to the regional conferences of 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION classroom teachers which I have been privileged to attend. Time does not permit me to go into any lengthy description of those meetings,- the subjects discussed, the dignified, yet frank procedure, and the charm, sincerity, and firmness of their presiding officers. Those meetings were fountains of hope and faith in the future of education. Mindful of the fact that I am reporting to you concerning the operation of the year's work, I would be neglectful if I failed to make mention of the harmful propaganda regarding the cost of education. I shall not do more than touch upon it, so that you teachers will not forget the basic relationship of this question to all that we stand for in education. I urge upon you not only a practical study in your local teacher groups of the problems of taxation and finance, but also the widest local publicity through organizations of parents and citizens, concerning the actual causes of the increased cost of education and its absolute inevitability. A resolution adopted at Chicago by the Department of Superintendence in February might admirably furnish your starting point. Make the Com- missioner of Fire Prevention and the Safety Campaign instigators under- stand that their reliance upon education for putting their ideas across must depend upon the cost of education. Make your officials of railroads and industries, who bring whole colonies into your communities, realize that they have increased the cost of education. Make the National Civic Federation comprehend that their desire to use education to prevent the spread of anti-American ideas means higher salaries and pensions for teachers, else sheer economic necessity may make them advocate any kind of change which seems to promise betterment of their condition. Watch closely, and secure representation when you can at meetings, such as that called for in St. Paul on October 20, 1924. See that the laymen there as- sembled to discuss the money side of educational costs understand also the industrial and legislative causes, and that they view the whole problem in the light of National preservation, not their pocketbooks. Teach them that "education is cheap. It is ignorance and incompetence that cost dear." Another new element in the history of the National Education Associa- tion has been established this year in the beginning of two trust funds, the acceptance of which has been authorized by the Executive Committee and will come before the Representative Assembly for ratification. Both will be under the absolute control and jurisdiction of the National Education Association . One is to establish a home, a retreat, call it what you will, for the lonely and neglected old age of teachers, for whom the circum- stances of life have made such care essential, just as printers, actors, Masons , and other groups take care of their aged. The establishment of this fund was made possible originally by a bequest written into the will of a Chicago teacher, Marilla Parker. Plans to enlarge this fund, as greatly as it must be-enlarged, if the dream is ever to come true, will be presented to the Representative Assembly for adoption this week. The second was made possible by the gift of John S. Roberts, district superintendent of schools, THE NATION'S TEACHERS 175 New York City, author of a valuable work on the contribution of William T. Harris to our modern educational methods. Dr. Roberts has given the proceeds of the sale of this book forever to the National Education Associa- tion. This fund will be known as the William T. Harris fund, and will begin the establishment of a permanent fund for the National Education Association work . We thus see established this year two great needs of our professional organization. First, professional care of our own aged people, completing the entire course of our work for each phase of a teacher's life-entrance requirements, salary, tenure, pensions, a home in old age. Second, a permanent fund, which will be a monument to Dr. Harris, first U. S. Commissioner of Education and President of the National Education Association in 1875, and which will also help take care of organization expenses, now a heavy drain upon our income. Will you let me express here my gratitude to scores of members of the National Education Association who have helped during the year by their suggestions, their letters, their encouragement ? Response by mail has often been impossible, but their contribution to the year's work has been great and much appreciated. The surest mark of appreciation any president can give of a suggestion is to use it, and that's what I have done. Some day I hope the National Education Association will have money enough to bring out an annual Who's Who, which will call to the attention ofeducators between conventions the innovations, projects, and accomplish- ments in the field of education. It is impossible to make any program long enough to give their authors an opportunity to make personal state- ment. Yet our duty is not fulfilled unless we inform teachers everywhere of new ideas and plans of education in experimental use in ofttimes hidden and little-known parts of the country, and unless we give aid and publicity to plans whose authors are often entirely without means or friends to extend their plans, however worthy. During the year I have come upon many efforts in educational progress unknown to most of us. Many of them are in the field of corrective work for children who present apparently unsolvable problems in conduct. Many of them are in the field of vocational education. I am reminded of Margaret Worcester, in Massachusetts, who has a plan for coöperation between education and industry to secure the conservation of the brain power now lost among children and young people in industry, that her plan halted after a successful beginning for lack of money and influence. I see before me that marvelous flag exercise in an Ohio school, entirely unlike anything in pageantry or flag celebration elsewhere, done as a part ofthe regular assembly program by teachers and children unaware of the new and extraordinary inspiration to patriotism and peace it carries, and should carry, beyond the limits of their own home town. I know the contribution to a revised program of American education which will come out of the experimentation now in progress in New York's 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION new idea of twenty-three selected experimental schools, and I know what must be done to make that contribution available for the Nation as a whole. I can hear again the superintendent of a small city in Iowa relate his story of revision of curriculum in his schools, so that it sounded like the Declaration of Independence made alive and did constitute a college of education for every teacher in his community. I have listened to requests for information about the Denver single salary schedule by teachers in cities where their salaries, whether high or low, are proving unsatisfactory, because of unfair discrimination, and I have wondered how we could finance the needed publicity. Would any one dare repeat that teachers are unprofessional and narrow- minded if the noble act of the Ella Flagg Young Club, of Chicago, had been told from coast to coast, when its members undertook at their own expense and great labor to make investigation into the conditions for liv- ing, care, and companionship among the aged and retired teachers of thoughtless America And the heroism and romance which lie concealed in teachers' lives ! Would any novel of the year equal the story that might be told of that mountain school teacher, a college graduate, enthused and inspired as any priest or preacher ever was, so that she accepted a rural school at starva- tion wages, to live in a teacherage alone, no libraries, no music, no com- panionship, three mails a week, and about fifty children to be taught all grades from the kindergarten through high school ? Her local school offi- cer was a mine foreman who reprimanded her in front of the children be- cause the school windows had not been washed, she being teacher, nurse, janitor, stoker, and scrubber, all in one ! And when I met her, she had married the mine foreman and they were running the school and the com- munity together ! No drama of the season tells a tale more poignant than the stories which have been told me in confidence concerning struggles for education, for position, for support of families, for education of sons and daughters in a manner befitting the children of professional men and women, for bare existence in a lonely old age. And the marvel of the teachers is nowhere more completely shown than in their courage, philosophy, and even joy, through struggles such as I have indicated. There is no discouragement to teaching in such stories, any more than to the man or woman who has a genuine call to any profession, for Emerson's theory of compensation works thoroughly in the teacher's life. Desirous that every department of the National Education Association shall have a voice in the affairs of the parent organization, I have often called the presidents of the three Departments, Superintendence, Principals, and Classroom Teachers, into counsel. One result you will find told in your manual ( not your program)-a budget committee composed of a repre- sentative of each of the three Departments, a past president, an officer of the Association, and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, who is also a member of the Executive Committee. 177 THE NATION'S TEACHERS Closely related to the subject of the budget is the question of the sources of income of the National Education Association. Not one dollar have we ever accepted in contribution, bequest, or donation, except when the money was placed in our hands for administration without any pledge of submission of findings to the giver and without supervision by persons out- side of our own organization. He who holds the purse pulls the strings, and there must be no strings pulled in our Association which might divert us from our program, and might obstruct our independent operation as a professional body consecrated to education. Nevertheless we must face the fact that your membership fee of $2.00 (for which you get $10.00 worth), is the only reliable source of income. It becomes evident that there is an intimate connection between the promptness with which you pay your dues and the successful performance of motions you instruct your officers to carry out. I should err greatly if I neglected to ask you to consider the connection between our income and the urgent need for wide dissemination of knowl- edge among the citizens of America concerning the sinister motives behind certain movements in relation to school activities, notably our courses of study in history and vocational work. One of the most dangerous movements afoot for the breaking down of American democracy affects the teaching of American history. We have some people in our midst, who periodically shout scornfully about the time children must spend in learning of the past and laud as new apostles of light the people who throw history into the wastebasket and replace it with the teaching of current topics. What right have they, or you and I, to shape the social, political, or religious life of children on the basis of a study of issues and occurrences, whose reporting is of doubtful accuracy and even more doubtful impartiality, when we ourselves change our point of view in regard to some of them with almost every issue of anewspaper? I am no more afraid of being called conservative than you will find I am afraid of the term political. There are times when both terms are honorable, and this is one of them. Wise judgment of present-day issues depends upon experience, as gained in our own lives and companionships, or as obtained from the lessons of history. Our business with children is to teach facts as told by reliable historians of the past and leave the formation of positive conclusions on the issues of today to maturity and to what time may sift out as true and valid in today's theories and events. Even if it were true that we had taught history by wrong methods and with insane prejudice in the past, why swing the pendulum clear across and discount all the experiences of the past ? How can we preserve America as America unless we teach its ideal and traditions to the children of people. who know more about Mussolini and that disputed strip of land in the Adriatic, about the, Talmud, or the Soviet, than they do of our history or even our speech ? Do not mistake me. I am not contemptuous of the history or traditions of other lands. But they are the problems of Russians, Italians, and Swedish in Russia, Italy, and Sweden. Once here to live on 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION our soil and become voters in the American democracy, they must become steeped in America's theories and history, the story of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, the services and ideals of Jefferson, Hamilton, Marshall, Adams, Washington, Lincoln, Wilson; the story of Lewis and Clark, the Oregon Trail, cotton, railroads, telegraph, telephone, and radio . Along argument, recently advanced against the Education Bill, calls to my mind a distinction in aims regarding industrial and vocational educa- tion, which must speedily be made clear to parents, or great harm is going to result to the progress of vocational education. Teaching a child to make a living is one thing. Teaching him a trade or a job so that it perforce becomes his career and because the industry has need of workers is another thing. Teaching him how to choose a career and then teaching him how to work in it happily, industriously, and worthily is different from either. The three ideas as aims of vocational and industrial education are becom- ing confused in people's minds. They were confused in the mind of the speaker referred to. There are industrialists who would control vocational education with the second aim in view. There are even parents, as well as young people themselves, who see no higher than making a living. Mak- ing a living and the needs of industry, as final aims, are low motives, selfish and debasing to both the individual character and the community life. Either one is destructive to the progress of vocational education, is deeply and justly distrusted by labor organizations, and will undermine American democracy. The third is sane and safe Americanism and what every teacher means by vocational education. Therefore we must contend against the imposition upon us in our teaching of any other aim, we must make parents understand the real values of vocational education, we must pro- tect the child from any abridgment of his right to choose his own career and occupation according to his intelligence and aptitudes. The clearing up of the situation in regard to these two subjects, history and vocational education, is a part of a great piece of work to be done for education, the re-stating of the American program in education. It was conceivedby Dr. Owen when president and made the theme of his meet- ing in Oakland last year. Are we going to do it ourselves, as educators of the common people, free and independent citizens of a great republic? Or shall we let it be done for us and accept the dictation of some organized group outside of our Association, whose viewpoint, however worthy, is nevertheless biased by their own needs and interests ? The answer is a matter of dollars and cents. It is not for me to pass judgment upon the achievements of 1924, but in making this return of my stewardship, I wish to inform you concerning certain aims which have controlled my action during the year. First, I believed it was essential to make every State feel that it is an active part of National Association work. To this end several steps were taken : THE NATION'S TEACHERS 179 Second, I believe the National Education Association can grow and can wield a united influence only when an extremely large proportion of the membership is actively at work on its problems. The resultant sense of responsibility and information concerning the procedure and needs of an association seal each worker unbreakably with the organization, and are worth securing even at a slowing up of some activities. This aim was held in view in adopting the following measures : 1. Committees of one hundred each on problems closest to teachers' personal and professional life-four of these. 2. Enlargement of other committees as far as possible without interfer- ing with concrete results. 3. Committees appointed so as to give definite and ample recognition to the following factors: Men and women, section of country, differing points ofview, creed and race, past experience in National Education Association work, the introduction of new and younger workers in the Association, and recognition of all ranks and types in the teaching body. These thoughts were held in mind in planning the program for this convention, together with certain other aims for the realization of which Imust now rely upon you who are in attendance at this convention : 1. To give to the world, whose embassies are here in our convention city ot 1924, a living demonstration of the vital force and influence of the teacher. 2. To prove conclusively the relationship of education to government in ademocracy. 3. To give the teacher a new inspiration in her professional life and a new devotion to her country whose citizenship she is responsible for. 4. To provide opportunity for teachers to meet one another in social con- tact amid scenes of great beauty in the capital of their country . The gavel I hold in my hand was used by Dr. Bicknell, president of the National Education Association forty years ago. This gavel will signify forever the fact that the National Education Association recognizes that education is a National function, inseparably associated with the preservation of American aims. It is Dr. Bicknell's gift to you, the Nation's teachers, and Mr. Pearse will read its story as hehimself knew it in his first year as an N. E. A. member and as Dr. Bicknell wrote it in a letter to the Association. The head was made from a block of wood which was given me at Monticello , Va., Thomas Jefferson's Home, in 1882. A large cherry tree had been cut in front of the Mansion House and a chunk was given me as a souvenir of the historic place the tree being one of several planted by Jefferson's own hands. In 1883, I visited the Far West, spending considerable time in California. Friends on the Coast Range, among other gifts, gave me a large chunk of the red- woodof California. In July, 1883, I was elected President of the National Educa- tional Association. I resolved to make it National in fact as well as in name. As time went on, it occurred to me to make two gavels, using the two kinds of wood, the Monticello cherry and the California red-wood-in their construction. Bs the union of the red-wood handle and the cherry head, I wished to illustrate 180 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and symbolize the nationalization of the educational forces of all the States and Territories in a strong and lasting union as was done, at Madison, in 1884. Το that end I caused two gavels to be made, both of which I took with me to the Madison meeting, in July, 1884, where both were used. During the closing session of the Madison meeting I presented one of the two gavels to the Association. I understand that this gift has disappeared. In view of the loss of that gavel, I present the second gavel to the Association, on condition that it be used only at the opening and closing sessions of the annual meetings of the National Education Association, or its successor, and that at all other times it shall be kept in some safe depository, in charge of the Secretary of the Association. Meeting in Washington makes honest and valid comparisons possible, for it is twenty-six years since the National Education Association held its annual meeting in Washington, sixteen years since any department meet- ing was held in Washington. Here are figures showing the marvelous growth in professional organization in twenty-six years, the remarkable democratizing of education that is reflected in the National Education Association membership, the increase in professional spirit. Number of Percentage of Class of members members total membership 1 2 3 4 5 Superintendents and Supervisors____ 671 8,400 34.3 6.0 Principals 423 14,000 21.7 10.0 College and Normal School Presi- dents and Instructors____ 399 2,800 20.5 2.0 Classroom Teachers_ 154 112,000 7.9 80.0 Miscellaneous 305 2,800 15.6 2.0 Totals 1,952 140,000 100.0 100.0 In the above tabulations the membership for 1898 was obtained from the Volume of Proceedings for that year. It does not include associate members. It includes only active members, those entitled to vote and hold office, who are, therefore, comparable with our present membership. The figures for 1924 are estimated on the best available information. Mis- cellaneous includes such as the following: book publishers, librarians , editors, "status-unknown," etc. In 1898 the 20 subjects discussed at the general sessions of the National Education Association convention divide as follows: History, 2; Composi- tion, 2 ; Geography, 1 ; Science, 1 ; Mathematics, 5; Administration, 3 ; Social Problems, 6. The total-11 academic plus 3 administrative equals 14 of a purely pedagogic character, as against 6 touching upon social or civic problems of National life. In 1923, 22 subjects occupied the general sessions, dividing as follows: Purely pedagogic, 2 ; National and community interest, 11; Administra tive, 4, but from the point of view of the Nation, rather than a local school system; World interest, 5. THE NATION'S TEACHERS 181 In 1924, our general sessions program is busied with no subject purely pedagogic or administrative, the discussion of subjects of this nature being left to departments and committees and business meetings . Dr. Bicknell tells me that the first actual public recognition of women in the discussions of educational policies was also given at that famous Madison Meeting. On the 1924 program for general and business ses- sions, sixteen out of forty-four speakers listed for general and business sessions are women. The program for 1898 included no classroom teacher or elementary principal. Today there are nine. Butwhat do these figures tell of the significance of our work for educa- tional progress ? We are parts of the greatest educational organization the world has ever known. The National Education Association has sent out its call to all the Nation's teachers,-" Come, enlist with us for the downfall of ignorance and the safety of self-government," for we are pledged to the belief of Thomas Jefferson that, "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be. Ignorance and bigotry, like other insanities, are in- capable of self-government. No other foundation can be laid for the preservation of freedom and happiness but the equal education of all the people" . Now I would turn your thoughts to the long line of great and prominent educators who have worked in and through the National Education As- sociation. So that you might in some measure visualize that long proces- sion, I have asked the past presidents of the National Education Associa- tion to sit on the platform tonight. I wish that I had time to introduce them to you in turn and let each tell of the great work of the teachers of America during the year he had the high privilege of serving as your president. But I shall ask each to stand as I try in my own way to tell you the high points of N. E. A. history. 1897-Dr. Charles R. Skinner, of New York . 1912-Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin, whose far-sighted vision estab- lished our financial security. 1916-David B. Johnson, of South Carolina. 1917-Robert J. Aley, then of Maine. 1918-Mary C. C. Bradford, of Colorado, our War President, in whose term of office the National Education Association occupied its home inWashington and the Education Bill was planned. 1919-George D. Strayer, of New York, who, as Chairman of the Legislative Commission, has fought the good fight for the Education Bill. 1920-Josephine Corliss Preston, of Washington State, in whose year the Association reorganized on a representative and truly democratic basis. 1921-Fred M. Hunter, of California, whose administration established the Representative Assembly as a workable and working instrument of educational democracy. 182 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1922-Charl O. Williams, of Tennessee, whose consecrated zeal for the Education Bill commands our utmost loyalty and admiration. 1923-William B. Owen, whose administration presented to us the problem of an American curriculum and saw the fruition of our hopes for a World Federation for education . Great though the record of these years may be, there are others, makers of American history in science, invention, education, and government, most of whom are now dead, whose connection with the National Education Association is a proud part of our record. I can name but a few of these prominent educators who have worked in and through the National Educa- tion Association, gleaned in a hasty perusal of old programs: Alexander Graham Bell, Charles De Garmo, John Dewey, Charles W. Eliot, Presi- dent in 1903, William T. Harris, President in 1875, Joseph Le Conte. Charles Alexander McMurry, William H. Maxwell, President in 1905. Edward R. Shaw, Professor Ferdinand Buisson, Gabriel Compayre, Julia Richman, Ella Flagg Young, Grace Strachan Forsythe. Even the lists of committees show how far our work has taken us beyond the four walls of a classroom, and how fast we are reaching our goal of professional recognition. In 1898 the National Education Associa- tion had eight committees, every one of which was concerned with academic studies alone and by implication restricted the interests of educators to the academic studies they taught. By 1923 there had been added a score of committees, every one of which was concerned with the broader problems of our social, civic, and industrial life. Before I leave this story of progress made in twenty-six years, a degree and a rate of progress never equalled by surgery, as it struggled away from the barber's pole, or by law, as it emerged from the class of the scrivener and the clerk, I want to spend a moment in calling to your attention some additional high points of our Association development and management in years other than those represented by these past presidents. 1857-1870-The National Teachers' Association organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educa- tional Association." 1886- The Association was incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name "National Educational Association, " which was changed to "National Education Association" in the special charter granted by Congress ; approved June 30, 1906 . 1898-The National meeting was held at Washington, D. C., J. M. Greenwood, President. The position of a permanent and paid Executive Secretary was created. 1903-The following resolution was passed by the National Council : One thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of seven to urge upon Congress and the country the erection of the Bureau of Education into a separate administrative department and its adequate equipment and financial support. THE NATION'S TEACHERS 183 One more point is worthy of keen interest. It was accidentally discov- ered while turning over the pages of old volumes of Proceedings of the National Education Association, and afterwards verified by careful search . There has been no meeting of the Association in which the question of character training fails to appeal as a subject of discussion, nor is the subject of religious education new in the reports of the National Education Association. In 1890 we find two addresses on the general program giving character education as their theme; in 1903, four addresses, three of them dealing with religious education. In 1913 a long address is reported in full, delivered by a man highly regarded among us as an authority on . issues in moral education. In 1918, six addresses, and in 1923 , five addresses, demonstrating again the onward, upward march of the Nation's teachers. Yet there are people, conscious or unconscious agents of propaganda against democracy and its correlative, popular education, who say that the schools develop lawlessness, that they are godless; and foolish imitators take up the cry, when right at hand lies the evidence of the serious, pains- taking thought teachers have always given to character development, and of the fact that no child can possibly go through a public school without a strict training in the most essential habits of character-self-control, con- sideration for others, justice, respect for law and order. It is not God, but dogma, the originators of this slander would have. And dogma has no place in education supported wholly or in part at public expense. God, yes, for a belief in and knowledge of God is an elemental need to the human soul. Principles of right conduct and establishment of right habits by practice and precept-these we must have and we always have had. If Nicholas Murray Butler's indictment of the youth of the land as lawless is true, it is not the fault of the public school, but of the other institutions of our social life whose opportunities for influence on the morals of young people outweigh the school two to one. Why is it taking us teachers so long to see that the very people who shriek against the failures of education are identically the same people who are hampering and obstructing education in appropriations, in plans to remove illiteracy, in the extension of teacher-training, in legislation aimed to remove positions of the top ranks from unethical influences ? It matters little what test be applied, the answer is the same. The history of the Nation's teachers has been one of progress in the struggle for recognition of education as a National issue on which the ultimate fate of America and of all democracy depends. We teachers are no longer Greek slaves, or women seeking a genteel occupation, or male failures in other oc- cupations, or members of a disfranchised class. We are workers together in a service which has no equal in its value to the preservation of the aims for which America was founded. Orators of great ability and reputable standing, as well as demagogues, have assured us repeatedly and loudly that the American democracy rests upon education. So long as that statement was a theory, an abstraction 184 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION without any interpretation in terms of dollars and persons, it met only ap- plause. So long as its application had no real National significance and its practical execution was haphazard and without attempt at a definite Amer- ican program, no opposition was armed secretly or openly. So long as the teaching staff upon whom that education rests remains asleep or unorganized, this fundamental of American existence will continue to be an oratorical abstraction, an impressive paragraph in a platform to be forgotten when it is time for legislative action. There are signs that teachers are becoming conscious of the basic rela- tionship of their work of education to the type of citizenship, and the future character of government itself, inAmerica. The growth of teachers' associations all over the country and the phenomenal increase in the Na- tional Education Association membership in four years indicate the awaken- ing professional spirit of the teachers and their growing class consciousness. Another sign of the changing position of education is the renewal of attacks upon the American common school idea. It is curious to note that certain forms of attack are very old and that they have always been coinci- dent with some great advance made by the teaching staff towards profes- sional recognition or with a new understanding by the public of the relation of education to social and economic problems. Forty years ago, in Madison, Wisconsin, the National Education Asso- ciation made a great stride forward in the history of education when the members then present agreed to make the organization truly National and began a campaign for the awakening of teachers in every State. In that same year, Thomas W. Bicknell, then President of the National Educa- tion Association, found it necessary to say in his address : The matter of the attacks on the common school should receive a word of comment." And he quotes a newspaper editorial : Our present educational system largely unfits young people to deal with the actual necessities of those who are to earn their own living. It takes away self- reliance, begets conceit, and draws attention to what is ornamental rather than what is fundamental . Today, the National Education Association stands at the head of the teaching profession, with the largest membership ever obtained by any educational organization, inclusive of all ranks and elements in the field of education. Coincident therewith, we find this attack of 1884 revived by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler in a speech entitled "Law and Lawlessness" which he has recently widely circulated throughout the United States at public expense under the franking privilege. Dr. Butler says: The sort of education to which we are subjecting our youth is too often 3 training in the spirit of lawlessness. In that same address of Dr. Bicknell's, forty years ago, he quotes an editorial which asks : "Is it wise or best to educate our children beyond the position which the vast majority of them must always occupy ?" An THE NATION'S TEACHERS 185 other of the foes within our own household, Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, president of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, is raising the same question today. In one of his recent reports he tells us that the school must have "the courage to refuse those who are unpre- pared and to point these applicants to other openings in life." To Dr. Pritchett all but an elite few are unprepared, and should be forced into industry at an early age. This is necessary, he says, in order that "the mounting cost of education may be stayed." Dr. Pritchett is also the author of a pamphlet entitled the "Teachers ' Bonus Bill. " In it he attacks the Education Bill and the National Educa- tion Association. His statement is full of misrepresentations. First, he misrepresents the Bill as a measure whose principal object is to give the teachers a bonus, or "adjusted compensation" as he calls it, seek- ing to create the impression that the aim of the Bill is a salary grab. Then he impugns the motives of the teachers who are supporting the measure. Next he sets up a false assumption, namely, that the Bill will result in cen- tralized educational control. Nowhere in his discussion does he disclose that the Bill specifically provides against Federal control. Finally, he gets down to what is really back of his opposition to the Education Bill. He tells us "the present weakness of our public educa- tion is a natural result of the movement to break away from the hard and fast curriculum of classical studies and to meet the multiform educational demands of the new industrial order." This is indeed a terrible charge to make against the public schools. It is breaking away "from the hard and fast curriculum of classical studies," set up in a time when an education was considered a luxury, to be enjoyed by the favored few! It is striving to meet the "educational demands of the new industrial order !" Thus does the educational plutocrat reveal himself. And yet we should nottake our modern mediævalists too seriously. The Butlers and Pritchetts of today are the direct result of their environment. Dr. Pritchett's ex- perience has been almost wholly in the field of private education. His contacts are largely with men whose principal end in life is the creation of fabulous private fortunes. It is not to be wondered at that the products of such an environment are educational reactionaries. No estates in California, no salaries as paid agitators, no incomes from bulletins and surveys are our reward. Only ousting at a political order , restraint from well-earned promotion, loss of advancement in the profes- sion and home of their choice, acceptance of misrepresentation and with- drawal of support by persons whose credulity exceeds their intelligence- these are the emoluments of the teachers attacked in these publications . After a year's experience as your President, I feel more strongly, if possible, than ever before that the Nation's teachers must keep a path with a single goal in sight-equal opportunity to all children for an education which fits them to be citizens of high character in a genuine democracy. 186 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I believe the time has come when the educators of the country must stand solidly united and resolved to obtain rightful recognition of educa tion in our Government. All of us are familiar with the political power wielded by well-organized elements in our American community life. The list is long and reaches back into the early days of our history. Organized effort was required to secure Cabinet recognition of agriculture, commerce, and labor. I am convinced that similar organized effort must be put forth by us who are responsible for education, and that the time is at hand when it must be done or this fundamental factor of education will become the tool of the enemies of real American democracy, of whom the land is full today. These propagandists are awake and active, while teachers sleep, and while the American with inherited traditions rests in smug complacency and false security. The greatest struggle civilization has yet known is on us now. The forces of evil, whether we believe in them as incarnated in a Devil, or whether we regard them as abstract forces of Nature, seek to use every human interest as an instrument whereby democracy can be broken down- religion, industry, home life, politics, the government itself. It is not militarism or pacifism that we need in the great struggle that is upon us. Propaganda for either is but the dust thrown in our eyes to blind us from the real issue and to prevent the use of the real remedy. It is not propaganda against inimical influences nor legislation for their exclusion that democracy needs. It is education ensured its place as the most indispensable, the most dignified, the most valued function of govern- ment. I do not say this merely because I believe in the Education Bill, but because I should be false in my rendering of my stewardship if I failed to tell you that as President of the National Education Association I have learned to know by actual sight and hearing in all parts of this land that every need ever written as argument for that Bill is not only true as told, but that the half has not been told, can never be told from public platform. My acquaintance among National Education Association people has made me feel intensely the rural and small town school situation in this country and to realize that the big city also has its need of National sympathy. The number of teachers in New York City would fill this stadium almost three times, for there are more than 29,000 teachers in New York, of whom 1113 are in the supervising staff. Upon their faith- fulness depends the citizenship of 940,000 children when they reach voting age. The complexity of the local problem in the education of these thousands of children is shared nationally, for few of these thousands wil! make New York their home in maturity. When their children reach school age, their education will be provided by the rural and small town school, just as today the parents of these children often reflect the ideals they learned in neglected communities of our own country or of other lands. . THE NATION'S TEACHERS 187 We cannot shake off our mutual responsibility. The education of the child in a big city, the degree of educational opportunity for a child in mountain, or ranch, or plantation sections of the various States, the condi- tions of training and living for teachers in city and country alike are National problems of greater urgency than railroads, or cotton, or wheat, or coal. Do you remember that play, "The Robots ?" Of what use is all our mechanical, chemical, and scientific progress if it tends to the deteriora- tion of man and fails to take account of human limitations, the needs of the soul, and the development of a high type of intelligent citizen ? It is unfashionable to talk about the World War, and no one loathes its causes and its consequences more than I. Yet it is undeniably true that thousands of our boys, thousands of our people, even you and I, joined in the sacrifice of that war because of the call to make democracy safe. The same call is now sounded forth to the teachers of the Nation. Democ- racy is not yet safe, and you must be the organized army to make it safe by your stand for education, by your determination to vote in every primary, every election, and make every vote count so that office-holders-local , State, and National-heed the warning. So long as Congressmen and Senators, publicists and propagandists, orators, and demagogues continue to secure applause and votes by empty talk of education as an abstraction, while at the same time they regard the teacher, responsible for that education, as the most negligible element in their constituency, the enemies of democracy do not fear us. Some may accuse me of being a politician. Well, it has been said before and I lived through it. If to be a politician is unworthy, and politics is an evil thing, then government is evil, for politics, the dictionary says, means the science of government. ent. Teachers too frequently accept premises vociferously asserted without inquiring into their validity. The only evil about politics is that we teachers let the enemies of democracy, therefore enemies of education, dominate politicians and office-holders . Some may say that I am advocating a low view of office and that a man in office should do what is right for the country according to his conscience. Granted. And it is the duty of the teacher to inculcate that view of office. It is the work of education and one of the reasons why the teachers of the Nation must obtain political recognition. In the meantime, how is the teacher going to uphold the claims of education against the other active elements in an electorate ? A Congressman with whom I have had many arguments on this subject of recognition of teachers and teaching, voiced it tersely, "By their votes ye shall know them." The issue that lies before us, the Nation's teachers, today is: Shall we let the plutocrat, the Bolshevist, the apostle of chaos take from us our glorious opportunity to fulfil our mission in civilization and by a united stand preserve democracy by our devotion to the cause of education ? I think one of the things which woke me to the political situation of the teacher, and its relation to the recognition of education as fundamental 188 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to a successful democracy, was the abuse poured upon one of the greatest of America's presidents because he had been a college professor, a teacher . Through all his slow martydom, enemies of the democracy which he led us to make safe scorned him as a teacher, giving unconscious recognition thereby to the far-reaching results when the teacher will be empowered to make democracy safe through education. So I make no apology for my appeal to the Nation's teachers to vote wisely and well for the cause of education. Neither do I speak of these things because I am a pessimist or because I am roused to cowardly fear. I am neither afraid nor a pessimist. 1 believe that God Himself is behind our democracy, and that He is giving us teachers the chance to be the greatest instruments of progress that civilization has ever known. I believe that we are becoming conscious that our democratic ideals must fail without free and equally distributed oppor- tunity for education ; education so planned and adapted that it gives freely to every child in America an equal opportunity to develop his native ca- pacities and aptitudes so as to make him both a useful and a happy çitizen and an intelligent voter; education that provides to every boy and girl the possibility of free advance to the highest type of education that their gifts permit; education that gives no subsidies to schemes of education that are partisan in their character, whether the partisanship be of race, creed, or station in life; education that has for its definite and specific aim the train- ing of a citizenship consecrated to the development and preservation of American aims as set forth in the Declaration of Independence and the Preamble to the Constitution of the United States. This is my gospel of education. I believe it must be interpreted in terms of its preachers, the teachers of the Nation. Listen to Calvin Coolidge, President of the United States : It would be exceedingly difficult to overestimate the important part that teachers take in the development of the life of the Nation. It is the teacher that makes the school, that sets its standards, and determines its success or failure It is not too much to say that the need of civilization is the need of teachers. Prior to 1920, the voices of opposition were only occasionally heard and much less noisily. Why the difference now? Because with the establish- ment of the Representative Assembly, modeled upon the Government of the United States itself, and with the introduction of the Education Bill, the Nation's teachers served notice that they intend to stand unitedly in de- fense of the American principle of equal educational opportunity for all children, regardless of birth, wealth, or class; that they realize that on the defense of that American ideal of education depends the defense of the American ideal of democracy; and that they, the Nation's teachers, are the people consecrated by their professional obligations to preserve that education and that democracy for the children they teach today, the voters of tomorrow. FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY JESSE H. NEWLON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO This is the fourth meeting of the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association. At the meeting in Salt Lake City, in 1920, the reorganization of the Association was consummated. Previous to this reorganization, the business meetings were conducted on a town hall basis. All active members were privileged to vote. Members living within the immediate vicinity of the meeting place could easily dominate the business of the Association by a preponderance of numbers so that the official action of the Association might be the expression of a section and not of the Nation as a whole. The representative assembly insures that the entire membership will be represented when the Association speaks officially. It insures that the business of the Association will be transacted by the entire membership, and that policies will not be determined by the accident of meeting place. The reasons for the reorganization are then apparent. It has been my privilege to be a member of every Representative Assem- bly held under the reorganization, and I am convinced no deliberative body would be more difficult to stampede. We have seen attempts in the past four years to becloud issues, to practice demagoguery ; and we have seen the membership of this Assembly, which is representative of the best leadership in the profession in classrooms and administrative offices , stand against that sort of thing and evince a calmness and deliberation of judgment that is a splendid example of the service which the Association can render to the country in the years to come. Students of government know of the long debate as to whether a mem- ber of a law-making body is merely a delegate from his constituency and limited in his actions by the desires of his constituency, or whether he is a member of a deliberative body charged with the responsibility of studying the needs of the commonwealth or of the Nation and forming his own judgments as to how his vote should be cast, giving due regard to the wishes of his constituents and due regard to the needs of the com- monwealth or of the Nation as a whole. The consensus of opinion among students of government in the English-speaking countries is that a member of Congress or of a legislature or of a parliament must hold the welfare of the State or the Nation above that of any section or any class. And in so far as our deliberative bodies have been able to live by that principle, they have most successfully discharged their responsibility to the State and the Nation. This principle applies to the Representative Assembly. Each of you comes here representing a constituency. You have a duty to that con [189] 190 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION stituency. It is incumbent upon you to take its point of view into con- sideration, but you are not fit to be the representative of that constituency, or a member of this Assembly, if you are not inclined to make a study of the problems of education and of the profession from the standpoint of the Nation and to exercise an intelligent independence of judgment. A member of this Assembly, then, should be a student of the problems of education in America. He should look beyond the confines of his own locality and see the educational needs of his community in relation to the problems of the Nation. Likewise he should consider the problems of the profession itself on a nation-wide basis. The history of legislative assemblies has been that those members who are returned year after year exercise the greatest influence. I have noted the tendency on the part of some classroom teachers' organizations to send each year to this Assembly practically new delegations. These new mem- bers come without experience in the operations of the Assembly. They are not familiar with many of the problems that have been under con- sideration. Resolutions are to be voted upon during these sessions that have been debated in previous assemblies. The new members do not have the background that those of us have who have been members of previous assemblies. A happy medium should be struck by the local or- ganizations. Each delegation should represent new blood, so that in every school system there will be a goodly number of teachers who have sat in this Assembly and are familiar with the working of the policy-determining body of their National Association. But, on the other hand, these local organizations will do well to return some representatives, year after year, in order that in each succeeding year they and the constituency which they represent may profit by the experience which they have had. Each member of the profession who has been given the honor of a seat in this Assembly should guard jealously the reputation of the Assembly. If we have a code of professional ethics, it should find its highest expres- sion in the actions taken by the members of this body and in our relations to our fellow members here. We speak for the entire profession. The genuine interests of no group of our profession conflict with the interest of any other group. There is no place in our profession for group jealousies and hatreds. Any person who comes into this Assembly voicing group jealousies and hatreds and selfish interests should receive the rebuke of every member in it. Let us set our face against the formation of cliques, against all selfish practices in the election of officers and in the formation of policies. Let us set our face against the practice of demagoguery in any form whatever. Let the slogan of this Assembly be: "All the cards on the table." If any member of our profession criticizes the operations of this Assem- bly, or of those who are intensely interested in the promotion of the National Education Association, let us insist that this criticism shall not be by insinuations and innuendoes but open and aboveboard. FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 191 Let us guard jealously the right of freedom of speech here and through- out the profession, that every member may have the privilege of speaking his mind upon the problems that confront the Assembly, knowing that his motives will not be questioned. Imperfections will be found in the reorganized National Education Association, and in the organization and method of operation of the Assem- bly itself. Let these defects be remedied after mature thought and con- sideration and after all points of view have been taken into consideration. Here is the place to practice that openness of mind which we as teachers advocate as essential in a good citizen. The years just ahead of us are vears of reconstruction. They will be among the most important in the history of American education. This Assembly has a great mission as a mouthpiece of the Association. In the beginning of our work this year let us carefully consider this mission and our responsibility. American public education has made tremendous progress in the last hitty years. The people appreciate the worth of the public schools, and provide support as never before in our history. But there are those in the Nation who do not believe in our public schools. There are others who believe only in a modicum of public education and who would very greatly curtail the program. It is very seldom that those who represent these points of view openly attack the schools. They would not dare to reveal their ultimate aims by an open attack. They know that would be tutile. But they make criticisms without presenting supporting evidence. They attempt to make the people dissatisfied with the cost of the schools . They would rejoice to see the teachers of the country divided. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that the teachers preserve their unity of professional action. Let us beware, then, of the individual, in or out ofthe profession, who attempts to sow dissension among us. I would not be interpreted as saying we should defend the schools as ifthey were perfect. Teachers, above all, should lend ear to honest criti- cisms. We should constantly reëxamine curricula and methods, and strive always to give the very best service possible for the investment which the people are making in public education. At the same time, let us remem- ber that we are passing through a critical period in American education, and that this Assembly has tremendous responsibility in speaking for the profession nationally. As wemeet in this city of Washington, the capital of our country, let us remember that we speak for a great profession that labors in the service of the State. Let us pledge anew our devotion to America and American ideals. Let our actions here this week give renewed ' assurance to the people of the United States that the children of America are safe in the hands of the teachers in their public schools, and that there is no more patriotic and loyal group of citizens within the confines of the Nation than is the great body of American public school teachers. THE PARENT MARGARETTA WILLIS REEVE, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS , PHILADELPHIA , PENNSYLVANIA Perhaps never does the right thinking parent feel so humbled, so chas- tened, as in a meeting such as this, and I would that more parents might be present to undergo the heart-searching experience of hearing others assume, and bravely prepare to carry the burdens which should not be theirs, taking it for granted that little or nothing is to be expected from the home, in not only the physical and mental, but also the moral and religious education of the child. It may be that they will continue to bear these burdens, but let the parents at least honestly admit it is their disgrace if such substitution is allowed. "The education of the child should begin while he is still in the cradle." "Society is made up of the mass of individuals and can only think, feel, and act as individuals think, feel, and act. Train the individual properly and society will be sane and healthy and efficient enough." "It is in the first years of life and in the influence of the home that the forces are set in motion which count for the most in the making or the marring of the individual's character and career. Parental responsibility is consequently much greater than most parents suppose-but so is parental opportunity." Here we have the business of education epitomized, and in so far as any part of this program lies within the scope of the parent's influence or con- trol, in it we find the outline of the contribution which he or she is, ex- officio, under obligation to make to it. With the privileges and oppor- tunities offered by the profession of parenthood, comes also the entire responsibility for certain phases of education, and when this duty is ignored or is shifted to the shoulders of those already sufficiently burdened with their own share of social responsibility, we face the collapse of our civic structure which is inevitable when the weight is unequally distributed, and which we see threatened in the over-crowded jails and reform schools, and insane asylums, and in the banditry and general lawlessness of the present day. We are facing conditions which are the direct results of past mistakes. and for which the cure may be expected only by means of recognition and reparation. We are paying the price for the divorce of the child from the home, of the home from the school, of school from community, and the consequent disintegration of the social unit in the life of the child. If it is true that, as the modern psychologist tells us, character is made or marred in the first six years of life, we need seek no further for the primary function of the home-the right development of the pre-school child. [192] THE PARENT 193 Freud says that the little human being is frequently a finished product in his fourth or fifth year. How then do we dare to take the school to task for its failure to produce the perfect citizen from the defective material with which we in the home have supplied it? The parent's first contribution to education may be briefly stated thus : to lay the foundations on which all instructions must rest, and upon them to build the framework which must sustain the completed structure which the school and the community shall build around those beams and girders. The child for which the home is responsible must first be a good little animal. Eyes, ears, teeth, posture, bones, muscles, and digestion-all these are fundamental to education, and their development can no more depend upon inspiration or tradition than can the teaching of sciences or instruc- tion in "readin', writin', and 'rithmetic." But the child cannot be even agood little animal without training in mental and motor habits, and here we have some more foundation stones; sleep and exercise, muscular control of arms and legs, skill in the use of hands, and the cultivation of thorough- ness, obedience (law observance) , courtesy (social relations) , and honesty (good citizenship), until they have become as automatic as walking, in response to certain stimuli; and though the home educator may be equipped in varying degrees to conduct these courses, it is not the college diploma but the true educational spirit which makes the real teacher, as the "lives ofgreat men oft remind us." The moral training of the child begins six years before he comes under the influence of the school, and though it may be demonstrated and en- forced by the right influence in the school, and right example from the teacher, let us admit frankly that when moral education begins in the school, the parent has failed to make his second contribution to education. Honesty and justice, fair play and truthfulness must be taught by father and mother before and during the school years, and the sole responsibility of the school should be to see that it maintains the same high standard set by the home. And now religion must be taught, or at least arranged for, in the public school. Again, where is the parent through whose life teaching religion, the life of God in the soul of man, should become to the child "nearer to him than breathing, closer than hands or feet" ? Where are the teachers of the Sunday schools who, trained for their high calling, should supple- ment the teaching of the home and set standards of spiritual conduct whichwill be expressed in life, wherever it may be lived, whether in home, school, or community ? You teachers who have faced the task that parents have shirked, have been more kind than wise. You must throw back upon the parents the duties which belong to them, and by demanding their legiti- mate contribution of moral and religious training, compel them to become whatthey were of old time: the moulders of the characters of their children. The third contribution of the parent to education is also one too often ignored-the continued support of the home, which must be given if the 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION outward forms of education are to produce their proper effect. This sus- taining interest must manifest itself in three ways : First: The same care must be given to the physical development and the character training of the school child, since the years of school life place upon the "little animal" heavier demands from both body and mind, and contact with fellow pupils offers more severe tests of moral standards than are usually met with in the shelter of the restricted home circle. Second: When the child and the school have come into relationship, the parent's knowledge must extend to a thorough comprehension of the system of which, through his child, he has now become a part, of the social and economic forces which have been brought to bear upon his boy or girl, of his financial interest in the investment he has made and the return he is receiving for the money expended in the support of public instruction. If he is obtaining, through his child, a third-rate article in the way of school or teacher as the result of liberal contributions by means of taxes and 'bonds, he should act in that case exactly as he would in regard to any other business enterprise and demand that he get what he has paid for. If, on the contrary, he has tried to buy a first-class article at a cut rate, and has gotten only what he was willing to pay for, he should place the blame where it belongs at his own door, and not upon an educational system in- adequately supported. Education has too long been limited in the public mind to youth and the teachers; it must begin with the parents. In the Federal Government, we elect our legislators and our executives, but even in the distant centers of administration they hear always the voice of the people-the people who pay, and without whom the Government could not go on. In the school, as in the State, the administrators should be those best fitted to represent us, but always behind them, beside them, should be the people who pay, and as a wise politician keeps his constituents informed of his activities in their interests, so will the wise educator keep ever before his patrons his plans and his needs and his consciousness that upon the parents of his pupils and not upon himself alone depends his success or his failure in his term of office. The average parent looks upon the school system as somewhat of a gigantic trust, with an incredibly large income sufficient to all its require- ments, formed to assume certain functions in the community and to per- form them without assistance from the general public. The more modern idea, which is gradually gaining ground, is that the school system is indeed a trust, but in a different sense of the word-one which has been committed to trustees who have proved their fitness, but one in which the parent shares the responsibility because it is by his vote that the trustees hold their office and to him they owe the accounting of their stewardships. The fourth contribution which may be expected from the parent will be the twofold result of this business partnership, this coöperative interest in the children. THE PRINCIPAL 195 First: the work which the schools are doing will be understood, its practical value will be appreciated, and in music and art, in domestic science and academic studies, in character training and vocational guidance, the home will supplement the curriculum, to the benefit of both. And secondly, the parents and teachers with the same ideals and ambitions for the young people will receive from the community at large the interest and support so essential to the advancement of modern standards, a pro- gressive program, and the equalization of educational opportunity. The failure of social agencies to bring about lasting reforms by means of corrective measures is slowly awakening the public consciousness to the importance-nay more, the necessity of parental knowledge both of physiology and psychology, and of parental activity in the field of educa- tion. When the energy, time, and money now being expended upon the training of "social workers" are at least shared with agencies for the train- ing of parents, educators may hope to see the beginning of an era in which they will be free to devote their trained powers to creative effort and to the realizing of their ideals instead of to the reconstruction of the mental, moral, and physical results of the ignorance and indifference of the home. The wise teacher who reads the signs of the times, will go halfway to meet this dawning comprehension of the true function of the father and mother, and will draw out not only the latent abilities of the pupil, but also the sympathetic interest of the public, so that the barriers between home and school may finally disappear, and the contribution of the parent to educa- tion may become everywhere what it should be the foundation upon which all other experiences of life must rest. THE PRINCIPAL MARY MC SKIMMON , PRINCIPAL, PIERCE SCHOOL BROOKLINE , MASSACHUSETTS When the botanists in charge of the Arnold Arboretum, owned jointly by the City of Boston and Harvard University, had exhausted every means ofproducing new color, shape, size, perfume, grace, and charm of the lilac, an early emigrant to America, by way of every famous garden, and humble dooryard of Europe, an expedition was sent forth into that strange world- old treasure house of history, the Eastern stretch of Asia, to find, if possible, the wild lilac in its original state, that from this earliest form, unchanged by the caprice or scientific skill of man, new studies might be made which should result in a lilac more beautiful, more fragrant, and more glorious than any yet known to the beauty-haunted soul of man. Perhaps in remote valleys of Persia, or in a hidden fold between almost unknown mountains of Thibet or Transylvania, there might be disclosed the abiding place of this prototype. No hardship was too great for these 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION intrepid enthusiasts to undergo, no sacrifice too vast to make for such a contribution to science and to aspiration. The elementary principal is stirred by the same spirit of discovery to establish a common understanding as to his place in the world of educa- tion. He oftentimes finds himself in a position where not even tradition is present to help him plot his course. There are more than 50,000 prin- cipals of elementary schools in America, and their Department is the youngest in this National Education Association. Since our organiza- tion four years ago, we have done more by working together (5000 or 6000 of us) than all that has been accomplished by our branch of the profession in the last forty years . We are writing books, like Mr. Wat- son's "Mental Measurements and the Classroom Teacher," that are bought, and paid for, and read. We are writing magazine articles and putting out bulletins that elevate and unify, stimulate and broaden the whole pro- fession. Our third Year Book, fresh from the press, is the pride of every member of the Department. If one had to teach next year with just one book on Education, he might wisely choose Mr. Gist's splendid treasure house, without hesitation. Nor are we the only consumers of our co- laborers' work. The great colleges offering post graduate work are using our first Year Book, "The Technique of Supervision," and the second, "The Elementary Principal in the Light of the Testing Movement," and now " The Status and Professional Activities of the Elementary School Principal" starts forth to the honor of our entire profession; a power to uplift, to enlighten, to do much to define sharply and definitely the status of the elementary principal. A few years ago a survey was made in the Elementary School Journal to classify the separate duties devolving upon the principal. A list of nearly ninety assigned responsibilities was compiled. In the four or five years since then, at least twenty more duties have been added through the introduction of dental clinics, malnutrition classes, mental testing, Schick tests, etc. Another brief questionnaire revealed the fact that while no one denied that supervision to the end of improving the learning process was the very heart and soul of the principal's service to his school, so hampered were the principals of the typical city observed that the survey discovered that supervision was getting less than one half of the big slices of time devoured by administrative and clerical work! Here is where the first army of enlightenment must sally forth. It is not even intelligent to hire an educational expert at $100 a week and tie him up to the kind of work that an expert clerk can do far better, and at one fifth the cost. No busi- ness concern would be ranked efficient by its board of directors who per- mitted this condition of things to exist. Three quarters of the administra- tive work that has to be attended to in school time can be done perfectly well by a properly trained clerk. This is the first piece of constructive work that should be undertaken. The trouble is that the world has not THE PRINCIPAL 197 yet become aware of the great loads imposed today, owing to the demands made by modern educational state laws, social conditions, crowded city life, new knowledge of physical and mental hygiene, safety-first needs, and the ever increasing store of human knowledge that must be handed on to those hurrying toward the already opening gates of tomorrow . It was Dr. Gwynn who said, "We lambaste the public for not knowing what we sedulously avoid telling it." Our Department, with its splendid, regu- lar, frank discussions, is at last freeing itself from that accusation. Throughout our ranks a dim uneasiness is felt. There is no unanimity of requirement on the part of school boards, nor of service on the part of the elementary principal, nor of interpretation of the principal's status by the superintendent. Our title of principal is sometimes given to the highest grade teacher of a three-room primary school, and in other places denied to the person in charge of a thousand or more pupils unless there are at least twenty-five classrooms under his care. There is still an unsettled condition where supervisors of special subjects-people expert in their line-find it hard to realize that a school must have just one head, unless confusion is to reign. It is the person responsible for coördinating all the work of all the teachers and supervisors who must be the court of decision as to how the learning process may best be served, for the schools are built and supported for the children, and for them alone. If igno- rant, untrained youth could grow into good citizens without the schools then schools need never have been built. This then is one point to be aimed at by every elementary principal in the country : to be the unques- tioned head of his own school and to receive his authority from one chief, the superintendent, who represents the school board. , With his time freed from the clerical hindrances that rob his school of the time due to its supervision; with his title and responsibility recog- nized as supreme within his own school, subject only to his chief and the regulations of his school board, the elementary principal is equipped with helmet and breastplate for service; but he is still without his sword-com- munity leadership. Is that a craving begotten of pride and satisfaction in his invested authority ? Why does he need to concern himself with the success or failure of the community outside his sacred premises ? Is it nothing to him that aging teachers face a future of want and misery ? Is it nothing to him that the children are the first to be robbed when the cry of retrenchment goes forth ? Who ever heard of a retrencher beginning with his own salary? Is it nothing to him that every other worker is pro- tected by a law of contract, to which the teacher's tenure is, too often, like the strength of a spider's web in comparison with wire ropes ? And most important of all, are we to pretend forever that a child can really be getting an education when he is one of a class of forty-five, when the teacher, harassed by the impossible task of training a child to gain power through the skillful drawing out of his powers to think, is compelled, in order to cover the subject in the time allowed, to forsake the foundation 198 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION truth of teaching, and to hurry to pour out facts as fast and far as she can, making this flood of facts take the place of the child's own discovery oftruth? "'Tis not by guilt the onward sweep Of truth and right, O Lord, we stay; 'Tis by our follies that so long We hold the earth from heaven away. " Let us follow the plan of the searchers of the original lilac, that we may know whether these ideals on which we have set our hearts-the status of the principal; the right to do the work which is the high hope of his calling; supervision for the direct improvement of both the teaching and the learning process; and his right to the place of a community leader- are realities possible for the principal to accomplish. In our search for authority for our ideals let us turn to the oldest existing school in the United States, the Boston Latin School. Founded in 1635, stronger and more vigorous than ever today, four times rebuilded, sending its great scholars forth into the 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th cen- turies, we may perhaps find in it the germ and sanction of what we seek. When this school was founded, Charles I sat on England's throne, with Henrietta Maria and the beautiful children that Van Dyck has immortal- ized, around him ; Shakespeare had been sleeping in the bee haunted, linden- shaded church at Stratford for 19 years; and the great Queen Elizabeth had slept for barely thirty-two years in proud Westminster Abbey. John Milton was writing L'Allegro, Lycidas, and Comus that year, and Oliver Cromwell was thinking about the folly of the divine right of kings, wait- ing for his hour to strike, not knowing that it had struck. The first three or four teachers are too shadowy in the mists of that early dawn, but in 1670, Ezekiel Cheever became its master, with a long régime of thirty-eight years ahead of him. No shadow was Master Cheever, a man of faith, of God, and of duty. He trained the souls and minds and bodies of all Boston boys, including the little Indians (who paid no tuition) . He asked no leave of anyone to plot his course. Fifty-six years old was he when he received the keys of his school from the great men of the town, for the school committee did not come into existence until the year after Ezekiel had gone to his reward, and had been saved from oblivion by his great pupil, Cotton Mather, historian and poet laureate of early Boston. It was a grim age. Master Cheever flogged and prayed for the boys with equal fervor. He was paid sixty pounds a year and lived in the little schoolhouse. He held his boys in chains of steel, and kindled a passion for freedom by his glory in Cromwell's victory at Marston Moor. How could kingship ever come to its own again in bleak little Boston, after the failure of a king "Who bore to look on torture but durst not look on war" ? "He labored in his calling," Judge Sewall says, "skillfully, dili- gently, constantly, religiously, for seventy years, a rare instance of piety, THE PRINCIPAL 199 health, strength, serviceableness. The welfare of the Province was much upon his spirit. He abominated periwigs." Our first specimen of wild lilac seems to have a perfectly well defined status, to have feared God with his whole heart and man not at all. To have had a glorious immortality in his famous pupils, and to concern him- self vastly with service to the community. Let us learn to cast out fear, my fellow workers. The next master was Nathaniel Williams, a man of parts, for he was doctor and minister as well as schoolmaster. Before you condemn such a divided interest, let me remind you that Benjamin Franklin was his typical product. Few and short were this scholar's days at school ! He was desig- nated by his father for the church, as his tenth son, but the boy at eight thought otherwise. He was to be heard of in the Continental Congress and the Court of France, to add his name to the Declaration of Independ- ence and do his full share in that wise old document, the Constitution of the United States, and to help chain the lightning of the sky. It was to Master Williams that the formal petition was presented by some fond parents asking whether " Some more easier and delightful methods might be attended and put in practice. " But though Master William's specimen of lilac, as realized in his famous offshoot, warms our heart to the man who could teach the Latin School and manage two other professions at the same time, the real treasure of our search is found in John Lovell, who was master from 1735 to April 19, 1775, the school man of the Revolutionary time. Mr. Lovell could glow over the memory of the glorious days of old Ticonderoga, but like many of us, his successors, he would willingly die "to keep the past upon its throne," but these restless, law resisting fellow citizens of his he could not follow. It was not so easy, teaching obedience to youth born with a passion for liberty, that he could bear to see his country break from lawful authority. His portrait hangs in Harvard Memorial Hall, the very pic- ture of eighteenth century complacency. Master Lovell had a garden belonging to the school, cultivated in a very thrifty manner, free of expense. His best boys were allowed to work in it as a reward of merit. These same best boys were allowed to saw the master's wood and bottle his cider, and in payment for their services, "they were allowed to laugh as much as they pleased while performing these delightful offices," as his biographer says. Butwhen the rich and powerful King's Chapel, representing the wealth, power, and aristocracy of the day, wanted to tear down the Latin School in 1748, it was Mr. Lovell himself who led the fight against it. Town meeting after town meeting was held. The strife ran high, and although King's Chapel won at last, and a new and better school was built just across the street, Master Lovell followed his light as he saw it, unafraid of dignitaries in high places. As good an example to us "shy and special- ized folk," as Mr. Wells calls us, as we can find in our hunt for precedents. 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION He sat in his high seat of office exactly opposite the schoolhouse entrance; at the left of this door sat his son and assistant, James. At these different ends of the classroom, like "embodied spirits of the past and present," the father taught the rights of the crown, while the son taught the rights of the people. Could you, my friends, let your assistant teach principles opposed to your sacred convictions ? Were those old predecessors of ours as narrow as our self-sufficiency convinces us at times ? Alas, it never occurred to him that he was the embodiment of independence itself, for onthat fateful 19th of April, the very moment when was "Fired the shot heard 'round the world," Lord Percy had drawn up the royal forces which were to protect the mili- tary stores from the Minute Men already aroused by Paul Revere. The Redcoats were standing at attention a few yards from the new school door. Without any exchange of courtesies with his committee, he addressed his pupils : "War'sbegun And school's done!" Locking the door behind him, he started to take passage with other Tories on a British ship bound for Halifax, dying three years later. The Boston Latin School had the first and last break in its history, a vacation for one year. If our profession is weak and fearful, if we run much to feeble flowering and little to strong roots, the fault is with us, and not in the big, brave, honest things of our beginnings. The truth of character, the ideals of development, the strength of a noble calling are all there in the freshness of the far beginnings. We can afford to aim for the best we know, for that is for what our fathers planted the ever greatening seed. THE CITIZEN TEACHER JULIA A. SPOONER, PORTLAND, OREGON To tell in fifteen minutes' time what are the outstanding contributions of the classroom teacher to education, is a task of some magnitude. The classroom teacher is a considerable factor in the educational body, not the directing brain, perhaps, nor the sustaining heart, but surely equivalent to the nervous system, with all its ramifications and manifold duties, and without which the brain would be helpless and the heart futile. Many classroom teachers have appeared on this platform, in the past, to discuss various phases of their activity, but this is perhaps the first time we have been called upon to present group accomplishment for your consid- eration. Probably the outstanding contribution of the past two decades by class- room teachers is their organization of teachers as teachers. Not until THE CITIZEN TEACHER 201 the classroom teachers were so organized, did they begin to realize their comparative positions in the educational scheme or attempt to develop them- selves in harmony with that position. Teachers are organized to promote education, and through organization, education has been given a wider publicity and a more democratic interpretation than has ever been possible in the previous history of schools. A dozen cities report teachers, or- ganized to put over bond issues or tax levies, using their strategic position in the community to secure publicity which otherwise would cost more than could be spent for the purpose. Financial aid is a small thing com- pared to the educational publicity and the National educational unity which are slowly being achieved through teacher organization. It is no accident, nor is it a purely economic result that our young people are seek- ing higher education as never before in the world's history. Teachers are becoming promoters, engaged in selling an investment which brings large returns to every one except themselves . As an individual in the organization, each teacher is doing publicity work. Through coöperation with women's clubs and parent-teacher asso- ciations, the teacher is helping to bring about a better understanding of the ends and aims of education as well as of its processes. It is impossible for any other group to develop the same close relationship with parents as does the teaching group. The child's parent and the child's teacher working together for the child's welfare, form a combination that eventually will secure results. Mutual understanding is the basis of the coöperation. Added to these two positive contributions in relation to the public, is a third, a negative one. The classroom teacher's repudiation of the absurd assumption that child character is the product of the schools solely, in the face of the fact that the school has him but 11 per cent of his time, while his leisure hours cover 44 per cent of his time, is compelling public atten- tion to the disposition of those leisure hours. The public is beginning to take into consideration the fact that the child is the joint product of home, school, and community, and that all must equally share responsibility for his teaching, and that to that extent a finer type of coöperation is being established between those responsibile for the youth of the country. In relation to the child himself, what have been the classroom teachers' contributions to education ? There seem to be two outstanding ones, both probably directly traceable to the sex of the teacher, for the classroom teacher in America is predominantly feminine. We are told that women are more practical and less philosophic, more conservative and less imagina- tive and less theoretical than men, less given to abstractions and more prone to direct action. It is not strange, then, to find that classroom work has become increasingly practical and usable, that emphasis is more and more put upon those things which will function somehow, somewhere, some time in a child's life. There are those who mourn this condition, but classroom teachers have been forced to see that education is a living of life, not a fitting for life. The second is closely related to the first- and I offer it not solely upon my own responsibility but supported by the 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION testimony of Rudyard Kipling. It is that, because of the influence of the classroom woman teacher, the emphasis of education has shifted from mathematics and languages to citizenship. What profits it a man that he can translate every language past and present, or demonstrate every prop- osition ever presented, if he cannot translate right thinking into right action or demonstrate his theories of life into living ? What has been the classroom teacher's contribution to education in rela- tion to her coworkers? I quote from a speech made upon the National Education Association platform, tremendously interesting to me: "I wish to urge the organization of school faculties consisting of the selection of leading teachers whose duty it shall be to advise with each other and with school boards on all matters pertaining to the schools, save those which are personal or incongruous to their position. The true dignity of the teacher's office would be recognized by such a relation and position in the school work of the city, town, county, or State. The proper balancing of influences, educational and administrative, would be secured in the most important decisions relating to the educational work of the community, and unity, harmony, and permanence of relationship would be readily secured and maintained. Much of the power of our teaching talent is now wasted in the merciless wear and constant friction between the authority that contrives and the hands that execute. How glad the day when the teacher and the officer can see eye to eye and work shoulder to shoulder, animated by a common purpose each with the freedom of his own personality but governed by the loyalty of all true hearts to duty, conscience, and the higher law." From what do you suppose I was quoting ? From some of the hysterical, morbid leaders of classroom organizations about whom we heard at the Chicago meeting? Indeed, no ! It is from the opening address made by the President of the National Education Association, but I doubt if any of you, with the exception of Dr. Winship, or Major Clancy, perhaps, remember it for it was given the year that I was born, when the National Education Association met in Madison, Wisconsin, my native State. I read through the National Education Association proceedings of that year, to see what he was doing then, and if he was featured as a radical, and I found some interesting things. In his annual address, this President re- viewed the progress made by the organization during its 28 years of exist- ence; he cited that it had adopted an honorary membership annex for ladies engaged in teaching, admission to which by a board of gentlemanly directors gave women teachers the right of presenting in the form of written essays (to be read by the Secretary or any other member whom they might select) , their views upon the subject assigned for discussion. He went on to say, " The rights thus gallantly accorded by the National have not frequently been exercised, through whose neglect we cannot bear testimony, and the large opportunity granted to women at the present meet- ing may be regarded as a confession and a penance for past shortcomings." Now, what was the large opportunity granted to women at that meeting THE CITIZEN TEACHER 203 as a confession and as a penance for past shortcomings ? This extremely liberal President had arranged a symposium on "Woman's Contribution to Education," at which five women were permitted 15 minutes each at one of the night meetings in which to sum up what they considered the out- standing features of their work, which would justify them in continuing as coworkers with men in the field of education. It is worthy of note that at least half of the previous speakers of the convention had stressed the im- portance of bringing more men into the work. They had called attention to the fact that in the Northern States at least seven eighths of the teachers were women, and while it made education cheaper and the condition had therefore at least one virtue, the occupation could scarcely be called a pro- fession so long as it was predominantly woman's work, for woman's sphere was domesticity. I am quoting one of these women for the benefit of the teachers. She said: "Actual teaching does not wear out the teacher; it is the expenditure of nerve and will-power to hold the pupil in a necessary condition to be taught that saps the teacher's strength." She quoted the authorities as saying, "Each generation is more carelessly trained than the last," all of which has a distinctly familiar sound. Her conclusions I quote for the benefit of the men present tonight . She said that through women's entrance into the educational field, there had been a general amelioration of discipline. Due to her physical weak- ness, woman had substituted spiritual and moral forces for physical agen- cies of discipline. Woman had made the discovery of the child's moral powers; she had effected an economy of childish power, zeal, and love ; she had introduced inspiration into the profession, and lastly, men, through competing with women in the profession, had attained an almost feminine purity. Frances E. Willard used part of her precious fifteen minutes acknowl- edging the unusual opportunities given her sex in this advanced organiza- tion by saying: "I thought it a very liberal idea on the part of the President oftheAssociation and certainly liberal on the part of our friends who have gathered here to listen while the women have their say about their views." But while three of the ladies were ladylike and did not take advantage of the situation to try out upon the gallant sex that had been generous enough to give them a hearing, there were even in that day, apparently, thorns in the flesh of the governing body, and one of these prefaces her remarks by this comment on the woman's symposium : "This evening I regard as an historic survival from a time now dead, when every church held its distinct corner for inferior classes." Yet, while she apparently objected to being segregated as a woman, she was inconsistent enough to call attention to the fact that although everywhere, except in the superin- tendent's department, the audience was made up in major part of women, the speakers, gentlemen all, persistently addressed their remarks to the gentlemen, and had been unable to admit the women within their line of vision. 204 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION We have traveled a long way since that historic night in the National Education Association ; how far we have come it is hard to gauge unless one does frequently retrace his steps to the point of departure; women as women serve in all departments of the National Education Association today, and in the one committee meeting in which I have participated, where the chairman insisted upon recognizing only the masculine members of the committee, they were much more embarrassed than I. The point of direct emphasis has shifted during these years from sex to departments, or as some insist upon thinking, to class distinctions, though it really is only a part of the process of evolution of education through which we are going, which brings me back to my query as to the classroom teacher's contribution to education in relation to her coworkers. Just as the contribution of woman to education and to civic life has been the insistence that civic life must include her in its functioning, must recog- nize her as a definite, responsible, contributing factor in the development of civic projects, so the contribution of the classroom teacher to education is the insistence that education is a job for all departments; that none can be outstandingly conspicuous, that all must share the labor, the responsi- bilities, the recognition and the rewards involved in the task. No depart- ment can accomplish alone-it is contrary to the law of life-and until all groups engaged are equally participants and equally respected in all pro- cesses of education, education will fall short of the reality it might become, the creative force directly influencing the lives of men. When the classroom teacher insists upon the recognition of the fact that no single group in education can lay its hand upon one single educational achievement and say, "This work is mine," she is doing what lies in her power to bring about a true coördination of our educational forces based upon sensible and sound principles. What has been the classroom teacher's contribution to herself to her own development and outlook ? Self-preservation is the first law of nature, and therefore she has devoted much energy to bettering the conditions under which she works. Fortu- nately she has not had to work entirely alone, for other departments, realiz- ing that whatever improves individual conditions, improves group condi- tions, have ultimately recognized the value of her efforts along this line. Hand in hand with the demand for improved teaching conditions goes the demand for higher standards of preparation and for growth in service. A survey of the local publications shows how definitely the organizations have answered this demand and are trying to make their deeds match their words. Her best contributions to her own group have been the awakening of her professional self-consciousness, her determination within her own group to raise and reach standards which match those set by the ablest leaders in education for themselves, and her consecration to the creed that not the supremacy of one but the equality of all brings best results to our Nation. In conclusion, I wish to go back to that fifth woman who took part in THE SUPERINTENDENT 205 that National Education Association symposium so long ago. It is well for this generation of women to pause and return thanks to the pioneer teachers whowere caught in the maelstrom of changing conditions, educational and economic, and who ardently yet sanely worked toward the open sea of toleration, mutual respect, and coöperation. She was pleading for recogni- tion of woman's right to work, saying, "I would have her feel that there need be no superfluous woman in all the land; if there be one indifferent to woman's cry for more of the bread of life, I would say to him, 'Why trouble vethe woman? She has wrought a good work for me. " She went on to tell of a conversation with a university man, in which she said, "If I were eighteen years old tomorrow, I would knock at the door of the Tennessee University, and say, 'Gentlemen, may I come in ?' His answer was ' If I were there, I would say in reply, 'Come in, Miss Clara, have a chair and make yourself perfectly at home. " The classroom teacher is knocking at the door of the educational work- rooms of the Nation. We do not want to hear-" Come in and have a chair," for we have been sitting around long enough. We want to hear, "Come right in. Here's the dishpan; there's the broom. Hunt up the dust cloth, and let's get the work done, so we can all go exploring and ad- venturing together." THE SUPERINTENDENT WILLIS A. SUTTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATLANTA, GEORGIA The superintendent's contributions to education are so many and varied that enumeration would consume your time, tax your patience, and sound commonplace. I shall speak briefly of three. The superintendent of schools should be the leader of the educational forces of his community. Whatever of detail he can or has mastered will be of incredible value. But details must not cumber him, he must realize -his responsibility for the education of all the people. The superintendent should not simply see that the community provides for those who come to the schoolhouse door, but he should see that the thought of the community is so aroused that every child finds his steps leading to the schoolhouse; he should go even further, and see that the older constituency not only have the opportunity but are aroused to the importance of continued improvement in intellectual, vocational, and moral development. The superintendent's chief contribution to education is an aroused conscience on the part of all the people for the continual de- velopment of the entire State, city, or community. I believe in professional training, I believe in the college, the university, the summer school. I believe in the extension courses for superintendents as well as teachers, but the superintendent himself must be more than a professionally trained man. He mut le a man upon whose conscience 206 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the responsibility for the proper education of the entire community con- tinually rests. As such a leader, he must be tactful, but it is of even greater importance that he be fearless. Men and women have never followed the timid, hesi- tating character. The masses and classes love the intrepid and the daring. In this age when demand after demand is being made for retrenchment in education, when plutocratic industrialism is trying to create a plutocracy among educators, when the fictitious increased cost of education is being flaunted, when men and women are declaring that the salaries of teachers must be reduced, and that whole departments must be cut out, the prime essential of the superintendent and his greatest contribution to education is the bravery to stand before his board and before his people and display an unyielding courage by demanding the best and the highest things for his teachers, his officers, and supervisors, and the children of his city. What is true of the superintendent's contribution to various depart- ments of his school system is preeminently true in his relationship to his teachers. As superintendents of schools, we are the guardians of our teachers' interests. To let the hue and cry of the populace down the de- mand for adequate salaries for our teachers is cowardly on our part. We must lead our people to see that we cannot go backward in education. The superintendent of schools is the connecting link between the entire school system and the people. Education has been too much a matter of the cloister, too long separated from the active interests of the people. Only as we are able to utilize all the civic, commercial, and industrial organizations can we fulfill our mission as superintendents of schools. I do not believe that the business or industrial interests of a city should in- trude themselves on the schools for the sake of advertising or for circulating any type of propaganda, but I do believe most emphatically that the schools should use every organization which has for its object the betterment of our people. In other words, the school curriculum must be extended beyond the schoolhouse door. We believe that the school is not only a prepara- tion for life, but is life itself. We must make real this belief by utilizing. all those organizations which make life liveable, and which contribute to the education of the child. The superintendent of schoo's will make his most valuable contribution in organizing a type of curriculum fitted to the needs of his particular city and State. I believe in a general curriculum, which shall give suffi- cient mental training and cultural background to make a boy or a girl a good citizen of any community in which he or she may choose to live, but I cannot refrain from saying, since the State and the city are paying the bill for the education of our people, that the superintendent, whether State, county, or municipal, should see that the type of curriculum used in his particular city should fit the life of the people of his section, should develop its natural resources and should function in its commercial and industrial life. Much of the so-called education now given throughout our country may be of value from the standpoint of pure mental training, AS A CLASSROOM TEACHER SEES IT 207 but is of questionable value in comparison with the development of the resources of our State and Nation. Too long the college entrance require- ments have dominated the cause of education. Too long have antiquated subjects been included in our curriculum. Too long have we neglected to incorporate into our schools that type of education which will assist in the development of our country. The ideals of education should rise above bread and meat, but they should not rise so high as to neglect the tact that men must have bread and meat before they can possess souls. The school superintendent cannot make the course of study. His teachers, his supervisors, his heads of departments must labor with him to effect the right curricula for his community, but he can see to it that those features of commercial and industrial development which are peculiar tohis section of the country are included in his course of study. Too often the course of study for the rural schools follows the general line of some New England or Eastern city system. Too little of the real life of the community is brought within the compass of the school itself. It is an obligation which the superintendent cannot escape and for which he will be held responsible that the course of study function into the life of his community. Among dozens of other contributions which our city, county, and State superintendents are giving to the cause of education, there stand these three which I have suggested: first, the responsibility of educational leader- ship; second, the utilization of all civic, commercial, and social organiza- tions and third, the building of a curricula which functions into the life of apeople. AS A CLASSROOM TEACHER SEES IT MARY F. MOONEY, VICE- PRINCIPAL, WASHINGTON SCHOOL SAN FRANCISCO , CALIFORNIA It is quite certain that, had our president, Miss Jones, wished a deeply scientific, philosophical presentation of this subject, she had better fields than I to draw upon, and, moreover, I should not have accepted such responsibility. I take it that what I am to bring before you is a sort of testimony of personal convictions growing out of experiences in the class- room and through contacts with fellow-workers in teachers' organizations. When I came to line up the subject in my own mind, I found that I had come far from my student days when we thought civics was to be learned from a book and that government was something imposed upon us. I found that in teaching, particularly those who were without Anglo- Saxon background, I had substituted the expressions, "We, the people of the United States," and " The people of the State of California do enact" sooften for Government, that the word had come to function almost as a pronoun in my vocabulary. Also my ideas of what constitute democratic 208 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ideas had undergone a great change. At one time, I thought that democ- racy stood for equality of opportunity, and stopped at that. Now I realize that I was like the boy who, on being referred to the dictionary for infor- mation, reports back with only one of many possible definitions. I feel the need of emphasizing that democracy means not only equality of oppor- tunity, but also equality of responsibility, and that nowhere are the pros- pects of getting something for nothing less likely of fulfillment than under democratic institutions. The elementary school teacher is apt to form the habit of viewing situ- ations in their personal relationships. It comes with the practice of bring- ing knowledge within the experiences of little folk. So I, when I think of education, visualize a teacher and pupil and that teacher myself. When I hear education referred to as the foundation of democratic government, I unconsciously straighten my shoulders to carry my share of the weight. Thinking along this line, my subject, therefore, becomes, "What is my relationship to democratic ideals of government, particularly the ideal of public education with which I am most closely connected ?" When I began teaching, there seemed to be no idea of anyone's being held responsible for the educational program of the community, except the teacher. The value and importance of her contributions to the Nation's future, and the greatness of her personal sacrifices were themes put forth at every gathering of educators. You need only consult the files of the National Education Association proceedings to verify this. Education was set forth as an invaluable public service performed only by teachers. Now I realize that this ideal of service was as undemocratic as may be. Education is a community interest, and no one group should be held responsible for its realization. The war against ignorance needs intelligent organized effort from all. It is not enough to offer teachers good salaries, and rest there. The teacher is a workman who , above all others, needs to feel the joy of working and the satisfaction of accomplishment. He feels about the materials and tools much as does any other workman. In the days when so many are interesting themselves in criticism of the school product, the teacher would appreciate a corresponding interest in the pupils and in the process. Unlike other workmen, the teacher may not choose the raw material, nor judge the result. What would we think. for instance, of a jewelry house which made little or no inquiries into the abilities of its workmen, subjected diamonds and pearls to the same process, and left the valuation of the completed article to anyone who cared to make it. Yet that is the general attitude of the public on education, and that, as much as anything else, is to blame for our shortcomings, and keeps farther away the ideals for which we strive. The time is past for teachers to be proud of belonging to a profession of sacrifice. We should rather build up a pride in our preparation and our ability to do the piece of work on which we are engaged. We should see to it that conditions are right for our working at the point of greatest efficiency. NATIONAL LEARNING AND NATIONAL LIFE 209 If you take up the question of teaching democratic ideals of government with American people, they will agree in principle, but they do not seem to be able to grasp the personal application, and this brings in my other relationship to the democratic ideal of public education-that of citizen . If the public has failed to meet its responsibilities with regard to educa- tion, so also has the teacher overlooked her duty as a citizen. Fearful of the slogan, "Politics in the schools," we have, in the past, permitted our fellow-citizens to remain uninformed of educational matters. We have not considered that schooling in youth does not insure a body of intelligent citizens. Continuous education is necessary, and it is our duty to see that it is provided. It is our duty as informed citizens to let others share our knowledge. It is just as important that the teacher function in her relation as citizen as in that of educator, if we are to realize the ideal to which we have consecrated ourselves . NATIONAL LEARNING AND NATIONAL LIFE JOHN H. MAC CRACKEN, PRESIDENT OF LAFAYETTE COLLEGE EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA The program assigns to me the last word before the Nation's birthday. It is one of the anomalies of school life that holidays are red letter school days. We remember perhaps best of all the lessons of Christmas, of Thanksgiving, of Washington's Birthday. Most of our holidays commemorate births. Mankind knows no more momentous event that the birth of a man, unless it be the birth of a nation. The beginning of a life, the beginning of life itself, are still, both to science and to philosophy, the supreme mystery. History, forgetful of its own beginnings, penitently inscribes with rev- erent care the birth registry of these later years and admonishes Americans , though they cannot fix the birth of Adam, to celebrate the day on which our fathers brought forth on this continent a new Nation. With each recurring year our thoughts return to 1776. We review again the circumstances of that momentous birth; we measure anew the stature, the strength, the heart-beats of that national life which thrills and throbs in us and in a hundred and ten millions of our fellows. We ak, "Have we as a Nation grown the past year in knowledge, in stature, in favor with God and man?" Satisfied at least with the lusty health and physical vigor of the hundred-forty-eight-year-old Nation, we turn to the future and wonder what is in store of further discipline ; what experi- ence has to teach in the years to come; what career of service or of fame lies before the great Republic in the fullness of its maturity? And if, like the present gathering, we be men and women of learning, with some knowl- edge of human nature, of history, of political science, whose daily task it is to set before the coming generation the best of men's aspirations pre 210 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION served in literature, in art, and in poetry, we shall hardly be content to leave the future to some blind, unerring, cosmic evolution, without attempt- ing, at least, to function as that "eye of learning" lacking which the future of commonwealths lies in darkness, without at least issuing to our fellow- citizens the schoolman's challenge : "Who loves not knowledge? Who shall rail Against her beauty? May she mix With men and prosper ! Who shall fix Her pillars ? Let her work prevail." Hobhouse concludes his four great volumes on sociology with these memorable sentences : "Underlying every effort and sustaining it with the promise of ultimate success is that unresting impulse of mind in the fulfillment of its being, which in its repeated impacts on limiting conditions, holds the secret of development in every field. The moving force in all development is mind. The condition of assured success is the transformation of the primary dim efforts of mind into true unity and clarity of purpose. The principal question is, whether man is capable of forming a coherent, comprehensive idea of his destination, which is desirable, and of guiding his path towards it." Our fathers, on that other Fourth of July, brought forth a new Nation conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. The new Nation has grown to man's estate. All its con- tiguous land has been organized as States. Its soldiers have crossed the seas and fought on foreign soil and returned. What now ? Has learning any coherent, comprehensive idea of a desirable destination for this great Nation which it can bring to birth on this Fourth of July? Can vocational psychology, with the aid of modern science, pick a career for young America worthy of its powers? If we go back and consider some of the prenatal forces at work in that momentous spring of 1776, we find that the paper money issued by the Congress before the Declaration of Independence bore on one side the motto, "Mind your business," and on the reverse side the motto, "We are one." A certain incompatibility between the two ideals troubled some then as it troubles some now. No one knew which was to be the dominant motto of our national life, nor do we know today. "E pluribus unum" prevailed on the great seal and in theory, but "Mind your business" domi- nates in national practice. Education is the business of the indestructible States of our indestructible Union. It is important that each State mind its business, just as it is important for the State that the individual mind his business; but if each individual minds his business too exclusively there can be no State, and if each State knows only its own education, there can be no national learning , and no national life. Before taking for our national motto "Mind your business," and defin NATIONAL LEARNING AND NATIONAL LIFE 211 ing the "general welfare" as synonymous with "interstate commerce," let us recall the famous words of Adam Smith: "To found a great empire for the sole purpose of raising up a people of customers, may at first sight appear aproject fit only for a nation of shopkeepers." Ideas rule the world and its events. The sovereignty which the United States has enjoyed and the allegiance it has secured are due to the immortal ideas which gave it birth . Ifwe think of the Nation merely as business in its highest expression, the Nation, as Laski has pointed out, will have no claim on our individual allegiance. If the Nation means only security and profit, the soul of the people will weary of the golden calf and rally around the banner of some Ku Klux Klan or other social organization that ministers to baser passions or deeper needs. The church, the labor union, and the school may then be as important for social purposes as the State, and in their respective spheres as sovereign as the State, for the thinking mind and conscience. A common danger welds a people into a nation. So also will a common task if it be great enough to enlist the heart and soul of a people. If a people live together as a nation they must produce a national learning. Conversely a common heritage of national learning must eventually pro- duce a nation. Geographical facts and commercial interests are not enough to produce and maintain a nation. There must be the cement of common ideas and ideals. A community of commercial interests, said Renan, makes a customs union, not a nation. "No school, no republic, " is as true a maxim for Americans as "No bishop, no king" was for King James. History knows the Army State and the Church State. Whether it will write, "America, the Business State," or "America, the School State," is yet to be determined. I am an optimist and I think it is true, as one textbook tells us, that "America is becoming national in economy, science, thought, and culture." At the same time we are in danger, as President Coolidge has said, of losing our reverence for the profession of teaching and bestowing it upon the profession of acquiring. One way to correct this is to let a Secretary of Education sit side by side with the Secretary of Commerce, the Secre- tary of Labor, and the Secretary of Agriculture, in the President's Cabinet. Of the American people it may be said today, as Mazzini said of Italy a generation ago, "The world's athirst of God, of progress, and of unity," but without a national learning applied to our national life we shall attain neither to God, to progress, nor to unity. Like our forefathers of '76, we are anxious that men shall be free to "mind their business." We believe that education is a part of the business of the respective States. But, like our forefathers, we are not afraid to enunciate at the same time the truth that as a Nation we are one. The great political achievement of America lies just in the triumph of federalism, the possibility of uniting free men in a free State without destroying their freedom, the possibility of uniting free States in a Nation without destroying them as free States. We who believe in the representation of education in the National Govern- ment are only applying the fundamental principle of our national life to a 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION wider sphere, are only giving evidence of a stronger grip upon, and a more vital faith in, this primary principle of our national life. The trouble with our opponents is, as John Stuart Mill observes, "Truth in the great prac- tical concerns of life is so much a question of reconciling and combining of opposites that very few have minds sufficiently capacious and impartial to make the adjustment with an approach to correctness." For the State, as for the individual, comes after the physical struggle, the mental struggle of relationships, and the most effective weapon in that warfare has been found to be "coöperation." When Cain, minding, as he thought, his business, asked, "Am I my brother's keeper," the first lesson was given mankind of the necessity of attempting to reconcile the two maxims , " Mind your business" and "We are one." We are still wrestling with the problem. In education it means that the States cannot effectively mind their business of education without devising some means of coӧрега- tion in the bringing to birth a national learning and in the applying of it to the problems of national life. Those educators who boast with Cal- houn, " I never use the word Nation in speaking of the United States," or its school system, belong to that group of whom Franklin said, "Those who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety." Learning, then, must be accorded a recognized representative in the national councils. We Republicans do not favor court costumes, and, at our American court, learning should not be asked to disguise itself either in the knee breeches of a diplomat, in the robes of a Cardinal, in the uni- form of a soldier, in the motley of the jester, or in the denim of the laborer, but should be welcomed in the plain and sober garb of the schoolmaster. The new Department of Education, soon to be created, should claim as its own that second great seal adopted by the United States, in 1782, to place as a hanging seal on ribbons such as are usually attached to a college diploma, but never yet so used. In place of the eagle with the arrows of war and the olive branch of peace, the seal portrays an unfinished pyramid, with 1776 and the Declaration of the Rights of Man as the base. Above is the all-seeing eye of wisdom and the inscription, "The beginnings stand approved, " while the motto reads, "The Beginning of a New Order of Things." As an additional course upon the pyramid, begun in 1776, stones should be laid bearing the words, "Department of Education." The seal would then be ready for use. It would be the kind of a birthday cake I should like to help light for the Nation tomorrow. And when at length is completed here in Washington the new building for education of which we have dreamed on so many national birthdays, in the vestibule of the new Department I would inscribe John W. Davis' statement of the ideals of his party-for if this be Democracy, then we are all Democrats a Department "whose ambition is service, not mastery ; whose aim is opportunity, not privilege; whose boast is honor, and not profit; whose ideal is freedom, and not restraint." So may America, our beloved Nation, learn to live, and live to learn. ADDRESS 213 ADDRESS CALVIN COOLIDGE, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION ¹ One hundred and forty-eight years ago today a new nation was born. The leaders in that great history-making Declaration of July 4th, 1776, foresaw and emphasized the inseparable, inescapable relationship of education to the equality ofman. In my hand I hold a gavel which fittingly symbolizes this relationship. It was made by school boys of Concord, Massachusetts, from the wood of that "rude bridge which arched the flood where once the embattled farmers stood and fired the shot heard round the world." Today a citizen of that State represents the spirit of democracy there established. In the Capital of that Nation, born July 4, 1776, are assembled to hear him speak, the teachers, on whose consecration to duty the preservation of true democracy must forever depend. Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States . For almost a century and a half, the Fourth of July has been marked as Independence Day. It has been given over to the contemplation of those principles and those institutions which America peculiarly represents. In times gone by, the exuberance of youth and the consciousness of power recently gained have often made it an occasion for boastfulness. Long orations have been made, which consisted for the most part of a reassur- ance to ourselves and a notice to the world that we were a great Nation. Those days are past. Our own people need no reassurance, the world needs no notice, of this long self-evident conclusion. Our country has not ceased to glory in its strength, but it has come to a realization that it must have something more than numbers and wealth, something more than a fleet and an army, to satisfy the longing of the soul. It knows that to power must be added wisdom, and to greatness must be added morality. It is no longer so solicitous to catalogue the powers which it possesses, as to direct those great forces for the spiritual advancement of the American people at home and the discharge of the obligations to humanity abroad. America is turning from the things that are seen to the things that are unseen. By this I do not mean that there is in contemplation, or required, any change in our fundamental institutions. I mean, rather, that we are be- ginning to reap the rewards which accrue from the existence of those in- stitutions and our devotion and loyalty to them. Some principles are so constant and so obvious that we do not need to change them, but we need rather to observe them. The world is fairly well agreed on the probable permanence of the first four tables of the arithmetic with which I struggled when I attended the district school. It is not thought that they need to Statement made by President Olive M. Jones of the National Education Association, intro- ducing President Calvin Coolidge to the sixty-second Convention of the National Education Association, Stadium, Central High School, 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION be changed, or that we can make any progress by refusing to apply them. Those who seek to evade them in the ordinary business and procedure of life would undoubtedly find that such action would work to the ruin of any commercial enterprise, or if it did not, the beneficiaries of such a dis- regard of the commonly accepted rules of addition would undoubtedly find that a very large majority of people would be old-fashioned enough to charge them with fraud. The institutions of the Government and society may not always be susceptible of a demonstration which is as exact as those ofmathematics, but nevertheless, political relationship is a very old science which has been set out in theory and wrought out in practice through very many centuries. Its fundamental principles are fairly well established. That there could have been gathered together a body of men so learned in that science, so experienced in its application, so talented and so wise in its statement and demonstration, as those who proposed, formulated, and secured the adoption of the American Constitution, will never cease to be the wonder and admiration of the profoundest students of Government. After making every allowance for a fortunate combination of circumstances and the accomplishments of human ingenuity, they have been nearly all forced to come to the belief that it can be accounted for only by the addi- tion of another element, which we must recognize as the guiding hand of Providence. As we can make progress in science not by the disregard, but by the application of the laws of mathematics, so in my firm conviction we can make progress politically and socially, not by a disregard of those fundamental principles which are the recognized, ratified, and established American institutions, but by their scrupulous support and observance. American ideals do not require to be changed so much as they require to be understood and applied. The return of this day quite naturally invites us to a reconsideration of those principles set out in the Declaration of Independence, which were for the first time fully established in a form of government by the adoption of the American Constitution. Such a consideration presents many angles, for it touches the entire life of the Nation. To deal with so large a sub- ject adequately, it is obvious would require extensive treatment. On this occasion it is possible to touch on only one phase of it. It can not be too often pointed out that the fundamental conception of American institutions is regard for the individual. The rights which are so clearly asserted in the Declaration of Independence are the rights of the individual . The wrongs of which that instrument complains, and which it asserts it is the purpose of its signers to redress, are the wrongs of the individual. Through it all runs the recognition of the dignity and worth of the individual, because of his possession of those qualities which are revealed to us by religion. It is this conception alone which warrants the assertion of the universal right to freedom. America has been the working out of the modern effort to provide a system of government and society which would give to the individual that freedom which his nature requires. It is easy to appreciate both the soundness and the grandeur of such a ADDRESS 215 vision. Its magnitude implies that it was a conception not to be accom- plished in a day or a year, but by the slow and toilsome experience of gen- erations. The foundations of the structure have been laid, the rules of action have been stated. It is for us to make such contribution as we are able toward the completion and adoption. The end sought has been to create a nation wherein the individual might rise to the full stature of manhood and womanhood. It needed but little contemplation to determine that the greatest obstacle to freedom was ignorance. If there was to be self-government, if there was to be popular sovereignty, if there was to be an almost unlimited privilege to vote and hold office, if the people were going to maintain them- selves and administer their own political and social affairs, it was necessary as a purely practical matter that they should have a sufficiently trained and enlightened intelligence to accomplish that end. Popular government could only be predicated on popular education. In addition to this, the very conception of the value and responsibility of the individual, which made him worthy to be entrusted with this high estate, required that he should be furnished the opportunity to develop the spiritual nature with which he was endowed, through adequate education. Merely to state the American ideal is to perceive not only how far we still are from its realization, but to comprehend with what patience we must view many seeming failures, while we contemplate with great satis- faction much assured success. We can see the early beginnings of our country and understand the situa- tion in those days better than it was understood by its own contemporaries. Itwas a time of great toil and hardship. The entire settled area couldbe described as little more than a frontier. Everything in the way of modern convenience was wanting, and save where a seagoing commerce was be- ginning, there was an entire absence of wealth. The America which we know had yet to be made. But the land was blessed with a great people and with great leaders. Washington and Jefferson, Franklin and Mason, Hamilton and Madison, Adams and Marshall suggest a type of citizenship and leadership, of scholarship and statesmanship, of wisdom and character, of ability and patriotism, unsurpassed by any group of men ever brought together to direct the political destinies of a nation. They did what they could in their time for the advancement of the public welfare, and they were not discontented because they could not immediately secure perfec- tion. They had a vision, and they worked toward it. They knew that in their day it was not to be fully realized. They did not lack the courage to have faith in the future. They started the country on that long road of stupendous achievement with which you are all so familiar. To provide for that human welfare which was the cherished hope of the Declaration of Independence and the well-wrought-out plan of the Federal Constitution, it was necessary to develop the material resources of our country. There had to be created the instruments with which to minister to the well-being of the people. 216 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION National poverty had to be replaced with National possessions. Trans- portation had to be provided by land and water. Manufacturing plants had to be erected. Great agricultural resources had to be brought under cultivation. The news service of the press had to be established. The school- house, the university, the place of religious worship, all had to be built. All of these mighty agencies had to be created, that they might contribute to a unified national life where freedom might reign and where the citizen might be his own sovereign. It was only as this work was accomplished, as these instruments were provided, these properties built, and these possessions accumulated, that there could be a reduction in the hours of labor, an increase in the rewards of employment, and a general betterment in those material conditions which result in a higher standard of living. The leisure for culture had to be secured in this way. Servitude of all kinds is scarcely ever abolished unless there is created economic opportunity for freedom. We are beginning to see that the economic development of our country was not only necessary for advancing the welfare of the people, but that we must maintain an expanding power of production if that welfare is to be increased. Busi- ness makes a most valuable contribution to human progress. As we look back upon all this development, while we know that it was absolutely dependent upon a reign of law, nevertheless some of us can not help thinking how little of it has been dependent on acts of legislation. Given their institutions, the people themselves have in the past, as they must in the future, to a very large degree, worked out their own salvation without the interposition of the Government. It is always possible to regulate and supervise by legislation what has already been created, but while legislation can stimulate and encourage, the real creative ability which builds up and develops the country, and in general makes human existence more tolerable and life more complete, has to be supplied by the genius of the people themselves. The Government can supply no substitute for enterprise. As a result of the activity of all these forces, our country has developed enormous resources. It has likewise to be admitted that its requirements are very large, but the fact remains that it has come into a position where it has the accumulations of wealth and the means of production to provide more adequately for the welfare of its people, and to establish more se- curely their physical, mental, and moral well-being. You are making your contribution to this great work in the field of education. It is here es- pecially that the growth and progress of our country can be most easily understood. You can realize what an opportunity for securing the higher things of life they have provided when you recall that it is claimed that one out of every four persons in this Nation, either as pupil, administrator, or teacher, is now in some capacity directly concerned in education. In the year 1921-22, the latest time for which complete statistics have been compiled, the students in the elementary and secondary schools, in the ADDRESS 217 colleges and universities, had reached the unprecedented number of 26,206,756, and the total number of teachers and administrators was ap- proximately 882,500. If to this number one should add the parents, the members of school boards, and the taxpayers who maintain them, it becomes clear at once how universal is the direct or indirect concern of our citizens with the schools. Another indication, both of our increasing resources and of the tremen- dous importance of education in the life of the Nation, is the great amount of money which we are able to spend for it. Twelve years ago, the total money expended for all educational purposes amounted approximately to $705,781,900. In 10 years this had increased to $2,144,651,000. Even when one takes into account the depreciation of the dollar, due to the economic changes caused by the World War, it becomes clear that the American people have demonstrated their faith in education and their determination to use the wealth of the Nation for the creation of the highest type of manhood and womanhood. While I believe that educators are under obligation to expend public funds economically, it seems obvious that the recent increase in expenses for this purpose is a most wise investment. It is impossible to conceive that there should be any increase in agricultural products, in the production of manufactures, or any other increase in our material wealth, through ignorance. The reaction to using the resources of the country to develop the brains of the country through education has always been greatly to stimulate and increase the power of the people to produce. As already indicated, America is turning from the mere thought of the material advantage to a greater appreciation of the cultural advantage of learning. It is coming to be valued more and more for its own sake. People desire not only the intelligence to comprehend economic and social problems, but they are finding that increased leisure is little more than time wasted in indulgence, unless an opportunity for self-development and self-expression has been provided in youth by the cultivation of a taste for literature, history, and the fine arts. It is necessary also that education should be the handmaid of citizenship. Our institutions are constantly and very properly the subject of critical inquiry. Unless their nature is comprehended, and their origin is under- stood, unless their value be properly assessed, the citizen falls ready prey to those selfish agitators who would exploit his prejudices to promote their own advantage. On this day, of all days, it ought to be made clear that America has had its revolution and placed the power of Government squarely, securely, and entirely in the hands of the people. For all changes which they may desire, for all grievances which they may suffer, the ballot box furnishes a complete method and remedy. Into their hands has been committed complete jurisdiction and control over all the functions of Government. For the most part, our institutions are attacked in the name of social and economic reform. Unless there be some teaching of sound 218 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION economics in the schools, the voter and taxpayer are in danger of accepting vague theories which lead only to social discontent and public disaster. The body politic has little chance of choosing patriotic officials who can admin- ister its financial affairs with wisdom and safety, unless there is a general diffusion of knowledge and information on elementary economic subjects sufficient to create and adequately to support public opinion. Everyone ought to realize that the sole source of National wealth is thrift and in- dustry, and that the sole supply of the public treasury is the toil of the people. Of course, patriotism is always to be taught. National defense is a necessity and a virtue, but peace with honor is the normal, natural condi- tion of mankind, and must be made the chief end to be sought in human relationship. Another element must be secured in the training of citizenship, or all else will be in vain. All of our learning and science, our culture and our arts, will be of little avail unless they are supported by high character. Unless there be honor, truth, and justice, unless our material resources are supported by moral and spiritual resources, there is no foundation for prog- ress . A trained intelligence can do much, but there is no substitute for morality, character, and religious convictions. Unless these abide,American citizenship will be found unequal to its task. It is with some diffidence that I speak of the required facilities of the school in this presence. We are able to give more attention to the school- house than formerly. It ought to be not only convenient, commodious, and sanitary, but it ought to be a work of art which would appeal to the love of the beautiful. The schoolhouse itself ought to impress the scholar with an ideal ; it ought to serve as an inspiration. But the main factor of every school is the teacher. Teaching is one of the noblest of professions. It requires an adequate preparation and train- ing, patience, devotion, and a deep sense of responsibility. Those who mold the human mind have wrought not for time, but for eternity. The obligation which we all owe to those devoted men and women who have given of their lives to the education of the youth of our country that they might have freedom through coming into a knowledge of the truth, is one which can never be discharged. They are entitled not only to adequate rewards for their service, but to the veneration and honor of a grateful people. It is not alone the youth of the land which needs and seeks education, but we have a large adult population requiring assistance in this direction. Our last census showed nearly 14,000,000 foreign-born white persons re- siding among us, made up largely of those beyond school age, many of whom nevertheless need the opportunity to learn to read and write the English language, that they may come into more direct contact with the ideals and standards of our life, political and social. There are likewise over 3,000,000 native illiterates. When it is remembered that ignorance is the most fruitful source of poverty, vice, and crime, it is easy to realize the necessity for removing what is a menace, not only to our social well ADDRESS 219 being, but to the very existence of the Republic. A failure to meet this obligation registers a serious and inexcusable defect in our Government. Such a condition not only works to a National disadvantage, but directly contradicts all our assertions regarding human rights. One of the chief rights of an American citizen is the right to an education. The opportu- nity to secure it must not only be provided, but if necessary, made com- pulsory. It is in this connection that we are coming to give more attention to rural and small village schools, which serve 47 per cent of the children of the Nation. It is significant that less than 70 per cent of these children av- erage to be in attendance on any school day, and that there is a tendency to leave them in charge of undertrained and underpaid teachers. The advent of good roads should do much to improve these conditions. The old one-room country school, such as I attended, ought to give way to the consolidated school, with a modern building, and an adequate teaching force, commensurate with the best advantages that are provided for our urban population. While life in the open country has many advantages that are denied to those reared on the pavements and among crowded buildings, it ought no longer to be handicapped by poor school facilities. The resources exist with which they can be provided, if they are but ad- equately marshaled and employed. The encouragement and support of education is peculiarly the function of the several States. While the political units of the district, the town- ship, and the county should not fail to make whatever contribution they are able, nevertheless since the wealth and resources of the different com- munities vary, while the needs of the youth for education in the rich city and in the poor country are exactly the same, and the obligations of society toward them are exactly the same, it is proper that the State treasury should be called on to supply the needed deficiency. The State must con- tribute, set the standard, and provide supervision, if society is to discharge its full duty not only to the youth of the country, but even to itself. The cause of education has long had the thoughtful solicitude of the National Government. While it is realized that it is a State affair, rather than a National affair, nevertheless it has provided by law a Bureau of Edu- cation. It has not been thought wise to undertake to collect money from the various States into the National Treasury and distribute it again among the various States for the direct support of education. It has seemed a better policy to leave their taxable resources to the States and permit them to make their own assessments for the support of their own schools in their own way. But for a long time the cause of education has been regarded as so important and so preeminently an American cause, that the National Government has sought to encourage it, scientifically to in- vestigate,its needs, and to furnish information and advice for its constant advancement. Pending before the Congress is the report of a committee which proposes to establish a Department of Education and Relief, to be presided over by a Cabinet officer. Bearing in mind that this does not 220 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mean any interference with the local control, but is rather an attempt to recognize and dignify the importance of educational effort, such proposal has my hearty indorsement and support. It is thus that our educational system has been and is ministering to our National life. Our country is in process of development. Its physical elements are incomplete. Its institutions have been declared, but they are very far from being adopted and applied. We have not yet arrived at perfection . A scientific investigation of child life has been begun, but yet remains to be finished. There is a vast amount of ignorance and mis- understanding, of envy, hatred, and jealousy, with their attendant train of vice and crime. We are not yet free, but we are struggling to become free, economically, socially, politically, spiritually. We have limited our amount of immigration in order that the people who live here, whether of native or foreign origin, might continue to enjoy the economic advantages of our country, and that there might not be any lowering of the standards of our existence, that America might remain American. We have sub- mitted an amendment to the National Constitution designed to protect the child life of the Nation from the unwarranted imposition of toil, that it might have greater opportunity for enlightenment. All of these move- ments are in the direction of increased National freedom, and an advance toward the realization of the vision of Washington and Lincoln. A new importance is attaching to the cause of education. A new reali- zation of its urgent necessity is taking hold of the Nation. A new com- prehension that the problem is only beginning to be solved is upon the people. A new determination to meet the requirements of the situation is everywhere apparent. The economic and moral waste of ignorance will little longer be tolerated. This awakening is one of the most significant developments of the times. It indicates that our National spirit is reas- serting itself. It is a most reassuring evidence that the country is recover- ing from the natural exhaustion of the war, and that it is rising to a new life and starting on a new course. It is intent, as never before, upon listen- ing to the word of the teacher, whether it comes from the platform, the schoolhouse, or the pulpit. The power of evil is being broken. The power of the truth is reasserting itself. The Declaration of Independence is continuing to justify itself. PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 221 PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGE TO THE TOMB OF THE UN- KNOWN SOLDIER—ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA, JULY 4, 1924 The exercises at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier were in charge of Ambrose Cort, retiring director of New York State . Mr. Cort inaugurated the proceedings by acknowledging for New York and its teachers the honor and privilege of leading this pilgrimage, saying that it had been the high privilege as well as the duty of New York State to make the largest sacrifice of men in our country's recent wars as compared with other States . She was the most populous of the sisterhood of States, and it was her duty to furnish the greatest number of defenders. He referred to the points of similarity to be found in the spirit and service of the soldier and of the teacher. The teacher is enlisted also in a war which calls for sacrifice, for faithfulness to a solemn trust. The teacher is enlisted in the war against ignorance and renders his or her service modestly though earnestly, and often comes to the end of a career ofdevotion and self-sacrifice comparatively unknown and not always remembered by those to whom he or she has given freely of his or her gifts of mind and spirit. The poignant fate of the Unknown Soldier is an inspiration to us teachers to dedicate our lives to the service of our country, without striving for great reward or recognition. The soldier knew he was indispensable though unknown. The teacher can be conscious of that same indispensability in the tasks both of pre- serving and of upbuilding our country's high estate through the training of Ameri- canyouth in mind and character. The teachers of Washington, D. C., placed a beautiful wreath on the tomb at the beginning of the exercises. About three hundred people were gathered around the tomb on this hot, sunny afternoon. General John F. O'Ryan, the orator of the occasion, declared the vital im- portance of education to our country's prosperity; also of what vital concern it was to international good will that the children of each land should be led through education to know and to respect people of every other land. There was deep attention paid and much applause given to the stirring words of General O'Ryan . Miss Olive M. Jones, the retiring President of the National Education Association, was one of the interested pilgrims at this sacred shrine. AN ADDRESS AT THE PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGE MADE TO THE GRAVE OF THE UNKNOWN SOLDIER MAJOR GENERAL JOHN F. O'RYAN, U. S. A. It is most fitting on this, the anniversary of the Nation's birth, that we should gather here at the grave of the Unknown Soldier of the World War to honor the memory and the sacrifice of one who died in defense of the Nation's principles and institutions. The Nation was born in the travail ofwar. Twice its life and physical unity were preserved by war. Twice was it strengthened and developed and its influence for good extended by war. And but a few years ago, those principles of democracy which it embodies, were preserved to the world only because of its sacrifice in the WorldWar. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION But if it is fitting that we revere the sacrifice of the American soldier in war, on this the birthday of the Nation, and remind ourselves of what that sacrifice has meant in our development as a people, it is also peculiarly ap- propriate that these ceremonies in honor of the soldier's sacrifice should be under the auspices of a national association which represents the teachers of America. In all our wars the mass of our soldiers have been boys. In time of peace we call our soldiers men, but in war we find it inevitable to refer to them as boys, because boys they have always been. And these boys have been products of our public schools. At school, whether in one part of the country or another, they were imbued with the same love of country, the same appreciation of American history and ideals. They played the same games, sang the same songs, repeated the same schoolboy tricks, so that when they came to the army, as they did in the World War, as a veritable slice of the American population in each State, they came with a sentimental and patriotic background that was quite uniform in its wholesomeness and vigor. To the teachers of America, past and present, must be accorded the great honor and the merit for this real accomplishment. A nation can be no better than its citizenry. An army can be no better than its soldiers. We, the officers who led the American soldiers in the World War, like to think we taught them many useful things, but the truth is that the boys came to us with a splendid morale, with a faith in our country and its institutions strong enough to move mountains. They were alert and intelligent, and keen to learn their new job. What they did, the sacrifices they made, and the results they obtained, we all know. The knowledge of what you, the teachers of America, did in the early development of these boys, and your understanding of its relation to their worth as soldiers must be to you a source of splendid satisfaction. Certainly your part is generously acknowl- edged and acclaimed by the officers who were charged with the later mili- tary development of those you prepared for the duties of citizenship in such effective fashion. Nothing could be more appropriate, therefore, than this gathering of teachers from all parts of the country in patriotic pilgrimage to the grave of the Unknown Soldier of the World War-nothing more inspiring in relation to the future of the Republic than this reunion under such circumstances of the splendid men and women of the country who are entrusted with the development and training of the young American mind. May your success in the future be as sure and worthy as it has been in the past. This wish serves to bring to mind some of the difficulties that beset your path-some of the problems you will have to solve, and solve cor- rectly; problems which though not new, may in the future take on more serious import because of the times, and of our greater understanding of their importance. I shall mention two: The first has to do with the physi- cal side of young America's development; the second with the moral or character side. In connection with the first, remind yourselves frequently PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 223 of the really shocking information disclosed by the physical examinations under the Draft Act. Not only were hundreds of thousands of young men rejected for army and navy service by reason of physical defects, but an unreasonable percentage of them were ignorant of the existence of such defects. Many thousands of young men had service defects which were remediable, but were taking no remediable action. Hundreds of thousands of young men were physically undeveloped, due to no cause other than a lack of appreciation of the necessity for physical training. Closely related to this subject of physical training is that of personal hygiene. Of what use normally is the accumulation of academic knowledge if the physical well-being of the student is so neglected that he dies, or struggles on under overwhelming handicap ? May the teachers of America by their individual efforts in their own spheres carry to parents and children an appreciation and understanding of the importance of this subject. And may they by their joint and coör- dinated effort, backed by the demands of understanding parents, secure for the school systems of the country a scientific and thoroughly organized supervision of the physical side of young America's development. In relation to the second problem, I have in mind the desirability of keeping open the minds of boys and girls upon debatable questions until with increased knowledge and experience they may determine their own convictions and attitude. Many men and women have automatically ac- cepted in youth the convictions of others upon debatable questions and have beenembarrassed by having to discard later what, to them, turned out to be no more than prejudices. Such occurrences shake confidence in our schools. They tend to make partisans of our youth instead of investigating students. Often they delay the later development of seasoned judgment because of the natural confidence accorded what has been learned during the adolescent period. Let me give you an example : In connection with the resentment of all good people toward war and all that war means in suffering and waste, there are some who are exacting from schoolboys a vow never to take part in war under any circumstances. The schoolboy should not thus be im- posedupon. He cannot know what his conviction will be in relation to his duty at some time in the future when he is more experienced and possesses greater knowledge. He should not be embarrassed at such a time, when calledupon to determine his duty in the light of all the circumstances, by the existence of a vow made in good faith as a boy, but emotionally, when he could have only the vaguest ideas of the many questions, moral, legal, and sentimental, which enter into such a decision. Particularly is this true when we must concede, after mature consideration, that war cannot thus bedisposed of. To me war seems like a species of world insanity. It is immoral. It cannot be reconciled with Christian teaching. And yet we know from the fact that war as an institution has existed from the beginning and that the Christian nations have been the leaders in resorting to war. From 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION these facts we know that war cannot be abolished by the idle promises of American boys not to engage in war. Under certain circumstances, which may readily be assumed, I can visualize the good women who are urging these vows, as the first to cry out their indignation of the enemy acts, the first to acclaim their abhorrence of enemy atrocities, the first to offer their supplication that Heaven may punish the enemy, and the first to call upon these same boys to make of themselves the soldier instruments of Heaven in meeting out punishment to the enemy. War can and will be abolished in the world, and before long; but not by any such means as these simple persons seem to believe in. War can only be abolished by the substitution of law and justice for might and force, and this substitution can only be effected through the united and coöpera- tive action of all civilized nations in some world organization possessing the machinery to administer world law and justice. No single nation, no group of nations, can legislate war out of existence. World peace and justice cannot be administered without a world organization to administer them. So long as a single strong power remains outside such a world or- ganization, free of its undertakings and obligations in support of peace, and at liberty to make war when and upon whom it pleases, just so long will there continue to exist in the world a menace to peace-a menace com- mensurate with the military might of such power. No matter how thinking men and women may disagree upon the details affecting such a world organization, they apparently agree that only upon such principle can world peace be founded and war abolished. And the school teachers of the country are thinking men and women. They know and understand the necessity of recognizing these basic principles as the groundwork of world peace. What could be more profitable to the families of America and more valuable to the country as a whole than for the teachers of America to warn the boys of America against such specious vows as I have referred to and to point out to them that so long as warfare continues they must live pre- pared to answer with unanimity their country's call for defense. And on the other hand, to point out, not only to them but to the people of their communities, that just so soon as the world, which has always been or- ganized for war, is fully organized for peace, then only may we expect to have permanent peace in the world. Surely we cannot leave this subject, and the grave of this soldier of America, without reflecting upon the character of his sacrifice and its rela- tion to peace in the world. Statesmen and politicians may differ about the causes and objects of the World War, but the American soldier after he got into the human abat- toirs of Belgium and France and had seen, and smelled, and heard, and felt their horrors and cruelties, formed a conviction that his was a war to end wars . He was a simple boy, a direct thinker, a straight shooter. He did his PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 225 work well, but he had to leave off for you to carry on and make good his sacrifice. Were he here to speak, I feel sure he would give you some such message aswaswritten in three verses which appeared some years ago in one of the New York weekly papers, entitled, "The Dead Soldier to America." I was young, and, O God! how I wanted to live ! The whole of my life lay ahead, But my country was calling me-needed my strength. I went. Seek me now with the dead ! I was young. All the world was a wine to be quaffed, Fair love led me on with a smile ; But I died, and you, living, who stand in my place, Battle on! Make my dying worth while ! My dreams I laid down on the Altar of Right, The blood of my youth stains the clay. Joyousness, music, hope, memory, love, In an instant I cast them away. Aye, cast them away with a song on my lips, Away with a jest and a smile, But the goddess I fought for is lost in the gloom, Struggle on! Make my dying worth while! I followed no laws save the laws of my land. My country I took as my bride, My leader, my lover, the all of my all, I wedded her, kissed her, and died. To you who go forward from where I left off, Though dark be the pathway each mile, The torch I have lit will yet flame to the sky, Carry on! Make my dying worth while! AN ADDRESS AT THE PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGE MADE TO THE LINCOLN MEMORIAL, JULY 4, 1924 FRANCISG. BLAIR, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ILLINOIS The idea of these patriotic pilgrimages was inspiration born. By it Miss Jones has hitched the wagon of the National Education Association to the star of American idealism. How altogether happy and appropriate is the suggestion that the teachers of the children of the Nation should make constant pilgrimages to the monuments and shrines of America's adeals and traditions ! How can we keep alive and active in the hearts and minds of the youth of this Republic its real meaning and worth unless 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION we ourselves drink deeply and continually at the fountain-heads of Ameri- čanhistory? It is for this purpose that we have come to this monument on this day. But in order that we may properly appreciate the meaning of this Lincoln Memorial Building, in order that we may more fully understand the great life and the great deeds it commemorates, it is necessary for us to refresh our minds and hearts by a few preparatory pilgrimages. Will you then, on the wings of your imagination, fly with me over the Alleghanies, down the Ohio River, and out to the very heart of Illinois ? There on the rising ground, above the Sangamon River, we shall make a pilgrimage about the streets of a once vigorous pioneer village, New Salem, where Abraham Lincoln spent several important years of his young manhood. Here we shall see or feel some of those primal forces which inspired and shaped his sentiments and thoughts and powers for the mastery of the great issues of statesmanship which he was destined to meet . I made my first pilgrimage to this spot in 1907. At that time it had not been restored by the State, but was a deserted village with hardly a trace of its former life and activity. I was told that I should find two trees, one a sycamore and the other an elm, growing on or near the spot where stood the grocery store building in which Abraham Lincoln clerked, and about which clustered many of the most interesting stories of his New Salem life. I climbed the bluff and found the two trees standing. They had grown together at the base. In 1884, a few persons, including Mr. W. G. Green, who clerked with Abraham Lincoln in the Offut store, visited this spot. He stood in the carriage and pointed to these two trees, saying, " Right here was Denton Offut's store, where Lincoln and I were clerks together in 1832. Behold in these two trees an emblem of the Union maintained by Lincoln. " No one can say precisely how these trees came to grow at that particular spot and in that particular way. My own opinion is that when the grocery store was built a sycamore tree was cut down; that a bird or the wind dropped the seed of an elm tree into a crack or a crevice in this stump ; that two sprouts sprang up, one from the stump of the sycamore tree and one from the elm seed at about the same time, and that there they were lifting their young limbs and branches upward at the very time that Abraham Lincoln's ideas and sentiments were stretching towards the sky. There they were standing, as his heart was touched by its first elemental emotion of love for Ann Rutledge. There they stood when he met and van- quished the backwoods bully. There they were standing when, beside the fireplace in the cooper shop, he took his lessons under Mentor Graham in grammar and composition which were to do their part in making him the incomparable master of English expression. There they were growing when he marched away with his company to the Black Hawk War and received what he considered the greatest honor ever conferred upon him his election as captain of the company. There they stood at the time of his candidacy for the legislature, when he received every vote in the village PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 227 save three. There they were standing as he marched away to Springfield to enter a larger field of opportunity and power. There they were stand- ing when he matched his mature mind and power against the mighty Douglas in a debate that commanded the attention of the Nation, and in which he wrote across the skies of our future these prophetic words : "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this Govern- ment cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved; I do not expect the house will fall; but 1 do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or allthe other." There these trees were standing when he received the news of his nomi- nation and election for the Presidency. There they were standing when he started on his momentous journey to Washington. There they stood during those racking years of Civil War when, by the sheer force of his moral strength, he held aloft the ridgepole of the tottering house of national unity. There they were standing when the assassin's bullet plunged into his body, and there these two united trees stood and reached forth their limbs and leaves in solemn welcome as his body was borne back to Illinois, back to Springfield, and laid at rest in Oak Ridge Cem- etery. The elm was the first one of these two trees to fall. The sycamore stood until the year 1918, when it was uprooted by a storm. A few years after the Civil War a vagrant artist climbed the sycamore tree and, about twenty feet from the ground, carved on the smooth surface a striking profile of Abraham Lincoln. There in our imaginations we can believe that that sad face through the succeeding years, in spring and summer and autumn and winter, in sunshine and storm, looked down upon the scenes of his early manhood, where God fashioned on the anvil of pioneer con- ditions his resources and powers for the mighty task he was to perform. The next step in our pilgrimage will be into the cemetery at Petersburg , Illinois, where a final burial place has been given to the remains of Ann Rutledge. There we shall stand with uncovered heads in the presence of her who occupied such a large place in the early affections and life of Abraham Lincoln. It may be that in our imagination we can hear her speak, as she did to Lee Masters, these great words: "Out of me the vibrations of deathless music, 'With malice towards none, with charity for all,' Out of me the forgiveness of millions towards millions, And the beneficent face of a Nation shining with justice and truth. I am Ann Rutledge who sleep beneath these weeds, Beloved, in life, of Abraham Lincoln. Wedded to him, Not through union, but through separation. Bloom on, Oh thou Republic, from the dust of my bosom !" Our pilgrimage now leads to Springfield, where we shall visit so many of those places made memorable by the life of Abraham Lincoln. We 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION shall stand in the very halls where he stood. We shall walk the very streets he trod. Perhaps our emotions may be so touched and inspired that in imagination we may see him as Vachel Lindsay did, during the terrible years of the World War, walking the streets of Springfield at midnight : "It is portentous, and a thing of state, That here at midnight, in our little town, Amourning figure walks, and will not rest, Near the old courthouse pacing up and down. Or by his homestead, or in shadowed yards, He lingers where his children used to play, Or through the market, on the well-worn stones, He stalks until the dawn-stars burn away. A bronzed, lank man! His suit of ancient black, A famous high top-hat, and plain worn shawl Make him the quaint great figure that men love, The prairie lawyer, master of us all." We shall not fail to visit the spot where he stood on the rear of a pas- senger coach and spoke his farewell words to the citizens of Springfield, on his departure for Washington. Newton Bateman, then superintendent of public instruction of Illinois, accompanied him to the train and stood by his side. It was an overcast, rainy day, but a great company had come forth to bid him farewell. Newton Bateman says that Mr. Lincoln was greatly moved and that tears were upon his cheeks as he spoke these words : "My friends : No one not in my situation can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young to an old man. Here my children have been born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon Wash- ington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I cannot fail. Trusting in Him, who can go with me and remain with you, and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care com- mending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affectionate farewell." If we are to lead the children of America into a right understanding of the greatness of this man's heart and mind, of his strength of character, of his superself-control, we must, in our pilgrimages, follow him on his way to Washington. What gift of the gods shaped his thought and poised his lips so that no hasty or misspoken word should leap forth to increase the tension of the crisis ? We shall follow him until he stands on the portico of the Capitol to deliver his first inaugural address. We shall stand by his side, with Stephen A. Douglas, as he holds with loyal re PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 229 spect the hat of his former antagonist. We shall listen to those words of wisdom, those godlike words of advice and counsel, and we shall never forget those closing sentences, pronounced with great earnestness, as he turned his sad face towards the south : "I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." If our pilgrimage is to prepare us adequately to interpret the life of this man to the youth of America, we should go into those Cabinet meetings and see him sit, calm and undisturbed, amidst the clash and collision of contending opinions. We should watch him, as, with calm resignation, but with unbending hope and fortitude, he endured the humiliations and discouragements of the early stages of the war, when one commander of the Army of the Potomac after another went down before the dashing generals of the South. We shall see how his gentle but unconquerable will arose above the clouds of these disappointments. We shall behold that lofty firmness as he read to his Cabinet those words from the Emanci- pation Proclamation which linked his name with eternity : "And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free; "And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judg- ment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. " Lord Charnwood, in his great history of Abraham Lincoln, was right when he said that humility is an essential element in the make-up of the character of every truly great man. Can we catch, on our pilgrimage, some of the spirit of humility which touched and colored every thought and act of Abraham Lincoln's life without dimming and weakening his elemental faith and courage ? One incident will admit us into the holy of holies of this man's char- acter. On the night following the close of the battle of Gettysburg, Mr. Lincoln remained late in his office. Mrs. Lincoln's many importunities had been unavailing. Sometime after midnight, she asked Robert Lincoln to go to his father and urge him to come to bed, saying that such late hours would injure his health. The son went to the office and found his father kneeling, or, more properly speaking, sitting upon the floor with his head resting on his arms on the seat of the chair. The lad, thinking his father was asleep, touched him on the shoulder, but when the face was raised the son saw that it was covered with tears. He urged his father to go to bed, as he needed the sleep and the rest. Slowly Abraham Lincoln replied : "My son, I can go to bed, but I cannot sleep. I have suffered this day me. one of the greatest humiliations that ever came I wrote with my 230 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION own hand a note to our commanding general, telling him to follow up the enemy's army and destroy it. If he succeeded, to tear up my note and take the credit of the victory to himself. If he failed, to publish my note as a record and throw all the blame on me. My humiliation is deepened by the fact that the general never did me the honor to acknowledge the receipt of my note." Our pilgrimage would be altogether incomplete if we did not follow him into Pennsylvania, in the fall of 1863, where, on the battlefield of Gettysburg, he was to speak words which in form and content overtopped the far-famed funeral oration of Pericles. As we stand on that battlefield, I am sure that inspiration will come to us which will better prepare us to be the intellectual leaders of the youth of this Republic. My ancestors were born in the South, my great-grandfather in North Carolina, my grandfather in Georgia, my father in Missouri. They did not believe in slavery and, at the close of the Revolutionary War, sought a home in the free territory of the Northwest. When the Civil War broke, men of my blood and my name from Illinois marched southward, clad in blue, with muskets over their shoulders, or sabers at their sides. At Pittsburg Landing, at Shiloh, at Vicksburg, on Sherman's terrible march to the sea, and, finally, at Appomattox, they no doubt met upon those battlefields men of my name and of my blood, clad in gray, with muskets over their shoulders and sabers at their sides. It is possible that they fought and killed each other, for they were men who exalted their ideals and beliefs above their personal safety or interest. Born, as I was, in the last year of the war, my heart and mind were filled with the horrors and losses of the great conflict. As I heard of my own kin who had been killed or crippled in the great war, I conceived a bitter hatred for the South and all that it represented. Maturer years, wider study, and a more sober and just judgment have modified or changed all of these early prejudices, although I have never changed in my belief that on the main issue, Mr. Lincoln's attitude was right, and that the attitude of the Southern leaders was wrong. But when as a young man, I visited the battlefield of Gettysburg with some of my war-born feeling still in my heart, and came to the spot where I was told that Robert E. Lee stood, and when I saw what that division of the Southern army had done in marching through the open space and up the deadly ridge, I felt like fall- ing on my knees and thanking God for a Nation that could produce such men as Robert E. Lee and his brave men, who had the courage of their convictions and were not afraid to lay their lives on the altar of what they believed to be right. As we come upon this battlefield in our patriotic pilgrimage, I am sure that some such emotions will arise in us. We shall finally come to that spot where Lincoln stood. We shall in our imaginations look out over the undulating field of the dead. We shall see the great throng gathered for the dedication exercises. We shall see the distinguished orator, Edward Everett Hale, stand and pronounce in elaborate and ornate English, a PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 231 great and an extended dedicatory oration. We shall then stand breathless as the announcement is made that Abraham Lincoln, the President of the United States, will speak. We shall behold a gaunt, tall, serious-looking man arise and step to the front of the platform. We shall listen as, with- out any oratorical gestures of head or hand, there spring from his lips these immortal words : "Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new Nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposi- tion that all men are created equal. "Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that Nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a por- tionofthat field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that Nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. "But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we can- not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this Nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth." How I wish that on some November school day Abraham Lincoln might listen down from the skies and hear these mighty words of his like a great organ peal pouring from the lips of ten million school children! And now from this mountain top of inspiration, our pilgrimage brings us back to Washington. We shall stand below the balcony of the White House where, on an evening following his second election, he gave expres- sion to these words : "It has long been a grave question whether any government not too strong for the liberties of its people, can be strong enough to maintain its existence in great emergencies." At last our host of patriotic pilgrims will assemble in front of the Capitol as Mr. Lincoln gives his second inaugural address. We shall not fail to be touched by the great yearnings of a father's heart as he reaches forth his arms to welcome home again his wandering children. We shall never forget the "deathless music" with which he closes his message: "With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the Nation's wounds; to care for him who shall 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, and with all nations." And, as a result of these patriotic pilgrimages, are not we, the teachers of the children of this democratic commonwealth, prepared in the presence of this Memorial to rededicate ourselves to the unfinished work which Abraham Lincoln has thus far so nobly advanced ? Shall we not here take increased devotion to that great cause for which he paid the last full measure of devotion? Shall we not here highly resolve that this honored man shall not have lived and died in vain, but that this Nation, under God, shall have a continual new birth in freedom "not too strong for the liberties of its people" and yet strong enough to maintain its existence in great emergencies, and that, through the processes of a universal education, "government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth ?" PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGE TO MEMORIAL CONTINENTAL HALL Relative to the pilgrimage on July 4 to Memorial Continental Hall, the President General, D. A. R., Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook, arranged an interesting and inspiring program, which began at 2:30 p. m. in the auditorium of Memorial Continental Hall, where many gatherings of national and international importance have been held. It was as follows: Prayer The Chaplain General, D. A. R., MRS. RHETT GOODF "America" ..The Audience Salute to the Flag of the United States of America. Declaration of Independence and Address ....The Commandant of the Army War College GENERAL HANSON E. ELY Address.. .. The President General, D. A. R. , MRS. ANTHONY WAYNE COOK Music-Several selections . MADAME DE PASQUALI , Metropolitan Opera Company Address.. The President State Teachers' College of Iowa, DR. HOMER H. SEERLEY, Cedar Rapids , Iowa Music "My Country 'Tis of Thee" Audience THE REAL GREATNESS OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC¹ HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT IOWA STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS , IOWA The eternal hope of protection and of progress of such a nation depends upon the common man that is in the dependable ranks of our citizenship as soldier in the war and in the common good. The real and final greatness of the American Republic must depend upon educating and training the American people in religion, morality, and knowledge, through the ministration of the church, the home, and the school. There can not be any encouraging prospect for the future of a nation whose development depends upon the decisions of universal suffrage, unless its electorate can be trained to be wise, prudent, con- 1Address given at the Patriotic Pilgrimage to Memorial Continental Hall, July 4, 1924. Fin PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 233 scientious, and reliable in deciding what is best for the welfare of humanity. The chief menace to liberty, to prosperity, to honesty, and to progress is always to be found in political ignorance, political in- difference, political chicanery on the part of the citizenry. A repre- sentative government that can be depended upon all the time must re- quire a large percentage of its electors to be participants at every public election in order to reflect the wishes of the people. Otherwise the so- called representative government loses its character as a republic, and minorities that have solidarity and that regularly and systematically vote, are able to make the decisions and obtain definite and permanent control. In a very notable way, this is the present condition in every State of the American Republic, whether the primary election or the presidential elec- tion is considered. Not a single man in the Senate of the United States has had the support at the polls of more than 35 per cent of the actual voters, and many of these important officials have from ten per cent to twenty-five per cent. This fact is very alarming to anyone who believes in the reliability of American suffrage in meeting emergencies, by guarding the opportunity to get public office and thereby public control of all National affairs without representing at least one-half of the people who are authorized to cast a ballot. Out of every one hundred that voted, the following stay-at-home vote was reported for the presidential election in 1920: New England, 82; Middle Atlantic States, 94; East North Central States, 65; West North Central States, 59 ; Pacific States, 103 ; Mountain States, 7; West South Central States, 242; East South Central States, 127 ; and South Atlantic States, 183. Such evidence as this does not give en- dorsement of the American people for their interest in public problems, public affairs, and public decisions. It is not reasonable to suppose that representative government can be truly commended when it shows such a predominance of electoral ignorance, electoral incompetence, and electoral indifference. What the American Republic needs is both better people and better government. The meeting of the National Education Association in the National Capital on this important day in National history, gives occasion to discuss briefly the fundamental propositions that underlie the public educational work of the United States, since, if citizenship is not accomplished by these great public expenditures of time, effort, and money, the service that is expected should be so reorganized, recentered, and readjusted that the safety of this great Republic will be protected and a better condition of public affairs will be obtained. To this end there is no lack of patriotic fervor among public school teachers, nor a shortage of enthusiasm and en- terprise in undertaking a policy of more responsibility and more effec- tiveness. The United States of America had its beginning as a nation in the Dec- laration of Independence that occurred as the deliberate purpose of a determined-to-be-sovereign people, July 4, 1776. This famous declaration was given forth by proclamation as an official document that was published 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to the civilized world to give the cogent reasons that were considered fundamental to the establishing and the organizing of a system of repre- sentative government on this continent, North America. The most re- markable thing about this new method of making a nation was the accepted necessity of issuing this declaration of rights so that it would not only unite the people of these widely separated colonies, but would also be a permanent argument against aggression of any kind from older and greater nations and thereby construct and constitute an outline of a new philosophy for human liberty and righteous government. This was the first time in human history that the principles of truly representative government were given such august publicity as to cause intelligent men everywhere to think in personal terms of human freedom, with sufficient directness to cause them to check up the rights and privileges that they were then possessing and enjoying, and also to come to definite conclusions regarding the claims that they should make for the amelioration of society and for the uplift of human possibilities and human opportunities for the attainment of peace, prosperity, and happiness through the auspices of government. It is to be recognized that the Declaration of Independence was a con- crete statement of many prospective public policies that were not dreamed of in 1776, as the freedom and the rights and the privileges thus emphasized in demanding release from certain undesirable conditions that were im- posed by the mother country, have been since that time gradually approxi- mating in all lines of human liberty and human possibilities. This has been applied to the accomplishing of an individual independence for every citizen in his relations to his country and his world; to his employers and his employees ; to his neighbors and his competitors ; to his friends and his enemies; to his opportunities and his obligations; to his duties and his privi- leges to such an extent that a century and a half of legislation by States and by the Nation have not yet been able to put fully into effect the doc- trines of the forefathers in their deliberations in that notable era of a new idealization of human capability. It implied an effort to organize and conduct affairs under a representatitve system so as to adjust continually and apply systematically these fundamental principles to the rights and the responsibilities of men. The whole plan thus outlined was so generic in its foundations, so promising as to the everlasting interpretations necessary to be continually determined, that it gave a working plan for human emancipa- tion, human development, and human outcome, that centuries to come are probably not sufficient to give to the world all the truth and all the hope and all the privileges that human judgment, human invention, and human con- struction can accomplish. No wonder that the import of the Declaration of Independence should not be fully realized by the whole American people even when on this realization their happiness, success, and progress in pros- perity and patriotism depend. Out of the lofty conceptions of citizenship that were promulgated by the Declaration of Independence came a government that established a written Constitution, provided for a distribution of powers by recognizing the re PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 235 spective duties of State and of Nation, and, by identifying the need of an executive department, a legislative department, and a judicial department- so coördinating and so coöperating that the machinery of management could be conducted with reasonable dispatch and yet not be so independent as to have power to destroy or to limit the rights, the privileges, or the duties of thepeople. This universal recognition of the honors, the rights, the immunities, and the responsibilities of a responsible citizenship gave birth, by necessity, to State systems of schools to secure universal education and universal train- ing to a degree that was marvelous, indeed, in that it determined that the only limitation to be recognized was individual capability. The State system conception has the adjustability to recognize and provide all the special varieties of education that must be given to meet the needs of the people of that area so as to give the greatest measure of success. Its sim- plicity is further provided by being easily managed from a single supervisory center that is so near to all the separate schools that the industrial, the social, and the intellectual demands are easily regarded. At the same time through actual familiarity and knowledge the money required of the tax- payer can be kept at a reasonable minimum-a matter that is of the highest importance, because the government is expected and required to be con- stantly economical in administration and in investment. The giving of this expansive freedom to the individual citizen enables him to elect for his children more or less of educational advantages except so far as the good of the welfare of the State demands protection against illiteracy, ignorance, and dependency. In a sense this general rule of free- dom is limited by compulsory laws effecting elementary education, because it is assumed that children of this age are entitled to the fundamentals of mental training, even if they are unable to care for their own interests in cases of parental indifference and carelessness; hence the State comes into authority to supersede the parents, if the children's rights are either ignored or unrecognized. In a sense, the freedom of the individual citizen is an absolute asset to his life unless he violates general laws of the State and proves that he is disregarding the rights of the people as a whole, or of individuals as a class, by insisting on assumed rights and prerogatives that his citizenship does not entitle him to possess, as by so doing he abuses the inheritance of responsibility that citizenship expects. So far as public education is concerned, the rights of the States have been such that they have been competent to meet the emergencies and the exigencies that the legislative bodies of the several States have found exist- ing. Not only has the elementary school been established as an essential partof free education for the benefit of the people, but secondary education has been organized, developed, and expanded until it is as free, as com- plete, and as necessary as elementary education. In many States the college and the university have become the open sesame to such higher education and training in vocations, professions, and industries, as the individual student's inclinations and talents demand or desire and that, too, under 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State direction and control and largely at State expense, the tuition fees being so small as to give remarkable opportunity for a preparation for life that is commensurate with public needs and equivalent to personal qualifi- cations, mental and physical. In these States the variety of higher educa- tion that is granted is of such a practical and fundamental nature that it does seem to the constructive critic that nothing more in educational lines remains to be organized, to be maintained, or to be developed, as all the possible individual needs for education and training have been fully pro- vided under conditions that are complimentary to the people of the Ameri- can system of constitutional, representative self-government. The fathers of the American Republic accomplished a noble work when they established representative government and thereby made a Constitution that has met well all demands, and has continued in existence without es- sential modification since its adoption. The true genius of American gov- ernment has consisted in so formulating a general plan that it has success- fully absorbed all amendments that have been made without in reality requiring either fundamental changes in purpose or determinate intention in aim. This is the more remarkable when it is realized how few constitu- tional changes the United States has experienced as compared to other equally important nations in the last one hundred years . The wonderful work that was done by the founders, the general adjustability that this historic document has always shown as legislation has been continuous and judicial decisions have been filed, the special suitability to the needs of organized civilization that has been evidenced under all emergencies of war and peace are unitedly a permanent tribute to the wisdom of the original believers in representative constitutional government as sufficient for guar- anteeing the rights, the duties, and the freedom of intelligent, moral human beings. The fathers of the American Republic recognized that neither the executive, the legislative, nor the judicial functions of government should dominate; hence they made provision for a real division of authority on such general terms that it was not easy to invade the province of each other and thus do violence to the checks and the balances that a successful con- duct of public affairs requires. This condition has given results that are even better than the founders anticipated in that legislation which seemed very desirable, and which the majority of the electors positively and patri- otically wanted, could be so readjusted and so modified that the main ob- jects sought were all eventually reached by either an amendment to the Constitution, by a very reasonable and prudent process, or by so restating the legislation so reattempted that it did not conflict with the safeguards granted by the Constitution, or restrict the main purposes of civil govern- ment to insure reform, progress, or development of any useful kind that was for the public freedom, the public peace, or the public welfare. Any decided change from these fundamental principles would have been revo- lutionary in character, subversive of administrative justice, and detrimental to the rights and duties of the people of the whole country. It is remark PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 237 able, indeed, that the Constitution was so prepared that every State in the Union has been protected in its sovereign rights to an extent that could hardly have been anticipated. The decline of true representative government in the United States of America, in accordance with the intention and plan of the fathers of the Constitution, has been shown in the constant attempt of organized electors tocompel the members of Congress to listen to and to accede to the opinions of organized society. It has become an accepted policy to act as if any interest or any cause not organized and that does not send its delegate officials to demand legislation at the hands of Congress will not receive any effective attention from congressional committees. Today almost every organized effort of any kind maintains headquarters at the National Capital, and keeps its offices open the year round, to advertise to their large member- ships throughout the Nation the status of legislation in progress, to keep them informed regarding the supposed attitude of all members of Congress, and to urge the public in general to write or to wire their respective mem- bers urging action in the direction that this organized society deems most helpful. One needs but reflect upon this new system of organized legisla- tive representation to realize that representative government is regularly, systematically, and decidedly controlled by experts in all these special in- terests so that class legislation may become the rule and general legislation the exception. Judgment, knowledge, and sincerity of purpose on the part of Congressmen are subordinated to special aims and definite ends in order to protect the demands and insure the hopes of the many whose success and prosperity and power depend upon the control of public sentiment. Itis extremely difficult to realize and to appreciate the true grandeur of a nation that is organized and conducted on the plan of the American Re- public. This is due to the fact that there is no permanent authority to decide policies, plans, and procedure. What the popular vote will be on issues of National and world-wide character is unable to be positively de- termined in advance as the consequences of such issues must be debated completely and spiritedly before the electors are willing to go on record as to what they want done in each case. What the Congressional conclusion will be on bills pending before this great representative body cannot be prudently conjectured. What a State legislature will accept as a wise and anapproved proposition in law, or in business, or in taxation, can not be safely anticipated in advance. What is true of progressive measures is equally true regarding the repealing or the amending of measures that are now in custom, in law, or in popular acceptability. The local representa- tive of a State Assembly inquires diligently concerning what his constituents want in any important matter as he is much influenced by public sentiment inthe area he represents, because he wants endorsement as a publicist rather than repudiation as a representative. This is largely true in the House of Representatives, and since the primary system of election for the nomina- tion of candidates for the United States Senate has been adopted these former officials are so close to the sentiment of their supporters in their 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION party that they vote to meet the demand of electors, instead of being gov- erned by party platforms. Hence, there is little or no solidarity in party action and the independent representative cannot be relied upon to obey the platforms on which he appeared as a candidate or to unite his power with others for the securing of the public welfare of the united country. Out of this came the independent voter that stands for no future policy or principle in civil government, the independent representative who is ready to do anything his constituents want and the independent senator who is more a demagog than a politician or a statesman. Out of all this change has developed a system of legislation that is neither dependent upon politics, upon official promises of candidates, nor upon any actual degree of American statesmanship, supporting issues of a minor kind that are dominant when there are issues of a major kind that are all eliminated from Governmental policies, Governmental influence, or Governmental procedure for world progress. The true grandeur of such a republic is in the personal characters, in the actual personal progress, and in the personal efficiency of the men and women in private life who are creators of public opinion and who are leaders in public prosperity. They make platforms, they select candi- dates for public office, and they see to it that their thinking is passed on as decisions that must be recognized according to public needs as to public welfare. These men are great in thinking out national policies, and great in dictating the kind of conclusions that are best for all the people to accept. They are not candidates for office, they are not desirous of having their names in newspapers and in literary prominence, but they still are the greatest of the great in knowing what to do to save the country from financial disaster, and what to do to have the great public consciously happy, contented, and consistent. These men are patriots as to self- sacrifice, deliberate as to high grades of thoughtfulness, and consistent in seeking the greatest good for the greatest number. They are financiers, leaders in industry, promoters of majestic enterprises, honest in their intentions, thorough-going in their service, and constant in their devotion to success in the concrete. In conclusion, it is appropriate to recall what a vast influence on public opinion the unknown and unappreciated educator of every class has had and is having. In a way, he is more permanent in his influence than are public men in more prominent positions. He is not always recognized in the business world as the creator of men for opportunity and for service because he is satisfied with his results when those whom he has helped to get a working education get prominence and distinction in the field of letters, of politics, of law, of divinity, and of business. His preeminence is in the product that those whom he has trained represent. His joy is the decisive distinction that his former students display. His success is in the masterfulness of accomplishment, of efficiency, and of power that his trained personalities show. In no land does the teacher count to such a degree as in the United States of America as in no other land can he PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 239 have, without knowing it, such multitudes of persons at his lectures and in his classroom as America constantly furnishes. This accounts for the organized effort put forth by educators of every class to have great con- ventions in order to make a study of America as she is and has been, in order to decide what she should be and ought to be. This they do at their own expense without any expectation of reward or recompense, en- livened by the ardent hope that by such conferences and such interpretations they may unitedly do a better work for the homes and the children of their country than they have done in the past. With such hope they come and go in this broad land knowing that eventually the American Republic will become in reality and in ultimate outcome what the public school systems seek to secure in religion, morality, and knowledge. What has thus been done is very marvelous, what is being done is beyond realization and what shall still be the results of the future, human imagination can not fairly estimate. It is the United States-its glory, its grandeur, and its greatness-that is every day the inspiration of the American teacher in the American schoolroom. AN ADDRESS AT THE PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGE MADE TO THE WALTER REED MEMORIAL HOSPITAL J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS SAN FRANCISCO , CALIFORNIA To this place of healing come men broken in the service of their country to be made whole again. For some such purpose do we, who are tossed and torn in the lashing seas of these troublous days, seek the healing of this sacred shrine. Pilgrim mariners, we are come upon our quest hoping here and now to receive a blessing; a blessing that will mend again the strained or broken cables that have in former days so stoutly held us from dashing upon the rocks; such a blessing as will renew again the charts and compasses which of old guided us, as individuals and as a Nation, toward those goals secured and established for us by our forefathers when they fought at Lexington and trod with frozen, bleeding feet the snows of Valley Forge; and when they, with pen mightier than the sword, wrote that immortal Declaration and our country's Constitution. Thus they made the charts and compasses by which we steered our course, and forged the anchor chains which held ussafe. These are days between two times ; one has gone never to return; the other is nearing the dawn, and yet is too indistinct for one even with telescopic vision to discern its lineaments. Things mental and moral, governmental and economic, are in a swirl and there is none among the pilots or the prophets to tell their course of flow. Caught in this tide are men and women who hug to their hearts the old ide hope, despite 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the surging of conflicting currents that somehow somehow-time will turn backward to bring again the safe and stable days like those before the war drums of Europe sounded but ten short years ago. Others there are, who are impatient of all old restraints, who discredit all former stand- ards of morals and of government, who would cut loose from all that has been wrought out through the slow-moving centuries, to press rashly for- ward to a new day and time. Between those who hope for the return of the former days of content, and the group which would break completely with the past, which would write a new Declaration of Independence, a new Constitution, a new code of morals, and a new economic foundation, is still another group whose members are striving to stem the tide, to grasp the lifelines which shall bring the new day into proper touch with their yesterdays. Fitting indeed-lest we forget that we turn again on this high day, here in our Nation's Capital, to the sacred shrines symbolizing those high and strong and far-reaching ideals that have in the past shaped and directed our National and individual lives. So we have come today to this hospital where the great sympathetic soul of our Government gives expression to that tender regard in which it holds all its citizens and espe- cially those disabled in its service; to this hospital, monument as it is to that loyal, splendid American, Major Walter Reed, noted surgeon, sani- tarian, and bacteriologist-whose wonderful service his Government is proud to honor. Let, then, the memories of monument and man course through our minds and help us to read a meaning a full meaning-into that for which this monument and this man shall ever stand. When the full meanings of this National institution and the service of this good citizen have been unrolled, when with them the meaning of other and greater monuments, and the equally worthy service of other citizens have been made clear, then shall we know and feel that these meanings and these memories stand for all we may need for the new time just ahead. One must often go backward before he can go forward. To some such condition have we come. We must turn again to the old family life and stability; to the old ethical basis for conduct; to the first principles of sound government and economics. In doing this, we must not shut out the new light of these present days. By all means let us erect a new structure, but let us erect it upon these old foundations. When the true light of these modern days shines forth we shall find that the old charts and compasses are the foundations of our newest inventions; that the new courses we take alike as individuals and as groups, whether as the family, church, or State, must be determined by those same lode stars that the inspiration of our prophets and our forefathers set above yonder horizon. Here, under the flag of our country, with minds flooded with the rich memories of the meanings of all these National symbols, we may in con- fidence lift our eyes toward Sinai, and to the Stars and Stripes, for the "dawn's early light" of the new day must break over that sacred mount, and be reflected to us first from the colors of Old Glory. PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 241 PILGRIMAGE TO THE TOMB OF WOODROW WILSON On the afternoon of the Fourth of July, 1924, several hundred teachers collected onthe lawn at Mount St. Albans under the beautiful trees near the Peace Cross. After a few introductory remarks by the chairman, Miss Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colorado, a Vice-President of the National Education Association, Dr. James R. Joyner, past president, National Education Association and Past Superin- tendent of Public Instruction for North Carolina, pronounced the eulogy to Woodrow Wilson in most appropriate and inspiring words . It was especially htting that Dr. Joyner was called upon to speak as he had been associated with Woodrow Wilson in his early career as a law student. The pilgrimage to the tomb of Woodrow Wilson was very impressive. Miss Force and Dr. Joyner, accompanied by Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford and Miss Charl 0. Williams, both past presidents of the National Education Assocation, lead the way to Bethlehem Chapel of the National Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, where lies interred the body of our great World War President. A beautiful wreath made up of the choicest flowers available in Washington, D. C., was placed at the shrine of Woodrow Wilson by the National Education Association to do honor to the great schoolmaster and world statesman. About eight hundred were in attendance. A TRIBUTE TO FREDERICK DOUGLASS MADE AT A PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGE TO HIS HOME SARA L. RHODES, PRESIDENT, NEW YORK PRINCIPALS' ASSOCIATION NEW YORK CITY In fulfillment of that wonderful manifold tribute, appointed by our inspired president, Miss Olive Jones, it is my high privilege today to rep- resent the National Education Association, and bring to you the greet- ings of that Association, at this shrine of a noted patriot and orator, and to spend a few all-too-brief moments in memory of one of America's great leaders, Frederick Douglass. I am grateful for the opportunity. There is a peculiar fitness in the time and manner of this tribute to that great orator and leader, in whose memory we are assembled here today. We are, within one day of the anniversary of what was probably the most notable and important of his addresses that remarkable speech delivered in defense of human rights, at Rochester, N. Y., on July 5, 1852. It is also peculiarly calculated to awaken our memory of Frederick Douglass to know that, at the various patriotic shrines of our Nation today, are being offered heartfelt speeches in tributes of eloquence. If Frederick Douglass had been among these speakers he would have stood preeminently above the rest as a master of eloquence. He moved his hearers as no one of this generation can move them, with a presence that was poised and commanding, a voice that was like the music of an organ or the call of a trumpet, speech that flowed as a river through beautiful margins of adorn- ment and grandeur, and an impassioned soul that poured itself forth in defense of the right, whenever he saw an injustice that needed remedying or awrong that demanded correction. 1 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It is also fitting that I should here pause to pay my tribute of recognition to a fact of special interest to the women of this decade. Frederick Douglass was an ardent supporter of the cause of suffrage for women. Susan B. Anthony, his warm personal friend, counted him among her firmest and staunchest helpers in the cause which lay so close to her heart. Now that that long period of struggle is over, now that the cause in which they worked together is safely won, and since those who launched it did not live to see its consummation except with the eyes of faith, may I, remembering and honoring that woman whose voice is stilled but whose spirit is triumphant, venture to tender my tribute of appreciation for the splendid contributions of her co-worker, Frederick Douglass, to the cause which was her life, the cause of suffrage for women? I take it for granted that the long life of Frederick Douglass, from 1817 to 1895, extending through a period of nearly eighty years, is too well known to you in its main incidents to need recapitulation. I will merely recall to you that, among other achievements, he edited the paper called the "North Star," published in the city of Rochester, New York, where there is now a public monument erected to him; that he was for a time Recorder of Deeds, and a well-known figure here in the District of Columbia, and that he was appointed Foreign Minister for the United States, representing his country in Haiti. His services to his country and to humanity are inseparably linked with his remarkable powers of oratory, which he exercised always for the cause of righteousness and justice. May I offer to you for a moment a new theme and ask you to think with me of what has come to my mind very frequently during the last few weeks ? With the opening of this summer there has been an unprece- dented flow of travel from the shores of the United States to the shores of Europe. I am told it exceeds greatly any record of recent years. Our minds follow those myriads of travelers, imagining what Europe holds for them and what they are reaching. Various interests entice them, but before they return from the Old World they seek to become acquainted with those objects of appreciation and reverence in sculpture and other arts recognized as the masterpieces of the world. It is before these masterpieces that the crowds gather. It is before these masterpieces that one meets, sooner or later, every traveler worth the name those who consider travel an opportunity not merely to gratify curiousity or to enjoy a carefree period of recreation, but an opportunity to meet and understand other nations and institutions than their own, to visit the most ingenious and magnificent accomplishments of the arts and sciences, and to derive inspiration from the best that humanity is able to offer in imperishable expression of beauty and truth. Wherein lies the claim of these works to immortality? And why may they be called masterpieces ? It is because they conform to the principles of balance, harmony, and beauty, and because they satisfy the desire for idealism, always arising within the human soul. One of the truest tests of a masterpiece is the test of time. Only that PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 2+3 art will endure as an inspiration to successive generations which is so universal in its thought, so intimate in its truth to the humblest details of life, so wide in its lofty ideals that it cannot fail to touch even the simplest heart and to satisfy even the most sophisticated mind. On such a production the finger of time is laid not in destruction but in benediction. Such a masterpiece loses no particle of its meaning as the years roll by. On the contrary, every day adds to its beauty and fame. Each year brings a greater glory even to the material of which it is made ; mellowing the tints of marble, touching the curves of bronze with the soft shades of enveloping patina, and giving to the beauty of jewel-like color, a depth and richness that makes it valuable beyond price. Ihave spoken concerning our appreciation of the splendid works created by the artists of the world. But what shall I say of the men and women whom, in reverent groups, we honor today ? For statuary, painting, music, literature are but inanimate expressions. The living masterpieces of the world are God's leaders of His people. We are all travelers across the expanse of life. We, too, are seeking as we pass the masterpieces of our Nation's history, that here we may derive inspiration from them, and seeking this today pause in memory and admiration before the shrine of a leader. We meet and grect one another in the presence of his spirit. On this, the birthday of our Nation, the educators of our country stand on hallowed ground. Our souls rise in a prayer of gratitude for these our countrymen whose lives are splendid accomplishments conforming to the laws of beauty and strength, through sincerity, truth, enlightenment, humanitarianism, and service. Our prayer goes further. We ask for leadership for the present hour. Our country has great need of men and women to guide us into the ways of peace, to be lamps unto our feet and lights unto our paths. Will our prayer be answered ? Will our leaders arise? The response lies to a great degree within ourselves. A true leader cannot exist but as the exponent and expression of the people whom he guides. If we want leaders, we must be worthy of them. They are the expression of our best. Let us see to it that we have a best to give them. It is our responsibility, yours andmine, that we shall so live as to become the sources from which our leaders may draw inspiration, courage, faith . Again, the leader is an expression of something more than the people whom he leads, indeed, of something mightier than himself. The man himself is nothing unless he is caught by a cause that is without him as well as within, a strong, righteous, and animating force. He passes into the grip of destiny, swept on by the resistless and mysterious wave of universal progress, carrying forward with him a nation, perchance, a continent, or even a world. We have great need for such leaders as the man in whose honor we are assembled here today. Would that his impassioned earnestness and his resounding voice could carry our message again in this city into the halls of national law and justice. The National Education Association is seek 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing as a great end, to further the cause of equality, of opportunity in education for all, but especially for the children of this country. Can you not imagine where Frederick Douglass would have taken his stand on this question ? Is this not a theme, think you, which would have called forth all his wonderful resources of mind and voice ? We shall not ask in vain. His presence is no longer with us, but his spirit, the universal spirit which moves over the destinies of a nation, will arise again to carry us forward in the cause of righteousness and unity. We have brought to Frederick Douglass our tribute of praise and grati- tude. Although it may be inadequate in proportion to his due, it is offered in sincerity and in truth. In conclusion, what more fitting than to listen to the words of the man himself, the wonderful speaker in the cause of righteousness, who being dead yet speaketh : "I have seen dark hours in my life, and I have seen the darkness gradu- ally disappearing, and the light gradually increasing. One by one I have seen obstacles removed, errors corrected, prejudices softened, and my people advancing in all the elements that make up the sum of general welfare. I remember that God reigns in eternity, and that, whatever delays, dis- appointments, and discouragements may come, truth, justice, liberty, and humanity will prevail." THE NATION AND ITS PUBLIC EDUCATION 、 FRANK P. GRAVES, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, AND STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, NEW YORK The Fourth of July is our Nation's birthday. But there was one Fourth of July in our National existence when we scarcely knew whether it was to be accounted the day of the Nation's birth or the day of its death. That was in 1863. Our people had been torn asunder by a bitter con- troversy concerning fundamental principles. Unable to settle these axio- matic issues by peaceful measures, they had resorted to the arbitrament of war. It was a fratricidal conflict, in which both sides displayed equal courage and heroic determination. This civil strife had proved long drawn and wasteful, and had deluged the land with blood and tears. It was now at length reaching its close, although the people of the North did not know it. The war lasted only a year longer, but just at this time the South, with all its forces, had come away up on Northern soil, even to the State of Pennsylvania. Here for three days-the first, second, and third of July-was fought the most frightful battle in all our National history. And when July fourth dawned, the Nation held its breath, for no one could tell what the outcome was to be. It was not until the fifth that the South withdrew, defeated but unbroken in battle, and the Nation was saved. 1Address given at the Patriotic Pilgrimage made to the National Cemetery, Gettysburg. Pennsylvania. PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 245 A few months later, when the time came to raise some monument of gratitude for that great deliverance, the people from all over our land were gathered together on this old battlefield, at the very spot upon which we now stand. The foremost orator of the day was summoned to deliver a speech that should fittingly mark the most decisive event in American history. Edward Everett was chosen for the occasion, and he was fit as was no other man to speak for his country. He had a com- manding presence, and his mind was richly stored with all the knowledge and culture of two continents. The great Everett held his audience through a long oration, beautiful in imagery, sonorous in delivery, and profound in its scholarship and thought. Then, as he retired from the scene, there came forward another speaker. Hewas gaunt and bent, and his face was gnarled with the cares and woes of a Nation, and he spoke not from choice, but because it was the duty of his office to speak. No higher institution of learning had nurtured this man; indeed, he had scarcely been inside a schoolhouse. Yet what he said upon that occasion will live when all other American orations are for- gotten. The words of the polished Everett died on the wind that blew that day over Gettysburg, and have never since been recorded, but the address of Abraham Lincoln will echo in the hearts of his countrymen until the United States of America shall forever cease to exist. Simple and direct, his eloquent masterpiece will be constantly repeated, as long as we have occasion to express our love and devotion to this country and its free institutions. "Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this con- tinent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this . "But in a large sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who strug- gled here, have consecrated it far above our poor powers to add or to detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion-that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this Nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth." 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION What wonder is it that at the conclusion the whole audience remained in reverent silence or that their action was pronounced by a dying Con- federate captain to be "the most perfect tribute that has ever been paid by any people to any orator!" And when the ceremonies were finished, it is recorded that Edward Everett sought out Lincoln, and declared, to that modest man's great embarrassment : " Mr. President, I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near the central idea of the occasion in two hours as you did in two minutes." Now when we think of such an occurrence as this, where the plain and unadorned sentences of a backwoodsman and rail-splitter have put to shame the product of the finest scholarship of Europe and America, we are tempted to say that it is well to take to the backwoods and leave the col- lege behind us. But we should remember that Lincoln himself did not think so. He looked with real regret upon his own want of opportunity, and, good father and citizen that he was, he was ever eager to give to his own children and those of all others every advantage of which he himself had been deprived. Nor should we overestimate Lincoln's own lack of schooling. He must have received a sound elementary training and have read and thought deeply during his early life in Illinois. No unlettered dullard could have written that outburst of purest patriotism, forceful in logic and diction, and faultless in sentence structure and rhythm. Nor could any illiterate have penned that deeply consoling letter to the broken- hearted mother who had lost her five sons in the war, a letter that is posted in the Bodleian Library at Oxford as a specimen of the most perfect English ever written. No; this most modest but greatest of Americans need ever have ex- pressed an unalterable belief in the power of education at every stage. He would have insisted upon it, not only as the means of developing each individual, but of maintaining the freedom and security of our country. No other conception is in harmony with this speech at Gettysburg. While he understood the importance of laying the foundations of the educational structure deeply and well, and of extending these benefits to all the children of all the people, he would likewise have insisted upon full opportunties for all those who are capable of higher education and are fitted by nature for leadership. His broad vision would never have failed to grasp the fact that education should be a unity throughout, and that every boy and girl should be able to secure just as much training as he is capable of consuming. Such has always been the American ideal in education and it must ever have been that of Abraham Lincoln. In this connection, one cannot fail to recall the words of another great American, who also came into notice during the Civil War and whose name will go down to posterity joined with that of Lincoln. I refer to the address of Ulysses S. Grant given at Des Moines, a dozen years after this patriotic utterance of Lincoln at Gettysburg. Surely we may listen with PATRIOTIC PILGRIMAGES 247 great respect to Grant, who spoke so seldom and whenever he did speak, dropped golden gems of thought. Said he upon that occasion : "I do not bring into this assemblage politics, certainly not partisan politics, but it is a fair subject for the deliberation of soldiers to consider what may be necessary to secure the prize for which they battled. In a republic like ours, where the citizen is the sovereign and the official the servant, where no power is exercised except by the will of the people, it is important that the sovereign-the people-should possess intelligence. The free school is the promoter of that intelligence which is to preserve us. If we are to have another contest in the near future of our National existence, I predict that the dividing line will not be Mason and Dixon's, but between patriotism and intelligence on the one side, and superstition, ambition, and ignorance on the other. "Encourage free schools. Resolve that either the State or the Nation, or both combined, shall support institutions of learning, sufficient to afford to every child growing up in the land the opportunity of a good education. With these safeguards I believe that our battles will not have been fought invain." Could any appeal better supplement the thought and words of Lincoln when applied to education ? Does not General Grant seem, as President himself, to have caught fully the spirit of his old commanding officer, and conveyed to us the educational message that Lincoln would have elaborated as the occasion arose ? Surely we, the teachers of America, who have made this pilgrimage to the greatest of our National shrines, should gather something of the significance of this lesson. Even in these days of dis- couragement, when financial support of education has so lamentably failed to overtake the winged cost of living, we may listen to the calm guiding voices of Lincoln and of his great general, and find our nerves steadied and our courage strengthened. In the midst of the present onset upon our public schools and universities, when persons of wealth and influence are often complaining about the expenditures involved in each step for- ward in education, we may comfort and steel ourselves by repeating the inspiring counsel of these two great patriots and companions in arms. Thus through our pilgrimage shall we once more knit up our sinews and renew our vows of fidelity to education and the future of America as expressed in the training of its youth. Reports of Committees REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE PROBLEM OF RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES-SUMMARY PHILIP E. CARLSON, PRINCIPAL, ROOSEVELT HIGH SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS MINNESOTA, CHAIRMAN The 1924 report of the Committee on the Problem of Retirement Allowances included: (a) A statement and an explanation of the funda- mental principles of a Teachers' Retirement System; (b) arguments why every State should enact a sound teacher retirement law; (c) a discussion of the teacher's interest in retirement legislation ; (d) a list of State and local retirement systems now in effect; and ( e) selected references on teacher retirement systems . The following is a summary of the first four sections of the report : A. STATEMENT OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF A TEACHERS' RETIREMENT SYSTEM I. Beginners to be exempt-During the beginning years while young teachers have not permanently allied themselves with the profession, par ticipation in the annuity plan should be optional. Beyond a specified age (twenty-five, for example), it should be required. II. Early retirement-Teachers leaving the service before the regular retirement age should retain their rights to all moneys accumulated in their accounts. Teachers' deposits should be withdrawable immediately upon retirement from teaching service. The public's deposits should be with- drawable in the form of an annuity or death benefit only upon reaching the retirement age. III. Disability-An adequate retirement allowance should be provided for every permanently disabled teacher regardless of the amount in his account at the time of such disability. IV. Guarantees of a retirement system to teachers and to the public- Retirement ages and rules should be so defined and administered as to retain teachers during efficient service and provide for their retirement when satisfactory service is no longer possible. The retirement annuity should be sufficient to enable the retiring teacher to live in reasonable comfort, thereby removing the temptation to remain in the classroom beyond the period of efficient service. V. Death benefits-Sums accumulated in the accounts of teachers who die in service and unused portions of the accounts of retired teachers should be paid either to designated beneficiaries or to the estates of such teachers. In addition to the chairman, this committee included the members listed on page 24. The complete report is published in Vol. II, No. 3, Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, [248] REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 249 VI. Individual accounts-The annuity board should open an account with each individual teacher. Sums deposited in that account by the teacher and by the public should be held in trust for that teacher. VII. Rights under previous annuity systems safeguarded-The public should guarantee active teachers all the benefits which they had a reasonable right to expect under the old system. Furthermore, it should guarantee retired teachers the annuity promised at the time of their retirement. VIII. Credit for past service where no retirement system has existed- Upon the adoption of a retirement plan, where none exists, teachers should be given credit for their entire period of service. Funds for this purpose should be provided by the public. IX. Cost to teachers and public-The sums deposited by the teachers and by the public during the period of the annuity contract should be approximately equal. X. Service and deposits concurrent-Deposits in the annuity account of each teacher should be made by the teacher and by the public, regularly and concurrently during the period of service. XI. Amount of deposits fixed-The deposit to be made in the teacher's individual account by the teacher and by the public should be definitely fixed in the Organic Act creating the retirement system. B. WHY EVERY STATE SHOULD ENACT A SOUND TEACHER RETIREMENT LAW 1. A sound teacher retirement law protects children from teachers rendered incompetent by advanced age because: ( 1) It sets up a plan which makes it impossible for any teacher to reach old age and infirmity without provision having been made for his retirement. (2) It frees school boards from the necessity of continuing to employ teachers rendered incompetent by advanced age. (3) It frees teachers from the necessity of continuing in service after advanced age has seriously reduced their effectiveness. II . A sound teacher retirement law tends to attract capable young people into the teaching profession because : ( 1 ) It partly compensates for the lower remuneration that teaching offers during active service. (2) It gives a better guarantee of promotion within the profession. ( 3) It re- moves the discouraging example of superannuated teachers who lack the means of supporting themselves in reasonable comfort. (4) It dignifies the teaching profession, so that capable young people may enter it without apology. III. A sound teacher retirement system tends to keep capable teachers in the classroom because : ( 1 ) It makes it unnecessary for capable people to seek more remunerative employment than teaching in order to provide for their old age. (2) It makes each year of teaching service a step toward independence, rather than dependence, in old age. (3) It makes continu- ance in the teaching profession an absolute guarantee of security in old age. 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IV. A sound teacher retirement system increases the efficiency of the teacher in the classroom because: (1) It lengthens the period of teaching efficiency by removing from the mind of the teacher the fear of a destitute old age. (2) It makes it possible for a teacher to invest in study, training, and travel without endangering the provision made for his later years. (3) It improves the morale of a teaching force by keeping open the paths of promotion. (4) It increases the child's respect for the teacher and thereby makes her work more effective. V. A sound teacher retirement system in the long run means a substantial saving to the general public because: ( 1) It makes possible the replacement of superannuated teachers, who receive the maximum salaries, by younger teachers, who begin at a smaller salary. (2) It protects the public from the waste of an expensive school plant manned by a superannuated teacher. (3) It guarantees the public a definite and valuable return for its share of the cost. (4) It prevents the enactment of ill-considered and costly " pension" systems. (5) Its cost to the general public is small when com- pared with the benefits received. VI. The adoption of a sound teacher retirement system is in accord with the best thought of the day because: (1) Private industry has already recognized retirement plans as essential to good business. (2) A retire- ment plan has already been put in effect in all important public services. (3) The public in general contributes billions of dollars each year for the support of insurance companies that offer protection for the future. C. THE TEACHER'S INTEREST IN RETIREMENT LEGISLATION (1) The form of teacher retirement legislation which promises most in benefits to the public also promises most in benefits to the teacher. ( 2) The support of sound teacher retirement legislation on the part of all teachers is a professional duty. (3) Every teacher has a direct personal interest in the enactment of sound retirement legislation. (4) Sound teacher retirement legislation is based upon sound business principles, which may be freely accepted by all teachers without loss of self respect. (5) A teacher retirement system exercises an important influence upon advance- ment and promotion within the profession. (6) Exact information is now available to guide those in charge of the drafting of retirement legis- lation. In drafting such legislation teachers' committees should avail them- selves of expert advice. (7) The enactment of sound legislation must be based upon a proper education of the public and united effort on the part of the teaching profession. D. STATE AND LOCAL RETIREMENT SYSTEMS NOW IN EFFECT The progress of the teacher retirement movement as indicated by the enactment of State and local measures is shown in the tabulations which follow: State-wide teacher retirement laws are in effect in: Arizona, California, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 251 Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Vir- ginia, and Wisconsin. In the States just mentioned the following cities and counties have local teacher retirement systems independent of the State syste.ns : New Haven, Conn.; Chicago, Ill.; Peoria, Ill.; Terre Haute, Ind.; Allegany Co., Md.; Baltimore, Md.; Baltimore Co., Md.; Boston, Mass.; Detroit, Mich.; Duluth, Minn.; Minneapolis, Minn.; St. Paul, Minn.; New York, N. Y.; Bristol, R. I.; Newport, R. I.; Providence, R. I.; and Milwaukee, Wis. State teacher retirement laws affecting cities of the first and second class. are in effect in Colorado, Kansas, Kentucky, Iowa, Louisiana, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia. Cities operating retirement systems under such State laws are : Canon City, Colorado Springs, Denver, Greeley, Topeka, Louisville, Newport, Des Moines, New Orleans, Portland, Salt Lake City, Bellingham, Everett, Seattle, Spokane, Tacoma, Parkersburg, Wheeling. No State law relative to teacher retirement is in effect in Alabama, Ar- kansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Oklahoma, North Carolina, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, and Wyoming. In the above States, where there are no permissive or mandatory laws relative to teacher retirement, the following cities and counties have local retirement systems : Mobile Co., Ala.; Wilmington, Del.; Columbus, Ga.; Greenville, Miss.; Yazoo City, Miss.; Manchester, N. H.; Nashua, N. H .; New Hanover Co. , N. C.; Charleston, S. C.; and Nashville, Tenn. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON THE PROBLEM OF TENURE-SUMMARY FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , OAKLAND , CALIFORNIA CHAIRMAN The purpose of the Committee of One Hundred on the Problem of Tenure was: (1) To ascertain the need for a greater permanency of tenure ; (2) To study the legislation already enacted, together with the rules and regulations in operation in various communities, in regard to teacher tenure; (3) To ascertain the results of such tenure legislation and such rules and regulations regarding teacher tenure as have been established ; (+) To ascertain the attitude of the teaching body of the United States and the lay public in regard to this problem ; ( 5 ) To develop a statement of the standards that exist within the profession and on the part of the lay In addition to the chairman, this committee included the members listed on page 25 . The complete report is published in Vol. II, 1924, Research Pulletin of the National Edu- cation Association, 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION public for merit in the teaching profession; and (6) To make recommenda- tions upon the basis of the findings reached as to desirable legislation and rules and regulations for boards of education. The need for greater permanency of tenure was shown by the following facts: 1. The "state" teacher turnover in the public schools of the several States of the United States that is, the number of teachers required to fill positions vacated by teachers leaving the profession in the State, totals 110,560 annually or 16 per cent of the entire teaching profession. It ranges from 4 per cent in Florida to 47 per cent in Wyoming. 2. The local teacher turnover is much in excess of this. In some States it reaches a very high percentage, more than one half the teachers being new in their posi- tions each year. For instance 68 per cent of the teachers are new in the rural schools of Wisconsin. A study of cases of political dismissal throughout the United States showed that the issue is between a truly citizen and professional, or a "spoils," control of the schools. The findings are summarized as follows: 1. No State, city or community can maintain and administer a school system in the interest of its youth if its teaching body and its school leaders are subject to the dangers of political assault and professional murder represented by some of the cases of political dismissal studied by this committee. 2. It is only a natural result that radical attitudes should develop and that a feverish tendency to organize for political protection should pervade the teaching ranks of many cities and States . 3. Neither is it surprising that laws, rules, and regulations ensue which protect not only the efficient and professional-minded member of the profession, but also the incompetent and political-minded member. 4. The need of a carefully developed policy which will protect the efficient, skill- ful and professional-minded teacher and eliminate those who are not is apparent to any student of the situation. A review of State tenure laws already enacted revealed the following tendencies : ( 1 ) A probationary period- 1 to 3 years ; (2) a hearing before the employing board; (3) right of counsel for teacher; (4) the following specific causes for dismissal (in writing ) : immoral or unprofessional con- duct (misconduct) , incompetence (inefficiency-incapacity ) , evident un- fitness for teaching, persistent violation of or refusal to obey State laws, violation of or refusal to obey reasonable rules and regulations prescribed by government of schools (insubordination), neglect of duty (wilful neglect of duty) , malfeasance or nonfeasance when found guilty; and (5) reasonable notice of hearing or intention to prefer charges. A review of local tenure regulations showed that in general they followed the same trends as the State laws. Apparently the general purpose of local tenure regulations is to protect the schools and the teaching body from political attack, to guarantee the able and efficient teacher security of posi- tion as long as efficiency and good behavior continue. There can be no question that the security afforded by a local regulation is somewhat less than that afforded by a State law. A political group desiring to attack REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 253 the schools locally could, except where prevented by overwhelming public sentiment and definite counter organization, overturn a series of local rules inan attack upon the school administration. Such rules, of course, become a greater protection the longer they are in operation. A tradition or a cus- tom is more difficult to overturn if supported by an active administration than is such an administration itself. Astudy of practices in foreign countries showed that no such policy as the"hire-and-fire practice," common in many of our States, exists. Neither is there such a thing as a "yearly contract" plan of election for teachers. In those countries in which illiteracy is very nearly abolished and which are included in the summary below, the teaching profession seems to be upon a stable basis. SUMMARY OF PRACTICES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES Are Executives Tenure Dismissal and Supervisory Officers Included? Germany Life For cause Yes Age retirement Denmark Indefinite, during satisfac- For cause No data tory service, except in Age retirement winter country schools Switzerland. Differs in the several can- For cause No data tons (Seldom occurs) Netherlands.... Indefinite For cause Apparently included Finland. Unlimited after two years For cause Yes probation Inefficiency after warning crime or immorality with- out warning Norway.... Indefinite during satisfac- For cause Yes tory service Age retirement Sweden Indefinite after probation For cause after warning No data with right of appeal Great Britain. Indefinite For cause Yes Age retirement France Indefinite during satisfac- For cause cases rare Yes tory service To determine what should constitute a defensible standard of merit and what provisions for protection of both teachers and children should be in- corporated in laws and regulations, when should teachers be dismissed and when should they be protected and retained, questionnaires were sent to classroom teachers, city superintendents, principals, laymen, presidents of State teachers colleges and normal schools, deans of teachers colleges , professors of school administration and other college professors, presidents of State universities and colleges, county superintendents, State superin- tendents of public instruction, and presidents of State parent-teachers asso- ciations. Two thousand one hundred and twelve replies were received.¹ Atabulation of these returns would seem to indicate that : 1. The teaching profession stands for a policy of teacher tenure and protection of competent and able teachers in their positions. 2. The teaching profession would eliminate the incompetent and the unworthy 3. Tenure measures should provide for dismissal for such causes as : Manifest Detailed tabulations of the replies of each of these groups are included in the complete sefort. 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION or proved physical disability; proved lapse of moral character ; proved insubordina- tion to reasonable rules and regulations of employing authority ; and continued inability to maintain discipline in classroom ( teacher ) , organization of school (principal), or organization of system (superintendent) . 4. The lay public would make the list of specific causes upon which dismissal should be based much larger than the members of the profession. (It is doubtful if the lay public understands the issues involved in teacher tenure or sanctions the policy advocated by the profession.) These returns would seem further to in- dicate that a reasonable and defensible tenure law should provide the following: (a) A period of probation of one to three years ; ( b) Tenure during efficiency and good behavior ; ( c) Dismissal only upon proof of cause and after trial in at least two schools-this to apply to any cause except proved immorality; and (d) Right ofhearing. 5. Recognized causes for dismissal: Proved physical or mental incapacity for performing the duties of teaching; proved immorality, proved disobedience of State laws or reasonable rules prescribed for the management of the schools; in- ability to maintain discipline or to secure and maintain the organization of the school or system in the case of a teacher, principal, and superintendent respectively. REPORT OF THE LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION¹ GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN WHAT ARE THE PROVISIONS OF THE EDUCATION BILL ? The Education Bill provides for a Federal Department of Education with a Secretary of Education in the President's Cabinet. It creates a National Council on Education which would meet once each year and be composed of the following : 1. The State superintendents or commissioners of education of the forty- eight States, 2. Twenty-five persons not educators interested in the results of education from the standpoint of the public, and 3. Twenty-five educators representing different interests in education. The Bill provides for Federal aid to help and encourage the States in the: 1. Removal of illiteracy, 2. Americanization of the foreign-born, 3. Equalization of educational opportunities, 4. Promotion of physical education, and 5. Training of teachers. The bill protects the schools from centralized control. All the edu- cational activities encouraged by its provisions are to be administered by 1In addition to the chairman, the Commission includes the members listed on page 29. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 255 the State and local authorities. It specifically provides against Federal control of education and leaves the States free in the conduct of their respective school systems . WHO IS SUPPORTING THE EDUCATION BILL? Twenty-two great national organizations have endorsed the Bill. These organizations represent millions of American citizens. Few meas- urse have received as careful study and as much attention as the Education Bill. The steady increase in the number of public-spirited organizations supporting the measure is an indication of the fundamental soundness of its provisions. The organizations now supporting the bill with their approximate membership follow : National Education Association .. 135,000 perance Union 500,000 American Federation of Teachers 7,500 American Association of Univer- American Federation of Labor... 3,350,000 sity Women . 15,000 National Committee for a Depart- National Federation of Business ment of Education ... 101 and Professional Women's Clubs 35,000 National Council of Women. .. 11,000,000 General Grand Chapter, Order of National Congress of Parents and the Eastern Star .. 1,500,000 Teachers 530,546 National Women's Trade Union General Federation of Women's League 600,000 Clubs 2,800,000 National Board of Young Women's National League of Women Voters Christian Association 600,000 Supreme Council, Scottish Rite of National Society, Daughters of Freemasonry, Southern Juris- the American Revolution ...... 181,963 diction of the United States ... 270,000 National Federation of Music International Sunday School Coun- Clubs 250,000 cil of Religious Education American Library Association .... 5,669 National Council of Jewish National Vocational Education Women 48,000 Association 1,500 National Woman's Christian Tem- Woman's Relief Corps THE EDUCATION BILL DESERVES WIDE SUPPORT The Education Bill would create a Federal Department of Education thereby providing for : 1. The coordination of the education work already being carried on by the Federal Government. 2. The elimination of waste and duplication of effort. 3. The conduct of vitally needed educational investigations not now pro- vided for. 4. The effective dissemination of educational information to be used by State and local officials in improving educational efficiency. There is need for coördinating the educational work of the Federal Government. In the last fiscal year the Federal Government expended more than forty million dollars for education. This important work is now carried on under the direction of a number of different departments. The creation of a Department of Education would make possible the effective coördination of this work. Better results could be secured and duplication of effort eliminated. A Federal Department of Education through its investigations would bring about an increase in educational efficiency. The creation of such a 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION department would make possible scientific investigation in the field of educa- tion similar to that which has already been so effectively carried on in the field of agriculture and commerce under the auspices of the Federal Government. The leadership of the Federal Government in the field of educa- tional research is badly needed. Educational progress is delayed in a number of directions because of the lack of research and investigation that would be possible through a well-organized Federal Department of Edu- cation. For example, there is need for further careful work in the field of educational finance. At the present time, we are spending approximately a billion and a half dollars annually for the public schools. Yet, school accounting procedure is in such chaos that it is extremely difficult to col- lect reliable statistics on school costs. Most local boards in their financing of the schools proceed on the basis of guess-work rather than on the basis of facts. A Department of Education could work out and popularize effective methods of school accounting and budgetary procedure which would result in greater efficiency in the expenditures of the money provided for the public schools. A Federal Department of Education might also render effective as- sistance to local committees in the revision of the public-school curriculum. Hundreds of local school systems are now struggling to bring about the proper revision of their curricula. They recognize that the curriculum is overcrowded. Rapidly changing conditions have rendered obsolete much of the material that still remains in the average course of study. The local course of study committees are seriously handicapped by the lack of data necessary to the most effective revision of their curriculum. A Department of Education through a division of research could have ready for distribu- tion on the request of local curriculum committees, compilations of the best current thought on educational aims and objectives, methods of organ- izing the materials in courses of study, and scientific methods for realizing the desired outcomes from the work of the schools. These are but two illustrations of many that might be given to illus- trate how educational progress would be served by the investigational work that might be expected from a well-organized and adequately supported Department of Education. The prestige that a Department of Education would enjoy would make it an effective agency for the dissemination of scientific educational information. It would be recognized as a fountain source for the latest, most comprehensive, and reliable information on all educational questions. The Secretary of Education through the persuasive influence of the facts at his command would be in a position vitally to affect educational progress. Suggestions coming from one in his position would receive the attention of the Nation. Once each year, according to the terms of the bill, he would summon a National Council of Education, composed of the Superintendents or Commissioners of Education of all the States, and in addition twenty- five laymen "to consult with the Secretary of Education on subjects relat REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 257 ing to the promotion and development of education in the United States." Canthe great influence for educational progress that the meetings of this National Council would exercise be overestimated ? THE BILL WOULD ENCOURAGE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS THROUGH FEDERAL AID The Bill would authorize Federal appropriations to encourage and aid the States in dealing with five specified educational problems that are of national significance. These are : 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% GERMANY .2 DENMARK .2 SWITZERLAND.5 NETHERLANDS.6 NORWAY 1.0 SWEDEN 1.0 SCOTLAND 16 ENGLAND WALES 18 FRANCE 4.9 UNITED STATES60 FIGURE 1- PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERATES FOR TEN NATIONS 1. The elimination of uliteracy-In the 1920 census, five million illiterates were enumerated, the majority of which over three million- were native-born Americans. These five million according to the census "should be understood as representing only those persons who have had no 258 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION schooling whatever." In the draft, one man in every four could not write a letter home or read a newspaper in English. Such a situation in a democracy is a matter of national concern. A wall cannot be built around ignorance. This problem can be most effectively met by national ap- proach. This the bill recognizes by authorizing the appropriation of Federal funds to the States for their use in stamping out illiteracy. THE BILL WOULD ENCOURAGE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS THROUGH FEDERAL AID TABLE 1- ILLITERATES IN THE UNITED STATES ("No Schooling Whatever" ) Native-born illiterates .... 3,084,7332 Negro illiterates . 1,842,161 Native white illiterates . 1,242,572 Native minor illiterates . 531,077 Total illiterates . 4,931,905 2. The education of the foreign-born-Approximately eight million of our fourteen million foreign-born citizens come from countries in which from 25 to 80 per cent of the population is illiterate. Millions of these newcomers to our shores are illiterate and a majority of them are unable to speak English. The lack of facilities for adult education makes it un- likely that any large percentage of these people will take the first step toward 'becoming intelligent American citizens. This problem the bill recognizes as of fundamental national importance and authorizes appropria- tions from the Federal Treasury for the use of the States in Americaniz- ing our foreign-born adult population. TABLE 2-AMERICANIZATION PROBLEMS Foreign-born 13,820,692 Part illiterate . 8,218,223 Confessed illiterate . 1,763,740 Non-English speaking . 1,488,948 3. The promotion of physical education-One man in every six examined during the world war-1,340,623 in all-were rejected for physical deficiencies. TABLE 3-PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND CASUALITIES, WORLD WAR' Number Per cent Men examined 5,991,123 100.0 Men accepted 4,650,500 77.6 Men rejected 1,340,623 22.4 Killed and wounded 248,170 4.1 1 These figures are taken from the Federal census. The quotation is also from the census . 2The figures given above refer to foreign-born population only. The "Part Illiterate- 8,218,223," is the number of foreign-born citizens in the United States from countries where 25 to 80 per cent of the total population is illiterate. These figures concern soldiers of the United States, and were officially issued by the Government. "Men rejected" refers to those rejected for military service because of physical disabilities. Five times as many men were rejected for physical disability as were killed or wounded. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 259 These men under 32 years of age were supposedly in the prime of life. The great majority of their defects were preventable. Herbert Hoover's Committee on Waste in Industry has recently estimated the annual economic loss to the Nation from preventable disease and death as three billion dollars. The bill would strike straight at the menace of physical degeneration by authorizing Federal funds for use of the States in promoting health and physical education. 4. The provision of better trained teachers-The bill further recog- nizes that the classroom taught by an untrained and an inexperienced teacher is a menace in a democracy. In the United States in 1923 , more than 50,000 teachers with practically no experience and with no training be- yond the grades were attempting to prepare 1,000,000 children for citizen- ship in the world's greatest democracy-unskilled labor for work requiring great skill. TABLE 4 - INADEQUATELY TRAINED TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES Number 354,018 Per cent 54 Rural school -teachers : Per Cent Beginners 36 Under 21 ... 25 No training . 23 Children cannot be prepared for successful citizenship in our present complex democracy by immature, untrained teachers. This is no new problem. It existed before the war. The war exaggerated the condition, but little has been done that is fundamentally corrective. The majority of our teachers still possess less than the minimum amount of training ordinarily recognized as necessary for successful teaching by other civilized nations. By annually appropriating a maximum of $15,000,000 to aid the States in the training of teachers the Bill would strike at one of our outstanding educational deficiencies. Nothing can do more to elevate the teaching profession than to make it possible, through adequate facilities for the training of teachers, that only fully qualified teachers be employed in our schools. 5. The equalization of educational opportunity-The Bill aims to reduce the glaring educational inequalities that mock the Nation's ideal- an equal chance for all. Millions of American children are now being denied any educational opportunity. The last Census listed 1,437,000 children from 7 to 13 years of age as not attending "any kind of educa- tional institution." Over 1,000,000 child workers were enumerated, counting only those from 10 to 15 years of age. Millions of other children 1In Table 4 " Inadequately trained" means those teachers who are not graduates of a standard normal school or who have not had equivalent training. "Beginners" are those who have not had more than one year's teaching experience. Each year practically one in three of rural teachers is teaching for the first time. In short, their lack of training is not compensatedfor by any experience. " No training" refers to those teachers who have not had more than two years' schooling beyond elementary school. If teachers who have had no normal school training were included, as they might well be, the percentage of teachers with"no training" would be greatly increased. 260 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION are being given such meager school opportunities that they may be expected to reach maturity in ignorance, lacking even the fundamental tools-read- ing and writing-by which information may be acquired. Such conditions weaken the whole Nation. The denial of school op- portunities to millions of American children is a matter that deserves Na- TABLE 5-PER CAPITA WEALTH, Expenditures FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION, AND IN- COME, AND PER CENT OF INCOME EXPENDED FOR EDUCATION BY STATES. ( STATES IN ORDER OF RANK) Per capita Per cent Per expendi- Per of income States capita States tures for States capita States expended wealth public income for education education 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 e Nevada $6996 Calif. $27.29 D. 0. $884 Nont. 4.97 Wyo. 5022- yo . 26.07 A.Y. 874 F. Dak. 4.65 3. Dak. 4597 Mont . 25.46 Kevada 850 Utah 4.29 Calif. 4386 -S. Dak. 24.45 -Calif . 820 Minn. 3.77 IOWB 4373 N. Dak. 23.84 Cola. 792 Ind. 3.72 Oregon 4565 -Nebr . 23.67 Wyo . 789 Idaho 3.67 Nebr. 4104 Utah 22.16 Nass . 708 B. Dak. 3.56 Mont. 4050 Idaho 22.13 Wash. 786 F. Moz. 3,51 Aris. 3933- Minn . 111 . 765 Webr . 3.37 21.87 D. C. 3879 Wash . 21.84 J. 758 Calif. 3.33 Conn. 3829 And. 21.63 R. 1 . 720 Fyo. 3.31 N. Dak. 3815 Nevada 21.62 Comm. 717 Colo. 3.23 Wash. 3776 Aris . 21.14 Oregon 711 Kanesa 3.22 N. J. 3737 Colo. 20.61 Iowa 706 Ariz. 3.19 Mum. 3581 Yowa 20.60- Mich . 704 Ohio 2.94 N. Y. 3566 H. J. 20.27 Webr . 702 Iowa 2.92 Idaho 3552 Ohio 20.24 Ohio 689 V. Va. 2.84 Kansas 3541- Mich. 19.83 689 Mich. 2.82 Colo. 3457 Kansas 19.40 3. Dak. 685 Okla. 2.81 111. 3420 . Y. 17.66 Penna . 683 Wash. 2.78 Utah 3417 Oregan 17.40 Ariz . 664 Wis . 2.74 Mass. 3370- 11 . 15.91 Colo. 639 N. J. 2.67 Pabna. 3545 Conn . 15.46 Idaho 604 Nevada 2.54 Ohio 3210 Wis . 15.25- Kansas 602 Oregon 2.45 W. Va . 3196- Okla. 15.05 X. H. 597 Fla. 2.40 R. 1 . 3184 Mass . 14.88 Maine 583 N. Cor. 2.25 Mich. 3109 N. Mex . 14.33 Min. 581 No. 2.25 W. H. 3101 D. 0. 18.08 Ind. 561 Vt. 2.21 Ind. 3013 . Va . 12.72 Wis . 557 Conn. 2.15 Wis . 2989 Penna . 12.55 Texas 636 Va. 2.14 Mo. 2932- Mo. 12.047 Mo. 535 La. 2.13 Dela . 2006 R. I. 11.81 Okla. 534 Texas 2.09 Md. 2661 Vt. 11.72 Vt . 529 111. 2.00 Maine 2553- Texas 11.25 Utah 517 ۲. Υ. 2.02 Fla. 2520 -Dela . 11.06 M. Dak . 515 Mass . 1.89 Vt. 2309 W. H. 11.02 Mont. 512 ۲.۲. 1.85 N. Mex . 2364 Maine 10.76 W. Ta . 44 Maine 1.84 Va. 2116 d. 10.15 S. Car . 437 Penna. 1.84 Texas , 2112 la. 10.09 La. 429 Tenn . 1.77 Okla. 1969 Va. 9.19- Te . 429 R. I. 1.64 La. 1900- La. 9.15 Fla . 420 Ala. 1.50 Tenn . 1809- H. Car . 8.63 W. Moz. 4ne ку. 1.49 N. Car . 1775- Tenn . 6.48 Ba . 3+4 Miss. 1.49 Arx . 1484 Ky . 5.65 Ку . 392 2.0. 1.48 Ky. 1482- S. Car . 5.68 H. Car . 303 Md. 1.47 8. Саг . 1428- Ala. 5.46 Ark. 379 Dela. 1.40 Ga. 1346 Kiss . 5.24 Tenn. 365 Ark. 1.33 418. 1278 Ark 5.04 Miss . 351 S. Car . 1.50 Miss . 1216- -Ga. 4.66 Ala. 345 Ga. 1.18 The figures in this table were taien from the following sources : Column 2 : The basic figures as to wealth, usedin figuring the per ospita wealth are from Estimated Value of National Wealth , 1922, U. S. Department of Commerce , Bureau of Census Felease . "The estimates cover the material wealth or value of tangible property located within the limits of continental United States." (They do not include the value of vessels of the United States Navy and Merchant Marine . ) Column 4s The basic figures as to Expenditures for public Ciucation used in figuring the per capita expenditures are those of the Bureau of Education and include all expenditures for publio elementary and secondary schools . The popula tion figures used in calculating colums 2 and 4 are those of the U. S. 1920 Cenmis. Column 6s The figures in this column are from pistribution of Income by States , National Bureau of Bconomic Research , H. Y. Harcourt , Brace and Co. pp. 25 and 26. National income is defined by them as follows , "National income is taken to consist of the commodities and services produced by the people of the country." Colunm & was obtained by dividing total expenditures for educet ton in each State (U. S. Bureauof Education figures) by the total income in that State ( lational Bureau of Economic Research figures) . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 261 tional attention. This the Bill recognizes by authorizing the appropriation of substantial sums to the States for their use in equalizing educational opportunities. This money would be used by the States for the partial payment of teachers' salaries, for providing better instruction, lengthened terms, and otherwise equalizing educational opportunities for all children. Table 5 shows some of the existing inequalities in expenditures for educa- tion and in the ability of States to support the public schools. EDUCATION IS A MATTER OF NATIONAL CONCERN Education is of primary importance to the welfare of the Nation-Its effect, whether good or bad, cannot be confined to any section or com- munity. President Coolidge in his Memorial Day address said : "We need a more definite realization that all of our country must stand or fall together, and that it is the duty of the Government to promote the welfare of each part and the duty of the citizen to remember that he must be first of all an American ." It is upon such a broad vision of the Nation's welfare that the Educa- tionBill is based. Education today is a more important National interest than forest supervision, road building, fish propagation, game preservation, orthe control of cattle tick or bovine tuberculosis. All of these we accept today as matters of National concern and worthy of National support. We generally accept the principle of an equalization of advantages and burdens throughout wide areas by ordering common railway rates; common charges for electric light and power, water, gas, and telephone services ; common costs for health and agricultural services and common postal rates. It costs the same to send a letter from Key West to Seattle as from Minneapolis to St. Paul. If rural residents paid the actual cost of the rural mail service, the cost of this service in many country districts would beprohibitive. It is only by a pooling of costs on a large scale, as expressed in common service rates, that common and universal services can be pro- vided. These new services have come recently, after better ideas as to their social significance have come to prevail. We accept an equalization of costs for them as perfectly proper. Education began much earlier, in the days of little things and local effort, and we often fail today to see that the same principle of equalization of the burden of support should apply. The effects of mal-education cannot be limited to any one section-In any National election the illiterate voter in one section may nullify the intelligent voter in another. Ignorance in Alabama resulting in hookworm makes raw cotton in Massachusetts more expensive. The existence of preventible disease in Massachusetts increases the cost of overalls to the Iowa farmer. It is upon such facts that the Education Bill is based. It is a realization of these fundamental truths that has attracted the support of larger and larger numbers of intelligent citizens. But the fight is not yet won. There are still those who oppose the principles of the Educa- tion Bill. 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHY IS THE EDUCATION BILL OPPOSED ? Some say that the Nation cannot afford the cost-Such an objection can comeonly from one who assigns education a low place in the scale of values. Each year the Federal Government appropriates large sums for matters of less importance to the Nation's welfare than is the improvement of public education. Each year we pay for luxuries and non-essentials in billions while education is paid for in millions. The United States with wealth of $320,000,000,000 and an annual income of over $60,000,000,000 can well afford to appropriate much more for education than is now provided. If one looks upon education as of primary concern to the stability and progress of the Nation-an investment that pays generous dividends-he cannot oppose the Education Bill on the basis of cost. Others say it is not right to tax one State to educate the children of another. This cry is born of a narrow sectional attitude. It is not a new complaint. It has been flung in the face of educational progress since the beginning of our history. An irate Rhode Island farmer once threatened personal violence to Henry Barnard for advocating the doctrine that one man's land should be taxed to educate another man's child. This principle is now fully accepted in the local community and in the State. It is as sound when applied to the Nation as to the State or local community. The wealth of the United States is the result of the coöperation of Americans scattered from Maine to California and from Seattle to Key West. No section achieves economic prosperity independently of the rest of the Nation. The automobile industry of Detroit would be impossible without the support of the drivers of automobiles living in all sections of the Union. Wealth in modern times is not the creation of any individual or locality working independently. It is the result of the coöperation of great bodies of people spread over tremendous stretches of territory. It is right therefore to tax wealth no matter where it happens to be situated for a purpose that is fundamental to the welfare of all. Education is such a purpose. If one State is educationally below par, the welfare of all of the States is threatened. It is right to tax the Nation's wealth wherever it exists in order to educate the Nation's children wherever they may live. The Nation's wealth may be most effectively drawn upon through Fed- eral aid. In fact experience shows that Federal aid is the one means whereby all children may be guaranteed equal educational opportunities. The close relationship between the support received by education and a State's ability to pay is indicated in Table 6. Either some children are to be denied educational opportunities or at best but meager provisions made for their training, or else some method must be devised whereby the abun dant wealth of the Nation as a whole can be drawn upon in assuring all American children a reasonable educational opportunity. The latter is the choice that a democracy should make. It is this choice that has been made in the drafting of the Education Bill. We are also told that the Bill means Federal control and the stifling of local initiative. The Bill provides for just the opposite in the most specific terms. Section 13 states, REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 263 "That all the educational facilities encouraged by the provisions of this act and accepted by a State shall be organized, supervised and administered ex- clusively by the legally constituted State and local educational authorities of said State, and the Secretary of Education shall exercise no authority in relation thereto ; and this act shall not be construed to imply Federal control of education within the States, nor to impair the freedom of the States in the conduct and management of their respective school systems." The Bill also provides that all Federal funds apportioned to a State under the act, "shall be distributed and administered in accordance with the laws of said State and the State and local educational authorities of said State shall determine the courses of study, plans, and methods for carrying out the purposes" for which the Federal money is provided. TABLE 6-TOTAL AND PER CAPITA WEALTH, INCOME, AND EXPENDITURES FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION BY STATES ealth Income Expenditures Expenditures Fealth Annuel Rank in per capita States 1922 Cenrus per per for education for educafion inome (1919 ) capite capita In 1922 per capita Fealth Income Expenditures for education 2 3 4 5 6 7 e 9 10 Difted States $314,719,830,000 $ 2977 $56,252,601,000 $627 $1,580,671,296 $ 14.95 3,002,042,000 1276 810,226,000 345 12,827,945 5.45 48 49 46 1,314,291,000 3933 221,786,000 664 7,065,169 21.14 9 21 13 2,599,517,000 1404 663,742,000 379 8,828,859 5.04 44 46 48 15,031,734,000 4366 2,608,992,000 820 93,534,315 27.29 4 4 1 celarada 8,429,412,000 3437 600,483,000 639 19,366,016 20.61 19 22 14 Cett 5,206,445,000 3829 990,386,000 717 21,341,769 15.46 11 12 23 625,765,000 2806 176,591,000 792 2,465,708 11.06 32 5 35 Dat. of Coll 1,697,270,000 3879 386,929,000 884 5,722,520 15.00 10 20 2,440,491,000 2520 406,477,000 420 9,768,506 10.09 35 41 1 3,896,759,000 1346 1,141,953,000 394 13,505,702 4.66 47 43 4 Lashe 1,533,941,000 3552 260,565,000 604 9,556,267 22.13 17 23 1111251 22,232,794,000 3428 4,962,384,000 765 103,201,265 15.91 20 9 22 8,829,726,000 3013 1,702,776,000 581 63,358,907 21.62 29 26 11 10,511,682,000 4373 1,697,401,000 70€ 49,514,571 20.60 5 14 1 6,264,058,000 3541 1,065,359,000 602 34,319,577 19.40 18 24 1 Beatsaky 3,582,391,000 1482 946,610,000 392 14,149,189 5.85 45 44 8,416,950,000 1900 771,414,000 429 16,452,576 9.15 41 39 te 2,006,531,000 2553 448,106,000 8,266,289 10.76 34 3 3,990,750,000 2661 999,529,000 689 14,719,273 10.15 33 16 Bette 12,980,839,000 3370 8,034,020,000 789 57,532,711 14.68 22 11,404,861,000 $109 2,581,907,000 704 72,739,880 19.03 27 15 18 mota 0,547,918,000 3581 1,386,514,000 581 52,210,972 21.87 15 27 9 2,177,690,000 1216 629,071,000 351 9,390,413 1 5.24 49 48 4 9,981,409,000 2932 1,022,428,000 535 40,986,065 12.04 31 31 2,223,189,000 4050 281,130,000 512 13,976,623 25.46 6 36 3 5.320,075,000 4104 909,558,000 702 30,607,770 23.67 7 16 6 Devels 541.716,000 6996 65,791,000 850 1,673,249 21.62 3 12 Low Hampshir 1,574,135,000 3101 264,530,000 597 4,883,043 11.02 28 25 3 Tom Juny 11,704,109,000 3737 2,392,104,000 756 63,966,428 20.27 14 10 16 Remxica 851,836,000 2364 147,107,000 408 5,162,674 14 14.33 37 42 2 37,035,202,000 3566 9,074,959,000 674 183,421,641 17.66 16 2 Berth Derol 4,543,110,000 1775 980,576,000 583 22,079,183 8.63 43 45 2,467,772,000 3815 332,916,000 515 15,420,977 23.64 12 35 5 18,485,552,000 3210 3,967,713,000 669 116,568,994 20.74 24 17 17 3,993,524,000 1969 1,083,851,000 534 30,479,357 15.03 40 32 21 3,419,453,000 4305 556,622,000 711 13,629,983 17.40 6 13 28,833,745,000 3345 5,958,016,000 66 109,468,078 12.55 23 20 1,924,325,000 3184 434,988,000 720 7,135,714 11.81 26 11 704060 Carel 2,404,845,000 1420 735,398,000 437 9,567,519 5.68 46 36 2,925,968,000 4597 436,264,000 685 15,552,102 24.43 3 19 4,228,251,000 1909 853,867,000 365 15,155,845 6.48 42 45 9,850,638,000 2112 2,511,050,000 538 52,452,075 11.25 39 30 1,535,477,000 3417 232,324,000 517 9,953,777 22.16 21 34 042,040,000 2369 166,479,000 529 4,129,358 11.72 36 53 ۲۱۰ ‫هند‬ 4,691,570,000 2118 990,107,000 429 21,212,606 9.19 38 8,122,405,000 3776 1,066,073,000 786 29,633,324 21.84 13 e 10 4,677,919,000 3196 655,725,000 448 18,616,312 12.72 25 37 29 7,966,091,000 2989 1,466,513,000 557 40,146,691 15.25 30 29 24 976,239,000 5022 153,297,000 789 5,067,272 26.07 2 6 2 1. Statistics for 1923 . The fires in this table ware talen from the following sourbes: timated Value of Rational Motionel Talth, Talth, 1972 , U. 3. Department of Commerce , Bureau of Census Release . "The estimates cover Ce syterial wolts of value of tangible property loanted within the limits of continental United States ." (The above estimates do not am of vessels of the United Stater Ravy and Merchant Marine.) To Be Distribution of Incare by States . Fational Bureau of Economic Research , B. T. Raroourt , Brace and Co. , pp.26 Satil 100mm is defined by them as follows : e of tim n " Bational income is taken to consist of the commodities and services produced xit figuras in this colum are those of the Sureas of Education and inelnde all expenditures for public elementary and Is maclat ng per capita vesith and expendituros for education the population figures of the 1920 cemus vere used . 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION But in spite of these provisions the opponents of the measure insist that it will eventually result in Federal domination in education. A study of the terms of the bill do not reveal the basis of this contention. It is true that the bill recognizes that the Nation has a stake in education. It would, therefore, require a State, in order to share in the Federal appropria- tions, to recognize English as the basic language of its schools, to maintain a minimum school term of 24 weeks per year, and to require attendance in some school, public or private, for at least 24 weeks in the year, for all children between 7 and 14. These provisions reduced to the lowest common denominator merely say that in order to obtain Federal funds, a State must provide the educational minima that are essential to the provision of a reasonable educational opportunity. Nowhere does it provide for administrative and supervisory control. Nor is there any sentiment in the country at the present time that promises a development in this direction. The educators of the Nation are united against the Federal control of education as they have repeatedly made plain, in endorsing this very measure. No one questions the general public's desire to continue the administration and the supervision of education in the hands of local and State educational authorities. The hearings of the Committees on Education of both the Senate and the House have clearly revealed that there is no desire on the part of Congress to take the control of education from the hands of the local communities. Quite the opposite has been the case. From whence, then, is to come the unseen power that is to force Federal control upon the country against the will of its edu- cators, legislators, and citizens ? This question no opponent of the Educa- tion Bill has been able to answer. Therefore, the evils conjured up by its opponents, based on the false assumption of Federal control, fall to the ground. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE EDUCATION BILL The Towner-Sterling Bill of the 67th Congress was re-introduced in the 68th Congress, the one now in session, without change. It is now known as the Sterling-Reed Bill (S. 1337 and H. R. 3923)-or the Edu- cation Bill. During the present Congress committees in both the Senate and House have given careful attention to this important measure. The Senate Com- mittee on Education gave four days to the consideration of the Education Bill, January 22 to January 25, 1924. The results of this hearing are now in print. The supporters of the bill appeared before the Committee for the reorganization of the executive departments on January 23 and 26 and filed a clear and unmistakable protest against incorporating the De- partment of Education in a Department of Education and Welfare such as has been proposed by this Committee. On February 20 the House Com- mittee on Education began a hearing which was not completed until the second of June. Before this Committee appeared representatives of most of the organizations supporting the measure as well as the few that oppose. The statement of President Coolidge with reference to the creation of a REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 265 Department of Education made in his message to Congress in December, 1923, is significant. The passage of time has brought greater and greater support for the principles embodied in the Education Bill. It is important that those of us who recognize the gain which will come to education through the enactment of this measure into the law of the land use every honorable means to bring the bill to the favorable consideration of our representatives inCongress. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON CLASSROOM TEACHERS' PROBLEMS¹ MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION DENVER, COLORADO , CHAIRMAN The task assigned to the Committee on Classroom Teachers' Problems by the President of the National Education Association is so stupendous and of such significance that the Committee feels it has barely begun the great work entrusted to it. Although the committee has been in touch with large numbers of teachers actively engaged in classroom work in almost every section of the United States, yet, the chairman feels that a much wider basis for deduc- tion must be secured before fundamentally valuable conclusions can be reached. Nevertheless, there is enough similarity in the criticisms offered by the classroom teachers and a sufficiently common type of suggestion for improvement to quicken certain suspicions of recurrent weaknesses in school procedure. Through this committee, the classroom teacher has been able to express with frankness, and with further time devoted to the securing of a larger number of expressions, and to their classification and analysis, it should be possible to obtain a composite picture of the mental attitude of the class- room teacher toward the system of which she is a part. To those who believe that the community takes too little interest in the conduct of the schools, a staggering array of instances proving the contrary is afforded by the objections raised by the majority of classroom teachers to the interruptions of regular school work, caused by a vivid and persistent community demand for the consideration of various community projects. This complaint is more universal than any other. Next in universality to this objection, the most often criticized condi- tions, as revealed in the letters from the teachers, are the too large classes and the too great number of subjects to be taught. Of course, no fact is better established in relation to the educational conditions of today, than that of the overcrowding of classes. It is one of the problems that seems most difficult of solution, because the enormous increase in school attend- ance, coupled with a far different ratio of increase in school income, de- mands more drastic remedies than have yet been, or possibly can be, applied In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 23. 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in the near future. This problem is one for the administrator primarily. and yet, the teacher must handle it daily. The large, unwieldy class, it goes without saying, is an obstacle to good teaching, and to produce really fine results under such hampering conditions, implies sheer genius in the teacher and a group of exceptionally responsive children. In spite of the reaction that has sprung up in some quarters against what is sometimes impolitely called, "the mania for supervision," the classroom teachers do not show any marked disinclination to supervision. Only in a few instances do the letters from teachers reveal a strained condition exist- ing between teacher and supervisor. In almost all cases, the objection is not to the supervision, but to the method used by the supervisor. It is quite possible that, in the last analysis, the method and personality of the supervisor are synonymous, and therefore, again the administrator becomes responsible, because of failure to recognize that a certain type of personality can never exercise a type of supervision that will be both efficient and harmonious. However, while the work of special supervisory officers receives, in many instances, a warm response from the teacher, yet, a certain number of com- plaints are made about "the incompetent ward principals," to quote the language of one correspondent, "sometimes to be found in our smaller cities." A southern correspondent says, "so many of these ward principals have no special training in teaching methods. They are not able to give a sug- gestion that might improve the work. Their chief standard for judging a teacher is whether or not she can "keep order" and, "whether she fits into the situation, keeping things running smoothly." Let us have better trained principals." Another teacher recommends that every would-be elementary school principal ought to be required to take courses in primary and elementary methods. She recommends this as a sure source of teaching improvement all over the country, as well as a means of bettering the classification of pupils. Some correspondents insist that general public opinion, particularly, the opinion of school boards, should be educated to understand and appreciate the right relation between the classroom teachers and the supervisors. It is complained that many teachers have much of their spirit, spontaneity, and originality crushed by the autocratic method of some supervisors, who in- sist that subject matter be handled in set and formal ways. Unpleasant conditions arise from this kind of thing, the teacher's vitality is sapped, and the children suffer. It is charged that a teacher who is long forced to keep her ideas and opinions in subordination, actually loses much of her power to do original, constructive work, and the following gripping phrase is used: "Such practices are sins against personality." Some letters contend that the main business of education is the building of right habits, and that the curriculum utterly fails to devote sufficient attention to habit building through study. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 267 The length of the school day is another subject that awakens keen inter- est among the classroom teachers. The majority who express themselves on this point are content with declaring their belief that the day is too short for the amount of work to be done, but fail to make any definite suggestions as to the amount and method of lengthening the hours in school. However, one teacher writes that she would like to have the school day divided as follows: "Half past eight to nine, a recess from twelve to two, afternoon session to last from two until five, making six and one half hours." Those who believe in a longer school day believe that more time should be devoted to supervised study. There also seems to be a fairly well-diffused opinion that too many de- tailed directions are given the teachers in relation to specified subjects, thus making it impossible to cover the amount of subject matter outlined in the usual course of study. The ideal number of pupils to a teacher in grade work is quite generally pointed out as between twenty and thirty, although a respectable sized minority, however insist that a teacher can do justice to no more than twenty students. About 50 per cent of the teachers responding to the inquiry, "What type of Course of Study do you find most helpful in your daily work-the outline, the detailed, the inspirational type, or the one requiring individual initiative in its use are of the opinion that they prefer the course of study that requires a large amount of individual initiative in its use. About 30 per cent wish to work with a definitely outlined course of study. About 5 per cent are wedded to the detailed type, and about 15 per cent prefer decidedly the inspirational type, based upon novel informative material. The modern classification of pupils by the threefold test, is a subject of strongly contrasted opinions. Regretfully, I must observe that neither side seems to hold the open mind of scientific receptivity, each group fight- ing vigorously for or against the introduction of this method of classifying and organizing classes. A clash of prejudices, rather than a battle of ideals, antagonistic propaganda rather than clear-sighted analysis and explanation, seem to hold sway in this department of pedagogical discussion. Closely allied to the above subject is that of teacher rating, no less a person than our own distinguished President feeling that " a bad by-product ofour recent interests in tests and measurements is an attempt on the part of some administrator to establish a system of ratings, based on the so-called normal distribution." The following material, forwarded to me by Miss Jones, and prepared by the Teacher Rating Committee of the Kansas City Teachers' Club, Miss Nell E. Lain, chairman, and endorsed by the Executive Committee of the Kansas City Teachers' Club, because of its significance, is hereby incorporated with great pleasure . After a careful study of the question of "teacher rating," the most pertinent factors are here enumerated. A rating system is desirable as ; 268 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. It leads to self- analysis, and self- analysis is an important step in self- improvement. 2. It tends to greater efficiency in classroom instruction. 3. It is an attempt to reward merit-a most worthy motive, which deserves our hearty support. In administering such a system many difficulties are confronted such as : I. Difficulties pertaining to general conditions, namely : 1. The corps of teachers in various schools differ largely in ability, quality of work done, and standards of work. 2. There is a difference in the opportunities offered in different schools as there are wide variations in: ( a) Number of pupils, (b) mixture of children, (c) ir- regular attendance, (d) equipment, ( e) special subjects, and (f) general environ- ment. 3. There are no objective standards for measuring merit. 4. Ratings place a premium on marks. II. Difficulties on the part of the raters, namely : 1. The rating requires an inordinate amount of time. 2. Continual reports mechanize one's thinking. 3. Traditional prejudices or ideas interfere. III. Difficulties on the part of supervisors, namely: 1. It is impossible for a supervisor to mark justly as he cannot come into close or frequent contact with all persons rated. 2. It is too much a matter of personal judgment. 3. It is not conducive to high standards of supervision or teaching-supervision becomes a discipline instead of an avenue of coöperation. IV. Difficulties on the part of children, namely : Children need sympathy and development along many lines in the stimulation of which the value of teaching services cannot be measured. V. Difficulties on the part of the teachers, namely : 1. Teachers tend to emphasize those qualities rated and seek to appear to possess them. This destroys initiative. 2. No teacher is exceptional in every particular, and this very idea proves the misuse and inadequacy of a marking, since it often gives expression of approval of extraordinary service in some one or two directions. Considering these determining factors, we wish to recommend these modifications in the present administration of "teacher rating" in Kansas City, Missouri: 1. That principals should not be encouraged to make the ratings for individual building correspond to the curve of normal distribution. II. That fine distinctions should not be made, and that when teachers have ap- proximately the same professional standing as to experience, training, and ability, they should receive the same salary. III. That no group should be limited to a certain per cent-its only limitation numerically should be the number of teachers who are qualified to belong to that group. IV. That the ratings by principals should receive more recognition. V. That each teacher should be given a written copy of her rating to further mutual understanding and to work toward general improvement. Respectfully submitted, TEACHER RATING COMMITTEE OF FRANCIS CAREY. THE KANSAS CITY TEACHERS' CLUB, MARGARET TEGELER . NELL E. LAIN, Chairman . MARY SAMS . LIDA L. Sмоот. PEARL ARNETT. EDITH BURTON . Endorsed by the Executive Board of the Teachers' Club in official session April 4, 1924. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 269 As has been said, there seems to be no widespread objection to super- vision as such, but a large number of grade teachers, in their jealous devo- tion to the curriculum as a whole, find that supervisors demand too much time for their special subjects, thus preventing a well-balanced adyance on the part of the child and rendering abortive the teacher's plan for har- monious progress . Your committee feels that the above report is meager, indeed, because based upon evidence quite insufficient for a scholarly or scientific deduction, yet, your Chairman realizes that much fine work has been done by the other members, and that, at present, there are evidences of a kindling inter- est in this study that indicate larger and richer returns in this investiga- tion during the next year, if it should be the pleasure of the Convention to continue this work. Your Chairman desires to express warm appreciation of the coöperation received from the members of the Committee and the efficient aid rendered by the headquarters staff in laying the foundations for a report that should prove of inestimable value to the entire school system of America. The teachers' viewpoint expressed freely, frankly, and conscientiously, not inaspirit of complaint, but in that of creative criticism, is absolutely neces- sary to a comprehensive grasp of educational conditions in America. That such a viewpoint may be obtained as a result of the work of the Committee on Classroom Teachers' Problems, and that a helpful interpretation of the teachers' attitude may be presented to the National Education Association through the medium of your Committee, is the earnest hope of your chair- man and Committee on Classroom Teachers' Problems. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON RURAL TEACHERS' PROBLEMS HAROLD W. FOGHT, PRESIDENT, NORTHERN NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, ABERDEEN, SOUTH DAKOTA, CHAIRMAN¹ Your Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers' Problems has undertaken a task which calls for much time and labor if its work is to be of any real value to the teaching profession and the people whom they serve. The present year has proved scarcely sufficient in which to build up a real program and a functioning organization. As a first step your chairman took upon himself the responsibility for appointing the following experienced educators in the rural field as members of the Executive Com- mittee. This group is sufficiently small and wieldy to function as a clear- ing-house for the larger Committee of One Hundred, members of which will be expected to do most of their work within their own section or State : N. R. Baker, Birmingham, Alabama Jasper L. McBrien, Terre Haute, Indiana Macy Campbell, Cedar Falls, Iowa Ernest C. Burnham, Kalamazoo, Michigan In addition to the chairman, the committee includes the members listed on page 26. 270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Edith A. Lathrop, Washington, D. C. P. P. Claxton, Tulsa, Oklahoma L. B. Sipple, Aberdeen, South Dakota John F. Sims, Stevens Point, Wisconsin Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Washington, D. C. SUGGESTIVE PRELIMINARY PROGRAM Early in the year a preliminary and wholly suggestive program was formulated and sent to all the members of the committee for their reaction . These were freely given and used as the basis for discussion when the Committee of One Hundred was called into session at the Chicago meet- ing of the Department of Superintendence. The preliminary program follows: 1. The Campaign of Education . (a) A Nation-wide campaign of education to be organized within the several States by the resident member or members of the Com- mittee of One Hundred, the State committee to be enlarged according to the needs of the local members ; county and local committees to be organized in every county and school district, to carry forward the campaign when the right time comes. (b) All the necessary data needed in the campaign to be procured through the Research Bureau of the National Education Association, the United States Bureau of Education, and from State and local authorities within the several States. (c) State and local campaigns to be preceded by National rural conferences held in four or five sections of the country, these to be largely conferences for the education of the leaders who are to carry forward the campaign within the several States. (d) State and local leaders to have the assistance of National lead- ers, financed by "friends of educational advancement." (e) The educational campaigns planned to stimulate local edu- cational interest and to prepare the way for sound remedial legislation. (f) The Committee of One Hundred to lend its aid in a prac- tical way to obtain enactment of definite educational programs in the several States-if deemed advisable by the State committee. 2. The Scope of this Educational Campaign-Outstanding Topics to be Made the Core of the Educational Campaign. (a) School support. (b) School organization with special reference to : (1) One-teacher schools. (2) "Man-and-wife" schools. (3) Consolidated schools. (c) What should be taught in the schools and why. (d) Modern teaching standards and preparation of rural teachers. 3. A Ten-year Plan of School Reorganization, covering : (a) Administrative reorganization . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 271 (b) School unit reorganization. (c) School tax reform. (d) Rebuilding rural school plants. (e) Attainment of new higher teaching standards . (f) To this end maintenance (through private or public aid) of model training schools for rural teachers, in connection with a few outstanding teacher-training institutions in every section of the country. (g) Organization of the subject matter (course of study) for the rural schools in outstanding rural laboratory schools, organized in connection with outstanding teacher-training institutions in every sec- tion of the country. These laboratory schools to develop the subject matter of the course of study, as well as to formulate a desirable modern teaching practice. SHARING THE FIELD WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Committee of One Hundred met pursuant to call at the Congress Hotel, February 27, 1924. After a thorough-going discussion of the en- tire problem of rural education, it appeared as the consensus of opinion that the function of the committee should be to "sell" rural education to the people, thus becoming a clearing-house for the research work now going forward under the direction of the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association, and that to this end the committee should seek the coöperation of all agencies now organized and in the field doing work for rural communities. Before adjournment the Executive Committee of the Committee of One Hundred was authorized to meet with the Executive Committee of the Department of Rural Education to settle the matter of details and to divide the field definitely between the two organizations. The members of the Executive Committee met February 28 and de- cided that "the function of the Committee of One Hundred is largely organizational as a means of connecting the educational work being done by the Department of Rural Education with organizations and agencies working throughout the field of rural education." The Committee of One Hundred was then authorized to proceed with its final program- namely, to organize a strong committee in every State of the Union in conjunction with suitable rural agencies now at work there, and to secure the cooperation of these bodies through their National and State officials. WHAT IS NOW BEING DONE At the present time plans are going forward to the end of organizing State, county, and local committees, in every State of the Union where such cooperation is welcomed by the State departments of public instruc- tion. The United States Department of Agriculture, the American Farm Bureau, the National Parent-Teacher Association, the National Grange, the Society of Equity, the Farmers' Union, and several other agencies 270 Edith A. Id P. P. Claxto L.B. Sipple, John F. Sím Mrs. Kather Early in tl. formulated and These were fo Committee of ( ing of the Dep follows : 1. The Campa (a) A Na the several St mittee of One to the needs 01 be organized in , campaign when t (b) All the ne through the Resea the United States authorities within th (c) State and loc. conferences held in fo largely conferences for forward the campaign w (d) State and local lea ers, financed by " friends of (e) The educational cam, cational interest and to prepare (f) The Committee of One tical way to obtain enactment of several States-if deemed advisable 2. The Scope of this Educational Cam be Made the Core of the Educational Cam (a) School support. (b) School organization with special ree (1) One-teacher schools. (2) "Man-and-wife" schools. (3) Consolidated schools. (c) What should be taught in the schools and (d) Modern teaching standards and preparation 3. A Ten-year Plan of School Reorganization, covering (a) Administrative reorganization. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 275 Most of the copies of this report have been used as supplementary texts on health in the training of rural-school teachers in the normal schools, and as practical hand books by rural-school teachers and supervisors. 1. "The Health Chart Report." The first edition of 10,000 copies of the il- grated Health Chart pamphlet was soon exhausted and a second edition of 110800 is now being distributed. This pamphlet not only serves to illustrate and raplain the health charts but is being extensively used for health instruction in th city and country schools and also as a guide in making health posters and 122 books. • The "Health Chart Set" comprises 58 charts, each 22 x 28 inches. Over 1100 mplete sets of the health charts ( over 60,000 individual charts) have been buted in our own and in foreign countries. Many orders for individual charts been received. One State Department of Health ordered 2400 copies of in- al charts. The Teacher's Part in Social Hygiene" was published in 1921 with the co- 100 of the American Social Hygiene Association, and this coöperating Asso- presented the Joint Health Committee with 5000 copies of this valuable This report, containing a carefully selected bibliography, has supplied 'e bulletin for many teachers. A moderate number of copies of this helpful still available for free distribution. tive coöperation between organizations and committees is a prominent policy of the Joint Health Committee. Improvement in Rural Schools," published in 1922, was in careful reparation for several years . Important work in the introductory 1 organization of material for this report was done by several well- xperienced teachers and supervisors of rural schools whose names n the report. The bulletin was finally revised and completed antial coöperation of the staff of the Elizabeth McCormick Me- is report completed for the time being the introductory plan of mote the entire health program of the rural schools. in City Schools of the United States" is the report of a sur- Committee in 1922, of the health work which is being done ms of this country. Six hundred and twenty-two six-page out to city superinetndents of schools. Filled out ques- h valuable information of current accomplishment were cent) of the superintendents . Hotins and the health charts are being sold by the rinting. " " is the title of a valuable report on school 21 by a sub-committee under the chairmanship thalmologist of Denver and a member of our n printed in several scientific and educational Her distribution. School Buildings" has been prepared by win, of Pueblo, Colorado, is chairman. I under the leadership of Miss Mary Sub-committee. This special report arly date. Defects of School Children by vears. The importance of this professional workers is time and eyes hool he ee 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION organized for the educational, social, and economic growth of rural Amer ica are expected to coöperate with the committee to the end that all avai able information on rural education now on hand or hereafter to be re leased by either the Department of Rural Education, the United State Bureau of Education, the Research Bureau of the National Educatio Association, or similar organizations may be made immediately availab to the teachers and school children of rural America. THIS A REPORT OF PROGRESS ONLY Your committee respectfully requests permission to continue its wor and wishes permission to make a final report one year from the date the Washington meeting. It is believed that by such time the Nation-wi organization can be completed and the work sufficiently established to of value to the public. In order that we may be able to do the wo effectively, the sum of $500 should be voted for use, all or in part, throug out the ensuing year. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COÖPERATION WIT THE WORLD FEDERATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION AUGUSTA, MAINE, CHAIRMAN¹ It will be noticed from the above that the title of the committee : merly known as Foreign Relations has been changed to the Committee Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Asso tions. In making this change of titles, the Executive Committee of National Education Association had in mind to give definite recognition the new organization and to form a definite connection therewith. At the Oakland meeting, 1923, the committee made its report of World Conference on Education which met at San Francisco in conj tion with the National Education Association convention at Oakland, the same is printed in the annual volume of proceedings for 1923. of that conference came the organization of the World Federation National Education Associations, membership in which comprises national education associations of the several countries which particip in the San Francisco meeting and of any other countries desiring to Educational associations of a general nature and nation-wide are el.. to membership. Already amillion teachers are federated by direct application and a ance in the world organization. It will not be possible for many ye. federate all the five million teachers of the world, because in most tries, like our own, all teachers are not yet members of their na organization. While there are more than seven hundred thousand te In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page oral report of Dr. Thomas is printed in the Journal of the National Education Ass October, 1924, pp. 245-246. - 上 - 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION organized for the educational, social, and economic growth of rural Amer- ica are expected to coöperate with the committee to the end that all avail- able information on rural education now on hand or hereafter to be re- leased by either the Department of Rural Education, the United States Bureau of Education, the Research Bureau of the National Education Association, or similar organizations may be made immediately available to the teachers and school children of rural America. THIS A REPORT OF PROGRESS ONLY Your committee respectfully requests permission to continue its work and wishes permission to make a final report one year from the date of the Washington meeting. It is believed that by such time the Nation-wide organization can be completed and the work sufficiently established to be of value to the public. In order that we may be able to do the work effectively, the sum of $500 should be voted for use, all or in part, through- out the ensuing year. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COÖPERATION WITH THE WORLD FEDERATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION AUGUSTA, MAINE, CHAIRMAN¹ It will be noticed from the above that the title of the committee for- merly known as Foreign Relations has been changed to the Committee on Coöperation with the World Federation of National Education Associa- tions. In making this change of titles, the Executive Committee of the National Education Association had in mind to give definite recognition to the new organization and to form a definite connection therewith. At the Oakland meeting, 1923, the committee made its report of the World Conference on Education which met at San Francisco in conjunc- tion with the National Education Association convention at Oakland, and the same is printed in the annual volume of proceedings for 1923. Out of that conference came the organization of the World Federation of National Education Associations, membership in which comprises the national education associations of the several countries which participated in the San Francisco meeting and of any other countries desiring to join. Educational associations of a general nature and nation-wide are eligible to membership. Already a million teachers are federated by direct application and accept- ance in the world organization. It will not be possible for many years to federate all the five million teachers of the world, because in most coun- tries, like our own, all teachers are not yet members of their national organization. While there are more than seven hundred thousand teachers 1In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 28. The oral report of Dr. Thomas is printed in the Journal of the National Education Association, October, 1924, pp. 245-246. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 273 in the United States, only one hundred and forty thousand are members of the National Education Association. Time will come when all teachers will feel the necessity of membership in the National Association, which will automatically give membership in the World Federation. Education has become a cause. Teachers are no longer isolated units, but members of a great profession brought together by definite bonds, not alone of common interest but by organization. The next meeting of the World Federation will occur in Edinburgh, Scotland, in July, 1925. The Educational Institute of Scotland, com- prising thirty-five thousand teachers, has extended an invitation, and the same is accepted. Preparations are now under way for the meeting, Euro- pean educators are taking much interest, and a conference fully equal to the San Francisco conference is in prospect. The 1925 meeting will have the foundation of the several documents passed by the World Conference at San Francisco as a basis for consideration . After the San Francisco meeting, an interested friend of education placed $25,000 in the hands of the Committee of the World Federation to be offered as a prize for the best educational program calculated to produce international concord. The contest which closed July 1 was open to residents of all countries. The idea of such a prize was to stimu- late thought, to develop a state of mind world-wide, and to secure a defi- nite fundamental code, series of methods, attitudes, or programs of a nature helpful to the general cause of the Federation. The San Francisco meeting recommended that educational attachés be provided for all legations and embassies. Several of the countries are pre- paring to act upon the recommendation. Mexico was the first to make such appointments, Goodwill Day, May 18 (this year May 19) , was observed fittingly in many lands, and especially in many schools of our own land. A special bulletin, containing suggestions as to purposes and pro- grams, was issued and sent to all countries. The interest taken in this movement, as well as the spirit of coöperation on the part of teachers and the general public, is extremely gratifying . There seems to be a definite place for education in bringing about the day when friendship and goodwill shall prevail among nations. Unlike great movements generally, there has been little willful attempt to misunder- stand the real import and purpose of the Federation. The voluntary asso- viation of nations on such a universal subject as education appears highly desirable and offers little grounds for misapprehension on the part of those who are fearful lest we become entangled in embarrassing alliances. It would seem fundamental that the teacher believes in her work, that deals may be taught, that education will have its influence in the future of civilization, and that definite, universal truths, ideals, and principles taught world-wide will furnish support for such reasonable and just pro- grams as may be promulgated by statecraft and diplomacy. The fact that civilization which we sometimes think is old is really adolescent, requires 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that the "teaching mind" avoid extremes, keep level, adhere to the golden mean, and hold always to a safe and secure policy of honor and justice. REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN The Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association, with the continued cordial and effective coöperation of the Corresponding Committee of the American Medical Association, continues its work with a sustained interest in the committee program and a steady demand for the reports which have been issued by the joint committee . Educational and health officials, child welfare organizations, Red Cross workers, and other individuals and organizations in this and in other countries are looking to your committee in increasing numbers for health standards, charts, and literature. This committee on health problems was created as a committee of the National Council of Education at the meeting in San Francisco in 1911 , at the suggestion and request of the American Medical Association, which - was in session at the same time in Los Angeles. At the meeting of the National Education Association in Des Moines, July, 1921 , this committee was formally adopted as a committee of the National Education Association . After a careful survey of the general field the committee decided to give attention first to the health problems of rural schools. The first report of the committee was a valuable bulletin, entitled "Country Schoolhouses," prepared by Fletcher B. Dresslar, a member of our Committee. This report was printed and distributed in 1912 by the U. S. Bureau of Education. Unfortunately, this bulletin is out of print . The committee literature still being distributed in original or repeated editions includes the following : 1. "Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools." Three editions of 800,000 copies of this report have been distributed. Unprejudiced evidence from many places shows that this report has exerted a major share of influence in the marked improvement in rural-school sanitation in the United States during the last eight years. Several States have adopted this report as the standard for rural schools. The cost of printing the large introductory edition, 750,000 copies, of this report was covered by a gift of over $3000 from the Elizabeth McCormick Me- morial Fund of Chicago. ( This public-spirited organization has given generous , repeated assistance in money and expert service, to the committee on Health Problems, which should be known to all the members of the National Education Association. ) 2. "Health Essentials for Rural School Children" was printed in 50,000 copies. This first edition was exhausted and a second revised edition is now being distributed. 4In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 29. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 275 Most of the copies of this report have been used as supplementary texts on health in the training of rural-school teachers in the normal schools, and as practical hand books by rural-school teachers and supervisors. 3. "The Health Chart Report." The first edition of 10,000 copies of the il- lustrated Health Chart pamphlet was soon exhausted and a second edition of 10,000 is now being distributed. This pamphlet not only serves to illustrate and explain the health charts but is being extensively used for health instruction in both city and country schools and also as a guide in making health posters and scrap books. 4. The "Health Chart Set" comprises 58 charts, each 22 x 28 inches. Over 1100 complete sets of the health charts ( over 60,000 individual charts ) have been distributed in our own and in foreign countries. Many orders for individual charts have been received. One State Department of Health ordered 2400 copies of in- dividual charts . 5. "The Teacher's Part in Social Hygiene" was published in 1921 with the co- operation of the American Social Hygiene Association, and this coöperating Asso- ciation presented the Joint Health Committee with 5000 copies of this valuable bulletin. This report, containing a carefully selected bibliography, has supplied a valuable bulletin for many teachers. A moderate number of copies of this helpful report are still available for free distribution. Constructive coöperation between organizations and committees is a prominent partof the policy of the Joint Health Committee. 6. "Health Improvement in Rural Schools," published in 1922, was in careful process of preparation for several years. Important work in the introductory assembling and organization of material for this report was done by several well- trained and experienced teachers and supervisors of rural schools whose names are mentioned in the report. The bulletin was finally revised and completed through the substantial coöperation of the staff of the Elizabeth McCormick Me- morial Fund. This report completed for the time being the introductory plan of the Committee to promote the entire health program of the rural schools . 7. "Health Service in City Schools of the United States" is the report of a sur- vey, conducted by our Committee in 1922, of the health work which is being done in the city school systems of this country. Six hundred and twenty- two six-page questionnaires were sent out to city superinetndents of schools. Filled out ques- tionnaires containing much valuable information of current accomplishment were received from 340 (54.6 per cent) of the superintendents. The above mentioned bulletins and the health charts are being sold by the Committee at the bare cost of printing. 8. "Daylight in the Schoolroom" is the title of a valuable report on school lighting which was prepared in 1921 by a sub-committee under the chairmanship ofDr. Edward Jackson, eminent ophthalmologist of Denver and a member of our Joint Committee. This report has been printed in several scientific and educational magazines. It is being reprinted for wider distribution. 9. A partial report on "Ventilation of School Buildings" has been prepared by a sub-committee of which Dr. R. W. Corwin, of Pueblo, Colorado, is chairman. Further work on this study is being conducted under the leadership of Miss Mary Murphy, of Chicago, another member of the Sub-committee. This special report willbe printed and ready for distribution at an early date. 10. The study of Standards of Health Forms and Defects of School Children by the Joint Committee has been going ahead for two years. The importance of this study is fully recognized by many organizations and professional health workers in this and other countries. Our Committee is at this time making rapid and promising progress in the phase of this study relating to eyes and vision of school children, with the active and substantial coöperation of the National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness . 276 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 11. Appointment of Committees on Health Problems in Education in the several States. At the meeting of the House of Delegates of the American Medical Association in New Orleans in May, 1920, it was voted to urge upon each of the State medical societies that a committee of five physicians, members of the society, be appointed to cooperate with a similar committee of the State Teachers' Association as a Joint Committee on the Health Problems in Education in that State. It will be recalled that at the meeting of the National Education Association held in Des Moines, Iowa, in July, 1921, this action of the American Medical Association was heartily endorsed and each State Teachers' Association was urged to appoint such a committee in response to the request of the State Medical Society. All but five of the forty-nine State medical societies have appointed such State committees of physicians and have reported their personnel to the Secretary of the Council on Health and Public Instruction of the American Medical Association. Our Com- mittee urgently requests every State Teachers' Association to appoint a like com- mittee of teachers to coöperate with the medical committee. While our Joint Health Committee of the National organizations of teachers and physicians can propose material and secure data of great value and can recom- mend measures which would secure better health conditions in the public and other schools of the country, it is obvious that if such measures are to be generally adopted and put into practice it must be through the efforts of many groups deal- ing with these activities in the several States and communities. Our committee will find one of its most effective fields of usefulness in serving as a medium of inter-communication between, and coördination of, these several State committees . The coöperating medical group of our Committee has initiated the custom of holding an annual Conference at the time of meeting of the American Medical Association, of the members of the committees of the several State medical 80- cieties. Our Committee recommends that a similar plan be instituted for the Committees of the State Teachers' Associations and that our Committee be au- thorized to arrange for such a conference at each annual meeting of the National Education Association. The interchange of information regarding progress in the several States in solving health problems in education together with the opportunity for discussion and suggestion which such a conference would afford could not fail to be helpful in promoting this great movement. 12. "Health Education, A Program for Public Schools and Teacher Training Institutions," is the title of the latest and longest report of the Joint Health Com- mittee. This report of 160 pages has just been printed and a copy is being presented to each delegate to the representative assembly at the 1924 meeting of the National Education Association. The explanation of this latest and most im- portant report of the Committee will be found in the "Foreword" of the new report. The money required for the expert assistance to the chairman in directing the special preparation of this report was supplied in the special appropria- tion of $ 1500 a year for the last two years, which has been generously provided for the committee by the National Education Association. The primary purpose of this new report is to supply an authoritative compilation of technical statements and a consensus of professional opinions in health education. The following resolution was unanimously adopted at the Educational Conventions in Chicago, February 23-28, 1924, by the American Associa- tion of Teachers' Colleges and by the National Council of Education : RESOLVED : That in view of the prominence given to health in the schools today, and in view of the lack of sound and established educational procedures for REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 277 teaching health, it is the sense of this association that a comprehensive program of research and experimentation in health education should be undertaken under the auspices of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association as soon as resources for such investigation may be available. At a meeting of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, following the actions of the two National organizations referred to above, the chairman of the joint health committee was authorized to seek co- operation in arranging a program of research in health education, cor- responding in type and scope to the plan prepared by the chairman of the committee and in obtaining, if possible, funds to conduct such a program of investigation and experimentation. Following this action by the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, the Executive Committee of the National Education Associa- tion voted approval of a plan recognizing the importance and desirability of a comprehensive program of research in health education to follow the publication in July, 1924, of the report on health education presenting the statement of general principles in this field. It is confidently hoped that such a program of research and experimentation may be undertaken in the near future. Itis clearly anticipated that this new report will indicate more emphati- cally than ever before the necessity for careful experimentation and investi- gation with reference to many questions which confront those interested in the field of health education at the present time. No problem in the entire program of education is more significant, more complex, and more insistent in its demand for careful attention and solution than that of health education. In addition to the committee program and reports already mentioned, the committee is working toward reports on the following topics : Mental Hygiene for Normal Children, What Every Teacher Should Know About It; Making Athletic Games Safe and Healthful for School Children ; Health and Efficiency for Teachers; Essentials in the Hygiene of Instruc- tion and School Management. It will readily be apparent that the expanding program of this com- mittee with the increasing number of reports, the growing correspondence calling for information and advice, and the preparation of new materials, constantly makes more demands upon the resources of the committee. No member of the committee receives financial compensation for service rendered. No request is made this year for an extra or special appropriation. However, to continue with reasonable efficiency the general program already under way, the health committee respectfully asks for a general appropriation of $2000 for the coming year from the National Education Association. Your committee, according to the custom of many years , confidently expects from the American Medical Association an appropria- tionequal to that of the general appropriation which may be granted by the National Education Association . 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CHARACTER EDUCATION MILTON BENNION, DEAN , SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH , SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH , CHAIRMAN¹ Introduction-Character education finds its goal in the realization of two great ideals: social progress and the development of personalities: each of these is both cause and effect of the other. Social progress has come about through the cumulative contributions of developing personali- ties, as individuals and as groups . The net result of these contributions we call the social inheritance. It is one of the primary functions of the school to transmit this social inheritance to the members of the new gen- eration. Its acquisition by them is an essential factor in developing their personalities. The superior material and spiritual attainments of modern men are due vastly more to their use of the social inheritance than to their natural superiority over their ancestors of medieval or even of ancient times. One of the major problems of the school is to make such selection of curriculum materials from the social inheritance as will contribute most to the development of young personalities and to devise teaching methods that will contribute towards the same end. It must be recognized that the curriculum is but one of the means available to the school for the development of personalities. The social life of the school community and the personal influence of teachers are also fundamental factors. To make the best of these factors the teacher should have as wide an acquaintance as may be with the fundamental aspects of the social in- heritance on the one hand, and with human nature and society on the other. The latter study will include knowledge of the goals toward which society is striving and toward which individuals ought to strive. For the determination of these goals we are dependent upon the moral judgment of enlightened men, when that judgment is unbeclouded with selfish interests. Many centuries of human experience have led to a consensus of opinion among enlightened peoples that the goal of human development is to be realized through love of God and love of fellowmen. Love of God is attested through love of fellowmen, and love of fellowmen is attested through service. As conceived by all enlightened peoples, love of God and fellowmen includes belief in moral standards, in the intrinsic value of the moral life and of personality, compared with which all other values are but relative. Acceptance of this standard does not involve the public schools in re- ligious sectarianism. There should be no reference to differences in creeds nor to absence of creed. Whatever conception patrons of the public schools may have of God, they generally agree that there is in the uni- verse a "power that makes for righteousness" or, at least they agree to a moral ideal and regard this ideal as a real power that guarantees the values 1In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 27. The report was read by Miss Effie MacGregor, Minneapolis, Minnesota . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 279 ofthe moral life. One of the most essential elements in the development of personality is its response to ideals such as truth, goodness, and beauty ; sometimes designated as God, or the Divine. America is not a Godless nation, as is evidenced in the great historical documents of Washington and Lincoln, in the inscription on the American coin, and in the services of chaplains in Congress and in State legislatures. Should not such recognition of God be also characteristic of the public schools ? Faith in and reverence for a "power that makes for righteousness" is a moral force that should not be ignored in any phase of character education in school or elsewhere. Love of fellowmen, at least to the extent of cultivating goodwill toward all mankind, is recognized by enlightened, thoughtful men as one of the greatest moral needs of our times. It is self-evident that this principle is essential to the success of any plan for universal peace and justice. But love of fellowmen means much more than goodwill as ordinarily conceived. In the first place it assumes recognition of every personality as an end in itself, never as a means ; and it also requires each personality to help every other in the struggle for self-realization. The familiar moral commands of the Law of Moses and of all civilized nations are founded upon this principle. Respect for life, for the source of life, and for all that makes for the preservation and development of life, as requirements of the moral law, are familiar to all teachers. Yet in practice teachers too frequently give little attention to development of these great ideals; they may even be forgotten in the demand to cover specified pages of arithmetic, language, and geography. This situation is sometimes defended on the ground that the very process of learning itself is a guarantee of moral development in that its successful pursuit requires habits of industry, neatness, punctuality, and persever- ance -all essential elements of moral character. While it is true that these virtues are essential to the perfection of character and should be developed as a means of multiplying for good the powers of socially- minded personalities, it is also true that the same qualities may contribute to the efficiency of the most anti-social members of the community; crimi- nals may excel in all of these characteristics. Loyalty may be manifest in the support and protection of lawless gangs; courage, in the defense of wrong doing; courtesy, in beguiling the innocent into surrender to evil ; temperance, in more steady nerve and clear discernment to commit a crime ; and so on. Such qualities of character, desirable in themselves, acquire their moral worth only through their exercise in promoting social progress and the development of personalities. When used in ways destructive of these ends they are the assets of evil doers . It is evident then that the chief problem of character education is how to develop socially-minded personalities. It is generally agreed that certain native tendencies of the child must be the basis of this development. Typical of these tendencies are sympathy, sex and parental love, imitation, love of approval, curiosity, sense of justice. 280 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Since personalities are developed largely through group activities and social agencies, the problem will also include determination of community responsibilities in their relation to character education. Organized society can furnish opportunities in great abundance for the development of the finer native tendencies of the child. It can also, in some measure, forestall situations that may call into action undesirable native tendencies. Attention is called to the fact that character is not regarded by this committee as something apart from other aspects of personality, nor can character education be segregated in practice from the processes of educa- tion as a whole. The problem under consideration is how to make the general processes of education more effective in the development of the highest type of per- sonalities. For purposes of study and for emphasis on this phase of edu- cation effort is here made to analyze the more distinctly ethical factors in education and to suggest methods by which these factors may the more surely receive attention. Any plan of character education in the schools calls for a statement of the general objectives to be realized. Curriculum materials, teaching methods, student organization, and all other phases of the problem will of necessity have reference to the objectives. General objectives-A statement of the objectives of character education may be very general, and consequently very brief, or these general ob- jectives may be analyzed into their component factors, thus making a lengthy, detailed statement of objectives. The latter method leads awav from a statement of general principles and toward enumeration of con- crete situations; this again carries over into discussion of methods of realizing objectives . The problem of character education objectives lends itself to a variety of methods of approach. These methods vary somewhat with the habits of mind and tastes of the individuals that formulate them . It is safe to assume that the habits of mind and tastes of teachers generally will show equal variations . Instead, therefore, of presenting but one statement of objectives we here submit several as typical of the possible modes of dealing with the problem. These statements are prepared for the use of teachers and educational administrators. Suggestive methods of using them in the school will be elaborated in subsequent sections of the report. The general objectives-Social Progress and Development of Personal- ities, including response to ideals -may be further elaborated as follows: I. To cultivate from the beginning habits and attitudes that contribute to the development of personality and to social progress. These habits and attitudes include the following: 1. The willing acceptance of personal and social responsibility. 2. The practice of self-direction in recognizing and in taking advantage of opportunities for positive attainment; and of self-restraint in control of appetites, passions, tongue and temper, and greed for wealth and power. 3. Habitual acts of justice, fair play, honesty, truthfulness, and honor, en- REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 281 nobled by moral thoughtfulness and made effective through the exercise of moral imagination-the ability to foresee vividly the possible consequences of both good and evil conduct. 4. The habit of acting courageously in defense of right. 5. The practice of acts of love, good-will, and service. 6. Habitual attitudes of appreciation and gratitude toward all benefactors ; also habits of courtesy and consideration for the comfort and happiness of all. 7. A disposition to recognize the merits of others and to tolerate opposing beliefs. 8. A fair estimate of one's own capabilities and shortcomings joined with the determination to achieve the best in one's personality. 9. Loyalty in thought, word, and deed to the ethical and moral standards of the family, the school, the church, the State, and of all related civic and social institutions. 10. An attitude of faith in every good cause and of reverence for all that is good. II. To develop, at the appropriate time, understanding and appreciation : 1. Of the meaning of social progress, including both the spiritual and the ma- terial heritage of each generation; the dependence of civilized man upon his contemporaries and upon his predecessors ; also his responsibility to humanity as awhole, especially to the generations yet to come the concept of the solidarity of the human race . 2. Of the nature and significance of human welfare as the ultimate measure of all values. 3. Of the means by which personalities are developed in harmony with the de- velopment of other personalities and in furtherance of social progress . 4. Of group or community responsibilities; including the social functions of the family, the church, the State, and every other institution that may contribute toward human welfare. Note-These qualities of character are, of course, not mutually exclusive. In general, one quality cannot be developed fully without cultivation of all the rest. With regard to the use of the objectives this note of warning should be observed. "The teacher's mind must constantly be obsessed with a keen sense of the objectives of character education, which will determine the emotional temper of her work and the direction of the thought activ- ities she provokes in pupils, and will be a constant factor determining the selection of material she uses; but for practical purposes she must keep these objectives, like her notion of the "virtues," in the back of her head and in the bottom of her heart. "For practical purposes, however, it is important that she follow, insofar as possible, situations rather than objectives or virtues, and it is these that should be kept before the minds of pupils. Moral health in children, just as in adults, is conditioned by a sufficient lack of self-conscious introspection to insure the outgoing life of good-will, coöperation, and all the other aspects of morality." As an example of this procedure consider the following alphabetical list of a few typical situations, together with suggestions of right attitudes under each:1 Adversity-Courage, self-control, poise, etc. Animals (domestic, pet, and wild)-Compassion, gentleness, thoughtfulness, etc. This method is being carefully worked out at the University of Iowa under the direction of Professor Edwin D. Starbuck. 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Authority (home, school, church, State) -Obedience, respect, coöperation, etc. Church-Coöperation, devotion, gratitude, reverence, etc. Country Loyalty, justice, self-sacrifice, service, etc. Enemies-Fairness, forgiveness, sportsmanship, etc. Friends, Playmates, and Social Groups-Devotion, courtesy, fidelity, sympathy, etc. Home and Family-Helpfulness, tenderness, politeness , self-sacrifice, etc. School ( pupils, studies, teacher)-Adaptability, loyalty, neatness, punctuality, etc. Sports and Pastimes- Cheerfulness, fairness, self-control, sportsmanship, etc. Wealth ( money, property) -Economy, thrift, service, consecration, etc. Work ( tasks, occupation, vocations)-Faithfulness, efficiency, joy, service. This method of approach may be made still more concrete by the use of adjectives descriptive of appropriate conduct in particular situations as they occur in child experience. Child behavior is thus emphasized by placing before teachers an array of virtuous acts in the concrete. The sub-committee on Curriculum Materials is making progress in collecting such an array of representative acts of children. A list of one thousand activities of six-year-old boys has been collected and classified. This list may serve in the selection of a group of representative acts of children. Publication of the results of this method awaits further progress of this painstaking, empirical procedure. Another plan dealing with objectives, together with suggestions as to method, has been kindly contributed by its authors for consideration of the committee. A brief extract from this plan is here reproduced to indicate the point of view and procedure. Objectives-Good-will is unselfish will and is manifested in three ways : 1. Through recognizing the essential equality, in dignity and worth, of each personality with every other, and so willing what is just between oneself and every other. 2. Through identifying oneself with the suffering, the weak, and the unfortunate, by means of sympathy, and so willing their good as if it were one's own . 3. Through identifying oneself with a group and willing the common good of the group. All possible ethical principles and all virtues may be brought under one of these. These objectives may be elaborated by grades, first to tenth in- clusive. Students of the more theoretical and technical aspects of character edu- cation will be interested in the analytical studies of objectives now being carried on by members of this committee . Dr. A. Duncan Yocum has written several extended papers on objectives, some of which have already been published. His most recent and simplest statement is in the form of a summary of an "Analysis of Four Key Char- acteristics . " These are : Under the direction of Professor J. L. Meriam, Southern Branch of the University of California. Professor George M. Forbes, University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. Dr. Yocum's paper maybe had on application to the author, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 283 I. Love, including Liking, Good-Will, Kindness, Sympathy, Service, and Self- sacrifice, with all the variations of each of these characteristics. II. Faith, including Trust, Belief, Optimism, Hope, and Composites of Faith, with the numerous variations of each. III. Strength, including Independence, Bravery, Perseverance, Self- respect, Self-control, Justice, Generosity , Cheerfulness, Pleasantness, and Self-sacrifice, with their numerous variations and interrelations. IV. Responsibility, including Coöperation, Ability, Necessity, Ownership, and Equivalent Return, with the variations of each; summarized as Goodness, Wisdom, and Efficiency. Dr. T. W. Galloway has prepared a somewhat extended analysis of the nature of character from the biologist's point of view. This analysis takes account of four levels in the operation of character factors : 1. The reflex level of sensitiveness, automatic reaction to stimuli, and the simpler native satisfactions. Involves prenatal life and early infancy. Character objectives : routine habits of "sound" response through keeping stimuli and responses wholesome and normal for comfort, growth, and development. 2. The resulting habit level which is built upon this first conditioning of all the important inherited reflexes. This is the normal pitch of most of the infantile, unreasoned, increasingly conscious trial and error actions and satisfactions . Character objectives : establishing new-that is, acquired types of desires and satisfactions and connecting these with socially desirable conduct in such satisfying ways as to convince and develop the child toward human rather than mere biological goals . 3. The level of conscious tastes and imitation (of self or of others ) , associated with feelings of admiration, like-mindedness, and definite prejudices which are largely emotional, not necessarily implying much in the way of ideas or inductive judgments. Character objectives: to extend (and modify) habits and satisfactions into the realm of sound tastes, appreciations, preferences, ideals, aspira- tions, and purposes by way of fine examples, companionships, and exper- iences of approval . 4. The level of ideas, word-knowledge, and rationally critical experi- ments, comparisons, and judgments. At this level external data may reach consciousness and stimulate personality, win acceptance, and modify con- duct by the mere transfer of ideas (instruction and interpretation)-in contrast with trial and error, example and imitation, compulsion, and the like. The technical student interested in this method of approach should communicate with Dr. T. W. Galloway, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City. 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Character objectives : to associate ideas with the former attainments and to crystallize these into ideals, attitudes, and a philosophy of life which will give feelings of satisfaction on the intellectual and rational plane, as the reflexes, realizations, admirations, and tastes did in the earlier stages. The first three levels are those normal to early childhood; but because of our incomplete and unscientific (irrational) methods of character-edu- cation they dominate a large proportion of human beings through life. Character education must respect and use them all-increasingly the last two. A part of our error comes also from trying to substitute the type of training suitable to level 4, prematurely. Teaching seems to present a superlative "get-wise-and-good-quick" opportunity; but, except as built naturally upon the earlier methods, it is illusory in that it fails to reach the character which anchors in habit. In the effort to make thorough scientific study of the different aspects of the complex problem assigned to this committee, it is now organized into five sub- committees as follows : Curriculum materials: J. L. Meriam, chairman; Fannie Fern Andrews; H. B. Wilson, Susan M. Dorsey; Effie MacGregor ; Ira I. Cammack ; J. W. Searson; E. O. Sisson ; William H. Kilpatrick, Sarah Louise Arnold, Milton Bennion. Teaching procedure : H. B. Wilson, chairman; Fannie Fern Andrews ; Charles E. Rugh; Effie McGregor; Mary D. Bradford; Jeremiah E. Burke ; Olive M. Jones ; Margaret Rae; William H. Kilpatrick; J. W. Searson ; E. O. Sisson ; Milton Bennion. School organization : Arthur L. Beeley, chairman, John R. Kirk ; Jeremiah E. Burke; Olive M. Jones; T. W. Galloway; J. L. Meriam; Susan M. Dorsey; Milton Bennion. Character scales and measurements : Edwin D. Starbuck, chairman ; Arthur L. Beeley; A. Duncan Yocum; William H. Kilpatrick; Margaret Rae ; T. W. Galloway, Milton Bennion . Teacher training: Charles E. Rugh, chairman; Mary D. Bradford ; Sarah Louise Arnold; John R. Kirk; Ira I. Cammack ; A. Duncan Yocum; Milton Bennion. Mr. S. D. Shankland, executive secretary of the Department of Super- intendence, is consulting member to all sub-committees. The problem of objectives is being considered by the Committee as a whole. The chairman of the sub-committee on Character Scales and Measurements reported progress at the February ( 1924) meeting of the Council. This report has been submitted for publication in the Proceed- ings of the Council. Other sub-committees are not prepared to make further report at this time. In consideration of the studies now in progress, and of the great im- portance of the problem under investigation and its many complexities, the Committee recommends that it be continued. It should be allowed at least $500 for clerical assistance and postage. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 285 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON A CODE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS FOR TEACHERS¹ MAY WADE, TEACHER, EMERSON SCHOOL, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CHAIRMAN I believe that service to humanity is the highest expression of the pro- fessional ideal. This ideal, applied in terms of character, coöperation, and loyalty, to the practical affairs of teaching, constitutes a complete code of teaching ethics. I believe that service to the child is the supreme obligation of the teacher. The measure of the teacher's service is his success in helping the child of today to become the patriotic, useful, upright citizen of tomorrow. Child-culture is a task whose far-reaching importance requires not only sincere devotion, but specialized knowledge and technical skill of a high order. Scientifically organized preparatory training, devoted to the special- ized ends involved, is essential to a high type of teaching service. Efficiency cannot remain static. Conscious, persistent, well-directed effort to enlarge professional outlook and to increase teaching skill through the various educational agencies at his command, is vital to the teacher's worth. Growth in service is his paramount duty to the State. I believe that service to the community is an integral factor in service to the child. Educational progress is in direct ratio to the teacher's response to com- munity life. The highest form of professional service requires the teacher to promote public respect for and confidence in the purposes and ideals of public education through active participation and leadership in social and civic activities. In individual relations with school patrons, service to the child requires the teacher to welcome better understanding and closer contact between school and home; to promote it by maintaining a spirit of confidence, inter- est, and sympathy in the discussion of difficult problems; by open-minded- ness and courtesy toward criticism; by coöperation and loyalty in Parent- Teacher Association activities. I believe that coöperation and loyalty are the essence of that service which the teaching profession rightfully expects from its members. Cooperation between teachers and fellow workers finds its highest level in good-will, friendliness, and mutual faith in personal and professional relations; in constructive interchange of helpful ideas and experiences ; in careful avoidance of that destructive criticism which can do no possible good and may do untold harm ; in scrupulous consideration for the rights and feelings of others; in scorn of personalities and petty jealousies ; in the spirit of unity in school procedures. This report was presented to the Representative Assembly by special arrangement on beralf of the California State Council of Education. After it was read a motion was foptel providing for the appointment of a committee to formulate for the National Education Association a code of ethics for teachers. 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I believe that coöperation between classroom teacher and superior officer means a relation of mutual helpfulness in the discharge of separate respon- sibilities. The coöperative teacher recognizes the responsibility of the supervisory office in raising standards of efficiency to higher levels and maintains a cheerfully constructive attitude toward this responsibility in its relation to his own work. The coöperative supervisor recognizes the supervisory office as purely one of helpfulness, and measures its success largely in terms of ability to inspire wholehearted response in the classroom teacher. True coöperation between classroom teacher and administrator is founded upon respect and sympathy for each other's viewpoint. Teacher coбрега- tion recognizes administrative right to leadership in and final determina- tion of school policies: administrative coöperation recognizes the teacher's right to self-expression and to democracy in school procedures. I believe that mutual loyalty is an ethical obligation of cooperative endeavor; it is the outcome of mutual striving for efficiency; mutual con- fidence and good-will; mutual endeavor to maintain harmony. I believe that criticism is unprofessional, except as a constructive agent and under constructive conditions. Constructive conditions do not include : Criticism of teachers to each other by other teachers; criticism of teachers to patrons by other teachers ; criticism of teachers to patrons by the principal or administrative officers; criticism of teachers to other teachers by the principal or administrative officers; criticism of the principal or administrative officers by teachers to each other; criticism of the principal or administrative officers by teachers to patrons; criticism of teachers by the principal or administrative officers to other principals. I believe that constructive criticism, to delegated authority, of incom- petence and unprofessionalism, is an ethical obligation demanded alike by professional loyalty and by child welfare. I believe that loyalty to the teaching profession demands faithful alle- giance to its ideals and its aims in both public and private behavior. An attitude of honor and respect for the vocation of teaching and a high sense of personal responsibility in maintaining appropriate standards of social behavior are evidences of professional loyalty. The highest form of pro- fessional loyalty requires that we inform ourselves fully on the great prob- lems of public education so that we may be able to "talk shop" both wisely and well when the cause of childhood needs an advocate. I believe that loyal membership and coöperation in the activities of local, State, and National organizations are ethical obligations of the first mag- nitude. Professional unity is the keynote of educational progress. Its purpose is fivefold: To protect the rights and define the obligations of its member- ship; to stimulate professional and social consciousness; to command public respect and confidence; to maintain and advance professional and educa- REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 287 tional welfare ; and to uphold the dignity, honor, and efficiency of the teaching profession. Its duties are: To promote democracy in professional relations; to defend its membership from injustice; to prevent political manipulation of the schools; to promote just methods of employment, pro- motion, tenure, and compensation ; to advance by every means in its power the ideals of professional standards of preparation and service and of com- pensation adequate to professional standards of living. I believe that high ideals of world citizenship can be successfully in- culcated only by those who have themselves a high sense of honor and honesty in business relations. Personal integrity is the corner-stone of social well-being. Violation of verbal or written contract without consent of the employing body, or on the part of either teacher or administrator, is a violation of personal in- tegrity, sufficient to merit loss of standing as a member of the teaching profession. Ethical procedure in securing positions requires that application be con- fined to those positions known to be vacant; that applicants scrupulously avoid tactical rivalries with other candidates; that upon accepting a posi- tion, applicants notify other districts to which application has been made; that upon resignation immediate notice be given employing bodies ; that upon decision not to reemploy a teacher immediate notice be given. Superintendents are under solemn obligation to the public and to the teaching profession to make qualification, subject to compensation, the sole determining factor in matters of appointment and promotion. Ethical attitude requires that due notice be given other employers before offering positions to teachers under contract, and that successful teachers be assisted in securing better positions, regardless of personal inconvenience to administrators. I believe that idealism and altruism are essential attributes of professional character. To idealism belong those qualities stressed in every professional code- honesty, constancy, justice, tolerance, equality, democracy. To altruism belongs that first great requisite of the teacher, sympathy ; mass conscious- ness, not class consciousness ; humanitarianism; generosity. Character, expressed through personality, gives, instead of takes; looks up, not down; is warm, not cold; is interested, not indifferent; is opti- mistic, not pessimistic; in the spirit of brotherhood to all men, loves not hates. I believe the principles of professionalism are as binding on the teacher of a day as on the teacher of a lifetime. I accept them as fundamental to my own professional worth, and undertake to be guided by them so far as inme lies. The State Council of Education of California adopted at its annual meeting of April, 1924, a report containing a recommendation that the National Education Association be memorialized with the following requests: 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To make professional ethics a major factor in next year's work. To appoint a committee to formulate and adopt an official body of ethical principles. To disseminate such principles as completely as possible among its mem- bership throughout the country. To prepare a short course on teaching ethics suitable for use in the cur- ricula of teacher-training institutions, and to sponsor and promote by every means in its power the inclusion of specific instruction in teaching ethics in the curricula of all teacher-training institutions throughout the country. To establish a permanent commission on ethics with such powers and duties as are demanded by the highest welfare of the profession. To set up machinery similar to the machinery of other professions for the disbarment from professional standing of unworthy members. To urge the adoption of a similar program of activity in all State asso- ciations, with an active publicity campaign for the adoption of a code of ethics by each local association within their respective borders . REPORT OF THE ILLITERACY COMMISSION-SUMMARY CORA WILSON STEWART, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY, CHAIRMAN The Illiteracy Commission of the National Education Association found, on its creation in 1918, that there was not a book on the subject of illiteracy in any library in this country. Only a few brief technical articles in magazines! One of the first needs was to make the people of the various States realize the illiteracy conditions at their own door. Accordingly, illiteracy statistics for each State were taken from the Federal Census and arranged by coun- ties in such form that the county with the fewest illiterates in number stood at the top and the one with the largest number at the bottom. Other startling statistics, compiled and arranged on mimeographed sheets, were sent in large quantities to State Departments of Education. Hundreds of newspapers used these statistics to good advantage. Illiteracy conditions were little understood. County superintendents and teachers, as a rule, had no idea of the number of illiterates in their own county or district. It was not unusual for individuals, upon hearing statistics quoted for their own counties, to show resentment. Gradually it became known to the thinking people of the country that nearly five millon people were blind to the printed page, unable to sign their own names, or use the libraries, or enter gainful occupations that required the simplest education. What constitutes illiteracy varies in the different States. None of the States can enforce its definition of illiteracy on the others. The definition of illiteracy is fixed for the whole country by the Federal Census Bureau, and by that definition the State must be judged, its illiterate citizens listed, REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 289 and its illiterate conditions announced. This Federal definition is simple enough: A person is not illiterate if he is able to write. The census of illiteracy taken by the Federal Census Bureau has long been buried in Washington. This census is taken at the end of each decade and would be exceedingly valuable if made available immediately, without cost, to each State. The Commission has been instrumental in procuring this information for many of the States. Some States have paid thousands of dollars for this service, but many States find it necessary to wait for Federal aid. Illiteracy conditions, in spite of drastic immigration laws, are appalling. The Commission is firmly convinced that there are now more than double the number of illiterates in the United States than were found and reported by the ederal Census Bureau in 1920. The Illiteracy Report contains tables showing that one hundred ten counties in the United States have more than twenty-five per cent of illiteracy. Twelve of these counties are in Alabama; nine in Georgia; thirty-five in Louisiana ; eleven in Mississippi; twenty-one in Texas. Many ill effects of illiteracy-" Illiteracy begets illiteracy." Parents with no education cannot appreciate what an education means to their children. Invariably the States with the highest percentage of illiteracy have the lowest percentage of school attendance. In densely illiterate sec- tions, the pupils entering high school are relatively small in number and those who finish high school a negligible quantity. Commerce is limited by illiteracy. Manufacturers, merchants, railroads , moving picture theaters, and others are losing millions of dollars through the fact that millions of people are illiterate. Books, newspapers, maga- zines, and all papers and printed supplies are barred the five million people who buy only the coarser commodities of life and have no use for the luxuries. Labor is equally affected. We live in an age of print. Instructions and warnings are all in printed form. They afford no protection whatever for the illiterate man. The unlettered man finds his life in the cities and factories endangered more than does the literate laborer. Then, too , the literate laborer is sought for advancement in certain kinds of employ- ment, and the place to be filled is always supplied, where it can be, with educated labor. Not only are commerce and labor affected, but health conditions are affected also, sanitation neglected, the death rate increased, and important health publications lost on millions who cannot read and write. Pre- ventable diseases make illiterate localities their breeding places, and thus endanger the health of the educated, despite their enlightenment and protec- tion. Sickness is prevalent and infant mortality high in all sections where education is lacking. No health program can succeed and no child is safe where illiteracy exists. Iowa, the State that leads in literacy, leads in the health of its school children . Since the Commission began its work, seventeen conferences have been held-six States, seven regional, three National, and one international 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION conference. The first regional conference was held for the Southern States in Columbia, S. C., in November, 1919, seven States being represented. The Illiteracy Conference of the Eastern States was held at the Waldorf- Astoria Hotel, in New York City, November 25-26, 1921. This confer- ence met with hearty response from the educators of the Eastern States. At the Fairmont Hotel, in San Francisco, California, February 3-4, 1922, a conference of the Western States was held. The program was one of the strongest given. A regional conference of the Northern and Mid- western States was held the same month in Chicago. Out of this confer- ence grew the Iowa Illiteracy Commission, and the active agitation to re- move illiteracy from Iowa, the State that ranks highest in literacy. At the conference of the Midwestern and Northern States, the following slogan was adopted : "The elimination of illiteracy from the United States before 1930. " In April, 1922, a Conference was held in Birmingham. Alabama, and one followed in Little Rock, Arkansas. The large number of delegates appointed by the respective governors of Arkansas and Alabama testified to the increased interest in these conferences. In May 1-2, 1923, a regional conference met in Detroit. An important feature of this con- ference was the proclamation by Governor Nestos, of North Dakota, urging that the Fourth of July be observed as new Patriots' Day. An important result of these regional conferences has been the demand for State conferences. Six States have already held such conferences. Regional conferences have been held in Des Moines, Boston, and Wash- ington, D. C., the latter being the largest single activity of the Commission. The report of the Commission devotes a number of pages to the Inter- national Illiteracy Conference held in conjunction with the World Con- ference on Education, in San Francisco, June 29-July 6, 1923, and closes with a summary of the Commission's activities. REPORT OF THE EDITORIAL COUNCIL WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN¹ The Editorial Council wishes at this time to indorse the report of Mr. Morgan, director of the Division of Publications and managing editor of The Journal, which will be found in the Annual Report of the Secre- tary of the Association. It begs leave to submit the statements of editorial policy therein contained as its report to the Representative Assembly. The principal question considered by the Editorial Council at its meet- ings this year has been that which concerns the proposal that The Journal departmentalize its pages. It is the belief of the editors, indorsed by the Editorial Council that all of the material published in The Journal should appeal, as far as possible, to all of the members of the Association. This 1 In addition to the chairman, the council includes the members listed on page 28. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 291 policy does not preclude the publication of articles representing depart- mental and other specialized interests, provided that such articles have a general appeal. The editors and the Editorial Council believe that the specific recognition of separate departments would be an unwise policy : First, because the Association represents so large a number of specialized fields that the space allotted to each within the present limits of total space would necessarily be very meager ; secondly, because departmentaliza- tionwould greatly increase the editorial burden which is already too heavy for the very small staff; and, thirdly, because the appearance of articles under departmental captions would tend to create an impression in the reader's mind that such articles are specialized and technical, and would consequently tend to limit the readers of each article to those affiliated with the department represented. The policy urged by the Editorial Council, on the other hand, will encourage the publication of such depart- mental materials as have a general interest, and will consequently tend to unify rather than to divide the profession. Personally, as I conceive of The Journal, this integrating and unifying function should be the primary standard in determining its policies. In- deed, as I see it, this is the fundamental function of the Association itself. In our Association, the workers in all of the fields of education are brought together in a united group. Officially American education is highly de- centralized. We have our geographical units represented by our inde- pendent and autonomous State and territorial school systems, and in many of our commonwealths by an almost equal independence and autonomy ofthe local school systems. Added to this, we have our functional cleav- ages, represented by the divisions of the educational service. In the earlier years of its history, our Association did its first great work in bringing together the educational leaders from the various geographical units. This work it has continued until it stands today as by far the most influen- tial force in unifying and integrating educational effort among the inde- pendent school units. Its great advance in recent years has been toward a unification of the functional divisions of the service. In our Association the classroom teachers, the supervisors, the administrative officers, the lay governing authorities, the research workers in fact, all whose work touches in a responsible and creative way the field of education-meet on a plane ofperfect equality. Our Association reflects in theory, and, I believe, with increasing force in practice, the fundamental principle that, in the great work of education, there are no humble posts; that you cannot draw in- vidious distinctions among teachers without implying the same distinctions among those whom these teachers serve. Who, for example, would assert that a child in the first grade is either more or less important than a child in the sixth grade or a youth in high school or a young man or young woman in college? Or who would assert that that a village boy is more or less important than a city boy ? Or who would assert that the actual work of teaching can justly be subordinated to any other function or activity that 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the educational service 'demands ? But as long as we permit invidious dis- tinctions to be drawn among the various divisions or so-called levels of our service, we are in effect making just these absurd distinctions. Because I believe so strongly in this unifying and integrating function of our Association, I am particularly anxious that our Journal should recognize the intensifying and strengthening of this function as its primary aim. The fact that we are one profession and not a congerie of loosely affiliated groups is the fact that I wish might stand forth sharp and clear in every issue and on every page. It is one thing, however, to say that The Journal should cement our diverse educational forces into a unified profession. It is quite another thing to take the detailed steps that will insure this outcome. The Edi- torial Council wishes to commend to the Representative Assembly the good work that Mr. Morgan has already done toward the solution of this prob- lem and the plans that he has formulated for future developments. Of the greatest significance, we believe, is the fundamental principle upon which he is working-namely, that our National problems in education will approach solution just in so far as every teacher in the land voluntarily accepts a share of the responsibility. That responsibility may be shared in varying degrees. Our Association now enrolls in its active membership one fifth of the personnel of public education. For a teacher even to enroll in the Association is to share in a significant way the responsibilities which the Association is seeking to discharge. But the vast majority of our members, I am sure, wish to do more than this. They wish to take their part in the hard thinking, the painstaking research, the critical evaluation of facts, and the careful construction of policies which are involved in the solution of the Nation's larger problems in our field. How The Journal may serve to bring about this unification and coördina- tion of creative and constructive effort is the specific problem that Mr. Morgan has set himself to solve. He has projected a provisional program which will be given a trial during the coming year: This program is in part an outgrowth of a feature of The Journal which has been emphasized in the year just ending-namely, the publication of a series of brief, suc- cinct statements from members of the Association regarding the outstanding problems that they meet in their daily work. These statements have been published under the caption, "Fresh from the Classroom," and the keen interest that our members have taken in these articles is good evidence that a promising "lead" has been struck. It is now Mr. Morgan's plan to summarize from these contributions the specific problems that, from their frequency of mention and their inherent character, seem to reflect the prob- lems of largest significance to the cause of American education, and to present these problems for investigation and study by teaching groups throughout the country. The first of the problems has received an initial formulation in our June issue, and suggests a program for the coming year centering about some of the basic questions of professional ethics. In my judgment, this is a most REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 293 significant problem with which to make a beginning on this new venture. Will you permit me to take a moment to tell you why I think that it is especially significant not only to each one of us as members of a great pro- fession, but to the profession as a whole, and more specifically to the solution of the great National problems with which our Association is primarily concerned. Those of us who have worked even in the very humble way that I have worked for the enactment our Education Bill cannot fail to be impressed with a fact that we do not like to admit, but which still stands as a most stubborn obstacle across our path. It is the fact that, as a pro- fession, we have not yet secured from the public that measure of respect for and confidence in our collective judgment that will give to it the weight that it must have if our proposals for the improvement of education are to be accepted at face value. I shall not dwell upon the various factors that lie as causes back of this fact. It is in part, of course, the traditional and quite natural skepticism of the layman regarding the proposals of a profes- sional group. Physicians, engineers, social workers, and other so-called "ex- pert" groups meet the same kind of opposition. With us, however, its intensity is increased by the tradition that surrounds the popular conception of the teacher. As Miss Jones pointed out in her masterful address, Monday evening, this was one of the most serious handicaps that our great fellow-worker, Woodrow Wilson, had to face. It is a handicap of our profession that keeps from its councils, both National and State, a large majority of our colleagues in our higher institutions. They prefer to be known as scholars and scientists, as chemists, economists, historians, classic- ists, psychologists, even educationists-anything but teachers. It was this attitude that was clearly expressed by a candidate who was being inter- viewed by a university president regarding appointment to a professorship. The candidate set forth his qualifications for scholarly work in his own field of research, and then nonchalantly remarked that of course he would expect to do also a substantial amount of teaching. "It is not a substantial amount of teaching that we require," the president replied and the can- didate's hopes went up for he thought that at last he would be freed of this disagreeable duty. But his hopes were soon dashed to the ground. "No, " said the president, "it is not a substantial amount of teaching that we demand but rather an amount of substantial teaching." Probably it was the same wise executive who was asked by a prospective appointee how much routine teaching the position would involve. "Not a bit," was the quick response; "if that is the only kind of teaching you are capable of, we do not want you at any price." This attitude of the public toward the teacher and all too frequently the attitude of the teacher toward his own work and toward his fellows is a phenomenon of social psychology that needs to be studied, analyzed, and traced to its sources. And toward its correction, I believe, every effort of our profession should be directed. Personally I think that it is far less violent than it was at one time, but the progress of our cause will be slow until it has been still further and very substantially reduced. There are 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION two courses, apparently unrelated but thoroughly consistent with one another, that we can take. The one is represented by the recognition upon the part of each member of our profession that the public attitude toward the profession as a whole can be positively influenced by the work that he or she does. In many cases, at least, the public estimate of our profession is based upon the opinion which the ubiquitous average citizen holds re- garding the individual teachers that he knows and the work that they do. Whatever an individual teacher does that commends his or her work to the parents of the pupils is a positive gain for our profession. And it is because teachers in increasing numbers and proportions are doing work that does commend itself to the public-it is because of this fact that the preju- dice to which I have referred is far less violent than was formerly the case. But, important as it is, this will not solve the whole problem. It must be complemented, I believe by collective action on an organized basis. In my opinion the scant consideration which both of the political parties have given to education in their platforms should be the signal on our part for a positive and aggressive stand. Contrasted sharply with the courteous and generous treatment that our representatives have met in Congress is the treatment of quite the other sort that our representatives were accorded in the conventions at Cleveland and New York. At those two conventions , the great questions have been, not what is right and just and best for the broadest and most enduring interests of our country, but how can we placate the minorities that hold the balance of power? Organizations that could be counted on to deliver the vote of those strategic and powerful minorities had no trouble in reading their planks into the platforms or in suppressing planks that they did not like. The others, and among them our own, had to be satisfied either with insolent rebuffs or with meaningless phrases . The lesson for us seems tolerably clear. If other groups are willing to disregard party lines, and throw their votes en masse to the party that promises to do most to promote the often selfish and almost always minor interests which these groups represent, should there not be a group that will throw its votes en masse to the party that promises to do the most for the basic interest of our National life-the most unselfish and far-reaching cause that any group can espouse ? And should not our profession be the nucleus of this group ? I should remind you that I am not just now speaking for the Editorial Council. I am merely commenting personally on Mr. Morgan's recom- mendation that the general topic of professional ethics be made the center of our group discussions and investigations next year. The questions that I have raised might well, I believe, be considered in this program. The most fundamental issues of professional ethics are those that refer to the relation- ships between the professional group and the public. Clearly they include in our case the attitude that we should take toward those important ele- ments of the public that are represented by political parties and political leaders. Under our form of government the welfare and progress of our REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 295 causedepends in no small measure upon these political factors. We are told that it is unethical for us to mingle in the political phases of our social organization. I am wondering whether this ethical tenet is one that has evolved within our own group or one that has been carefully prepared and fed to us, along with other pious platitudes, by those who would have something to lose if, as a profession, we were to enter the lists ? In concluding this report, I have two further duties to discharge. A very pleasant duty is to convey to the Representative Assembly the unanimous approval of the Editorial Council of the way in which Mr. Morgan has conducted The Journal, its appreciation of the serious handicaps under which he has worked, and its hope that, when the Association's finances will permit, he may be given added and adequate assistance. My second duty is far less pleasant. For nearly seven years I have been associated in a modest but intimate way with the work of the Association. For nearly four years, I have been honored with the title of Editor-in-chief of your Journal. My resignation from this post has been in the hands of the Executive Committee now for two years, and I am confident that its accept- ance should be no longer delayed. The post itself has always been an honor for which it has been impossible for me to make an adequate return in service. I am sailing under false colors when I put myself in the position of taking credit for what another person has achieved. Mr. Morgan has made The Journal what it is, and he should have whatever recognition goes with the title. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON VISUAL EDUCATION1 THOMAS E. FINEGAN, VICE PRESIDENT, NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE , WASHINGTON, D. с. The President of the National Education Association, following the meeting held in Boston in 1922, appointed the following committee on Visual Education and Coöperation with the Motion Picture Producers : Charles H. Judd, Chairman, Chicago University ; Leonard Ayers, Cleveland, Ohio ; Elizabeth Breckenridge, Louisville, Ky.; Ernest L. Crandall, New York City ; Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.; Elizabeth Hall, Minneapolis, Minn ., and Payson Smith, Commissioner of Education of the State of Massachusetts. That committee submitted a report at the meeting held at Oakland, California, in July, 1923. The summary recommended by that committee and adopted by the National Education Association is as follows : (1) That the present committee be discharged ; (2) That the Association express to the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America appreciation for support given to the committee ; In addition to the chairman, the committee includes the members listed on page 30. 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (3) That this Association recognize the desirability of legislation regu- lating the use of inflammable films and making more readily available to schools the non-inflammable films ; (4) That a program on visual education be arranged for the next winter meeting to include all discussion of this subject at that meeting; and (5) That a Committee be appointed by the President of the Association to carry on studies of the administrative and instructional methods which are employed and should be employed in the introduction of visual ma- terials into the school curriculum. The action of the National Education Association in adopting such report placed a specific obligation upon the present committee and such committee has endeavored to discharge that obligation and carry out the instruction which this body authorized one year ago. The Committee on Visual Education of the previous year had established a fine spirit of coöperation with the Motion Picture Producers and Dis- tributors of America. The expenses incurred by members of the com- mittee in attending committee meetings and in making certain investiga- tions were paid by the Producers Corporation and without obligating the committee or the National Education Association in any manner whatever. The present committee is gratified to report that the happy relations of coöperation established last year have been continued this year. The ex- penses of members of the committee in attending the committee meeting in New York City, January 4 and 5, 1924, and certain other expenses of travel incident to the work of the committee have been paid again this year by the Producers Corporation. Mr. Courtland Smith, representing the Producers Corporation, expressed a willingness to meet this expense and specifically stated before the committee that no member of the com- mittee should feel the slightest obligation in any way whatever. The atti- tude of Mr. Smith has been one of coöperation in the finest sense possible with the National Education Association in the proper development of one of the great educational agencies of our time . It should be noted in this report that after the adoption of the report of the committee on Visual Education in 1923 by the National Education As- sociation, that a Department of Visual Education was organized, officers chosen as required by the by-laws, and a program carried out at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Chicago at the February meeting of that body in 1924. Such action made it unnecessary for this committee to arrange a program for that meeting as directed by this body. At the January meeting of the committee held in New York City, the committee decided to undertake definite lines of work which it is believed would be helpful to those interested in the development of Visual Educa- tion. The chairman of the committee was authorized to appoint sub- committees for the following purposes : (1) To carry out the following recommendation adopted by the National Edu- cation Association one year ago, That this association recognize the desirability of REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 297 legislation regulating the use of inflammable films and making more readily avail- able to schools the non-inflammable films; (2) To determine cases where work in visual education is especially well done and to report on methods and materials used in such cases ; (3 To advocate and encourage normal schools and teacher-training institutions, a study of the psychology of visual methods and courses of study, and to suggest improvements of aims and methods ; (+) To gather material relative to administrative methods in current use; to consider the desirability and feasibility of a survey of all existing and acceptable educational films and the preparation of a list of the same. (5) To cooperate with other organizations in research effort. The following sub-committees were appointed : (1) On legislation-Ernest L. Crandall, Supervisor of Lectures, New York City; David Gibbs, Superintendent of Schools, Meriden, Conn . Arthur G. Balcom, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. (2) On designation of communities doing excellent work in visual education-A. W. Abrams, State Education Department, Albany, N. Y.; Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.; F. Dean McClusky, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.; Elizabeth Breckenridge, Louisville Normal School, Louisville, Ky . (3) On courses of study-J. B. Ankeny, Professor of Visual Instruc tion, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.; Leoretto Clark, Los Angeles, Calif.; Edwin H. Reader, Detroit, Mich. (4) On gathering material relative to administrative methods in current use, etc. John K. Norton, National Education Association, Washington, D. C.; Dudley Grant Hays, National Academy of Visual Instruction, Chicago, Ill.; Arthur G. Balcom, Newark, N. J. (5) On coöperation and research-The committee voted that its chair- man should be chairman of this sub- committee. The chairman appointed the following additional members : Charles H. Judd, University of Chicago ; Miss Clara Springstead, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Amster- dam, N. Y.; Arthur C. Watkins, Washington, D. C. These sub -committees have submitted the following reports : (1) Mr. Crandall, chairman of the Sub-committee on Legislation, has submitted a comprehensive report dealing with the attempts to legislate upon the use of films. The following is taken from his report : There are two kinds of films . One, of nitrocellulose base, is inflammable to the point of explosion. If used by an experienced operator with fire-proof booth and proper precautions it is reasonably safe. When used without such restrictions, there is great fire hazard and consequent panic risk. The other film, of acetate of cellulose base, is not explosive, does not ignite easily, and burns slowly. The former is usually termed inflammable film, and the latter is called non- inflammable film, safety film, safety stock, or slow-burning film. The subcommittee recom- mends the adoption of a uniform appellation, of hazardous and non-hazardous film or stock. 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Two interests are seeking legislation. One generally requires that nitro-cellu- lose film be used only in a fire-proof booth and by a licensed operator. Further precautions are required on manufacturing, storage, transportation, and incidental handling. The other aims to safeguard the use of inflammable film by setting re- strictions on the use of non-inflammable film, so that it may not be used without booth and licensed operator unless it is made to differ from the inflammable film in common use by being of different width and having non-standard sprocket per- forations. The non-theatrical use of film has tremendously increased. Any one with the price can freely obtain the inflammable film. A great deal of acetate film is made of standard form. No restriction has been placed upon the manufacture or posses- sion of portable machines adapted to standard film. In consequence thousands of persons unrestrained by conscience or personal fear of fire hazard use inflammable and non-inflammable film indiscriminately, and to a point quite beyond the capacity of existing enforcement agencies to control. For teachers or superintendents evasion of the law is out of the question. There- fore they must either install a very expensive equipment for the use of inflammable film or confine themselves to the small and unsatisfactory library of non-inflam- mable film. Legislation designed to improve the situation has been attempted in several States. The important result of these attempts is that groups of non-theatrical makers, distributers and users of non-inflammable film, the principal makers of theatrical film, and five protective agencies, learned that they have a common prob- lem. A joint committee was formed which worked out with great care a model bill which it proposes ultimately to introduce into every jurisdiction where such legislation is needed. The sub-committee was specifically authorized to cooperate with this joint committee supporting the model bill, and the chairman of our sub- committee was in attendance at two of the three legislatures at which it was decided to attempt legislation at this session ( New York, Maryland, and Massachusetts ) . None of these attempts succeeded in having legislation passed. The struggle for needed legislative relief has not been and will not be abandoned. The underlying principle of the proposed model measure is to impose much more drastic regulations upon the use of inflammable film and to free the non-inflammable variety from all existing restrictions. This is essentially a device for control at the source . It is provided that no one may make, buy, sell, rent, lease, use or handle nitro-cellulose film in any way without a license. Nor may any person or concern deal with another without ascertaining that the latter is licensed. In order not to impose hardship the license fees are made very moderate. A proper sys- tem of registration of all transactions, open to inspection, is also provided for. The penalties are fine, imprisonment, and revocation of license. Inasmuch as the real sources are and must be comparatively limited in extent, it will be seen how greatly supervision of the traffic and detection and prevention of violation are facilitatedby these regulations. From the books of a very few concerns one could readily run down the location of practically all the inflammable film in the country at a given time. Opposition may be expected from a small group of firefighters who insist that the only remedy is the complete abandonment of nitro-cellulose and the substitution of acetate as a film base. Some theatrical exhibitors have a hostile or a suspicious attitude toward anything that may promote the non-theatrical use of film. There is no litte opposition from unionized motion picture operators, doubtless because of a fear of some loss of employment. The sub-committee recommends that the National Education Association take steps to acquaint its members with the motion picture legislative situation, to keep REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 299 them posted regarding it and to enlist their interest and support in the nation-wide legislative program on this subject. Mr. Abrams of the sub-committee on Communities Doing Excellent Work in Visual Education, submitted the three following reports : ( 1) A comprehensive and somewhat detailed report of the program of Visual Education carried out in the city of Los Angeles ; (2) a program fol- lowed in the Louisville, Kentucky, Normal School in the use of pictures in teaching geography, and (3) a report of a five-year test in the State of New York in the use of visual method in teaching the geography of South America. The first report follows : THE PROGRAM OF VISUAL EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF LOS ANGELES Prepared for the Committee by Miss A. Leoretto Clark, City Schools, Los Angeles, California. November 1, 1923 , the Visual Education Department became an entirely separate department with a director, assistant director, secretary, two full-time clerks and two half-time clerks. Previous to that date, it was a division of the City School Library. The budget for 1923-1924, dating from November 1, 1923, is $14,210. This sum does not include equipment, such as motion picture machines, portable fire- proof booths; supplies, such as picture mounts, paper, pencils ; salaries. The sum $14,210 was assigned for the purchase or rental of the following materials : ( a) Lantern slides ; purchases, rentals. (b) Motion pictures ; purchases, rentals . (c) Stereographs . (d) Charts ; flat pictures. (e) Museum exhibits. The preceding year, 1922-1923, the budget was over $23,000. This is due to the fact that when the Visual Education Departinent was a division of the City School Library, it handled in addition to the materials listed above, other materials, namely: (a) School maps ; physical, political, historical. (b) Phonograph records. (c) Kindergarten music. So, while it seems less this year than last, it is really more. With our limited funds, materials must be made to stretch as far as possible, so therefore, at the present time only basic things in the course of study are purchased. About three-fourths of our lantern slides are colored. We have not attempted to build up special sets outside of industries and regions, with the exception of wild flowers of California, birds of California, art appreciation, and slides for dramatic classes. Descriptive notes have been written for practically all slides pertaining to countries outside of the United States . Fifty schools have " 600" sets of stereographs. These have been placed in our schools having departmental systems with the idea of stimulating teachers to fur- ther and more detalied use of the central collection. In the central collection we have complete sets on the regions and industries of the various peoples of the world. Reports on all materials placed permanently in schools are required once a year. If a school does not make good use of the material that is placed perma- nently there, at the end of six months it is removed to another school. 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Regarding charts and flat pictures, we have nothing short of a remarkable col- lection for all elementary grades. This collection is being constantly augmented We take a number of copies of such magazines as National Geographic, just for the purpose of cutting, and every other good magazine in the country is kept on file for that purpose. Our aim next year is to develop very fully art appreciation pictures for use in high schools. At the present time I am building up a set on prints. This set will contain only originals. It will have aquatints, wood blocks in color and in black and white, etchings in black and white and in color, Japanese prints, and colored lithographs. It will not be a large collection-possibly from twelve to twenty pictures-but it will be the finest work of the greatest artists in the world and sufficient in number to show individual differences in treatment and personality in art. I believe the field of the print is a great field for students going into life from the high school, and as art appreciation is now required before any student can graduate from high school, we are working up sets of slides and exhibits to assist teachers in covering the subject from the appreciation standpoint. We find the Denoyer charts helpful in the study of Greek, Roman, and medieval life. These are used extensively in our system. Descriptive notes are being made to elucidate these charts, thus enhancing their value. All descriptive notes are for the use of the teacher, and not for the use of the child. We find that teachers will not use material if a great deal of the research work has to be done. They have too many meetings and other responsibilities to do research work in connection with the materials used. We do that for them, and trust that they have the student do his own research and report to them. Our notes are merely to save the teacher a vast amount of detail work. Perhaps the best thing that we have done is to stimulate an interest in the children to make books illustrating the lives of the people being studied. Excellent pieces of work are presented to this department by various classes, and these are used in other schools in the city. When a child contributes a beautiful book or exhibit that can be used by other students, he glimpses something of the full value of his activity. We have just the beginnings of an educational museum. There are costume dolls representing home life in many lands, an exhibit of Chinese life made in wood carvings showing modes of transportation, methods of preparation of food, and customs of the people, exhibits of textiles such as cotton, silk and wool, bever- ages such as coffee and cocoa, cereals and everything that we have been able to obtain at a reasonable rate. Commencing July 1, 1924, we hope to have money to start our educational museum as we should. This system is active in the use of educational motion pictures as a classroom tool. About one hundred and twenty schools have motion picture machines, mostly of the portable type, which may be used in the classroom. Our regulations permit us to use inflammable stock on an approved machine in the classroom without a booth. I realize that this gives us an opportunity to do good work because we have the intimate touch with the child in his own quarter . Some of the things Los Angeles is doing Supervision of the teaching of Citizenship with the motion picture in practically every Seventh grade in the Los Angeles city school system. We do not necessarily cover every seventh grade when we go to a school. We may do only two or three groups. Each group is an individual unit. We go to eight schools for ten weeks once a week, and then we undertake another series of schools. At least one project is thoroughly worked out during our period in the school, and follow-up work is very carefully examined. It is a strange thing that we can go into a REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 301 big school of twelve hundred children, and work with three individual groups of forty children each, and have the ideals that are instilled into the minds of these children carry over to the entire school. Principals report to the Superintendent's Office that this does occur, and they also insist that we come back again and again. They cannot afford to have us leave, but our staff is so limited that we have not so far returned to many schools. We are trying to cover the ground once. After we have supervised Citizenship for ten years, the school is ready for visual educa- tion in geography, science, history, and literature. There is an entirely different atmosphere. One group at least has learned the technique of observation and what can be accomplished when pictures are shown regularly and on a definite plan at certain stated intervals. Teachers, principals, and students are anxious that all subjects to be studied be taken up in the same systematic way. This year we have studied history in the B-Seventh grade-the westward movement across the continent. The film "Buffalo Bill" was used-a serial in eighteen episodes. We have worked up a lesson plan in connection with each episode. This year we are also keeping a rather close supervision on our sixth grade work in depart- mental schools. Other subjects we do not supervise. We meet the teachers col- lectively in each school during the noon hour about twice a year, and in that time we give them methods of approach and materials available for their work. Fol- lowing this group meeting, individual appointments are given teachers who are interested and desire to follow the work more intensively. After material has proved itself so popular that we can no longer afford to rent it, we then purchase it. This is more economical in the end. Between eight hundred and nine hundred reels of films are circulated per month. In addition to the strictly educational end of the work, we are also in charge of recreational gatherings in schools in the evening. No recreational film may be shown in a school unless it has the approval of this department. That means that we must see practically all good photoplays as soon as they are released. We feel that the social end of this work has an important place, because here in Los Angeles we have a real social problem with the motion picture. Every effort is being made by the Parent-Teacher associations, working in harmony with the principals and teachers in the schools, to enable children to discriminate between good and poor photoplays. The report on the second topic studied by Mr. Abrams' sub-committee is as follows: USE OF PICTURES IN GEOGRAPHY TEACHING Prepared for the Committee by Winifred D. Broderick, Louisville Normal School I. A Study of the Sahara-Seventh Grade Previous to this study, the children had not made a study of a desert region. Their idea, therefore, was that the deserts of the world are stretches of sand- nothing more. When they began the study of Africa, they were directed to notice the countries which seemed to have an interest in the continent. The fact that France was interested in the Sahara, a desert, struck them as being peculiar . These relationships were used as preparatory lessons in the teaching of desert regions. Preparation-1. Pictures of the Sahara, its oases, caravans, and the tractor ex- periments were given to the class. 2. The children were asked to use these pictures to help them find out why France should be interested in the Sahara. Results-1. Reading material upon the following topics was requested after the class had studied the pictures: the oasis, the date palm, caravans, people of the desert and experiments made with tractor transportation. 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2. Questions of this type were asked : Why are oases located in certain spots in the desert? What causes a desert ? Is desert trade profitable ? What is the food of the desert people ? How can a desert be governed ? 3. Reading material was provided which answered questions and helped to clear up points of discussion. Use of visual aid material-With this material as a background, the class was able to decide upon some very good reasons why France is interested in the Sahara . II. A Study of Farming in India-Seventh Grade Preparation- 1 . A group, which was preparing a report on farming in India. was allowed to choose from a number of pictures on India those which they thought would best illustrate farming. 2. Previously, they had read, under direction, material concerning farming. 3. The printed captions for these pictures were also helpful. Results- Types of pictures selected : oxen being used to help irrigate the farms of India, a wheat field in India, tilling the fields-crude implements, the marble dams of Rajputana, and picking tea in India. Use of visual aid material- 1. When the children gave their reports to the class, they used the pictures as illustrations. 2. Class discussion followed. 3. Questions such as these were raised and discussed : Why are such crude farm implements used ? Why is this simple means of irrigation employed ? ( A com- parison of these methods of irrigation with those used in the United States fol- lowed-pictures of the Roosevelt and other irrigation reservoirs were used. The marble dams showed that more extensive methods had been attempted. ) The ways in which England might assist in improving conditions formed an interesting topic for discussion. The reason or need for irrigation was also developed. III. Pictures Used as an Introduction to the Study of Forest Conservation- Eighth Grade 1. Lesson taught on the previous day brought out these points in the discussion : per cent of the original forests remaining today, our per-capita consumption of timber in excess of that of many other Nations, and forest fires in our immediate vicinity due largely to carelessness . 2. This material came from charts and maps presented to the class and was augmented by material from their own experience. Picture Lesson- Pictures cut from government bulletins and those taken in lumber camps of Wisconsin were used in the lantern. 1. Children were encouraged to discuss the pictures as they were shown. The captions were helpful. A few particularly difficult ones had been given as special assignments ; these were accompanied by written explanations. 2. Conclusions drawn-relative to conservation from pictures shown: methods of cutting are wasteful-high stumps, etc., cutting of the trees from steep slopes causes erosion, our streams need trees to protect their headwaters, trees cut from steep slopes should be replaced, and slashings, etc., left after cutting increase the fire hazard. Decision Reached : The United States needs to take definite steps to protect her forests as well as to conserve them for future use. The class decided to work out the ways in which the United States may protect her forests . IV. Use of Pictures in Teaching a Unit of Fourth Grade Geography In connection with the topic, "World Geography," Mesopotamia was studied Pictures, illustrating the character of the countries and the customs of the people, REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 303 were carefully chosen and given to the children. They were told to look at the pictures, list the points of interest, and be able (after a certain time) to ask any questions they wished. Atthe appointed time each child came before the group, brought his picture and gave the points that had interested him. The following are some of the points listed by the children: kinds of homes ; kinds of clothing; use of donkeys ; ap- pearance of the people; kinds of boats; mode of irrigation; presence of water- carriers ; manner of cooking; kinds of trees. One child reported that the roofs of the houses were flat and, therefore, different from ours. They noted also that the material of which the houses and boats were built was different from ours . One of the questions that arose was why are their houses and boats different? Further study of the pictures developed that there were few trees in this country, only palms and willows. The children reasoned that these people had to use for their houses and their boats the kinds of material they had. Through these and other pictures the children discovered how the climate in which people live effects their entire manner of living-kinds of houses they build; clothing they wear; food they eat; and occupations in which they engage. The idea of trade was also developed through the use of pictures. Mr. A. W. Abrams, Director of Visual Instruction of the New York State Education Department, has tested the visualization method of teach- ing the geography of South America during the past five years. He has prepared a detailed report of his experiments and has in printed form the general program under which his experiments were carried out. Those especially interested in this plan may get valuable information in relation thereto by communicating with Mr. Abrams. Mr. Ankeney has submitted the following report on Content of Ele- mentary Courses : This committee has before it the outlines of most of the 22 courses in Visual Education that were offered during the year 1923. Due to the shortness of the time available for this study the tabulation of these courses for publication has been deferred until later. A critical study of these courses reveals some differences in content and arrangement of subject matter to adapt them to local conditions . All have very much in common. Practically all of these courses carry college credit and practically all are elective. As a result of its investigation to date the committee believes : 1. That there is a distinct need for special training in the use of visual aids in teaching. 2. That this need is greatest in the elementary schools because of the fact that here is the place where visual aids find their greatest usefulness. 3. That this need cannot be met at present by existing methods courses. 4. That this need can best be met at present by special Visual Education courses designed for teachers now in training and those enrolled at summer sessions. 5. That the needs of the teacher in the field may be partially met by extension courses, correspondence courses, demonstration lessons at teachers' meetings and institutes, and by itinerant teacher trainers . The committee wishes to suggest the following topics for an elementary course in Visual Education. 1. Demonstration lessons involving the use of ( a) field trip, (b) slides, ( c) photo- graphs, ( e) stereographs, (f) films, ( g) blackboard, ( h ) maps, ( i) models and 304 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION exhibits. ( This should be designed to acquaint the beginner with what visual educators are attempting to do.) 2. Equipment needed-laboratory work sufficient to give facility in how to use it. Where get and how care for materials needed. 3. Psycological basis for use of visual aids. Their relation to imagination, inter- est, effort and also their relation to oral, written or printed expression. Need and results of scientific experiments. 4. Types of visual aids, the value and place of each. 5. Standards of quality in each type of visual aid. 6. Practice in the selection of visual aids, of lessons involving their use, actual teaching with visual aids, teaching children to read pictures, and to use them in problem solving. 7. Testing results. The sub-committee feels that it should be continued for another year with per- mission to pursue its studies further. Mr. Norton has submitted the following report for his Sub-committee on the Survey of Current Administrative Methods in Visual Education: This subcommittee has made two studies: ( 1 ) A survey of current administrative methods in visual education, used in representative school systems, and (2) a con- sideration of the desirability and feasibility of a survey by the National Education Association of all existing and acceptable educational films, and the preparation of a list of the same. An attempt was made to secure a complete list of directors of visual education. Each director was asked to list five pieces of information relative to administrative method in current use in the field of visual education that, in his opinion, would be most valuable to all directors of visual education. On the basis of these replies a detailed study was made of the work in visual education in 38 representative cities located in various parts of the United States.1 The salient points of this study are summarized as follows : ORGANIZATION FOR VISUAL EDUCATION Table 1 shows that in the majority of the cities studied, visual education work is not centrally administered through a member of the superintendent's staff. In approximately five-sevenths of the cities studied, visual education work is de- centralized and conducted by individual schools. Approximately three-fourths of the slides are owned by the school system and the other one-fourth is rented. In the case of films, about four-fifths are rented. School systems rent the great ma- jority of films used. About one-fourth of the cities replying, reported that films and slides are distributed to schools according to a centrally determined schedule. In the majority of cases the distributions are made only upon the call of indi- vidual schools. This list included the following cities: Akron, Ohio Muskogee, Okla . Spokane, Wash. Berkeley, Calif. Newark, N. J. Springfield, Mass . Burlington, Vt. Newport News , Va. Springfield, Ohio Canton, Ohio Norfolk, Va. St. Paul, Minn. Cheyenne, Wyo . Omaha, Nebr. Syracuse, N. Y. Chicago, Ill. Paterson, N. J. Terre Haute, Ind. Dallas, Texas Pittsburgh, Pa. Trenton, N. J. Dayton, Ohio Portland, Oregon Utica, N. Y. Detroit, Mich. Providence. R. I. Washington, D. C. Fort Wayne, Ind. Rockford, 111. West Allis, Wis. Jersey City, N. J. Saginaw, Mich. Wilmington, N. C. Manchester, N. H. Sioux City, Iowa Winston - Salem , N. C. Meriden, Conn. Somerville, Mass. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 305 TABLE 1. - FACTS ON ORGANIZATION OF VISUAL EDUCATION WORK Number of Cities Organization Replying Yes No Total Visual education work centrally administered through a member of superintendent's staff. 11 21 32 Visual education work decentralized . 23 9 32 School system owns most of slides used 26. 7 33 School system owns most of films used. 7 27 34 6 26 32 School system rents most of slides used . School system rents most of films used. 24 9 33 Films and slides distributed to schools according to cen- 1 8 22 trally determined schedule.. 30 Distributions made only upon the call of individual schools 14 9 23 Read Table I as follows: Of 32 cities answering the question, is visual education work centrally administered through a member of the superintendent's staff, II answered in the affirmative, and 21 in the negative. Personnel of visual education staff: Since visual education work is, in the ma- jority of cities studied, comparatively new and not centrally administered through a member of the superintendent's staff, it naturally follows that the official title of the person in charge of visual education varies greatly in different cities. The following are among the titles reported: Director of visual education, instructor of visual education, chairman of visual education committee, supervisor of special activities, and operator. In certain cities, the additional work of visual education is taken over by the following school officials : Supervisor of primary grades, assist- ant superintendent of schools, head of science department, school principal, and classroom teachers . Duties of director of visual education : The duties, relative to visual education, performed by these officials are quite as varied as their titles. Those who give full time to the work naturally have more extensive duties than those who devote only part time to visual education. The size of the city also enters as a factor as well as the size of the visual education staff. The following reports are repre- sentative of the duties performed by those in charge of visual education : In Saginaw, Michigan, "They take complete charge of the work in their respective buildings." In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the visual education staff consists of four members: the director of nature study and visual education, a special teacher in charge of visualization material, a packing clerk, and a secretary for the depart- ment of nature study and visualization. Newark, New Jersey, has a director of visual education, aided by two assistants in charge of films and slides and two projection experts. The visual education director of Paterson, New Jersey, has personal direction of all slides, films, schedules, reports, lectures, and outlying pictures. In Chicago, Illinois, the director is in charge of all phases of the work, including projection, equipment, and slide making. The director in Detroit, Michigan, has supervision of visual education and is in charge of films, exhibits, projection, and delivery of slides. Somewhat similar to these duties are those of the director of Rockford, Illinois, who advises with school principals in the selec- tion of material, orders material for general use, financed by the Board of Educa- tion, and supervises operation and maintenance of projection apparatus. The director in Dayton, Ohio, holds monthly meetings with school officials, selects best reels of informational films, pre-views films, checks up weekly reports from schools, and mails scenarios to schools one week in advance of films. Similarly, 306 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in Sioux City, Iowa, the director sits with the committee on selections and makes arrangements for distribution. In Washington, D. C., the director has charge of the organization, administration, and instruction of classes in visual education. The director in Berkeley, California, manages the Department of Visual Educa- tion, prepares and spends budget, issues courses of study, holds teachers' meetings, demonstrates use of materials, issues bulletins, visits schools, and secures materials. Visual aid collections owned and maintained by school system . Only 5 cities out of 35 reported that they maintain a film library ; while 25 out of 33 of these same cities reported that they maintain a slide library. In addition to films and slides, the following visual aid collections were reported : Stereoscopic equipment by 11 cities; picture sets, 6 cities ; museum cases, 3 cities ; photographic prints, 2 cities ; maps, 2 cities ; charts, 2 cities ; projection apparatus, 2 cities ; cards, 1 city. Teacher-projectionists versus itinerant film operators. In the great majority of cities , teacher-projectionists are used rather than itinerant film operators. The latter are employed in only four cities included in this survey. Twenty-two out of 31 cities reporting on this point use teacher-projectionists. In three cities high school students perform this service as do the building custodians in two other cities. In Washington, D. C., the film lessons are held in neighborhood theaters where services of regular operators are donated. COST OF VISUAL EDUCATION Only 11 out of 30 cities reported that the cost of visual education is wholly financed by the board of education from public funds. The other 19 cities res ported that it was partially financed from the following sources : Parent-teacher associations, 9 cases ; school funds raised by entertainments, 3 ; individual schools, 4; rental on books, 1 ; entrance fees , 1; community center, 1; and cafeteria, 1 case. A comparison of the approximate expenditures for visual education work in a number of cities for the years 1922-1923 and 1923-1924 showed a decided increase in 1923-1924. This would seem to indicate that visual education when once estab- lished demonstrates its value, and increased funds for its support are forthcoming. Of 13 cities, whose total expenditures for visual education for 1923-1924 were care- fully studied, the amounts varied from $ 152,000 to $60 ; the median expenditure was $1760. The two items of greatest expense are salaries and films. TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS USED Directors of visual education and superintendents of schools were asked to list in order of instructional value, according to their experience, five different types of visual aids used in their school systems . Table 2 summarizes 38 replies. Read Table 2 as follows : Twenty-four out of 38 directors of visual education and superintendents list lantern slides as the visual aid of greatest instructional value. As far as could be ascertained, no tests have been made to determine the com- parative instructional value of visual aids. The director of visual education in Chicago writes : " We have no accumulated data secured under a scientific method of measurement. However, principals and teachers who use visual aids are pro- nounced advocates of their effectiveness in classroom teaching." REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 307 TABLE 2.- TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS USED IN REPRESENTATIVE SCHOOLS Frequency Types of Visual Aids Used of mention Lantern slides 24 Stereoscopic equipment 20 Pictures 10 Charts 5 Motion picture films . 17 Maps 4 Museum exhibits 4 Objects, natural material . 3 Graphs 3 Magazines and illustrated booklets . 3 Moving picture machine. 2 Photographic prints 2 Opaque post card projection for art. 2 Field excursions 1 Models 1 Collections 1 SOURCES OF VISUAL AIDS Reports as to sources of visual aids were in many cases incomplete. The fol- lowing is a summary of the limited number of replies received. Films are secured from commercial producers, State libraries and museums, telephone companies, United States Government Departments, Foreign Legations, The Pan-American Union, Y. M. C. A. libraries, and Ford Laboratories. Stereoscopic equipment is secured from commercial concerns . Lantern slides are secured from commercial producers, State libraries, and museums. Photographic prints are secured from the National Geographic Society ; charts from the Child Health Association ; illustrated booklets from railroads and steamship companies ; and nature cabinets from museums . HOW FILMS ARE SELECTED In the majority of cities reporting, films are selected by school principals. In a few instances they are selected by a committee of the parent-teacher association, by department of visualization, by committee of supervisors of courses of study, by teachers, by heads of departments, or by visual education instructors. In Paterson, New Jersey, "The courses of study and subjects under discussion determine the selection." These would seem to be the best bases for selection, since school prin- cipals' most frequent answer to the question, What are the principal mistakes made inusing visual instruction aids, was : "Lack of close correlation with courses of study." In addition to the above, the following were named as the principal mistakes made in using visual education aids : 1. Too frequently they are used as mere entertainment. 2. No funds are provided to establish a central bureau of visual education. 3. Programs are apt to be irregular. 4. They do not stimulate thought. Lack of vision on the part of many teachers- they do not persist in using what visual aids they have. 5. The assumption that any picture is of value without any explanation or com- ment by teacher. 308 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 6. Lack of previous preparation and lack of follow-up after showing film. Teachers expect too much, and attempt to permit films to do all the work. 7. Lack of knowledge of the technique of projection resulting in poor projection. Lack of special training on part of teachers . 8. Too many pictures shown at one time-too much seeing too little observation. 9. Failure to see that visual presentation should precede discussion or reading about the subject under study. 10. Lecture presentation rather than motivated lesson with pupil participation. 11. Films used without sufficient class discussion. Description of film should be sent out ahead of principal points to be noticed. Teacher should talk during "filming" and class should be checked up on points noticed. VISUAL EDUCATION AS A PART OF SUBJECT COURSES Visual education is carried on in the regular classrooms in 27 out of 32 cities studied; in four cities it is carried on in assembly halls or portable buildings used as visual education classrooms . One city uses both regular class and assembly rooms . The four subjects in connection with which most of the visual education work is carried on are : ( 1 ) Geography, ( 2) history, ( 3) nature study, and (4) science. Other subjects in which visual education aids are used are: Health and hygiene, English and literature, art, civics, and commerce. Only 6 out of 34 cities report that there is a definite time allotted to visual educa- tion in their school systems. In most cities, visual education does not exist as a subject, but is used to illustrate subject matter of the curriculum, and the time given to it varies according to circumstances. Follow-up work in the classroom is more often given than definite pupil prepara- tion preceding the film lesson. Only 15 out of 28 cities reported definite pupil preparation for the film lesson ; while 24 out of 27 cities reported follow-up work in the classroom. Only 14 out of these same 27 cities offer opportunity for pupil expression during the film lesson. NEXT FORWARD STEPS IN AN INQUIRY AS TO HOW TO IMPROVE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION Directors of visual education and school superintendents, who were asked as to how to improve the effectiveness of visual instruction, suggested first of all correla- tion with regular courses of instruction, the training of teachers in the use of visual aids in normal schools and universities, and cheaper materials so schools can pur- chase them. Among the additional suggestions for improving the work in visual education were the following : 1. Write references of aids into courses of study. 2. Greater supply of so-called educational films with a real appeal. 3. Selected lists properly endorsed should be forwarded to all schools where films are used. 4. Better arranged captions. 5. Scientific evaluation and standardization of material and methods now in use 6. Careful explanation of the relative educational values of various topics of visual education as to what kind of instruction each is best adapted. 7. Courses on visual aid instruction in Summer Schools for teachers . 8. Shorter films. Rarely more than 500 feet of film required for one lesson. All films should be printed on slow-burning stock. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 309 9. Give visual education an educational standing. 10. Committee to outline definite material needed to be used by producers . 11. Monograph on technique as guide for teachers. 12. Reports on classroom results. 13. Definite compilations of results such as are attempted in this report. 14. School films should be made by school people. IS IT DESIRABLE AND FEASIBLE FOR A COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION TO MAKE A SURVEY OF EXISTING AND ACCEPTABLE EDUCATIONAL FILMS ? As to the desirability of a committee of the National Education Association mak- ing a survey of existing and acceptable educational films, directors of visual edu- cation and school superintendents who replied, are unanimous. Their arguments in favor of such a survey would obviate the necessity of each user undertaking to make one; and furthermore such a committee's survey would receive a valuable stamp of approval. There is need of authentic recommendation of films for specific purposes. There is need of the selection of lists of films which superintendents, principals, and educational organizations may use safely without the necessity of local censorship. As to the feasibility of a committee of the National Education Association making such a survey and list, directors of visual education and school superintendents, who replied, were also unanimous. Nine replies were qualified as follows : " Such a survey would entail endless work, and new film material is constantly being added." "This is a very considerable undertaking." "A survey of all films is advisable, but even a limited survey of films related to subject courses is im- portant. " "The value of such a survey depends upon the committee." "Existing films need to be re-edited and pedagogically arranged for children in various grades." "The survey of films should be up to date, complete, with lists of all available sources ; and in order to be kept up to date it would have to be issued annually or semi-annually." "Such a survey is feasible if there is enough money to do it properly and if competent persons can be found to do it." "Such a com- mittee should consist of a professor of modern methods, an expert in the use of visual aids, a superintendent, an elementary school principal, and several class- room teachers." "Feasible, provided it can be done without the influence of com- mercial interests rather risky but should be done." ESSENTIALS TO A SATISFACTORY SURVEY OF EXISTING AND ACCEPTABLE EDUCATIONAL FILMS The following points were listed by directors of visual education and school superintendents as essentials to a satisfactory survey of existing and acceptable educational films. 1. Selection of members of survey committee so as to eliminate commercialism and emphasize education. 2. Full descriptions that will be helpful not only in judging suitability, but in selecting and planning method of use. 3. Preparation of lists of films relating to nature, history, geography, civics, ethics, and literature. 4. Reports as to wholesomeness of material, cost, and results. 5. Suggested data on how films may be used to illustrate subject matter of the curriculum based on successful experience in classroom and auditorium. 6. Weed out so-called " educational films" from those that have an educational value from the teaching standpoint. 7. Secure lists of approved films from school people who have actually used them and followed up their effect and are willing to recommend them. 310 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 8. A central working committee which has a national viewpoint. The committee should be composed of outstanding specialists in visual education, classroom teach- ers, and specialists in educational psychology. 9. Time, personnel, and money to provide extensive viewing of films, also access to the material. Some objective standards according to which films would be examined. 10. Scientific and practical answers to the following questions, which teachers are asking: a. How can visual aids be made most valuable as means of introducing new subject matter ? b. When are visual aids valuable as supplementary experience to good class- room procedure (normal and natural child activity) ? c. How can visual aids be utilized economically and effectively in reviewing a series of learning experiences ? d. When to use or not to use visual aids ? The Sub-committee on Coöperation and Research has submitted the fol- lowing report : The subcommittee appointed to make scientific studies of the results obtained by the use of films in schools found the Producers prepared to coöperate in an elaborate program of experimentation. This program is as follows: Two types of films are being made in the studios of the Producers. One type exhibits a skilful penman holding a pencil as it should be held in writing and forming letters in fluent movements. This subject was selected because it utilizes vision in a way in which the school has always employed it, namely, as a means of cultivating skill through imitation. The second type of film being made is one which is intended to exhibit to pupils processes of which some phases can be observed under or- dinary circumstances, but which can not be seen in full without the help of demon- stration aids. For this second film, scientific subjects which are universally in- c'uded in elementary school instruction, namely, respiration and blood-circulation, were chosen. For the preparation of these films the Producers have made available the full equipment of some of the best studios in the country. The committee has con- tributed the services of two experienced scientific workers who by their experi- ments and tests have shown themselves qualified to follow both the preparation of the films and the use of the films in the schools. These scientific workers, under the supervision of the committee, will be ready by the opening of schools in Sep- tember to take the films into schools and test them out. As soon as it appears clear, through the scientifically supervised use of the films, that changes should be made in their makeup, the Producers are prepared to co- operate in the second production of reconstructed films. The product of this second filming will again be subjected to tests in schools and so the process will be carried on until their is evolved a technique of visual instruction. It may be pointed out that the later stages of the experimentation contemplated in this plan will include other acts of skill than penmanship. It may prove to be feasible to give instruction in games and in the various forms of constructive ac- tivity included in the hand- work courses common in schools. The advantages which pictures seem to have over the ordinary methods of instruction in these fields are those which come from the possibility of bringing into every classroom the most skilful examples that can be found, and from the superior possibilities of selecting the points of view from which demonstrations can be given. In regard to the use of informational subjects, very little need be said. It is evident that properly organized pictures can extend the fields of observation open REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 311 to pupils. The committee has aimed in its present selection of subjects to keep away from that which is spectacular or interesting primarily because of its entertain- ment features . Whatever may prove to be the ultimate possibilities of legitimate combination of entertainment and teaching, it seems wise at the outset to give a thorough test to the strictly instructional possibilities of films. The subcommittee believes that it can show substantial progress by the meeting of the National Education Association in 1925 and recommends that the work which it has started be continued. Recommendations : (1 ) That the Association express its thanks and appreciation to the Producers Corporation for the support and assistance rendered, and to Mr. Courtland Smith for his courtesy to the committee and his co- operation with it during the year. (2) That the present committee be discharged and another committee appointed by the incoming president to carry on such work as may be con- sidered desirable. (3) That the work undertaken by the sub-committee on courses of study be continued another year. (+) That this Association gives approval to and promises support in obtaining adequate legislation to regulate the use of inflammable films and making more readily available to schools the non-inflammable films . (5) That a limited survey of films related to subject courses be pre- pared during the ensuing year. (6) That the coöperation between the committee and the Producers Corporation, by which said corporation is to prepare two strictly educational films, one on penmanship and one on respiration and circulation be approved and the plan carried out during the ensuing year. COMMITTEE ON ARITHMETIC REVISION GUY M. WILSON , BOSTON UNIVERSITY, BOSTON , MASSACHUSETTS CHAIRMAN¹ While the opportunities of your committee for meetings and conference have been limited, any merits possessed by this report of progress and tentative statement of problems are due to the promptness and coöpега- tive assistance of the members of the committee and others who have freely given of their time and thought. At the same time this statement should be considered as preliminary and tentative, and the chairman alone must beheld responsible for any shortcomings in the form of its presentation. There was a time when arithmetic took fully one half of all school time; men now living can bear witness to the truth of this statement . Useless processes were multiplied; catch problems of the hare-and-hound type were extended. Colburn, Ray, and others gave us regular cyclopædias of arithmetic. The doctrine of mental discipline was used to justify useless * In addition to the Chairman, the Committee les the members listed on page 27. 312 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION processes and inapplicable problems. Arithmetic was the tyrant of the schools ; it imposed upon childhood an unceasing and deadening grind. Evidently the thoughtful members of the National Education Association who authorized a Committee on the Reorganization of Arithmetic do not think that all of the evils or shortcomings of arithmetic can be referred to in the past tense. There is much evidence that arithmetic continues as the tyrant of the schools; and that in the interests of childhood, of a reasonable economy, and of a broader and better social program in the schools, arithmetic needs a thorough reorganization. Many feel that, all told, arithmetic is one of the most backward of our school subjects. The briefest sort of survey furnishes much evidence to this effect. Textbooks, although greatly improved, are still bulky with antiquated and non-functioning material . Courses of study continue to outline useless processes . Much of the work is unconnected with life and is quite meaningless to the children. The above are not the final conclusions of the committee, but they are questions forced by the evidence and by the very fact of the committee's appointment. It will be well to formulate these and similar questions into more definite problems. PART I. TENTATIVE STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS PROBLEM 1. What is the purpose of arithmetic; what is its relation to the major objectives of education? A. Discussion-Education in a democracy in which the schools are sup- ported from public funds seeks no longer to impart information which can be of interest only to a leisure class. It seeks to accomplish definite aims in terms of social utility. The aims now agreed upon by the National Education Association and educators generally are : ( 1) health, (2) voca- tional efficiency, (3) social-civic efficiency (including civic efficiency, ethical character, and effective home membership) , (4) preparation for leisure, and (5) mastery of the tools of knowledge as needed for these objectives. Democracy demands that each individual be socially efficient. Arithmetic has a place in this scheme of aims as a tool. That is its one purpose. It is indeed an effective tool, and a fundamental one,butit is quite limited. It is a means for designating, computing, and measuring. It is nothing more . This means specific usefulness in the common affairs of life. "We learn the multiplication table, not primarily to sharpen the wits, or compre- hend a beautiful system, but in order to figure our salaries, our taxes, or the interest on a note. Ordinary business and social contacts require ability to count, to read and write numbers, accuracy and rapidity in the funda- mental processes and simple fractions, and a working knowledge of simple business practices, including the keeping of simple accounts. Whatever is given in the grades beyond the essentials required by the general social and business demands of the community consumes time that would better be used in other ways." REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 313 The committee has no promotional interest in arithmetic. It seems only fair that it should distinctly disclaim for the subject any superior cultural or disciplinary values. Neither culture nor discipline is well understood . They may be by-products of any wholesome stimulating situation, involving the leadership of a capable and cultured teacher. They are functions of the general situation and may be as well attained through one subject as through another. Or rather, it is more probable that they will be attained for some pupils through one subject, and for other pupils through another, and that the difference in the value of particular subjects is largely in the interests of the child, the vital appeals which are made, and the cordial coöperative type of leadership which is shown by the teacher. This means, therefore, that in the absence of specific proof no subject has any more right than dozens of other subjects to claim for itself unusual con- sideration from the standpoint of either culture or discipline. Those who proceed on the basis of such argument merely weaken the case. Historically and universally, it is recognized that arithmetic originates directly from the shop and trade. The subject, however, has suffered in an unusual way from wrong treatment, partly, no doubt, because teachers are not intimately associated with the processes of the shop and business, partly also because the textbooks have been written, not by men familiar with the processes of business, shop, and trade, but rather by academic experts, many of whom have not even been involved in the process of teaching children, but, instead, have been lecturing to adults in universities . Inthe absence of specific and detailed information, these experts have dwelt upon values other than the practical ones. They have emphasized the development of mental powers. When it is recalled that these men almost universally have been untrained in psychology, and have, therefore, made no careful analysis of thought processes and mental powers, it is apparent that the entire structure which they have raised is likely to be built upon a weak foundation. Such studies as have been made prove that this is true. Actual usage in business and in life shows that much of the subject matter in the old type of textbook is of no value. It is generally known that the correlations between success in mathematics and later success in college are extremely low. From the standpoint of practical utility, it is doubtful if arithmetic compares with composition writing, and it certainly does not compare in importance with reading. All are essentials to a degree. The result of training in language or composition shows higher correlation, and, doubtless, a much larger carry-over into later useful situations. B. Method-The method of procedure in defining more definitely the purpose of arithmetic is not easily indicated. Subject-matter experts and experts in education and psychology are coming, however, to closer agree- ment. This is doubtless due to the fact that subject-matter experts have See the notable studies by Thorndike in Journal of Educational Psychology for January and February, 1924, and the Teachers College Record, March, 1924. 314 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION given more time to education and psychology, and that educators, as they work into the specific problems, are learning that solutions are not so simple, and that the line of least resistance is to let tradition have its way. However, in harmony with this preliminary report, teachers and superin- tendents, as well as mathematicians and psychologists, are urged to continue their efforts to define the purpose of arithmetic in terms of its value in accomplishing the aims of education in a democracy. It is realized that in time the experimental evidence must furnish the answer. If arithmetic is consuming so much time that the other ends of education are being defeated, and its own specific aim is not being furthered, it is to be expected that the present zeal for ultimate answers by the teaching profession will in time lead to an authoritative answer in such a simple matter as the pur- pose of arithmetic. The simple truth is what we want. Our aim is not to whitewash the pump, but to examine the well, and, if necessary, clean it out. It is realized that the school's viewpoint on the purpose of arithmetic will determine its handling of other questions connected with the subject. Before proceeding, a definition of terms will be helpful. The teacher now generally recognizes at least two types of arithmetic: First, general arithmetic, or that needed by the consuming public, or people in general as they carry on the ordinary operations of buying and selling; Second, vocational arithmetic, or the arithmetic needed in various specific vocations, but not of interest to people generally. In this connection one other distinction needs to be made-namely : the distinction between (a) number conceptions and (b) work with symbols or figures. Number conceptions are a part of language and general thinking, have their beginnings with very small children, and play an important part in one's daily thinking, but require no computations. On the other hand, work with figures and symbols is the well-recognized formal drill of the schools which is designed to lead to automatic number responses . PROBLEM 2. Another problem is that of distinguishing clearly the two phases of general arithmetic, of convincing parents and teachers that there are two distinct phases, and in adjusting the school work accordingly. A. Discussion-The first and most vital phase of general arithmetic is the development of number concepts through actual experience in lite situations making use of quantities, numbers, and processes. The second phase, now the most prevalent and in many schools the only phase, is ex- perience in and with symbols and figures. The first phase that is, the development of number concepts through actual life situations, is used even by very small children and more or less constantly by everyone outside of the schoolroom. If the symbol work is to rest upon a secure foundation, this type of work must be brought into the schoolroom and further developed. In fact, the second phase should be deferred until the first is sufficiently developed that is, symbols and figures should follow and not precede the understanding of life situations calling for the use of numbers. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 315 In the past the symbol-figure type of work has been forced upon small children by courses of study, anxious parents, distracted teachers, and supervising principals, giving to arithmetic a deadening grind without corresponding results in either understanding or accuracy. Symbol-figure arithmetic is to many teachers and parents the only arithmetic known . A distinguished textbook writer uses "A Christmas Present" as his at- tention-getting title, but the arithmetic which follows is the old symbol type. No doubt to the too-early use of the symbol-figure arithmetic is due many of the discouragements on the part of teachers, parents, and taxpayers. Having accomplished the task of clearly distinguishing between the two phases or kinds of general arithmetic that our schools should offer, the next problem is that of determining where the experience in symbolic arithmetic should or should not begin. The committee has unsystematic evidence from many superintendents that the omission of all number work in the first grade with certain groups is not detrimental. Others have omitted all work with certain groups from first and second grades and have discovered that by the end of the third grade these same pupils could not be distinguished from those who carried regular number work in grades one and two. A smaller group of superintendents is convinced that formal arithmetic work may be omitted from the third grade without loss. There is also evidence of the high percentage of inaccuracy in the lower grade work. This inaccuracy seems to indicate that whatever work of a formal nature is done in the first three grades is really training in inaccuracy instead of training in accuracy. Many believe, therefore, that all drill in the first three grades should be incidental and that the emphasis in arithmetic work for these grades should be in building up number concepts through actual experience in life situations, and that these experiences should be extended in every way possible through the coöpera- tion of parents. Children should be sent to stores to make purchases. They should establish savings accounts and be taught to make deposits and write checks. In fact, every effort should be made to build up number con- cepts through life experiences, all formal work being omitted. This, at present, is the conviction of many. B. Method-What we need and what we must have is definite equiv- alent group experimentation. It does seem to the committee that with thousands of children in school and with thousands of trained teachers we should be able to get the necessary coöperation to answer this and other similar questions which can be answered only by equivalent group ex- periments arranged through the schools. This suggestion has the ap- proval of Thorndike, the nation's leader in experimental psychology and education. Acomprehensive experiment for this problem will contain four groups, each with one hundred or more children, as follows : 1. A group beginning formal number work and systematic drill in the first grade. 2. A group developing number concepts in the first grade, but deferring any symbol-figure work until the second grade. 316 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 3. A group in which systematic work with symbols and figures is deferred until the third grade, number concept work being provided in grades one and two. 4. A group in which systematic work with symbols and figures is deferred until the fourth grade, number concept work being provided in grades one, two, and three. It is not to be assumed that these four groups will be equal in ability in the usual symbol-figure type of arithmetic at the end of the third year. Each group should be measured at the end of each year to note the status of the group. For this purpose the Cleveland Survey tests (Public School Publishing Co.) or the Peet Dearborn Progress Tests in Arithmetic (Har- vard University School of Education) are recommended. Finally, all groups should be brought to standard by the end of the sixth year, and any extra time required to do this should be noted. In the summary, each individual in one group must be matched by an equivalent individual in the other groups, equivalency to include chrono logical age, intelligence quotient, years in school, and social status. This entire experiment as suggested should be carried through in some places. It can be done in any city with a population of 25,000 or more. But parts of it may be completed in a small village or consolidated school. Two small groups will give some evidence. We must have the evidence. There should be hundreds of experiments on the plan suggested, and the reports on results should be sent to the committee for summary. PROBLEM 3. What is the proper unit of instruction in arithmetic? A. Discussion-The unit of instruction in the past has been either the example or the process. In this respect, arithmetic is far behind many of the other subjects. In composition, we have abandoned the formal points of the subject as units of instruction and have accepted worthwhile ob- jective situations instead. Likewise in manual training the emphasis is no longer upon exercises as such, or processes as such. The child is led to make things, in the making of which he is really interested. The use of tools, the sawing of boards, the making of joints, and other details of this kind which formerly constituted the course in manual training have been entirely subordinated. Likewise in primary reading, the formal procedure has been replaced by worthwhile reading. Instead of taking a primer and spending a year upon it, or rather upon the formal things clustered about it, the child today quickly reads a primer, then another, and another, until by the close of the first year, the average child in some of our best schools has read four to six primers, and an equal number of first readers, or supplementary books of equal difficulty. Things worthwhile in themselves, rather than formal processes, are thus made the basis of instruction. Should not the same thing be done for arithmetic? In life outside of school, we figure only for an answer, not for the sake of figuring. We admit that language is a tool, and we look on it only in that way. Why not the same procedure in arithmetic? Reading was at one time a formal subject for the first six years. Arith- metic is still a formal subject in most schools for six or eight years. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 317 Arithmetic has equal possibilities with children, and in many places a better practice has superseded the formal, meaningless drill. This does not mean that the abilities, skills, and habits formerly obtained in subjects like manual training, composition, primary reading, arithmetic, and the like are not desirable and necessary or that they are in any way neglected. It does mean, however, that better methods of securing the desirable and necessary skills have been worked out. Dr. J. M. Rice, as long ago as 1897, showed that much of the work of the public schools was futile. We know now that the reason was that the time was spent on things either worthless in themselves or quite beyond the comprehension and present needs of the children. A recent State-wide spelling contest in Massa- chusetts showed the same thing. The towns standing highest in the con- test were spending the smallest amount of time on spelling, but they were spending the time on the right words with the result that they won in the contest (limited to the first 3000 words of the Thorndike list) over towns spending three or four times as much time on spelling. They had replaced "the spelling grind" by motivated work on useful words. May we not ask therefore that single examples or even processes in arithmetic shall cease to be the units of instruction and that real life situa- tions be made the units ? We may at least urge trial and experimentation with life situations as units of instruction in arithmetic. B. Method-It is not wise to force teachers to adopt a new idea; mis- understanding and failure too often result; volunteers are better. Let us call for volunteers for the experiment of making life situations the basis of arithmetic work. Let others continue to use single examples or processes as a basis. If the volunteers succeed, the idea will spread; if they fail, the reasons may be noted and a new start made. In any case, comparison between methods and results may be made. If with good teachers and favorable circumstances, failure is the rule, we shall know that the idea is not a good one. In the lower grades the life situations chosen will of necessity be simple. Miss Simpson, of Rochester, reports "The Cafeteria" as a basis of arith- metic work in the second grade. In grades one, two, and three most of the time will be spent upon acquiring number concepts and understanding business and number situations. But after a visit to a cafeteria and actual experience in selecting a lunch and paying for it, the children may want to play cafeteria, with toy money, and the "cashier" must be prepared to add items and make change correctly. By the fourth year in school, chil- drenwill be so conscious of the need for automatic mastery of the primary number facts that drill will be fully motivated. At the same time in grades four and above, work with life situations will go forward on a broader and richer basis. Examples, problems, and processes will be sub- ordinated to such life situations. If the results are satisfactory as shown by comparison of equivalent groups, then we shall be prepared to urge the new unit of instruction. 318 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PROBLEM 4. The motivation of arithmetic-that is, making it grow out of real life situations. A. Discussion . The demand is for a more fundamental motivation than has been common . Guiler's study of thirty best courses shows that games and activities are commonly used in the lower grades, but that this limited form of motivation is usually absent from the upper grades. Games and school activities help, but they should be accomplished by and gradually give way to larger life activities. Dr. Frank M. McMurray emphasized this problem in a recent con- ference. It is closely connected with Problem 3, the unit of instruction. If a worth-while life situation is made the unit of instruction, then the first fundamental step in motivation has been taken, for in each step the child would be simply applying arithmetic to a life situation in which he is vitally interested, and which is worth while in itself. This means that one of the first problems in arithmetic at the present time is a careful collection of such life situations as may become the basis for arithmetic work, replacing the formal type of work which formerly prevailed. The committee is aware that the term motivation is not always used with correct meaning. The best type of motivation is one which grows out of a real life situation, which is the child's own. The child sees the use and the application, the work grows out of his present interests and needs. The feeling of need, however, may be further developed by the skilful teacher until it becomes an impelling force. The teacher also adds to the situation by involving other of the child's impulses, thus by her knowledge of psychology and superior skill intensifying the motive force which the child has already developed. Under these circumstances, the work is not artificial. It grows out of a life situation in the first place and leads naturally to desire and choice on the part of the child. While realizing that the term motivation has frequently been misunderstood, it is retained in this connection as having clearer meaning and connotation than any other term that could be employed. Motivated activity is practically synonymous with purposeful activity. Both expressions relate fundamentally to Dewey's doctrine of interest and his emphasis upon motive. B. Method-Apparently the only method of procedure in solving this problem is that of trial and error, by which the best may finally be selected. Teachers are, therefore, urged to note and fully record instances of funda- mental motivation, reporting the same to the committee. The report should include the usual identifying data-city, school, grade, social status of children, and any unusual or significant details. PROBLEM 5. How convince the pupils, and patrons (sometimes the teachers themselves) that some processes, such as troy weight, foreign money, or cube root, may be omitted without loss of useful information " A. Discussion-The studies relating to useless processes are conclusive enough to carry conviction to any teacher or supervisor. The evidence on this one point will be presented in Part II of this report. But many REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 319 teachers feel the pressure of custom and tradition. This is particularly true of the young teacher. The real problem, therefore, is how to carry conviction to one's constituency, so that they may know the useful processes and recognize that other processes are useless and merely traditional . B. Method-Wilson in his "Survey of the Social and Business Usage of Arithmetic" gave a method which has since been tried under various conditions and found adequate. The method consists in having the pupils in the upper grades (seventh, eighth ; or sixth, seventh, and eighth) gather for a period of two weeks or more the problems actually solved by father or mother each day. These problems when summarized will give a fair index of the actual uses for arithmetic in the community. Why should children be expected to go beyond adult usage? If the work is handled judiciously, this question will force itself upon the attention of the com- munity. The answer will be emphatic-it is a waste of time to teach children processes for which their elders have no use. This apparently is the answer to Problem 5, but the evidence is not extensive. We need more evidence. We want hundreds of superintendents to cooperate with their teachers in trying this method. The committee requests that the results be noted carefully and reported. Many will devise improvements upon the method-good publicity, coöperation with business men, et cetera. The entire plan should be carefully noted and reported, together with successes and failures, with reasons. One hundred reports will carry some authority, five hundred will carry more. May the committee not have the needed coöperation ? PROBLEM 6. What are the reasonable limits of general arithmetic, or arithmetic needed by the consumer group ; Where does vocational arith- metic begin; and What are the specific needs for arithmetic by the various vocational groups? A. Discussion-The statement of Problem 6 above, and the discussion which follows in Part II of this report, assumes that the limits of general arithmetic have been reasonably well defined. However, the committee thinks that the question should be kept open and other investigations encouraged. Educators must form the habit of solving their problems again and again. Only thus can we arrive at fully established answers. The second part of this problem needs extensive investigation. Woody found that the arithmetic needed in salesmanship in wholesale and retail hardware, wholesale and retail groceries, and a large department store, was exceedingly simple. Other and more extended studies of a similar nature are needed. Specifically, what arithmetic is used by the car- penter, the painter, the mason, the auto-mechanic, for every occupation listed in the census. This is our problem. Why continue without specific knowledge ? When we know the needs in various vocational lines, then we canbegin to plan how best and when to meet them. After the data have been gathered, they can be supplemented by the data gathered by Wilson, Wise, and Woody. See Bibliography . 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In this connection notice a statement from Mr. Christy, director of industrial arts of the Cincinnati schools. He says, "The arithmetic which is required in connection with industrial arts shop work is, contrary to the general opinion, quite limited. In the elementary schools, the ability to add, subtract, multiply, and divide; to compute common fractions, almost all of which have either two, four, eight, or sixteen for a denominator; and to work with decimals, constitute practically all of the demands for arithmetic in shop work. In high schools and trade schools the need in- creases, but I understand that the present discussion deals only with the elementary schools." The present report deals with arithmetic and is not limited to specific grades. We must, therefore, ask Mr. Christy and his co-workers to give us the needs for vocational arithmetic in their lines; from others we ask the same details as to their lines. We must know the actual needs for arithmetic in each of the more common vocations . B. Method-Any method will be acceptable provided it discovers the facts and their relative importance. The most probable suggestion is the survey method. The actual figuring done by fifty auto-mechanics for a month should give a good idea of the nature of the arithmetic used by them. The data should be complete and accurate. After the problems have been collected, it will be a simple matter to analyze them as to processes and degree of difficulty. The method of analysis is shown in the studies by Woody, Wise, and Wilson. , PROBLEM 7. By what criteria shall textbooks be judged? A. Discussion-Textbooks are of tremendous importance in American schools. In many schools, they largely determine the subject-matter, as well as the method of teaching and the general spirit of the work. We cannot hope to secure improved practice in arithmetic for the country as a whole until teachers, superintendents, and boards of education in the selection of textbooks, as well as writers and publishers in their production. learn to apply more specific criteria. The meaning of this problem will be made more apparent by definitely suggesting such criteria, with the understanding that from the standpoint of the committee these are tenta- tive and will in no way hamper the final conclusions of the committee . SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR THE JUDGING OF TEXTBOOKS IN ARITHMETIC (1) Does the text further the general objectives of education in a democracy, and in general support a philosophy of education based upon such objectives ? (2) Does the text serve the specific aim of arithmetic, using in its organization available scientific knowledge with reference to specific number habits, their correct order, and relative difficulties ? (3) Is the work of arithmetic in the text hampered by language difficulties ? More specifically, what is the vocabulary burden of the text? This can be de- termined as shown by Pressy and Liveley in Educational Administration and Supervision for October, 1923. The purpose of an arithmetic text is to teach arithmetic and it should not be handicapped by an unreasonable language vocabu- lary. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 321 (4) The distribution of the examples and problems among the various processes should conform to business usage as modified by relative difficulty. (5) Is the book self-teachable ? That is, are the methods and explanations simple enough that children working alone can understand them, or that teachers are at any rate unhampered ? (6) What is the provision of the text for motivation and what is the type of motivation provided ? On this point, the text can be judged by actually listing the games and devices, the life situations, and the large units of study. (7) What is the character of the written problems, how rapidly are two- and and three-step problems introduced, and how closely are the written problems con- nected with worthwhile life situations ? (8) Are the physical features of the book satisfactory ? B. Method-If the committee through the help of the membership of the National Education Association can establish valid criteria for the better text in arithmetic it will have performed a much needed service. A thorough-going method must include a careful examination of present texts. This examination should be in detail, and should indicate points of strength or of appeal to children, points of weakness and omission, and should lead finally to such a set of criteria that those selecting or pre- paring texts may have a helpful guide. The committee is guided in this point, as in all points in its report, by the interests of childhood and the objectives of education in a democracy. PROBLEM 8. Criteria of a course of study in arithmetic. A. Discussion-There has been marked improvement in the last few years in the technique of course of study making and the final results . Guiler recently summarized thirty of the most frequently recommended courses of study in arithmetic.¹ His brief summary of current tendencies in arithmetic courses contains the following points : (1) The listing of definite abilities is replacing mere mention of processes. A total of 781 specific objectives were disclosed in the analysis of thirty courses. (2) There is an increased emphasis given to those phases of arithmetic which possess social utility. Stress is being placed on the arithmetical abilities which have been found through activity analyses to possess great social value. "Thus where the investigations headed by Wilson, Woody, and the California committee find a common need for a definite ability the best courses of study are emphasizing a range of ability which is ap- proximately the average of that reported by the three studies." (3) Arithmetical topics are characterized by common grade placement. The forty-five combinations and numeration are most commonly taught in the second grade; subtraction receives most emphasis in the third grade ; The thirty courses in order of frequency were : Baltimore County, Md.; Boston ; Los Angeles: Speyer School, Teachers College; Detroit: Rochester. N. Y.; St. Louis: Cleve- and. Ohio; Horace Mann School; Connersville, Ind. Duluth Indianapolis ; Berkeley; Francis Parker School : Minneapolis : New Jersey: Seattle: Univ. of Chicago; Elementary School: Lincoln School: Teachers College; Milwaukee: Minnesota: Oakland, Calif.; Wis- consin: Columbus, Ohio : Madison, Wisconsin: Montana ; Montclair, N. J.; New York State: Richmond, Va.: Univ. of Missouri; Elementary School; Baltimore: Buffalo: Des Moines : Denver: Grand Rapids: Illinois : Massachusetts: Michigan : New Hampshire : Newton, Mass, New York City; Oshkosh, Wis. (normal) ; Pittsburgn; Springfield; Topeka, Kans. 322 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION multiplication and division in the fourth grade; fractions in the fifth grade; decimals and percentage in the sixth grade; interest, discount, profit and loss, commission, tariff and duties, insurance, involution and evolution in the seventh grade; and stocks and bonds, mensuration ratio, and proportion in the eighth grade. (4)There is a recognition of the pupil maturity factor in the grade placement of objectives. (5) There is an abundance of games and other pupil activities found in the lower grades, and a pronounced paucity of activities and fundamental motivation above the fourth grade. Out of a total of 1147 illustrations ofpupil activities 879, or 76.6 per cent, were found in the first four grades. (6) Courses of study tend to list the great majority of pupil activities under a few ability types. Thus, 150 activities were listed under addi- tion of integers, more than half of the activities were mentioned in con- nection with six ability types and more than three fourths in connection with fifteen ability types. These types related to the work done in the lower grades, as suggested by point 5 above. The tendencies reported by Guiler may be taken as suggestive criteria, since they are a summary of thirty most recommended courses. It seems wise, however, to suggest a more specific list of criteria, as follows: TENTATIVE CRITERIA FOR JUDGING COURSES OF STUDY IN ARITHMETIC (1) Does the course of study rest squarely on the general aims of education and the specific needs of the community ? (2) Does it serve strictly the specific purpose of arithmetic in reference to these broader aims and specific needs ? (3) Does the course indicate quite specifically grade objectives and standards, with proper provision for pupils of varying grades of ability ? (4) Is there a time schedule giving definite, even though tentative, suggestions as to the time allotted for the subject ? (5) Are traditional and useless processes definitely listed for elimination ? (6) Are there helpful suggestions on methods, motivation through games and life situations, larger units of instruction ? (7) Are there illustrations of better types of work, taken directly from the school- room, together with suggestions for extension or application to particular com- munities? (8) Has there been teacher participation in the making of the course sufficient to insure adaptation to the ability of the pupils and the limitations of schoolroom conditions? (9) Has there been community participation sufficient to insure making activities of the community the basis and ultimate goal of schoolroom work ? (10) Is there an adequate list of pedagogical and subject-matter references useful to both teacher and pupil ? The above briefly stated criteria will at least make clear the idea of the committee for a final statement of usable criteria. B. Method-In setting up criteria for judging courses of study the procedure, as in the case of textbooks, should involve careful study and analyses of existing courses of study. These, however, merely indicate present practice. Even more important is careful analysis of pupil and REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 323 community needs, pupil abilities, and the effectiveness of various teaching methods, so that the final standards may furnish the basis for getting the bestpractice of our best schools into the newer courses of study. Coöpera- tion of teachers and superintendents looking toward formulation of criteria with illustrations is the immediate interest of the committee. PROBLEM 9. What are the specific abilities or number habits needed, what is the order of difficulty , what is the explanation of errors, and what are the remedial measures? This problem will involve in its solution scientific grade placement of needs, habits, and abilities, and will also take into consideration the individual differences of children. A. Discussion-For extended discussion of this problem the reader is referred to writings by Courtis, Knight, Osborne, Myers, Thorndike, and others. Courtis is convinced that a specific provision must be made for diagnosis of causes of failure and the development of appropriate remedial work. He is also convinced that the intelligence of the child is a funda- mental consideration and that the schools should be responsible only for teaching a child to the degree, and only to the degree to which he is teach- able. This means that standards must be individualized on the basis of pupil ability, and that a log must be kept on each pupil as to habits mas- tered, errors made, and specific helps needed. B. Method-The method of solving this problem must involve a com- plete analysis of the habits or abilities needed, a careful arrangement of these in the order of difficulty as shown by actual work with children, a plan for measuring and checking a group so as to discover at any time the habits and abilities mastered and those not mastered, and finally on the basis of experimentation, the remedial measures to apply to any particular combination of difficulties. The solution of the problem will involve grade adjustments so as to secure the greatest economy of time and the largest results from the efforts of the teacher. It should be kept in mind that this problem is clearly tied up with other problems, particularly three and four as mentioned above. The suggestions growing out of the solu- tion of this problem must confirm to good methods of teaching and must avoid procedure on a formal mechanical basis, unless that is found to bebest. PROBLEM 10. The final problem here noted is that of securing typical illustrations of the better procedure in arithmetic in order to set clearly before teachers the possibilities of work in conformity with the highest standards. A. Discussion-The successful completion of units of work on the highest level is frequently as much a matter of accident and favorable conditions as it is of definite design. It is also true that the teachers who complete one unit of work on the highest level may not maintain this grade of work in other units. The object of collecting illustrations is to give encouragement and help through the definite description of units of work when teachers and conditions are at their best. If this piece of work 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is well done, it will doubtless be the most helpful accomplishment of the committee. Many teachers have the idea of a better practice who do not have the originality, initiative, or time to get this better practice into their own school work. Supervisors find that the best way to improve a teacher is to send her to observe an expert teacher. These snap-shots of better types of work will serve this same purpose. Doubtless, the best practices in the best schools throughout the country, if brought together, would show a procedure approaching 100 per cent efficiency as well as the right spirit in the work in arithmetic. It is hoped that the committee may bring together a sufficient number of illustrations of better practices to show that the proposed program is already thoroughly under way in the best schoolrooms of the country. B. Method-In the solution of this problem the Committee asks ex- tensive coöperation. Any teacher who does a superior unit of work is encouraged to make careful record of it, and send it with identifying data and helpful suggestions to the committee. Some member or group of the committee will undertake to evaluate and classify the same for the final report. PART II-A SPECIFIC ILLUSTRATION OF SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE IN THE DETERMINA- TION OF RIGHT PRACTICE IN ARITHMETIC Many kinds of scientific studies in arithmetic are going forward at the present time. In one line, however, the evidence has accumulated SO strongly that a brief review of the evidence will show the conclusiveness of the answer and may help some to more fully understand the significance of problem five of Part I of this report. The illustration chosen is, the determination of the processes in arith- metic that should receive attention in the public schools. This problem is chosen partly because of the chairman's familiarity with it. Two clearly defined stages are evident in the development and solution of the problem-first, the stage of opinion ; second, the stage of determination of usage through the survey method. The first stage is marked by such unusual insights as that displayed by Dr. Frank M. McMurray before the National Education Association in 1904. With unusual wisdom, and with unusual common sense and understanding of the affairs of life, he indicated a number of processes which were of no value and which should be omitted from arithmetic work in the public schools. Wilson at Connersville in 1908 took these same useless processes and by the questionnaire method with business men received sanction for their omission from the public schools. Coffman and Jessup, a few years later, used this same questionnaire method with superintendents throughout the country and found that considerable prog ress was being made toward the elimination of useless processes. The Minnesota and Iowa elimination reports were attempts on the part of State teachers associations to get this better practice over to entire States. All of these attempts, however, were on the basis of individual and group REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 325 opinion. They did not carry conviction to men of different opinions, and their effect upon the writers and publishers of textbooks was exceedingly small. The first step in a more scientific procedure was to find a method. For five or six years Wilson experimented with various ways of gathering data until finally the method of his study was hit upon. Brief details of this are given under problem five of Part I of this report. The study collected 14,583 problems from 4068 persons distributed among 155 dif- ferent occupations, and representing all classes of people from rural com- munity to large city. In some problems more than one process appeared so that all told 21,898 processes were represented. Classification of these processes is shown in Table 1. It may be added that analysis of the various processes emphasizes their simplicity. 31 per cent of all addition problems contained two addends, 29 per cent three addends, and the number of problems with more than four addends is exceedingly small. Most addition problems were of two and three place numbers ; most subtraction problems were of two and three place numbers ; most multiplication problems were with one place multipliers. Over 92 per cent of all multiplication was with one or two TABLE 1-PROCESSES APPEARING IN THE 14,583 PROBLEMS SOLVED BY 4068 ADULTS FROM 155 OCCUPATIONS. THE TABLE SHOWS TOTAL AND DETAILS OF FOUR OCCUPATIONS All occu- House- Me- Mer- Process pations keepers Farmers chanics chants Multiplication 6,974 2,940 820 171 373 Addition 4,416 2,792 203 75 192 Subtraction 2,833 1,660 113 73 153 Division 2,437 972 161 65 134 Fractions 2,171 1,012 127 58 95 Accounts 1,212 699 52 5 41 Percentage and Applications .. 1,060 269 51 22 76 Simple Denom. Numbers .. 707 273 43 13 19 Cancellation 62 37 4 2 1 Mensuration 12 .... 1 1 Decimals 7 1 .. 1 Counting 4 .... Square Root .. 3 1 ... .... 21,898 10,656 1,574 486 1,085 place multipliers . Fractions, likewise, were very simple. The fractions 2, 34, 4, 3 , and 3/3 constituted 92 per cent of all fractions appearing inthe study. Wise, in 1919, made a study on the identical plan of the Wilson study. He extended it to include more States. The study included over 8000 problems. The conclusions throughout were almost identical with the Wilson study. The tables correspond so closely that one may be set upon the other with practically no contradictions. Woody, in 1922, reported a study of the needs of arithmetic in certain types of salesmanship. 4661 bills of sale were analyzed from three large 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION stores in the City of Seattle-a wholesale and retail hardware store, a de- partment store, and a wholesale and retail grocery store. This study relates to vocational arithmetic rather than to general consumer's arith- metic. It is noted here, however, as emphasizing again the great sim- plicity of the processes involved. Woody concludes, "The amount of arithmetic actually used in the selling of the goods as listed on the bills * * * of sale is very small. From the facts disclosed by this investiga- tion, it is evident that the school is emphasizing much arithmetic that is unessential in meeting the situations confronted by the salesman and the consuming public." Application to a single school system-Many, while admitting the valid- ity of the larger studies referred to above, will insist that their situations are different, and that exception must be made accordingly. The only answer to this question is to ask the objecting individual to apply the study to his own situation and see what happens. Fortunately evidence is already at hand. Table 2 is a summary of the problems gathered in Marshalltown, Iowa, during a period of two weeks. The summary was made by Katherine Burggraf, a member of this committee, and by a group of experienced superintendents at the University of Washington during the summer of 1922. The committee was asked to classify the problems into grades. The table, therefore, has a double significance; it shows not only the simplicity of the arithmetic situation in a school system of mod- erate size, but it indicates that, in the judgment of the committee, all of the work could easily be mastered in grades three to seven. After completing the classification of these problems the committee agreed upon the following conclusions : 1. The problems of arithmetic as used by the public are simple. The necessary tool material could be taught in four years. We suggest grades 3, 4, 5, and 6. Following this motivated problems should lead the chil- dren out into actual business situations. 2. Much useless material is now in the curriculum. It should be eliminated. Only such material as will be useful in every-day life should be included. 3. The problems in arithmetic should center around business situations because life's problems in arithmetic do. 4. The community's arithmetic is sufficient to form the basis of the arithmetic work in the schools. Application to a single grade building-Recently a much simpler situa- tion was summarized by advanced students at Boston University. Through the coöperation of Mr. Patton, headmaster of the Edward Everett School. of Boston, the seventh and eighth grade pupils in that building gathered data showing actual figuring of their parents for a period of two weeks. 2301 problems were reported involving 4368 processes and 296 fractions. This situation is so simple, so applicable to other similar situations, and also so convincing that the report is given herewith in detail. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 327 TABLE 2-SUMMARY OF THE FIGURING DONE BY ADULTS IN MARSHALLTOWN, IOWA, FOR A PERIOD OF TWO WEEKS, SUMMARIZED BY A COMMITTEE OF SUPERVISORS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, AND PLACED IN GRADES ACCORDING TO THE DIFFICULTY OF THE PROBLEMS Grades Type of problem 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th Total Column Addition. 101 ... ... ... 101 Subtraction 35 ... ... 35 Short Division . 22 22 ... ... ... 44 Multiplication 103 63 166 Two-step Analysis . 9 ... ... 9 Long Division . ... 40 40 Making Change.. ... 60 ... ... 60 Bills involving Multiplication and Addition 205 205 Bills involving Multiplication and Addition and Change .......... 122 122 Accumulative bills ... 10 34 44 Simple fractions and ratio ..... ... 521 1072 ... ... 159 Profit and loss .... 25 8 ... 33 Denominate numbers .. 6 35 20 ... 61 Decimals 15 15 Percentage ... ... 25 25 Interest ... 14 14 Miscellaneous 16 123 28 Simple industrial problems . 30 30 Total .... 270 605 214 90 12 1191 TABLE 3-PROCESSES USED BY ADULTS, EDWARD EVERETT SCHOOL DISTRICT Processes Cases PerCent Multiplication 1616 37 Addition 1255 28.7 Subtraction 1083 24.8 Fractions 296 6.7 Division 79 1.8 Measuring 17 .3 Per Cent. 12 .2 Interest 7 .1 Decimals 2 .04 Denominate Numbers . 1 .02 4368 99.66 TABLE 4 ADDITION USED BY ADULTS, EDWARD EVERETT SCHOOL DISTRICT Places and Degree of Difficulty Cases Per Cent One Place ... 40 3.5 Two Places .. 807 71.5 Three Places . 260 23 Four Places .. 20 1.8 Five Places . 1 .08 1128 99.8 Involving multiplication only. Involving addition, subtraction, and division. These twelve problems are of varied types, but are difficult for lower grades. 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Number of Addends ( Partial Summary) Two 250 27.2 Three 282 30.7 Four 235 25.5 Five 90 9.8 Six 32 3.4 Seven 12 1.3 Eight 6 .6 Nine 3 .3 Ten 2 .2 Eleven 2 .2 Twelve 3 .3 Thirteen 2 .2 919 99.7 TABLE 5- SUBTRACTION USED BY ADULTS, EDWARD EVERETT SCHOOL DISTRICT Places and Degree of Difficulty Cases PerCent One Place .. 12 1.2 Two Places . 312 31.9 Three Places .. 607 62.1 Four Places . 45 4.6 TABLE 6-MULTIPLICATION USED BY ADULTS, EDWARD EVERETT SCHOOL DISTRICT Places and Degree of Difficulty Cases Per Cent One Place Multiplier . 857 89.8 Two Place Multiplier . 78 8.1 Three Place Multiplier.. 11 1.1 Four Place Multiplier.... 8 .8 TABLE 7-DIVISION USED BY ADULTS, EDWARD EVERETT SCHOOL DISTRICT Places and Degree of Difficulty Cases PerCent One Place Divisor . 66 91.6 Two Place Divisor . 4 5.5 Three Place Divisor . 2 2.7 TABLE 8- FRACTIONS USED BY ADULTS, EDWARD Everett School DISTRICT Fractions used and Degree of Difficulty Cases Per Cent 275 92.9 1/2 ...... 8 2.7 1/4.... 5 1.6 3/4 ..... 2 .5 1/3 .... 2/3 ....... 1 .3 1 .3 1/8 ...... 3/8 .... 1 .3 1/6 ..... 1 .3 3/5 ... 1 .3 3/10 .... 1 .3 Total .... 296 99.5 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 329 TABLE 9 -LIFE SITUATION INVOLVED IN PROBLEMS SOLVED BY ADULTS, EDWARD EVERETT SCHOOL DISTRICT Partial Cases Per Cent Sumunary Buying at store ... 939 75.4 Paying various household expenses . 135 10.8 87.2 Measuring for household needs . 47 Reckoning commission 22 Figuring daily sales . 19 Computing wages 13 Paying insurance 9 Recreation 7 Checks 6 12.8 Income tax.. 5 Making change . 5 Bank account . 5 Discount 3 Stocks 1 Interest 1 Miscellaneous 27 Total.... 1244 100 Itwill be observed that almost all of the figuring involved money, either buying or selling. A one-place addition problem, therefore, means that the amounts involved are less than 10 cents, and a two-place problem in- volves amounts less than $1.00. This report on a survey of adult usage from a single grade district shows remarkable agreement with the larger studies and calls attention to the ten useful processes. Eliminating the useless gradually-The experience in the Rochester schools as reported by Assistant Superintendent C. E. Finch is interesting. He states that in their first revision of the course of study in arithmetic, the following topics were eliminated : Present worth Compound proportion True discount Surveyor's long measure Equation of payments Surveyor's square measure Partial payments Government land measure Foreign exchange Progressions Partnership Foreign money Troy weight Annual and exact interest Apothecary weight Compound interest, except as ap- Fluid measure. plied to savings accounts In a second revision almost a year later, the list of topics for elimination was extended to include the following : Cord measure Stocks and bonds Board measure Shingling Addition, subtraction, multiplica- Intricate and unusual problems in tion, and division of denomina- square or cubic measure nate numbers Puzzle problems in percentage 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Reduction ascending and descend- All except one case of commission ing except as applied to problems The odd cases in insurance of real life Taxes Carpeting Finding of principal, rate and time Papering Brokerage Customs and duties Longitude and time This is splendid testimony and indicates that when teachers once get the idea of the right kind of arithmetic they become keen and coöperative in eliminating the processes in arithmetic which do not aid its legitimate purpose. Summary-The evidence is not contradictory. All of the studies in- dicate that the simple processes as noted in Table 1 are the only processes which need attention in the schools, unless further study of vocational arithmetic indicates specific needs in different occupations. In view of the simplicity of the program, letter-perfect results should be insisted upon. The four fundamental processes, simple fractions, simple accounts, percentage and interest, and simple denominate numbers without reduction is all that is needed by adults to handle the ordinary consumer's problems. Conversely, all other work should be omitted, unless very incidentally in connection with some specific problem which does happen to come up in connection with some life situation being handled by the children. The Rochester program of eliminations is a good one to follow. And thus, by the survey method we arrive with confidence, at an arith- metic that is useful and necessary, an arithmetic of use and application in the common affairs of life, an arithmetic serving its simple tool purpose in a democratic society. These conclusions are given without any hesitancy whatever. Any teacher who continues the useless processes does so in defiance of the evi- dence. The only problem in this connection is the one indicated in prob- lem five of Part I-that is, how to manage so as to overcome the prejudice of parents and pupils. Positive programs of worthwhile applications to life situations will usually obviate any objections. Careful procedure by the method suggested in problem five of Part I should forestall any ob- jections to the simplified program. PART III-METHOD AND OUTLOOK The object of the committee in submitting a tentative formulation of its problems is to ask aid in their solution. Some of the problems have already been made the object of study by members of the committee or others, but this does not preclude their independent or coöperative study by anyone else. Two large studies of a worthwhile question are always better than one, and the science of education needs to urge the duplication of scientific studies until assured that the answers are not merely tentative, but ultimate and correct (if this is possible in a changing society) . Anyone willing to coöperate, after studying these problems and deciding on the one on which help may be given, may go forward in this own way if he chooses. But it will be better to submit his plan to the committee for suggestions . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 331 For its final report the committee will accept any work which is large and broad enough to be significant and which is based upon scientific procedure. Opinions are not called for. The committee has enough un- supported opinions of its own. It hopes that its final report may consist of conclusions so adequately based upon scientific data, that they may carry conviction and direct practice. Coöperators need not limit them- selves to the problems listed. It is evident from this preliminary report that the committee has no idea of proceeding by the simple method of prescribing what shall be done in each grade, the method of teaching, and the ultimate objectives. The committee has been appointed as a continuing committee that it may study, investigate, and experiment, and encourage and direct others in doing the same. The mottoes of the committee, it is hoped, will be: What is the evidence? Is it conclusive? If not, how can we get more conclusive evidence? The evidence wanted has relation to social needs and usages, the proper basis of curricula-making in a democracy ; programs of teaching and their results; methods of teaching and their results ; individual dif- ferences among pupils as to abilities, needs, interests, initiative, etc.; the errors or failures of pupils, their causes, the remedies, etc.; textbooks, or life situations useful as a basis of teaching; in short, evidence is wanted on all phases of arithmetic, with a view to teaching the needed arithmetic more effectively or more economically. The form of the evidence urged by the committee is the equivalent groupmethods as referred to in Problem 2. Summarize the results and what they indicate. Omit all prejudices, or opinions not justified by the facts. Send copy of the evidence to the committee. In this manner the com- mittee hopes to encourage and coördinate investigations, to help in sum- marizing and interpreting the results, and to give finally to the association the sifted evidence with the program or programs indicated thereby. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Avent, Joseph E. The social demand for arithmetic. Virginia Jour. of Educ., 11 :163-67, Dec., 1917. The results of a study made to find out to what extent arithmetic is used in everyday life and the kind of problems that are most frequently used. Breslick, Ernest R. The development of curriculum in correlated math- ematics, and discussion of aims, values and results. Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1923, 1 p. vol. 1 ; pp. 116-136. Reprinted from "Studies in Secondary Education." Published by the Department of Educ. Univ. of Chicago . Brown, J. C. An investigation on the value of drill work in the funda- mental operations of arithmetic. Journ. Educ. Psych., 3 :485-492, Nov. 1912, 3 :561-570, Dec., 1912. Caldwell, Otis W. Types and principles of curricular development. Teachers College Record, 24:329, Sept., 1923 . 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Chase, Sara E. Waste in arithmetic. Teachers College Record, 18:360- 370, Sept., 1917. Waste through the topic mensuration and through textbook problems . Cleveland Survey Tests in arithmetic, Public School Pub. Co., Blooming- ton, Ill . Courtis, S. A. Measurement of growth and efficiency in arithmetic. Educ. Sch. Journal, Oct. and Dec., 1909 ; Dec., 1910; March and June, 1911. Standards of arithmetic. Elem. Sch. Teacher, 1913, 12 : 127-37. Dewey & McClelland. Psychology of number. D. Appleton Co. Evans, J. E., and Knoche, Florence E. The effects of special drill in arith- metic as measured by the Woody and the Courtis arithmetic tests. Jour. of Educ. Psych., 10:263-76, May-June, 1919. "A carefully controlled experiment with the Studebaker economy prac- tice exercises. The class with the special drill made five times as much improvement as the class with regular school work." Franzen , R. H., and Knight, F. B. Criteria to employ in choice of texts. Jour. Educ. Psych., 12:408, Oct., 1921 . Textbook selection. Warwick and York, 1922. Graham, Maria D. Community arithmetic. Training school quarterly, 2 :268-78 , Jan. , Feb. , Mar., 1916. Holloway, Harry V. Difficulty of combinations in addition and multipli- cation. Univ. of Pa., 1914. Hoover, J. H. Motivated drill work in third-grade arithmetic and silent reading. Jour. of Educ. Research, 4:200-11 , Oct., 1921 . Judd, Charles H. Analyzing textbooks . Elem. Sch. Jour., 19 :143-54, Oct. 1918 . Kelly, F. J. The results of three types of drill on the fundamentals of arithmetic. Jour. of Educ. Research, 2 :693-700, Nov. , 1920. Kelly, Martha. Minimum essentials of arithmetic for the first seven grades. Jour. of Educ. Meth., Jan., 1923, p. 193. Kyte, George C. Coöperation in making the course of study. Ed. Admin. and Supervision, Dec., 1923 . Knight, F. B. Drill in arithmetic. Jour. of Educ. Psych., 14:115-121 , Feb. , 1923. An analysis of multiplication. Drill. Jour. of Educ. Research, Oct., 1923, pp. 199-207. Kilstad, Arthur. Arithmetic ability of men in the Army and of children in the public schools. Jour. of Educ. Research, 5-97-111, Feb., 1922. McCall , W. A. How to experiment in education. Macmillan . McLaughlin, K. L. Summary of current tendencies in elementary school REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 333 mathematics as shown by recent textbooks. Elem. Sch. Jour. , 18 : Mar., 1918. No. 7. McLaughlin, Katherine L., and Troxell, Eleanor. Number projects for beginners. Lippincott Co., 1923. McMurry, F. M. What omissions are advisable in the present course of study? National Educ. Ass'n Proceedings, 1904, pp. 194-202. Mead, Cyrus. The best method of selecting textbooks. Educ. Admin. and Supervision, 4 :61-69, Feb., 1918. Good material on arithmetic. Meriam, J. L. How well may pupils be prepared for high-school work without studying arithmetic, grammar, etc., in the elementary schools. Jour. Educ. Psych., 6 :361-364, June, 1915. Monroe, W. S. Development of arithmetic as a school subject: U. S. Bur. of Educ., Bul. No. 10, 1917. Morrison, H. C. Reconstructed mathematics. Thirteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I. Myers, Gary C. Arrested for speeding. Jour. Educ. Methods, March, 1924. National Committee on Mathematical Requirements. The reorganization of mathematics in secondary schools. U. S. Bureau of Educ., Bul . No. 32, 1921 . Osburn, W. J. Validity of the Courtis and Studebaker practice tests in the fundamentals of arithmetic. Jour. Educ. Research, Sept., 1923, pp. 93-105. Reavis, W. C. The school motive in the teaching of arithmetic. Elem. Sch. Jour ., 18 : 264, No. 4, Dec. , 1917. Rogers, Agnes L. Bearing of the new psychology on the teaching of arithmetic. Teachers College Record, 17 :344, Sept., 1916. Rowland, Grace. The project method as applied to primary arithmetic. Jour. of Educ. Method, Jan., 1922, p. 205. Rugg, Harold O. Curriculum making: What shall constitute the proced- ure of the national committees. Jour. of Educ. Psych ., 15 :23-42, Jan., 1924. Reorganization of ninth grade mathematics. Chicago University Press, -. Smith, D. E. The Teaching of Arithmetic. Teachers College Record. Jan., 1910. The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. Macmillan . The progress of arithmetic. pp. 4-12. Ginn. Smith, James H. Arithmetical combinations. Elem. Sch. Jour. , 21 :762- 770, June, 1921 . Relative Difficulty of Combinations . 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Spaulding, F. E. An analysis of the content of six third-grade arith- metics. Jour. of Educ. Research., 4 :413-23, Dec., 1921 . Stone, C. W. Arithmetic abilities and some factors in determining them. Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 16. Problems in the scientific study of the teaching of arithmetic. Jour. Educ. Psych., 4: 1-16, Jan., 1913. Suzzalo, Henry. The teaching of primary arithmetic. Houghton Mifflin Co. Symonds, Percival M. Mathematics as found in society, with curriculum proposals. Mathematics Teacher, 14:444-450, Dec., 1921 . Terry, Paul Washington. How numerals are read; Supp. Educ. Mono- graphs, No. 18, June, 1922. The reading problem in arithmetic. Jour. of Educ. Psych., 12 :365-77 , Oct. , 1921 . Thorndike, Edward L. The psychology of arithmetic. New York, Macmillan, 1922. The new method in arithmetic. Chicago, Rand, McNally & Co.. 1921. The permanence of school learning. School and Society, 15 :625- 627, 1922 . The psychology of drill in arithmetic: the amount of practice. Jour. of Educ. Psych., 12 :183-194, 1921 . The constitution of arithmetical abilities. Jour of Educ. Psych., 12:14-24, Jan., 1921 . Wells, Katherine; Lewis, Mary ; Marshall, Florence; Barnum, Edith; Dickson, Lucy ; Kane, Roy A.; Wells, Guy F.; Rogers, Lillian. Arithmetic in the grade. Teachers College Record, Jan. and Sept., 1906, Jan., 1907. Wilson, G. M. Connersville Course of Study in Elementary Mathe- matics . Warwick & York . - Survey of the Social and Business Usage of Arithmetic. Teachers College, Contributions to Educ. No. 100. Review of Moore's Minimum Essentials in Elementary Education. Jour. Educ. Research, Oct. 1923, pp. 260-262. Wise, Carl T. Arithmetic problems arising in various occupations. Elem. Sch. Jour., Oct., 1919, p. 118. Drushel, J. A., and others. Arithmetical essentials, pp. 1-31. Lyons & Carnahan, 1921 . Fifteen criteria of a good arithmetic are given. Woody, Clifford. Types of arithmetic needed in certain types of sales- manship. Elem. Sch. Jour., 22 :505-20, March, 1922. The reorganization of mathematics in secondary education. Report by the National Committee on mathematical Requirements , 1923 . REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 335 GENERAL REFERENCES Bobbitt, Franklin K. How to Make a Curriculum. Houghton, Mifflin , 1924. Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. Macmillan, 1923. Collins, J. W. Experiment with a Project Curriculum. Macmillan, 1923. Dewey, John. Moral Principles of Education. Houghton, Mifflin, 1909. The Child and the Curriculum. University of Chicago Press, 1902. Democracy and Education. Macmillan, 1916. Dewey, John and Evelyn. The Schools of Tomorrow. E. P. Dutton, 1915. Elementary School Curriculum. Second Yearbook, Department of Su- perintendence, 1924, 296 pp. Krackowizer, Alice M. Projects in the Primary Grades. Lippincott, 1919. McMurry, Charles A. How to Organize the Curriculum. Macmillan, 1923. Meriam, J. L. Child Life and the Curriculum. World Book Co., 1920. Moore, E. C. Minimum Course of Study. Macmillan, 1922. Thorndike, E. L. Disciplinary Value of School Subjects. Jour. Educ. Psych ., Jan. and Feb., 1924. Wells, Margaret E. A Project Curriculum. Lippincott, 1921. Wilson and Wilson. Motivation of School Work. Houghton, Mifflin Co., revised 1922. Yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education, 14th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, III. TENTATIVE REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ENGLISH J. W. SEARSON , PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, CHAIRMAN¹ Inharmony with the instructions given to the Committee on English of the National Education Association at the time of its appointment by Miss Olive M. Jones, President, I have endeavored, as chairman of the Com- mittee, to collect fundamental materials in the field and to formulate them into an outstanding report on English in the schools of America. The task has been a gigantic one and the members of the Committee, for the most part, have coöperated faithfully to help the year's work to a happy ending. It has not been possible, as we hoped, to put all the material in final form for a printed report at this time. We desire, consequently, to report definite, constructive progress and to ask for a continuance in order that we may finally produce a report worthy of the confidence placed in us and Miss Jones, President of the Association, when she appointed us to carry on this test. Our report, at this time, must, therefore, be tentative. In addition to the chairman, the conimittee includes the members listed on page 28. 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. All the work so far done by the Committee has been privately financed and we have not yet used any portion of the $ 100 fee that was asked for postage. More than $1,000 has been spent privately by different members of the Committee in collecting and in arranging material for the final report. It is not likely that the Committee will need to exceed $200 in their expenditures for the investigations for the coming year in addition to the funds which will be contributed gratuitously from private sources. We, therefore, respectfully request that if the Committee is continued, an amount not to exceed $200 be appropriated to take care of postage and other expenses incident to making a collection and rearrangement of the final report. 2. The Committee has collected a vast amount of material from every field of English teaching in the schools of America and has classified this material in the form which will be of especial help to all teachers of the country. This classification at best is but tentative and must depend upon the continuance of the Committee's work. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL THOMAS H. BRIGGS, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY CHAIRMAN¹ The Committee on the Classification of Educational Material reports that it is well advanced in the complete revision of the extensive classifica- tion index prepared last year. Detailed criticisms of this tentative list of subject headings have been obtained from about 250 experts in education and librarians. The work of collating these criticisms is finished and the subject heads are now on cards with various memoranda. The completed index should be ready for presentation and publication by October, 1924. It is requested that this committee be allowed to use the balance of its previous appropriation of $400 to complete its work during the ensuing year, and that an additional appropriation of $300 be made for the com- pletion of the work and typing. The purpose of this index is to furnish educational workers with a uni- form scheme for the indexing of educational materials appearing in maga- zines, books, and pamphlets and to provide for consistent cross- references. Its perfection is impossible without a standardization of terms, which we hoped to get from the Committee on Nomenclature. This committee is not in a position at this time, however, to attempt a general standardization ofterms. We have gone as far as is possible without this standardization. The committee recommends that the National Education Association undertake on its own initiative the monthly publication of index cards of current educational materials in books, magazines, and reports similar to 1In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 27. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 337 the cards that the Library of Congress issues for general literature. These index cards of educational literature can, in our opinion, be sold to a large number of subscribers, thus saving an enormous amount of duplication by teachers, administrators, professors of education, and research workers in making their own indices of materials in connection with publications that are now being made in our field. As an alternative, if it does not seem feasible for the National Education Association to undertake this work, our committee recommends that an attempt be made to have this service performed by some other responsible agency. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL NOMENCLATURE JOHN W. WITHERS , DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION , NEW YORK UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN 1 I am submitting herewith a brief report of the progress of the Com- mittee on Educational Nomenclature during the present scholastic year. The committee held three meetings during the year, two of which occurred ' in New York and the third in Chicago during the annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence. At the last meeting all the members of the committee were present with the exception of Professor Bobbitt, who found it impossible to attend. At this final meeting the committee approved the following, outlining the scope of the committee's responsibility and its plan of work. 1. The Committee cannot assume the responsibility of making a complete dictionary of educational terms . The Committee has neither the time nor the means to do this, nor does it seem wise to attempt it at the present stage in the development of educational theory. 2. The Committee reaffirms the conclusion reached by its predecessor, the sub- committee on Educational Nomenclature of the Committee on the Coördination of Research Agencies of the National Education Association to the effect that it con- siders itself a service committee whose attention should be given primarily, though it need not be exclusively, to the consideration of educational terms submitted to itby the Committee on Classification of the National Education Association. 3. In attempting to render this service the Committee proposes to direct its efforts in accordance with the following : (a) It will consider only those terms in the use of which there is avoidable confusion. (b) If the meaning of a term is in dispute because competent authorities are not agreed on the basal facts involved, this Committee will not attempt to fix the meaning of such a term. It is no part of the function of this Committee to pass upon the facts still in dispute. (c) In particular instances where two or more terms are being introduced to designate substantially the same meaning, the Committee will attempt to bring about an agreement among those most competent to judge as to which of the terms shall be the accepted one. In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 28. 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (d) Except in unusual cases the Committee declines to define terms of merely loose meaning, if this looseness of meaning is not so great as to interfere with reasonable use of such terms in a classification scheme. However, in some such cases the Committee may indicate the varying significant senses in which the term is acceptably used. 4. The Committee requests that the director of research of the National Education Association act as executive secretary for the Committee. 5. It is the sense of the Committee that it should serve as a body to which might be referred matters on nomenclature upon which research needs to be done, the actual research to be carried out through the Research Division under the leadership of the chairman and members of the Committee on Educational No- menclature . 6. The chairman was authorized to appoint such sub-committees from the membership of the Committee as might be necessary from time to time to carry out specific pieces of work, these sub-committees to work under the direction of the chairman and in coöperation with the director of research. 7. It was decided that the chairman and director of research be requested to set up suitable machinery to insure greater agreement and more uniform procedure with reference to classifying the accounts of public school systems. It will seem from the foregoing that the committee has practically spent the year in defining its policy and plan of work. A request has been made to the Committee on Classification for a list of terms which that committee desires the Committee on Educational Nomenclature to define. In view of the fact that it takes so long for any committee attacking a problem of this kind to become organized and under way, it is recommended ( 1) that the present committee be reappointed for next year ; and ( 2 ) that an appropriation be made from the funds of the Association to the amount of $ 1000, if possible, to carry on the work. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THRIFT EDUCATION ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, CHAIRMAN¹ No Conference in recent years has been more significant as to results than was the National Conference on Thrift Education held at Wash- ington, D. C., June 27-28, 1924. This meeting was convened under the auspices of the joint Committee on Thrift Education of the National Education Association and the National Council of Education. The pro- ceedings of the several sessions are herewith presented in this report. Since 1915, when the Committee on Thrift Education was organized, meetings have been held each year in connection with the annual Con- vention of the National Education Association and at the time of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence. The results of these meetings have from time to time been published. The Committee is, for the most part, composed of men and women actively engaged in teaching or in the supervision of schools. Heretofore investigations, reports, and In addition to the chairman, the committee includes the members listed on page to. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 339 discussions have been largely carried on by members of these groups. The Washington Conference struck a new note in bringing to the program many from outside the teaching profession. The need for more complete understanding and application of the prin- ciples of thrift is more and more recognized. During the war, every effort was made to conserve and save. Indeed, the war furnished an all- compelling motive for the practice of thrift and saving. Motives and objectives are as necessary in thrift education as in other life activities. The war had to be won and our fighting men at home and abroad had to be provided for. Investments were made in government securities and in liberty bonds rather than in "wild cat" schemes or get-rich-quick promo- tions; time and energy were budgeted; by-products were used and ma- terials, before wasted or destroyed, were saved and utilized ; economy was practiced in the use of raw materials, food stuffs, and natural resources- water, timber, gas, coal. The use of luxuries was decried, and emphasis and dignity given the essentials, whether of food or clothing or entertain- ment. Boys and girls, as well as men and women, entered into the spirit ofthrift. When the war ended, our people were well on the way toward establishing thrift habits in the school, in the home, and in business and professional life. But the close of the war brought a period of reaction. There began an era of almost reckless expenditure. In every walk of life it was the same. Money before saved and invested was spent lavishly and unwisely, time was frittered away and energy and effort dissipated; there was ex- ploiting of our natural resources. The lessons of health and physical fitness, need for which was so strongly focused in war time, have been carried over in most commendable degree. Indeed, the past few months have witnessed a swing toward the normal in all fields of thrift and con- servation. There is again a growing sentiment for the development of thrift habits on the part of our people. Thrift is the elimination of waste, and there is no lesson more needed by us in America than the lesson of proper saving and conservation. We are living in a progressive age. Tremendous developments are upon us. There are changes in our industrial and economic life, changes in our social structure, changes in our political, our moral, our intellectual think- ing; changes that a few years ago would have been considered beyond range of possibility. Time was when the public school was merely an adjunct of society. The school, together with home and church and state and other institutions, did its part toward shaping public opinion and in molding character. Today, in our social development and growing democ- racy, the school is the one chief element in making for an improved and enlightened citizenship. With the equalizing of educational opportunities and the extension of compulsory public education, the school becomes the universal forum of the American people. If the coming generation is to 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION practice thrift, it is essential that worthy thrift habits be inculcated in the rising generation through the teachings in the schools. With a school curriculum already over full, it is clear that to be ef- fective, thrift must be taught not so much as a subject in itself as in its application in other subjects. Our courses of study in elementary and secondary schools can profitably be given a thrift setting. Arithmetic, geography, literature, the sciences, industrial arts, home economics-all may be enriched and vitalized if they be taught in the light of the principles of thrift. These principles can be integrated in such way as to make the lessons more effective and lasting, and at the same time minimize the time required in a given lesson or subject. The value of any school program is to be determined in the manner in which it meets actual life conditions. Therefore, to be most effective a school program must have the backing and support of all people-not merely those whose business it is to manage and conduct the schools. To this end there had for many months been planned a National Con- ference on Thrift and Conservation. This is perhaps the first time in history when there have assembled under auspices of a great National Edu- cation Association, representatives of numerous national organizations to consider problems relating to the school. Some 150 of these national organizations interested themselves in the Conference, while representatives of the major part of these were in attendance, many of them taking promi- nent part in the program. The American Bankers Association, the Sav- ings Bank Division, General Federation of Women's Clubs, Congress of Parents and Teachers, American Federation of Labor, American Library Association, American Society for Thrift, National Chamber of Commerce, American Home Economics Association, Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. , National Catholic Welfare Council, Jewish Welfare Board, National Parks Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and scores of other national organizations representing not only our Government at Wash- ington but industrial, fraternal, economic, and social phases of life took part in this program. The Departments at Washington were most helpful throughout. The facilities of these Departments are freely offered to the schools in the working out of any system or plan for teaching thrift and conservation. Our U. S. Commissioner of Education, the President of the National Education Association, and all those who participated in the program are deserving of high praise and appreciation for their part in making this Conference a distinct success. The brief responses by delegates of the various national organizations on the outstanding achievements in the field of thrift, were remarkable for their clearness and inclusiveness. We are pleased that the address of General Lord, director of the U. S. Budget, can be published in full, and we regret that the illustrations that made Mr. Hudson's presentation especially worth while, cannot appear in these proceedings. Special attention is called to the results of the various group meetings which formed the third part of the Conference program. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 341 The chairman takes this occasion to extend to the members of the Committee his thanks and appreciation for interest and assistance given by them. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO COŐPERATE WITH THE AMERICAN SCHOOL CITIZENSHIP LEAGUE¹ MRS . FANNIE FERN ANDREWS , BOSTON , MASSACHUSETTS, CHAIRMAN The report of the Committee to Coöperate with the American School Citizenship League consists of three parts : First-A declaration of principles for the guidance of the committee in its future activities . Second-An historical account of the observance of the eighteenth of May as International Good-will Day. Third-Suggested program for the observance of World Good-will Day. Part I. Declaration of Principles (Identical with Resolutions adopted by the World Conference on Education at San Francisco, 1923. ) The following are the resolutions : International ideals-Whereas , One of the greatest tasks of the schools in all lands is to teach the ideals of justice, friendship, and good-will ; Whereas, A new and better world could be made through the training of youth in all countries in the ideals of international justice and coöperation ; and Whereas, These ideals can be developed through the regular school program, and all school subjects offer the greatest opportunity for this development, history, geography, and literature, deserving to be mentioned especially as examples ; Therefore, be it resolved : 1. That a universal aim in teaching the history of a country should be to teach the social , economic, and political development of the Nation, and to show the relationships of these three lines of activities to similar lines of development in other countries of the world. 2. That the teaching of history should be begun in the early grades and history should be taught from the world point of view.2 3. That instruction in history should include the teaching of specific principles which directly promote international good-will, such as impartial judgment, justice, national and personal modesty, coöperation, and honor. Whereas, The welfare of the world demands that the citizens of each Nation should become more intelligent about other peoples, their social conditions, their forms of government and their National ideals ; Therefore, be it resolved : 1. That this might well become a universal aim in the teaching of geography. In addition to the Chairman, the Committee includes the members listed on page 27. Teaching history " from the world point of view" should be interpreted to mean that in reaching history a teacher should have a world consciousness in the background. 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2. That instruction in geography should include the teaching of specific principles which directly promote international good-will, such as inter- dependence, courage, enterprise, neighborliness, and mutual understanding. Whereas, The possibilities in the teaching of literature which will develop ideals of justice and good-will are boundless; Therefore be it resolved : That instruction in literature should include the teaching of specific principles which directly promote international good-will, such as apprecia- tion, courtesy, unselfishness, service, truthfulness, and human sympathy. The debt of the present generation to the future-Whereas, In many countries a substantial effort has been made to teach world friendship through the schools, which is evidenced by the courses in citizenship and good-will already in use ; Therefore be it resolved : That we base future plans for promoting world friendship on the great educational background established by these devoted efforts of teachers to promote international comity. World Good-Will Day-Whereas, One effective means of promoting the spirit of international good-will is to set aside a day in the year to be observed in the schools of the world as "Good-Will Day" ; and, Whereas, This day should in itself be a significant landmark in the movement for international friendship ; Therefore be it resolved : 1. That the eighteenth of May, which commemorates the opening of the first Hague Conference-the first gathering of the nations in time of peace for the consideration of means of settling international differences by peaceful methods-is especially appropriate for concentrating upon the ideals of justice and world friendship. 2. That on the eighteenth of May, instruction should be given con- cerning the results of the Hague Conference and also the later efforts to bring the world together in a coöperative body, and that this instruction should be accompanied by songs, both national and international, plays and pageants, which carry out the spirit of the day. Be it finally resolved : 1. That the economic, social, and intellectual welfare of humanity de- mands uninterrupted coöperation among the nations of the earth, and the reign of reason and justice, founded upon international good-will. 2. That such teaching will show the high significance of those things which enter into a true conception of civilization, and 3. That the acceptance and promulgation of these ideals will form a sound foundation for the promotion of higher spiritual values in the schools of the world. Part II . An Historical Account of the Observance of the Eighteenth of May as World Good-Will Day It was a quarter of a century ago on May 18, 1899, that the event oc- curred which inspired the international observance of May 18 as a land REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 343 mark in world progress. The historic roots of the observance, however, go back to the months preceding the opening, on May 18, 1899, of the first Hague Peace Conference when the public demonstrations sought to arouse interest in its purpose. The general effects of the Conference which were to show the possibility and the desirability of making the practice of civilized nations conform to a system of law based on justice and the de- sire for international coöperation, and the setting up of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the Commission of Inquiry, both designed to avert war, as well as the successive results of the second Peace Conference which was convened in 1907 have justified the commemoration of the be- ginning of these world conferences. The post war efforts for world co- operation have their basis in the Hague Conferences and therefore give added reason for selecting the opening date of these historic meetings as the appropriate time for emphasizing the interdependence of nations and for promoting international good-will. The first formal observance of the eighteenth of May came in 1901 , whenunder the lead of the International Council of Women, celebrations to show what the first Hague Peace Conference had accomplished were held in Holland, Italy, the United States of America, Austria, New Zealand, and Norway. From that year the celebration of the day, partici- pated in by women's organizations, civic bodies, and the churches con- tinually increased in scope until the opening of the World War. Very soon after the first Peace Conference, the international peace con- gresses and the peace societies advocated the observance of the eighteenth ofMay in schools and colleges, where the citizens of the future are form- ing their ideals of conduct and action, it is interesting to note that the first recorded account of such observance is that held in Bloomington, Indiana, when all the schools participated in exercises which brought out the sig- nificance of the day, and when at the State University the students and the townspeople participated in peace exercises under the direction of the de- partment of history. The names of Professor Amos S. Hershey and Pro- fessor James A. Woodburn stand out prominently in this celebration. The historic document, however, on the celebration of the eighteenth of May in the schools is the letter of Honorable George H. Martin, secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, addressed to the superintendents of schools in Massachusetts. In this letter, dated April 11, 1905, Mr. Martin calls attention to the Massachusetts statute which, as he described it, "imposes upon all instructors of youth the obligation to use their best endeavors to instil into the minds of the children and youth committed to their care the principles of 'love of country, humanity, and universal benevolence'." The love of country, he said, was stimulated by special exercises in connection with the public holidays, February 22, April 19, and May 30. "A favorable opportunity," he continued, "to cultivate the other two virtues, 'humanity and universal benevolence,' is 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION now afforded in the setting apart of May 18 in commemoration of the opening of the Hague Conference, May 18, 1899." The specific objects of the celebration which Mr. Martin pointed out were then, and are now, the fundamental motives for observing the day. He conveyed the recommendation of the Massachusetts Board of Educa- tion that " appropriate exercises be held in the schools of Massachusetts on May 18 for the purpose of emphasizing the blessings of peace, of showing the superiority of arbitration over war, and of exalting the brotherhood of nations. " "An appropriate motto for the day," he concluded, "would be : 'God hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth . " Very soon after this pronouncement, now recognized as a classic in edu- cation, the Ohio State Commissioner of Common Schools initiated efforts for the observance of the eighteenth of May as International Peace Day in the Ohio schools. He was followed by the superintendent of schools in New York and the superintendent of public instruction in Kansas. In 1906, an effort was made by the American Peace Society to bring about a general observance of the day in schools throughout the United States. In response to these efforts, seven State superintendents, including those of Massachusetts, Ohio, and Kansas, recommended the general observance of the day in the schools of their States. These were the pioneers in enunciating principles which were then considered to be a recognition of a new responsibility for the schools. This sentiment was bound to spread. In December, 1906, Dr. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States commissioner of education, recommended the observance of the eighteenth of May as Peace Day in the schools. In his report to the Secretary of the Interior, dated December 5, he called attention to the movement "looking to the annual commemoration in the schools of the United States of the opening of the first Hague Conference," and he particularly pointed out that "in the celebration of this anni- versary day, and in the instruction of the schools throughout the year, the effort be made to promote an insight into the true aims and aspirations of our own nation and of the other nations with whom we are to work * * * " together in the making of a higher world civilization. Following the Commissioner's letter, which was addressed to the State superintendents of instruction, the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, meeting in February, 1907, strongly supported, in a resolution, the observance of the eighteenth of May in the schools of the United States . The scope of the observance grew steadily, and in 1908 when the Ameri- can School Peace League was formed (now called the American School Citizenship League), the aim of which is to promote through the schools in- ternational justice and fraternity, it emphasized among its other activities the promotion of the celebration of the eighteenth of May. Annually, up to and including the year 1917, the League issued a Peace Day letter to the REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 345 teachers of the country, urging the observance of the day. As the League's officers included the outstanding school men and women of the United States, these Peace Day letters came to be regarded as guiding points in the introduction of so-called peace instruction in the schools. The great need, however, was the preparation of material for school exercises, and this the League made its chief work during the first few years of its existence. In 1912 and 1913, the United States Commissioner ofEducation, Dr. Philander P. Claxton, issued Government bulletins, pre- pared by the Secretary of the American School Citizenship League, con- taining programs for the observance of the eighteenth of May. These bul- letins, entitled respectively "Peace Day" and "The Promotion of Peace," contained graded programs for the celebration of the eighteenth of May, including specific exercises, quotations, poems, songs, brief articles on the great principles of the movement for international justice and information concerning the various agencies working to this end, and also a description of the work and achievements of the two Hague Conferences. More than a hundred thousand of these bulletins were bought from the Govern- ment and sections of them were translated into other languages, as au- thorized by certain European governments, and distributed to teachers for the observance of Peace Day in their schools. In addition to the ma- terial included in the Government Peace Day bulletins, the League issued plays, pageants, and other school exercises appropriate to the day. "A Pag- eant of Peace," "The Enemy," "Where War Comes," "The Glorious Game," and "Clemency" represent only a partial list of the plays and exer- cises published by the American School Citizenship League, while much of the material in the League's Course in Citizenship and Patriotism was recommended tobe used in the observance. Great care was taken to prepare graded material, so that the little children in the first year of school, as well as pupils of the high school, might grasp the real meaning of good- will and human brotherhood . Itwas particularly pointed out that the eighteenth of May could be cele- brated not only by special exercises, but also through the regular recitations, and this was the program in hundreds and hundreds of schools. It was recommended that in geography, for example, pictures of children from many lands be displayed and that the spirit of neighborliness and the inter- dependence of nations be emphasized. In history stories were told to the children of heroes whose work especially illustrates the spirit of good-will and human brotherhood. During the English period, the children wrote the story of some international benefactor which had been read to them during the day. The reading of essays on the significance of the day, which hadbeen prepared beforehand, formed part of the program. The children also wrote letters addressed to a foreign child telling of school and home life and of the observance of Peace Day in their school. These letters were later used by the American School Citizenship League in carrying out its program for international correspondence among the school children of the 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION United States and other countries. In spelling, a list was made of men of foreign nationalities who have added much to the richness and fullness of our daily lives, such as Michael Angelo, Raphael, Shakespeare, Wagner, Froebel, etc. In talking of these men, the teacher developed the conscious- ness of the debt we owe to other nations. In physiology the children were shown the part which science has played in prolonging human life, the teacher telling the story of foreign benefactors such as Pasteur, Harvey, or Röntgen. The civics class talked of cities with their thousands of inhabit- ants of foreign birth composed of men and women of ambition who had come to the land of their ideals. Here was pointed out the likeness of all races in the essential things of life, and the superficiality of the habits and customs which make them different. Many of the State superintendents of instruction issued annually in their year books for teachers the Peace Day letter prepared by the American School Citizenship League, general suggestions, and specific material for observing the day. Such was the setting and the background of the observance of the eigh- teenth of May when the catastrophe of 1914 broke upon the world. In Europe the celebration of the day, which, it should be noted, was generally recognized among teachers as fitting and appropriate, practically ceased. The annual Peace Day letter of 1915, on the other hand, was sent out as usual in the United States. This letter centered more emphatically than ever on the meaning and significance of the Hague Peace Conferences as ex- pressing the fundamental idea of the interdependence of nations. Moreover, this letter called attention to the request of the League to the Governors of the States to proclaim the eighteenth of May Peace Day, "not only for the schools but for all institutions that are the guardians of civilization . " Proclamations, issued by several of the Governors, read eloquently in the light of war-time history. Again the Peace Day letter of 1916 called attention to the new signifi- cance of arbitration, mediation, investigation, and conciliation for pre- venting destructive warfare. It was recommended to include in the ob- servance this year a description of the permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, showing its effectiveness in settling the fifteen important cases which had been taken before it since 1902. The letter continues : "The formation of a real world court, so nearly accomplished at the second Hague Conference, should also be emphasized as an ideal for which the world has hoped and waited. A Peace Day exercise in the schools this year offers a great opportunity to take note of these solid foundations of law and order, and above all to point to the underlying spirit of co- operation and good-will which has brought the world to the present stage of unification. In so far as this spirit persists will civilization achieve its ideals. Of all the institutions working for the unification of mankind, the school stands first. On those, therefore, who administer education in this critical time rests the responsibility of preserving and advancing those ideals for which all civilized nations should strive." REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 347 And finally in 1917 after the United States had entered the war, the League urged the observance of the eighteenth of May in "A Call to Pa- triotic Service." The appeal was urgent : We shall not be true to our young citizens if we withhold from them the hope of a new world order. If we are sincere in our plans for peace, we shall impart to those who will determine the life of the future the knowledge of those processes which we, according to our judgment, deem wise and practical. Nay, more, we shall inspire the youth of today with a vision of a different world. Truly, the next great forward step of humanity must begin in the schools. Our efforts in this di- rection should not be interrupted. The observance of the eighteenth of May, Peace Day, which has been the program of the schools of this country and of other countries for over a decade, is of peculiar importance this year when we, through the voice of our President, are professedly waging war for international freedom and justice. We should teach the young people the way to freedom and justice. It is most fitting that the anniversary of the opening of the first Hague Conference, the starting point and the center of international law and order, should be celebrated in the schools this year. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY ERNEST L. CRANDALL, DIRECTOR OF LECTURES AND VISUAL EDUCATION PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN My friends, your Committee of Necrology calls upon you to pause for a moment in the pursuit of present day plans and purposes, to remember those who now in a sense belong to another day, because they have laid down the burden which you and I must carry on. I am about to read to you a roster containing the names of a few of the many who have passed from our midst. It is longer than we would wish, butwe have endeavored to make it endurably brief, by naming only those who in one way or another had earned some distinction in our profession . Meanwhile none of us will be unmindful of those unnamed who also ren- dered devoted, if inconspicuous service, and have passed to their reward. Before I read this roster, will the audience please stand for a few seconds in loving tribute to the memory of these departed ones. First of all on any occasion like this, it is fitting we should bear in our remembrance that great apostle of democracy, whose career in the service of mankind shed an imperishable luster upon the name of teacher-Wood- row Wilson. Next I would name one who was once honored by this great organiza- tion with the highest office in its gift-Edwin J. Cooley, President of the National Education Association in 1908. From this point on I will call the roll of the dead by States, and among them you will find not only superintendents and college professors, but teachers whose long service or long membership in this Association marks their exceptional devotion to education, also ther friends of education such as book-men or board members, not m Ir calling, but devoted to its ideals. 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STATE DIRECTORS' REPORTS ON NECROLOGY Luther, Sarah E. , State Director of Illiter- Mendenhall, Thomas C., President, Board of acy, Montgomery, Ala. Trustees, Ohio State University, Ravenna, Jordan, Junius, Superintendent of Schools , Ohio . Pine Bluff, Ark. York, Lewis Edwin, Superintendent of Dole, Sarah L. , Supervisor Manual Arts Schools , Massillon , Ohio. School, Los Angeles, Calif. Smith, John Franklin, High School Teacher. Crabbe, John G. , President Colorado State 25 years member of Association , Ohio . Teachers College, Greeley , Colo. , promi- Faulkner, Andrew S., Superintendent of nent in work of this Association. Schools, Norman, Okla. Perkins , J. R. , State Normal School, Dan- Lovett, A. L. , Professor of Entomology, bury, Conn. Corvallis , Oregon. Chesman, Charles, State Normal School , Wiley, L. A. , Principal of Couch School, Lewiston, Idaho. Portland , Oregon. Cope, Henry F. , General Secretary of the Albright, Charles , County Superintendent of Religious Educational Association, Chi- Schools , York , Pa. cago, Ill. Clarke, Annie M. , Teacher for forty-four Parkinson, Daniel B. , Member of N. E. A. years. more than 25 years , Carbondale, Ill. Cummings, Μ. W., Superintendent of Wilson, Anna, Superintendent of Schools , Schools, Oliphant, Pa. Crawfordsville, Ind. , and on many Com- Keller, Harry F. , Principal, Boys High mittees of N. E. A. School, which he organized, Germantown, Suter, Anna, Teacher and member of Pa. Ν . Ε. Α . , for more than 30 years in Landis, J. Horace, Superintendent of Schools, Indiana. Norristown, Pa. Leonard, Jane, Preceptress of Indiana State Mason, William Alden, Director of Art Normal School 40 years. Education, Philadelphia, Pa. McFarland, William F. , many years mem- Murphy, Dawson C. , Teacher of State Nor- ber of Board of Education in Iowa. mal School. Taught over fifty years, Brouse, J. P. W. , Superintendent of Schools , Slippery Rock, Pa. Irvine, Ky. Rennie, James Homer, Principal of High Selin, W. E. , Superintendent of Schools , School, Chester, Pa. Cynthiana, Ky. Stetler, Thomas A. , Superintendent of Hall, G. Stanley, President, Clark Univer- Schools, Middleburg, Pa. sity at Worcester, Mass. One of the Willard, Joseph M., Professor of Mathe- country's most distinguished educators. matics at the State College, Pa. Inglis, Alexander J., Harvard Professor and Woods, John A. , Teacher in Huntington Authority on Secondary Education. County. Taught fifty years, Neelyton, French, Walter H. , Head, Department of Pa. Education, Agricultural College, Lansing, Deming, Charlotte E., Teacher in Rhode Mich. Island Normal School. Taught twenty- Barr, Robert J. , Superintendent of Schools nine years. at Grand Island, Nebr. Spratt, Chesman C., Principal High School, Dickemann, Luella A., Principal, Parker Woonsocket, R. I. School, Concord, N. H. Thompson, Frank E., Headmaster Emeritus, Dole, Catherine W. , Executive Secretary of Rogers High School, Newport, R. I. New Hampshire State Teachers Associa- Wabradt, Henry M., Superintendent of tion, Lebanon, N. Н. Schools , N. Kingston, R. I. Snyder, Henry, Superintendent of Schools, Riggs, W. , President, Clemson College, Jersey City, N. J. Clemson College, S. C. McKeown, E. L. , Superintendent of Schools, Cook, Fayette L. , President, State Normal Carson City, Nev. School , S. D. Bliss, John C., Principal, State Normal Carpenter, W. G. , Head, Industrial Educa- School , New Paltz , N. Y. tion, Wheeling, W. Va. Cooley, J. S. , District Superintendent in Hodgeson, J. E., Mathematics, W. Va. , Nassau County, Mineola, N. Y. University, Morgantown, W. Va. Williams, Sherman, Librarian, State Edu- McGwigan, Mary, President, West Virginia cation Department, Albany, N. Y. Education Association , Charleston, W. Va. Callahan, Eugene B., Former Superintendent Ames, J. W. T. , History and English in of Schools, State Editor in Chief of Normal School, Eau Claire, Wis. Elementary School books for the Мас- Bray, Francis M. , Principal, High School, millan Company, New York City. Eau Claire, Wis. Calkins, Clara , Principal of City School and Brown, Rueben S., Teacher of History, High active in all teachers ' movements local and School, Fond du Lac, Wis . National, New York City. Kagel, A. E. , Assistant Superintendent of Edson, Andrew W. , Retired Associate Su- Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. perintendent of Schools. Organized work Nelson, Anna R. , Principal, Ward School, for handicapped children, New York. Eau Claire, Wis. My friends, I would not weary you with many words and fine phrases by way of elegy, eulogy, or epitaph. It is but a simple duty that we per- form to call to mind once yearly those who have labored beside us in God's vineyard, caring for the young and tender vines He has entrusted to our care, upon whose future fruitage depend the destinies of mankind. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 349 Ours is not a calling to which signal recognition or public acclaim is accorded. The world is prone to note with solemn pomp the passing of many who have rendered much less real service to humanity than some comparatively humble members of our calling. If then we fail to honor these former colleagues, who shall pay them the tribute they deserve ? Surely, none realize more keenly than we teachers the brevity and uncer- tainty of life, for our task is never finished. The stream of those who pass through our hands seems an endless one, because it is ever renewed by suc- cessive generations of young and eager minds. Hence, the hour never comes when the teacher can say, "My task is finished. I am content." In that sense, the passing of our colleagues strikes us always with a peculiar sense of untimeliness. They left such dreams unrealized They felt they left so much undone. Shall we not pause to count their worth- Before we take their burdens on ? When statesmen die or soldiers fall- When pass the great ones of the world- The muffled drums beat solemnly, Commerce is hushed and flags are furled. When teachers leave this earthly scene, And toward that unknown country fare, Scant thought is given by the crowd, Nor yet by those who knew their care. But they who labored all their lives To lead God's children up the height, Need have no fear, when shadows fall, Of that which lies beyond the night. Some child heart they have reached shall wait, Where ends the path that they have trod- In turn to take them by the hand, And lead them lovingly to God. National Council of Educatoin SECRETARY'S MINUTES—CHICAGO MEETING OFFICERS President-JOSEPH M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools ....... San Francisco, California Vice-President-HENRY LESTER SMITH, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Secretary-ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board of Vocational Education .. ..Washington, D. C. The National Council of Education was organized in 1880, growing out of a paper read by Dr. Thomas W. Bicknell before the Department of Superintendence. See Proceedings of 1880, pages 90-94. The active membership of the Council is limited to 120 elected members, one half of whom are chosen by the Council, the other half by the Board of Directors of the Association. The list is published in the Proceedings in alternate years and is found in the volume for 1923, pages 508-511 . For constitution and by-laws see Proceedings of 1906, pages 608-611. NATIONAL COUNCIL LUNCHEON- MONDAY NOON, FEBRUARY 25, 1924 Approximately forty members of the National Council of Education, officers, chairmen and members of standing committees, were assembled at this luncheon, the purpose of which was to discuss, informally, future activities of the Council. Brief, stimulating talks were given by the President of the National Council of Education, the President of the National Education Association, the President of the National Department of Superintendence, and other members of the Council. These addresses emphasized the function of the Council in conducting research in the outstanding educational problems of today. Since the main obstacle in con- ducting thorough research is lack of funds, it was recommended by Dr. Charles E. Judd, University of Chicago, that some effort be made to secure funds from private sources for this purpose. This suggestion met with general approval, with the understanding that in accepting any donations for such a purpose, the committees would be left entirely unhampered to pursue their investigations and develop their recommendations . FIRST SESSION-TUESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 26, 1924 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 P.M. in the Play- house Theatre. The president's address dealt with Differences Versus Likenesses as Bases for School Programs. J. J. Tigert, U. S. Commisioner of Education, Washington, D. C. described the work of the Bureau of Education in Alaska. The Relation of Professional Spirit Among Teachers to Public Education, and the Development of Citizenship was presented by Olive M. Jones, President of the National Education Association, New York City. Representing the Committee on Character Education, Edwin D. Starbuck, Iowa State University, spoke on Tests and Measurements of Character. William B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Illinois, gave a preliminary report for the Committee on the Reorganization of the National Council of Education. Dr. Owen stated that final recommendations for the reorganization of the National Council of Educa- tion wouldbe made at the summer meeting of the National Education Association. [350] NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 351 The Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education was represented by speakers and topics as follows: Preparation of a Program of Health Education, Chairman, Thomas D. Wood, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Cooperation in the Continuing Program of the Joint Health Committee, John M. Dodson, Chairman of Coöperating Committee of American Medical Associa- tion, Chicago, Illinois ; Health and Welfare of Teachers, Agnes Doherty, High School, St. Paul, Minnesota; and Health Education in the American Education Program, William B. Owen, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Illinois. At the close of the Report of the Committee on Health Education, the following resolution was unanimously approved : Resoked: That in view of the prominence given to health in the schools today, and in view of the lack of sound and established educational procedures for teaching health, it is the sense of the National Council of Education that a comprehensive program of research and ex- perimentation in health education should be undertaken under the auspices of the Joint Com- mittee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association, and the American Medical Association, as soon as resources for such investigation may be available. A motion was carried that a committee be appointed to develop a plan for securing funds for special research work in the Council. A motion was also carried that Dr. J. M. Gwinn, president of the Council, be made chairman of the above committee. It was agreed that the committee would be appointed later. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 27, 1924 The meeting was called to order at 2:15 P.M. in the Banquet Room of the Auditorium Hotel. Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lincoln School, Denver, Col- orado, chairman of the Committee on the Status of the American Woman Teacher gave a brief resumé of the progress of work of her committee. Other topics and speakers for this committee were : The Single Salary Schedule, James F. Hosic, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Legal Status of Teachers , John K. Norton, Director of Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Henry Lester Smith, Dean of the School of Education, Indiana University, chairman of the Committee on Vocational Education, reviewed the work of that committee with plans projected for the future, and introduced Margaret M. Alltucker, assistant director of the Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. who presented a paper on Coördination inthe Part-time School. The Committee on State Funds for the Support of Elementary and Secondary Education was not prepared to offer a report but the chairman, A. J. Matthews, president, State Normal School, Tempe, Arizona, stated that such a report would bemade at the next summer meeting of the National Education Association. The recommendation of the committee at the San Francisco meeting on new officers and members of the National Council of Education was unanimously reindorsed at this session. Request for this was made by the President because of the small representation of the Council in the audience when the report was given at San Francisco. THIRD SESSION- THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 28, 1924 The meeting was called to order at 9:15 A.M. in the Banquet Room of the Audi- torium Hotel. This session was a joint one with Group B of the Department of Superintendence, and reports of the Committees of the National Council of Educa- tion were presented that would be of special interest to the Department of Super- intendence. Charles H. McKenny, president of the State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Michigan, and chairman of the Committee on American Teachers' Colleges, spoke briefly of thework of the committee and introduced speakers with topics as follows : Report of Summer Sessions in Teachers' Colleges, Joseph E. Avent, Universi nessee, Knoxville, Tennessee ; Financing the Work of Teachers 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Hamilton, Marshall College, Huntington, West Virginia. Considerable discussion followed the presentation of these reports in which presidents of teachers' colleges, members of the staff, and others participated. Adjourned. SIMILARITIES VERSUS DIFFERENCES AS BASES FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO , CALIFORNIA That attitude of mind which caused the Pharisee to say when he prayed "God, I thank Thee that I am not as the rest of men" seems yet to dominate many men when they pass themselves in not too critical review and more. when they view with parents' eyes their children. Man's friends and asso- ciates, not to mention all humanity, must be a scurvy lot that he must see himself in such marked contrast to them that though he may not lift his voice in thanksgiving, yet he congratulates himself that he has been made different and that this advantageous difference has been multiplied in his children. His children, as he sees them, walk apart from other children, and each of his from the others, so that a specially devised system of educa- tion is needed for each of his children and each being a special creation must not be retarded, accelerated, or modified by contacts with others. The individuality of his child must be developed by a system of individual instruction lest he come short of realizing for himself and his parents all the possibilities born in him from his illustrious ancestors and from some fortuitous conjunction of supernatural influence at the time of his nativity. This attitude of mind is impressionistic and has perhaps little foundation in facts but great reality for the one so possessed. Now comes the psy- chology of individual differences with its yard sticks and dynamometers and seems to put a foundation of facts under this feeling of differences. It appears that it may come about that science which has been the stumbling block of the fundamentalists may become their greatest support in that with a little more illumination on how the I. Q.'s of children differ, it may be shown that nobody is akin to anybody and sprang from nothing and from nowhere, but each is a peculiar and special creation. Unfortunately, this doctrine of difference in children lends itself to propaganda for new programs in education for which super-normal results are claimed. It also makes a fine foundation for some magazine articles which are read with interest and approval by many since the appeal is made to the strong egotism of the reader. We should learn wisdom from some results of the past when we followed some new theory too fast and too far. We are just now getting back on the main educational highway from a detour of some years' duration, due to a misapplication of the theor of differences in the individual as he grows from babyhood to manhood There was an attempt to divide the child into different children depend ing on whether he was a kindergarten child, a first-grade child, an elemen NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 353 tary school child, or a high-school child. A different kind of behavior was expected suddenly to develop on changing from the kindergarten to the first grade or on changing from the elementary to the high school. This doctrine of difference caused us to make an educational highway of trans- verse segments. Each segment was supposed to suit the epoch in which the learner happened to be. These segments did not connect. Between them there were "chasms" into which most children fell. Some got out and over, butmany did not, especially out of the chasm at the end of the elementary school course . We now know that we overdid this theory of differences in states of the individual's development and have been busy these past several years in bridging the "chasms." Our courses of study and methods of teaching and managing children now stress the similarities of the child in the home and in the school, in the first grade, and in the kindergarten. We are even now ironing out many of the differences between the elementary and high schools. While we recognize the truth that the child changes as he grows older, we are now giving more recognition to the fact that he is pretty much the same child in the first grade he was in the kindergarten and much the same in the first year in high school as in the eighth grade. The child lives a continuous life, his today is much like his yesterday, and whathe now is will doubtless be the most powerful influence in determin- ing what he will be. Having come to a better understanding of these facts we are now getting continuity into our courses of study and succession of teachers and schools. The conception of the child as a continuing entity and a course of study that is organic in its structure have almost obliter- ated the old "chasms." It is unfortunate indeed that even before com- pletely recovering from this disastrous educational detour we should begin to turn off into another. The new way into which we are about to detour is made of longitudinal elements instead of transverse, as in the old detour, where the parts did not come together end to end. In the new way, the elements do not come together side by side. Each child must have a separate course of study not touching any other child, lest he be retarded or accelerated or per- chance socialized. I am not a voice calling the schools to a return to the system and uni- formity which were said to be their goals a half century ago. I have joined with others in demanding and providing for modifications in courses of study and methods of teaching and management to meet these indi- vidual, class, and racial differences. Our programs of education have not, in the past, been sufficiently modified because of these differences. There is still a need for modifications so each child may have his chance instead of some other child's chance, and have an opportunity to carry a 100 per cent load for him and not be made to carry a load of a size for the " aver- age" child. Awise old bard said, "A little learning is a dangerous thing." Some school men are at times guilty of attempting to make a spring out of one 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION swallow. They learn a little of the truth about individual differences or about some other human trait or social condition and are ready to revolu- tionize the education procedure and programs on that basis or even to petrify into preferred practice some pathological educational condition and then proudly proclaim their pedagogical panacea. There are not a few signs that some partial-visioned, over-enthusiastic advocate of individual difference may misapply the psychology of indi- vidual differences in such a way as to make the whole contribution of this psychology to modern education become ridiculous and cause a swing backward toward that undesirable degree of uniformity which was the curse of our schools one-half century ago. The contribution of the psy- chology of individual difference to the solution of some of our educational problems is too valuable to be lost through unwise application or through being commercialized by those who would make money through more pupil patronage. Children are different-yes, but they are also alike and doubtless more alike than they are different, even though of different races. Is there not much truth back of Shylock's speech : "Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions ? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us do we not die? and if you wrong us shall we not be revenged?" In all these respects and more are Jews and Christians alike, so also are children similar. Not alone are children much alive in their physical, mental, and spiritual natures, but they are going to live under the same National, State, and human environment. The very conditions of life compel a rather uniform mode of stimulation and reaction. This uniformity is necessary not alone for the maintenance of the life and well-being of the individual, but for the preservation and progress of society generally and of vocation, community, State, and Nation more particularly. However much we may differ one from the other, the overtopping demand of the hour is that we must live with and for one another. There is no place for the self- centered superman who claims as a right the exploitation of underlings, nor is there place for the lone wolf or extra-mural spirit, the prig or the snob who fits in nowhere effectively or comfortably. The lone bandit may still succeed in his purposes but not the lone captain of industry or the lone toiler in mill or field. Team work and coöperation are essential for the good of the individual and of society. Because society lays on all similar responsibilities and duties, and because children are more alike than they are different, our school programs must be dominated by these facts. By and large, the elementary school course of study for one child will be largely the same as for another child, and the course in one city will be much like the course in another city. Yet, at the same time pro vision must be made for the individual's welfare through differentiated NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 355 courses of study and flexibility in application. The advocates of individual instruction will go too far in their application of the psychology of indi- vidual differences when they would teach each child separately and seek to devetop him to the limit of his individual abilities and forget the need society has for the services of the individual and of the individual's need to learn how to work with, play with, and associate with his fellows. THE WORK OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION IN ALASKA JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON , D. C. The Commissioner of Education is responsible for the education, medical relief, and support of the natives of Alaska. This involves an extensive and difficult problem of administration. If the Bureau of Education school system of Alaska were superimposed upon the educational systems of the United States the school at Metlakatla, in southeastern Alaska, would fall at a point in the southern part of Georgia, near Savannah ; the school at Point Barrow, on the extreme northern cape where Alaska projects into the Arctic Ocean, would fall on the boundary line of Minnesota near the Lake of the Woods; and the school on Atka Island which is the most western point of the Bureau's work on the Aleutian Chain, would fall in the southern part of Arizona, near the Gulf of California. When one considers that there are no railway facilities except two short roads which parallel each other from the south coast into the interior, and that practically the only transportation facilities other than these railways are boats to which most of Alaska is closed because of ice for eight or nine months in the year, and therefore require the use of dog and reindeer sleds as the chief mode of transportation, he can appreciate the enormity of the taskwhich faces the Bureau of Education in Alaska . Last year there were in operation 75 schools, involving a field force in Alaska of five superintendents and 144 teachers. Orphanages are main- tained at Kanakanak and Tyonek for the care of children left destitute by the epidemic of influenza which swept over Alaska several years ago. In its program for medical relief, the Bureau of Education maintains five hospitals at widely scattered points, in addition to a number of physicians , nurses, and hospital attendants. In an effort to provide support for these native peoples the Bureau has inaugurated and is now conducting various enterprises and commercial activities-particularly the reindeer industry. The first reindeer were brought into Alaska from Siberia by the Bureau of Education in 1892. At that time 1,280 reindeer were brought over by Dr. Sheldon Jackson , who was then the Bureau's Superintendent for Education of the Natives ofAlaska. These reindeer have multiplied until now it is estimated there are approximately 308,000 reindeer in the Territory, two thirds of which ** belong to the natives. Through the years possibly 200,000 г 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION been slaughtered and used for food, clothing, and other purposes. A fair valuation on the reindeer represents a total of more than $10,000,000, or about $3,000,000 more than Seward paid for the Territory. The introduction of these reindeer in Alaska has been in the opinion of those best informed the most constructive thing ever done in the entire his- tory of Alaska. Thanks to the vision of the Bureau of Education in using them, through a system of instruction in which the natives are trained to take care of them, and finally are given possession of a certain number, the native tribes which once roved in Alaska, particularly in the north- western parts, in a state of barbarism, ignorance, and poverty, have now become civilized, self-supporting, and self-respecting citizens. A former burden on the white population of the Territory, they now constitute an asset. The reindeer multiply at the rate of 20 per cent annually. In some parts of the Territory they are now so numerous that it is imperative that the Bureau organize for the natives a market ; otherwise, the deer will become valueless. To this end the Bureau is now planning to reorganize the entire industry and develop a market for reindeer meat in the United States. During the last year the Bureau put into operation its own boat for the purpose of carrying teachers and supplies to and from Alaska. This boat was turned over to the Department of the Interior and the Bureau of Education by the Navy Department on executive order. Congress made an appropriation to fit it up with modern engines, cold storage, and other equipment. This boat made two trips during the last season. The opera tion of the boat makes it possible to extend the work of the Bureau of Education into parts of Alaska which were not hitherto reached because they were out of the way of commercial boats. It makes it possible to bring to the States a limited amount of reindeer meat and effects a saving in cost of freight and transportation to and from Alaska. The Bureau of Education administers the work in Alaska through an office in Seattle. Until recently the Superintendent of Education for the Natives in Alaska had headquarters in the Seattle office, but he has now been transferred to Anchorage, Alaska, so that he may give closer and more adequate attention to the work in the Territory. A new position has been created, namely Chief of the Alaska Division, to take charge of the Seattle office and administer the work of the Bureau in Alaska under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Educa tion in Washington. Jonathan H. Wagner, former State superintendent of public instruction in New Mexico, has been appointed to this position. Under Mr. Wagner's leadership the administration of the educational work in Alaska is being reorganized, the most important feature of this being the preparation of a course of study adapted to the needs of the natives in Alaska, with particular emphasis on vocational training. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 357 TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS OF CHARACTER Report of Sub-committee of the Character Education Committee EDWIN D. STARBUCK, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, IOWA CITY, IOWA Atide of interest is turning in the direction of the determination by scientific methods of the elements that enter into the complex of states and processes called "character" or "personality." From an inquiry sent out during the present school year and from looking up the bibliography of the subject, it appears that there are at least one hundred and fifty pro- fessional psychologists and other educators working at the problem by methods that approximate scientific refinement. The prevailing attitude is clearly one of confidence that we shall be able to analyze out the ele- ments of character, define its types, and discover the limits within which it is possible to cultivate it. Only four persons among my respondents expressed doubts concerning the present and future of character tests and measurements . The interest in this question has arisen most naturally and inevitably. Everyone claims that the drive of the entire school program must center in the development of character, but no one has been able to tell quite what that term means. Personnel workers, like educators, have found that mental skills are poor indexes of ability to achieve. They have been driven into the necessity of understanding the deeper lying strains of personality thatmake for success. There is now hardly a psychological laboratory or a live business enterprise or a great school system that has not been forced into a consideration of the problem. An encouraging sign is that students are proceeding into this field of study from many angles and with great diversity of methods of attack. This hasty report of progress will content itself with a simple description of the types of technique that are being employed. We shall enumerate eleven methods of approach. Direct observation of individual cases-A few of the students contend that the most reliable way of estimating character is to watch the individual in action and note signs in speech and conduct of deeper lying conditions . This method is comparable to that by which a trained physician diagnoses his patient. In nine cases out of ten, he is as well satisfied with two or three outstanding symptoms as if he made an exhaustive study by laborious scientific methods. This is comparable also with the "case" method in law. It may well be contended that direct observation, fortified by refined intuition and ripened judgment, is the important element involved in the other methods to be catalogued. On the contrary, it should be an acknowl- edged fact that both the scientific and practical interest will often center in the one case out of ten that baffles one's native ingenuity . Psycho-analysis-The methods of liagnosis and treatment of eccentricities of character connected with the names of Freud, Adler, and Jung, go beyond direct observation, in that they open up deeper lying levels of insight into human nature by viewing specific disorders functionally and biologically. 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Many of the disorders of character are due to inhibitions and liberations of the dominant impulses, such as sex, self-regard, and self-expression. The tensions that cause the difficulties can be discovered by various methods- for example, by stimulus words used as complex-catchers or complex- detectors. Psycho-analysis has deepened our knowledge of mental life in the same way that functional botany has given a profounder knowledge of plant life than was possible by more superficial methods of Linnaean de- scription and classification. The semi-scientific character of the earlier years of psycho-analysis are being superseded by the employment of more accurate technique, as for instance in the use of association tests in which the stimulus words are presented to the subject under highly controlled con- ditions as to presentation of stimuli and of recording of responses. Association tests-Before psycho-analysis came on the scene, it was be- coming possible to lay bare hidden elements of character by studying types of association that are made to certain revealing words, phrases, pictures, designs, and the like. Indications of the presence of character traits are found in quality of response, in relative readiness of positive and negative associations, in delayed reactions indicating inhibitions, in stutterings, in repetition of the stimulus word, and the like. The liar, the thief, the dreamer of noble dreams, and the knight-errant cannot escape the keen analysis of the association-psychologist. Genetic and developmental studies-Throwing organized bodies of fact out into a time scheme for showing developmental tendencies is proving valuable in psychology, just as in the physical and biological sciences. There are two predominant methods of procedure. The first of these is to follow individual students through a series of years, recording minutely the essential and even trivial facts concerning health, mental achievement, social attitudes, and environmental influences, and by pursuing these records into adult years. It will be possible thus to tease out some of the fundamental elements of character and even some of the subtler factors that condition a successful career. The second line of procedure is by the method of group studies. It tries to get a cross section picture of bodies of individuals differing as to age, training, social position, and the like. It seeks to establish character norms and age scales running parallel with the much used standards of measurement of intellectual skills. It is bent upon a determination of emotional quotients and other standards of judgment of moral attainment. Seli- analysis and self-measurement-One of the first serious attempts at the estimating of character was that of President Hyde in his "Self- Measurement." He defines the essential life-situations, like art, religion, family and the like, toward which one naturally responds either in right or wrong ways . Graduated units of excelience and of defect are described running in opposite directions from the selected norm. The pupil is ex- pected to evaluate his ranking on this graduated scale. The total charting of his various strengths and weaknesses is supposed to present him with a picture of his moral condition. Among the rests of reliability of such NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 359 scales are the correspondence of first and of later ratings, and the correla- tion between self-ratings and those made by others upon the same indi- viduals. Early efforts with Hyde's and similar scales indicate too little correlation for scientific purposes. Improvements have been made in the direction of selecting simpler character qualities, of defining them more closely, and of refining the scales. Increased success statistically has been attained by allowing the person ten or more units to distribute alone, the line running through each quality, instead of requiring him to make a single check on a point scale. This improves the picture and also allows for refinement of statistical procedure. Self-measurement is open to the criticism that it may lead to too much introspection, and that it is limited as a scientific instrument through the absence of objective standards. This latter objection is partially overcome by the employment of an exhaustive battery of questions with much over- lapping, so that the lines of the picture are deepened through a manifold of consistencies and contradictions. Other-rating by scale-The technique of this method is similar to that of self-rating. As usually employed, it has the same limitations through lack of objective proof of validity. It has, nevertheless, had wide use in personnel work and in making the contacts of teacher and pupil specific and helpful rather than general and indefinite. Antioch College is seeming to find some blessing from the employment of mutual ratings of students and faculty. Other-rating is young; its methodology is imperfect. Dashiell finds, for example, that pupils rate each other best in those qualities in which they themselves excel. Objective methods-Any department of study gets for itself a new lease oflife when it can prove its findings by reference to special and temporal units and other measuring sticks. It is proving a victory in this new field that Athearn, Voelker, Terman, Cady, Raubenheimer, and others are discovering fixed standards by which to determine the validity of personal and social estimates of character. Does the boy who judges himself honest really bring back the change; does he pass to the conductor the uncalled- for ticket; does he look through his supposedly closed eyelids during a test of muscular skill; does he overestimate the amount of information he pos- sesses; does he cheat, as shown by an automatically recording device when 'eft onhis honor to grade an achievement exercise ? Many such tests are now practicable and can be done with or without the knowledge of the person being studied. Preference-judgments-By this method one is driven, for example, through a long series of judgments of objective things, such as lists of words and phrases and is required to estimate them as true or false, as better or worse, or as relatively likeable or unlikeable. He may be required let us say, to run through a thousand stimulus words, presented in groups of fifteen, and mark a specific number of words he likes and a correspond- ingly opposite list of the same number of ones he dislikes. The student has taken pains to sprinkle through the entire list a hundred words or so indi 360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cating some character trait like kindliness, money-mindedness, or self-seek- ing. There is found to be a remarkable consistency in likes and dislikes expressed. The choices are strangely revealing of character patterns that can be trusted to betray fundamental attitudes and dispositions. The value of this procedure is that the attention of the person studied is directed out- ward. Introspection is reduced to a minimum, hence the naïveté and trust- worthiness of the revelation. It has been found by Hart and Shuttleworth that when several persons are in entire agreement upon the dominance of some character trait like money-mindedness, the correspondence between their judgment and the pattern betrayed by preference-judgments is almost complete. There are many ways of securing these reactions. Among them are true- false judgments; paired comparisons; multiple selection-for example, choosing the five most liked items from a larger number; scale of values, as in setting a specific moral act in its proper place in a graded scale from best possible to worst possible deeds; and order of merit, as arranging ten items in the right ranking from the best to the worst. Expressional reactions , other than judgmental-An instance of this method is the June Downey Will Temperament Tests. Dr. Downey has devised a dozen controlled exercises in handwriting-very rapid writing. the slowest possible writing, imitating a copy, disguising one's own hand- writing, writing with the eyes closed, with and without resistance to move- ment, and the like. The sort of response is supposed to betray types of temperament. There is a general recognition among psychologists of the value of such tests when they are sufficiently perfected. The results have not so far made a good showing when subjected to criticism by partial cor- relations . The method is in need of more adequate experimental control and a refinement in the recording of results. More than a half dozen university centers are at work perfecting this and kindred methods of experimental procedure. Experimental methods -It is one of the most hopeful signs that the de- termination of character traits and their measurement is being attacked al about the world by the refined methods of controlled experiment and ob servation. It may happen, consequently, that this new field of study mav be spared the many years of superficial discussion and of the wielding of opinions with a show of logic, as has been the case in so many of the develop- ing departments of study. Among the topics not already referred to that are being studied by laboratory methods are the relation between high and low neural resistance and temperamental peculiarities ; internal secretions and their effect upon mental characteristics; the behavior of vasomotor mechanisms as an index of personality and the constitution of the hemaglobin of the blood in its relationship to energy and the bearing of both upon character. The list is essentially endless. As a sample of the subtlety and fineness of the analysis that is possible when experiment and statistics combine to do the work, is the investigation of reactions to word stimuli as indicated by the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 361 psycho-galvanometer. By this sensitive instrument, one is able to measure quantitatively the vigor of response individuals make to various sorts of word excitations. Automatically there is being registered in the midst of the complex of quantitative responses to various words, a qualitative picture of personal traits. It is coming to be possible to put the microscope upon the complicated and hitherto indescribable thing called character and detect its inner characteristics. Astudy of character types by all methods hitherto described-A hopeful method of procedure is the exhaustive study of diametrically opposite types by abattery of tests, each of which will fortify and supplement every other. This new field of research, which is being approached by so many scores of our best minds from so many different angles, is full of promise. Three quarters of a century ago the understanding of the cognition life was hazy and indefinite. In this short space of time we have come to feel fairly well at home in our understanding of it and the use educationally and socially of its facts and principles. If all goes well, a decade or two will witness the opening up of this new field of character or personality now so indefi- nite and involved, so that we shall describe its intricacies with some of the same certainty with which we now speak of the perceptual and intellectual processes and functions. Best of all, we shall doubtless be able to lay plans. and predict results with something of the same feeling of confidence as is now done in botany, biology, and physics. We shall be able to appreciate the lives of growing children from within, as the horticulturist does his plants, instead of operating upon them externally and by rule of thumb . It is not too much to expect that the cultivation of character will shortly become enough of a science to develop into one of the noblest of the arts . REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, CHAIRMAN No greater benefit to mankind resulted from the World War than the dramatic attention focused upon the importance of human health, and the essential measures necessary to conserve and promote it. This was followed in a constructive manner by the great wave of health work, with its particular emphasis upon the health of children. The vital phase of this entire health movement is that which relates to health education. The most important study or project of the Joint Health Committee during the last two years has been the preparation of a report on Health Education for Public Schools and Teacher-Training Institutions. In the preparation of this report, your Joint Committee is receiving the valuable cooperation of a technical committee of twenty-seven experts representing the fields of general education, psychology, medicine, dentistry, nutrition, physical education, biology, and public health. The first report in this program is prepared for teachers in service and teachers in training and will be printed and ready for distribution at the 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION July meeting of the National Education Association in Washington. This report will present a fundamental statement of principles, followed by a brief presentation of subject matter for health education, with suggestions for adaptation of material and methods for various grades in the elementary and the high schools. This report will present the most authoritative and helpful statements in the field of health education that have been prepared. It is clearly anticipated that this report, when issued, will indicate more emphatically than ever before the necessity for careful experimentation and investigation in relation to many questions which confront those interested in the field of health education at the present time. No problem in the entire program of education is more significant, more complex, and more insistent in its demand for careful attention and solu- tion than that of health education. COÖPERATION IN THE CONTINUING PROGRAM OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS JOHN M. DODSON , CHAIRMAN OF COOPERATING COMMITTEE OF AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION , CHICAGO , ILLINOIS The speaker gave a brief review of the origin of the joint committee on health problems. It was born of a suggestion conveyed by a committee of greeting sent by the American Medical Association from its meeting in Los Angeles in June, 1911, to the meeting of the National Education Asso- ciation held in San Francisco the week following that of the American Medical Association. The medical profession was prompted to this action by the convictions that ( 1) Health is the most indispensable asset for human happiness and efficiency ; (2) Prevention in medicine has vastly greater possibility than cure ; ( 3 ) Personal hygiene is the most essential and fundamental type of health activity; (4) Personal hygiene is to be advanced only by education and training, especially of the young; and (5) It involves : (a) Provision of sanitary environment; ( b ) normal physical condition of pupil and teacher (detection and correction of remedial defects ) ; and ( c) train- ing of children in health habits; their education in the principles and facts ofhealth. This program is primarily a task for parents and teachers, but physicians by virtue of their special knowledge of these matters, can be of great aid . There should be cordial, intelligent, and sustained coöperation between teachers and physicians in this great movement. Results accomplished in the twelve years of work of the joint commit- tee-Many agencies are interested in the betterment of health conditions in schools and elsewhere. All of them can be of service, but the cause will be more surely and speedily advanced if there is intelligent adjustment of their activities and effective coöperation between them. These associations fall into two groups the professional and the voluntary. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 363 I. The professional associations comprise those made up of members engaged in a common vocation, like the physicians, teachers, dentists, nurses , and public health officials. Their membership includes large numbers of persons engaged in, and specially trained for a common life work, like teaching, and organized into great national associations with State and countyor local subsidiaries. The American Medical Association has 90,000 members, the National Education Association 150,000, and when the several State teachers' associations are closely federated with the National Association, as the State and county medical societies are, the member- ship should reach 500,000 or more. Such organizations are characterized by the special training of their members and by the enormous number of members, widely distributed over the Nation, whose joint activity can be promptly wakened to advance any movement-legislative, educational, or otherwise at any time . II. The voluntary associations are created to advance a particular phase of health activity-for example, tuberculosis, infant and child welfare. Their membership is made up of benevolently minded persons, from vari- ous occupations and walks of life, animated by the common purpose to advance the cause for which the association has been created. They are 'more or less generously endowed by private benefaction, and in other ways . The membership is small compared with that of a professional associa- tion, and the actual work is done by a more or less numerous group of fficers employed for the purpose . Examples of such associations are the National Tuberculosis Association , the American Society for the Control of Cancer, the American Child Health Association, the National Committee for Social Hygiene, and many others. They may or may not have State and municipal branches, or be linked more or less closely with local societies. The American Public Health Association, formed as a voluntary group, is reorganizing itself into a professional association, more completely repre- sentative of people engaged in public health work. Each type of organization is adapted for certain kinds of activity, while it is conditioned by its character and membership as to its possibilities of service in other phases of work. The great desideratum is an intelligent, sympathetic, and broadminded correlation of the activities of all agencies atwork in the same or similar fields. It is important to the attainment of this end that any association which is coöperating with another in a joint effort should be well informed as to what its co-worker is doing . The speaker then outlined briefly the program being pursued by the American Medical Association in promoting the medical education of the public. This comprises the publication of a magazine of health for the non-medical reader-namely, Hygeia; second, reprinting of health items from Hygeia and other sources in as many newspapers, magazines, and publications of all sorts as can be reached ; third, printing of several series of pamphlets on various health topics, such as cancer, tuberculosis, con- servation of vision, infant and child welfare, and the like; fourth, the pro 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION duction of material in the form of abstracts and outlines to assist physicians making addresses to the lay public about health matters, and in connection with this the provision of slides, posters, and other illustrative material ; fifth, radio broadcasting of health items from various centers; sixth, the encouragement of health exhibits; seventh, coöperation with other organi- zations , such as the National Education Association, interested in the better- ment of health; and other special activities, which need not be here detailed. THE HEALTH OF THE TEACHER AGNES E. DOHERTY, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL , ST . PAUL, MINNESOTA The question of the health of the teacher goes to the root of our whole attitude toward life. The nature of the relation between mind and body has long been disputed. Men, through the ages, have answered this ques- tion in a variety of ways. Magic or superstition has its answer, theology has its answer, metaphysics has its answer. Phrenology, or character- ology, numbers its followers today by the hundreds of thousands. The latest, if not the final answer, comes to us from science. Whatever the final view of the relations of mind and body, one of the most certain facts of science today is their intimate interdependence. In the past, men have spoken of mental processes as if they existed apart from the physical organism. But, so far as we know, they do not so exist. They sustain the most intimate relations with the processes within the nervous system, the muscles, the viscera, the glands-in short, through- out the body. Social theory today assumes the essential integrity of human nature. Life is activity, and to live means for any species to engage in the full activity possible for that species. There are tremendous social changes in the modern educational system. How does human nature fare amid these many changes ? Is the inherent nature of woman better adapted to the new conditions than to the old? Do the conditions under which teachers work and live give opportunity for the development of personality, the well-integrated organism that biology and psychology are agreed upon as the goal of all our striving? There are 700,000 teachers engaged in this process of education- women, for the greater part, cut off from home and family ties, often living in one room. This is an abnormal situation, although the teachers themselves do not always sense it. The marriage of a woman teacher is often a cause for dismissal by school boards. If to live, means for any species to engage in the full activity possible for that species, it might seem that a woman who had children would be a better teacher because of that fact. In the Middle Ages, education was the work of the monks, who took vows of poverty, celibacy, and obedience. Far be it from me to challenge their philosophy. But I do question whether teachers, nowadays, should be NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 365 required to take vows of poverty, celibacy, and obedience. If they are, they might as well take the nun's veil and the cloister. Would you invite the nun in a cloister to initiate the young into a social world of which she is not a member? But is not that the very thing we are doing ? We cut the teacher off from all vital contacts with the complex world in which we live and then tell her to prepare the young for this world to which she does not belong. If education is fitting the young for life, helpful guidance cancomeonly from one who has a reasonable mastery of life. If the teacher is to help the child to realize himself to his fullest capacity, should she not, herself, be given the opportunity for self-realization ? We cannot take out of the life of the teacher all the mainsprings, all that is most vital and significant in the social, political, economic world in which we live and expect any real progress. The home and the church, having failed to adjust the youth to the deep issues arising out of sex, are now trying to pass the task over to the school. Canwe, in reason, ask that youth be prepared to found homes and families by those who have neither homes nor families of their own. The latest development is education for parenthood. That is logical, provided you have the right teacher. But if any of the people who are giving these courses are mothers of families, or fathers of families, I have been unable to discover the fact. In European countries, they manage this problem better. The novelist, Dorothy Canfield Fisher, says of the French schools : "Half of the French women teachers of my acquaintance are married and mothers, often of grown-up children. My little daughter's teacher is fifty-eight years old, and has a son of twenty-seven. She brings into the classroom a sort of grandmotherly element of patience and wide experience with children, which is a most edifying spectacle to an American mother, accustomed to see almost all teachers young, unmarried women not very long out of their own childhood. " When asked about husbands and housekeepers, the French teacher's reply was, "Oh, modern, wage-earning husbands are never at the house except in the evening. And as for housekeeping, the extra money we earn pays three times over for the extra service we need to hire." "What do you suppose would be the answer of a doctor," she went on to say, "if you asked him whether his life wouldn't have been, on the whole, easier and less complicated if he had never married and had children, who are apt to be sources of anxiety just at the time when he needs all his calm for a critical case ? Would he be likely to answer that he would have been a more useful member of his profession, if he had always lived in a room in a hotel free from all entangling human relationships ? Per- haps it would be for the best interest of the grocery business if the law forbade the scattering of the grocer's energies by the inevitable erosion and attrition of domestic life." However, one French administrator leaped joyfully at the idea that it might be possible to prevent women teachers from marrying. This was anofficial in charge of school statistics, tabulation, reports, etc. He was 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION heart-felt in his denunciations of the unspeakable nuisance of married teachers. Their irregularities messed up his record-cards to a degree that was almost unbearable to a conscientious tabulator, he assured me. It was impossible to keep things in parallel columns. If he had his way, marriage would automatically bar any woman from connection with the school system . Monsieur Liard, the rector of the University of Paris, said, " I have just one complaint to make about married teachers, and that is that there are not enough of them. If I had my way, every woman teacher in France would have a good husband and babies of her own. " I ventured something about " administrative difficulties," and had them blown away like chaff. "Oh, such trifles compared with real live children! Any form of life is more complicated and troublesome than death. If it is good for every one else to marry and have children, it is good for women teachers. And it's good for education, because their years of service to the State are so much longer than if they retire when they marry, and of course, it's good for the State that such women should be mothers. What isn't it good for ?" Having considered the biological factor in the teacher's health, let us now turn to the psychological factor. That there is a psychology of the pre-school child, of the adolescent, a psychology of the subnormal child, of the superior child, is something that every teacher is expected to know. That there is a psychology of the teacher herself is something her superior officers seem never to have suspected. It is generally agreed that human beings have something unlearned, an inborn trait, by reason of which certain behavior is attractive or unat- tractive. Upon these traits the race has built habits so strongly rooted that they can hardly be torn up. Let us inquire then-Is the teacher lead- ing a normal sort of life? Is there balance of her instinctive cravings, her emotional reactions ? We might begin with the instinct or impulse toward race preservation which finds emotional expression in love of parents, of one's mate, of chil- dren. That normal family life is not the portion of the great majorit of teachers has already been shown . The instinct of self-assertion, a native tendency to dominate, to see social recognition is one that appears in all of the lists of instincts. Nietzche says that the will to power is the primitive motive force out of which all other motives have been derived. The will to power is found full blown in the tyrant of the classroom. Teachers often browbeat and insult those who cannot talk back. This may be their thwarted expression of a normal desire to have some control over their working conditions. No right is more divine than the right to go wrong, to initiate, and there is precious little chance for this right in a modern city system. The result is an un- rest, a revolt against the whole educational system. Dr. Bagley in a public address commented on "the anomalous status or lack of status of the classroom teacher." Teaching neither offers the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 367 opportunities nor provides the conditions of a real career. There are careers in administration, in scholarship, careers even in politics, but the basic act of education, represented by the work of the classroom teacher affords no such opportunity. The status of the classroom teacher is becoming more and more akin to that of "hands" in a factory, working under foremen and superintendents who assume the real responsibility." Another fundamental instinct is fear. The effect of fear upon the organ- ism is depressive, repressive, paralyzing for both mind and body. It induces amental condition which makes impossible the release of energy. In an article in School and Society, the story is told of a lawyer who had aseries of conferences with teachers and who said that he "never encoun- tered such a fearful and timid group of people." A woman not connected with the schools but familiar with many teachers, when asked what was their most striking trait, gave prompt and decisive rejoinder-" They are frightened to death." The author of this article analyzes the causes of this "fear" and finds fatigue and strain, anticipation of added burdens, such as increase in hours of work, encroachment upon leisure periods, and atti- tude toward superior officers. Enough has been said to show that some of the fundamental instincts are not functioning properly in the life of the teacher. The result is an atmosphere of discontent, of irritability, of unrest disastrous for the health of the teacher. Some years ago, Professor Terman wrote an anonymous article for Scribner's Magazine on "The Teacher Psychosis." Whether we use the term "teacher psychosis" or not is immaterial, we need to face the fact that there is often a pathological condition. That there are abnormal personalities among teachers and principals is known to anyone of varied experience. That they cause great misery and wretchedness to those who work under them is a matter of common knowl- edge. If we had trained psychiatrists at work in normal schools these people would not be so apt to get into the teaching profession. Departments of education in cities have various experts, but they need most of all an expert in personality, a personnel department. If one pauses to recall the names of successful school administrators, it will be almost invariably true that they are people who have consciously or unconsciously emphasized the human values. What is human nature and how does it operate ? It is the business of all, whose task it is to direct people, to search for an answer to these questions. It requires expert knowledge and specialization and that is what a personnel department is for. On this year's program of the De- partment of Superintendence, I noticed that the subject of personnel is a topic for discussion in two places-one, a group of superintendents, and the other, the Educational Research Association. The Personnel Department, which has become widely established in business and industry, undertakes to direct and coördinate the human rela 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tions in any organization; the aim is to get maximum results with minimum ofeffort and friction. Scientific management, as taught by Taylor, failed because it was not founded upon a full appreciation of the human factor in industry. It was left for the new science of personnel management, or human engineering, to discover and evaluate properly the human element. "Heretofore," says John D. Rockefeller, jr., "the chief executives of important industrial corporations have been selected largely because of their capacity as organizers or financiers. The time is rapidly coming, how- ever, when the important qualification for such positions will be a man's ability to deal successfully and amicably with "the human element." The human factor in industry and in business has been studied with all the resources of the laboratory, with all the methods of modern science. Studies have been made of the method of lay-out in an office, of the type of chair and foot-rest desirable for a stenographer, of lighting and ventilation and humidity, of eliminating useless records, of motion study-needless stooping, walking, standing ; of fatigue-muscular, mental, and nervous ; of monotony, of the fall of output on Monday in the pre-Volstead days. A five-foot bookcase would not be large enough to contain the volumes which are the result of these studies. Let me name a few titles : Williams: What's on the Workers' Mind, by One Who Put on Overalls to Find Out. Human Factor in Industry-There are several books with this title. National Industrial Conference Board-Rest Periods for Industrial Workers. Brandeis and Goldmark : Case Against Night Work for Women. Frankfurter and Goldmark : Case for the Shorter Workday. Personnel Relations- There are three high-class books with this title-one book by President Scott, of Northwestern University, and some of the men associated with him in the personnel work in the army, during the World War. What kind of bookshelf have we of similar studies of the human element in the teaching business ? I know of but three volumes : Terman : The Teacher's Health. Chancellor: The Health of the Teacher. Curtis : Recreation for Teachers . In addition we have two studies, one by Dr. Wood : Health of Teachers in New York State . This was a questionnaire study of health disorders of teachers, their causes, and suggestions for improvement. If other States had followed this admirable model with similar studies, we should have data on which to base some conclusions. The other study is by Dr. L. I. Dublin, statistician for the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, on the causes of illness among teachers absent on pay-leave in New York City. Is it not time that we took inventory of our own possessions in the field of health? Is teaching a hazardous occupation ? 1. Has any compilation ever been made of laws of states or rules of city school boards requiring physical examinations of teachers ? I am unable to find any. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 369 2. Has any study ever been made of the data secured in these examinations of teachers? I am unable to find any. 3. Has any compilation been made of requirements in normal schools of physical examinations of their students ? I am unable to find any. 4. Has anything similar to the job analysis of industry been worked out ? Let me explain : Job analysis is the analysis of the component parts of each particular kind of work, in relation to the worker responsible for its performance. The two parts of the specifications are: first, listing the qualifications demanded of the human factor, and second, standardizing the essential elements in the job itself. A modern personnel department cannot function without such an analysis or standardization . 5. Has any study been made of sickness among teachers ? Dr. Dublin made the study already referred to, and he suggests that there be an annual analysis of the records of absence for illness to discover what the significant facts are and to work out administrative measures to control causes of physical disability. The daily papers recently carried the story that a million dollars were paid to New York City teachers absent on account of illness in the past year. This shows the grave need for some fundamental work in this field of the health of the teacher. Some central agency should assemble the sickness statistics from rural schools and from cities and towns, and study them with a view to action. The highest aim of scientific medicine is the eradication of preventable diseases, and such must be the demand of the teachers. 6. The teacher's load is another factor in the situation. There is no reliable data on this subject except that there are great differ- ences in the amount of work carried by the teachers in the same city and even in the same school. How over-work affects health we do not know, because we have no standard of what a reasonable load is. To picture a school Utopia and to indulge in moralizing and platitudes will get us nowhere. Studies need to be made of definite problems with scientific methods. Construction of hypotheses must take place along with accumulation of evidence. My hypotheses are : First -That there is a unity in the human organism, that there is inti- mate interdependence of mind and body, a close relation of the biological and the psychological factors. Second-That the conditions under which teachers work and live do not give opportunity for the development of this well-integrated organism which biology and psychology are agreed upon as the goal of all our striving. These hypotheses can be proved in the case of the teacher only by the accumulation of data. If such data exist, I have been unable to find it. This paper, then, is a plea for a series of studies in the fundamentals of the teaching process. I have suggested six main lines of inquiry, all bearing onthese broader aspects of the health of the teacher. Let us not deceive ourselves, however. In our age of over-emphasis on the material. the measurable, it is easy, indeed, to forget that the fullness of knowledge is not the whole of normal human values as they affect the teacher. Against the passive resistance of the human spirit, school ad 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ministrators or employers make war in vain. Labor rightly fought scien- tific management, because it slighted the human element. Rebellion is stirring in the minds of the younger generation. The refusal of many of the more talented of the present generation of men and women to enter teaching is primarily because of the conditions discussed in this paper. If the life of the teacher permitted the expression, the satisfaction of the fundamental cravings of a normal human being for achievement, for free- dom from fear, for reasonable leisure, for a sense of her own worth while- ness, we could transform the world. What distinguishes all the golden periods of history is this clearness of vision, this sureness of aim, this poise and serenity, which is noticeably lacking in our age and in our profession. This enviable tranquillity reigns only in a mind, a personality, that has found itself the fully integrated organism, as modern science phrases it. The Age of Pericles in Greece, the Renaissance period in Italy, the Age of Elizabeth in England, are mountain peaks from which men could see life steadily and see it whole. This sureness of aim, this serenity, is found only in a mind which looking before and after feels itself the representative of something outlasting time, some national ideal, some religious faith, some endless quest. This endless quest, I maintain, is the quest of the teacher, what Mazzine had in mind when he said, "He who can spiritualize democracy will save the world." REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE STATUS OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN TEACHER ANNA LAURA FORCE, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN SCHOOL, DENVER, COLORADO While teachers throughout the country are showing a greater interest in professional work, as is indicated by their reading, attendance at educa- tional meetings, travel, visiting other schools, attendance at summer schools, it is claimed that educational theory is still several years in advance of actual practice in the schoolroom. It is utterly impossible for the teacher to get the professional viewpoint until she is willing to interest herself in her own particular problem in the light of present-day scientific knowledge. An important present-day agency for the improvement and growth of teachers in service is teacher participation in curriculum building under scientific guidance, as it is carried on in some of our large cities. This curriculum making will develop standards, create ideals, and change the educational horizon of the most indifferent. That kind of supervision which analyzes the teacher's difficulties and helps and inspires her to her best effort is needed in every classroom in America. The urban teacher is more favored than the teacher in the isolated rural community, where adequate supervision is practically un- known. The ambitious teacher is often discouraged for lack of opportunity through negligence of administrative officers. Resourcefulness and initia- NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 371 tive should be recognized and encouraged in order to promote her growth and advancement, as well as the welfare of the children under her care. Misfits in the teaching profession are largely due to those responsible for the selection and training of teachers. In colleges, normal schools, and other teacher-training institutions there should be a careful analysis of voca- tional abilities of teaching, such as mental ability, habits of study, health habits, a sympathetic understanding of the child, a real interest in the social aspect of the child and the life of the community and a high ideal of service rendered by the teaching profession. Standards may be raised through legal requirements which demand a well-prepared professionally trained teacher, salary commensurate with preparation, growth, and skill, permanent tenure and a satisfactory re- tirement law. The professional status of the teacher while largely dependent upon the economic and legal status will be determined mostly by her ideals and attitudes. At no time in the history of public-school education has so much depended upon the quality of the teacher's work, her attitude toward her profession, and her appreciation of the opportunity to render service of the highest order. The future welfare of our boys and girls depends upon her sincerity of purpose and her devotion to the highest ideals of the profession. Public recognition of the teacher's work is often tardy or even lacking , but any thoughtful person realizes the tremendous responsibility placed upon her. She needs encouragement, inspiration, and professional leader- ship. The boys and girls will reflect her ideals of citizenship. "By her works she will be known." Her influence in human progress may be felt butnot seen, sometimes even misunderstood. The words of a great educa- tional philosopher seem eminently fitting in reference to her place in humar affairs, "A great soul is above all praise and dispraise of men, which are ever given ignorantly and without discernment. The popular breath even whenwinnowed by winds of centuries is hardly pure." THE SINGLE SALARY SCHEDULE IN PRACTICE JAMES F. HOSIC , ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY At the request of Miss Anna Laura Force, chairman of the Committee on the Status of Classroom Teachers, appointed by the National Council of Education, the writer undertook to prepare a report upon the single- salary schedule-what is being done and the probable effects. In planning the investigation and gathering material I had the full coöperation of the Division of Research of the National Education Association . The Division of Research was already in possession of certain data, col- lected in 1923, for the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, of which my col- league, Professor E. S. Evenden, was chairman. The list of cities reporting single-salary schedules to that committee was utilized, and many hin's as to procedure were obtained from its experience, 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The nature of the present inquiry can best be learned from the question- naire sent out. This ran as follows, except that spaces for replies have been omitted: 1. Do you have a single salary schedule in your system ? 2. If so, what is the minimum ? The maximum ? 3. Who receive the minimum ? The maximum ? 4. What factors are considered and have a direct effect in determining the salary of a given teacher at a given time ? 5. How do you weight each of these factors ? 6. What is the lowest salary paid a college graduate ? A normal school (2 years ) graduate ? 7. What particular college courses do you require for salary increase ? (Specify names, hours, and increases. ) 8. How do your teachers find opportunity to qualify for higher salaries ? ( Please check.) 1. Extension classes. 2. Summer school. 3. Leave of absence. 4. 5.- . 6. 9. What was the chief consideration leading to the introduction of the single salary schedule ? 10. What are the chief difficulties encountered in administering a single salary schedule ? 11. What, in your opinion, has been its effect (please suggest the basis of your opinion) ? 12. What modifications. do you intend to make in your present plan ? 13. Please include copy of salary schedule with your reply. One hundred and fifty-two copies of the questionnaire were sent out and 90 replies were received. Time did not permit a follow-up. To the direct question, "Do you have a single-salary schedule in your system ?" 19 cor- respondents replied "No." Since many of these systems have heretofore been counted in estimates of the spread of the single-salary idea, it is obvious that previous estimates are too high. The Southern California Committee, for example, reported that 154 cities in the school year 1922-23 were oper- ating on this basis. This is about 16 per cent. From 75 to 100 is prob- ably nearer the truth. The figures will vary in accordance with a wide and narrow interpreta- tion of the term single-salary schedule. In this report the term is taken to mean a single schedule for all classroom teachers. The effect of its intro- duction is to assure elementary teachers compensation equal to that of high- school teachers, provided that certain conditions are met. These include equally good academic and professional preparation, equal length of service, and equal efficiency. That is, no discrimination in favor of high-school teachers is made on the ground that their work is either more important, more difficult, or more exacting in point of knowledge and ability. The knowledege and ability required may not be the same in the two positions, but it is equally worthy and difficult to attain. The service rendered is also equally valuable and deserving of reward. The facts obtained as to minimum and maximum salaries paid in the cities reporting may be summarized as follows: the minimum is usually paid to graduates of a two-year normal school course without experience in NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 373 teaching. Some smaller cities in the list are apparently obliged to employ persons with still less of preparation. Many cities, on the other hand, pro- vide for a period of probation or cadetship, during which candidates for appointment receive only a nominal salary. The maximum salary is reserved for persons who have obtained a master's degree or made preparation equally extensive and who have had ten years of successful experience. A minority place this standard at graduation from a four-year college or professional course. The tendency seems to be to arrange the schedule so as to be able to recognize the ablest teachers which the system is likely to obtain without making unreasonable demands . Atpresent, it appears, from seven to ten years of experience are regarded as essential to ripeness and the doctor's degree as negligible . The differential in salary as between the graduate of a two-year normal school course and a graduate of a four-year college or professional course is comparatively small. This appears in the following table : MINIMUM SALARY Normal School Size of City Graduate College Graduate 250,000 and over . $1,200 $1,400 30,000 to 250,000 . 1,100 1,300 10,000 to 30,000 . 1,000 1,250 5,000 to 10,000. 1,000 1,240 2,500 to 5,000 . 1,000 1,240 What the teachers in these cities may aspire to is shown in the following: Range of Average of the Size of City Maximum Salary Maxima of this Schedule Group 250,000 and over . $2,150-3,080 $2,550 30,000 to 250,000 . 1,500-3,000 2,260 10,000 to 30,000 . 1,500-3,750 2,242 5,000 to 10,000 . 1,200-2,500 1,887 2,500 to 5,000 . 1,200-2,600 1,772 The factors that appear to be taken into account in determining the salary of a given teacher at a given time include (1) Academic and professional training, (2) Length of service, (3) Degree of merit, and (4) Sex ( in several cases) . In general, no clear distinction is made between academic and profes- sional training. Few correspondents indicate definitely whether they do or do not attempt to maintain a balance as between the two. It seems probable that at present those administering single-salary schedules accept as on a par in determining a teacher's place on the schedule one year of academic study in an accredited institution and one year of professional study in an accredited institution, whether college, normal school, or uni 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION versity. Some do attempt, as we shall see, to distinguish in the matter of yearly or other increments. It goes without saying that the question is a delicate one. Length of service is almost always counted. Here there is less difficulty, but, nevertheless, need of caution. The higher salaries are not usually paid to those who have not given at least a certain specified amount of service in the given city. The practice as to merit varies widely. There is evident a tendency to avoid connecting it directly with salary. Only a minority attempt to dis- tinguish degrees of merit and apportion salary increases accordingly. A typical instance of doing so is that of a city which rates its teachers A, B, C, and D. A teacher rated A receives $75 annual increment; one rated B, $50; one rated C, $25; and one rated D, no increment at all. The latter is placed on probation and dropped after one year if the rating does not improve. Such a scheme is exceptional. The trend appears to be toward rating the teacher as satisfactory or unsatisfactory, and after a reasonable time, if the teacher does not improve, to separate him from the system. No city reports a condition of permanent tenure which prevents this. The question of sex is evidently troublesome. Several correspondents assume that men teachers are needed and say that they provide for "stepping up" the salaries of men from $200 to $600 above those of women of equal preparation and experience, explaining that the laws of supply and demand must be obeyed. No reference is made, however, to scientific evidence which might prove that men are indispensable . The answers made to the question, " How do you weight these factors ? " do not lend themselves to organization. As stated above, academic and professional training are not usually distinguished. Experience is almost always considered quantitatively. Merit is comparatively seldom reckoned in quantitative terms. The general practice may be summed up thus : Place the teacher on the schedule in accordance with his preparation and, in many cases, experience ; advance him year by year on a regular scale, with additional increments for additional preparation. Question 7, "What particular college courses do you require for salary increase?" elicited few specific facts. Many administrators do not attempt to influence the teachers in this regard. There is a marked tendency, how- ever, to safeguard the point in some way. The most common phrase is, "with the approval of the superintendent." This leaves the initiative with the individual teacher, but provides for checking abuses and for guidance. That no superintendent can agree to accept for credit as of equal value for all teachers whatever courses they may choose to take, in whatever institu- tion they may select, is obvious. But that a superintendent might be tempted to evade his responsibility in this respect is equally obvious. The future of the movement may turn upon this point.¹ One superintendent has constructed a sort of "interest" table, reading in terms of years of experience and " majors " of college work. Apparently the "cashier" does the rest! NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 375 Opportunities to qualify for higher salaries are limited only by the num- ber of means available for "training teachers in service." Extension classes, summer schools, and leave of absence for study or travel are most fre- quently mentioned. One system has a salary committee, made up of teachers and principals, which meets fortnightly and apportions credit for attendance on association meetings, for travel, etc. This ought to be demo- cratic enough for anybody. At least one large system now provides for sabbatical leave with part pay. The consideration leading most directly to the introduction of the single- salary schedule appears to be a desire to establish justice, fairness, and equality. This conclusion is borne out by the replies to the question, "What has been the effect?" Where before was agitation and dissatisfaction, all is now quiet and peace. Evidently the elementary teachers themselves have had something to do with bringing about the change. This is suggested also by the repeated references to the principle that elementary school work is equally important and quite as difficult as high school work. But many of the superintendents who replied were moved by a more far-reaching motive. They want better elementary schools, and in order to get them they must have better teachers. Hence adequate preparation must be rewarded. A teacher, moreover, who has proved herself fully competent to handle a lower grade must not be tempted to leave it for a higher by the lure of more pay. Better preparation, continued improve- ment, more permanent tenure-these as means to better opportunity for the pupils are the real and fundamental considerations. The effects are almost uniformly said to be good. In the two or three cases reported otherwise it is a curious fact that the system was intro- duced by the predecessor of the one who reports. The workers now are said to be happy and contented. The scheme is judged fairer than the old, and agitation is ended. A great impetus to study is provided- "eighty-seven per cent of the teachers went to summer school the next season," one declares. "It keeps teachers alive." "It destroys the enmity which existed between the high school and the elementary teachers." "It has raised the standards below the high school." These are typical state- ments. Those who oppose a very small minority-say that the new schedule rewards inefficiency." "It will drive men out of the profession." "Merit is a better criterion than college preparation to use in determining salary." Difficulties in administering the single salary schedule are freely ad- mitted. To appraise college credits is not easy. Over interest in securing credits arises. Experience is likely to weigh too little. It is hard to give proper recognition to merit. The general schedule is too low to hold men. Tradition must be overcome. The danger of unionizing that is, leveling without regard to service must be avoided. There is danger that money will figure too largely in the teacher's aims. The majority, however, report no such difficulties. Nor is there any 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION consensus as to needed modifications in the scheme as now in effect. The time elapsed since it was adopted in nearly all of the places reporting is too short to permit of any very definite weaknesses in the scheme becoming apparent. By way of comment I wish to add that, human nature being what it is, we have good reason to suppose that the single salary schedule will tend to become automatic. Once the principle is established that high school and elementary school teachers are equal, why not all teachers, irrespective of merit, length of service, or preparation ? Merit, since it is hardest to evaluate, would be the first to go. The influence of such a change upon teaching could not be other than disastrous. At present teaching is a profession and not a trade. Administrators must accept responsibility as to what constitutes the best professional preparation. If any course in an arts college is as good as any other and equal to a course in education as preparation for whatever task the teacher may have to undertake, then the whole movement for pro- fessional schools of education is abortive. If, on the other hand, courses in method may be substituted for courses in needed subject matter, then "preparation" for the work of a particular position is only a name. Super- intendents seem to be generally awake to these issues. The differential between the salary of the graduate of a two-year normal school course and the graduate of a full four-year course is too small. It averages at present only about two hundred and twenty-five dollars. Few will be induced by such a reward to spend two additional years at a cost of many times this amount. The difference in the value of the service which can be rendered by the two groups is inadequately represented by it. Rating schemes now in use will prove unequal to the strain which the operation of the new schedule will put upon them. They should be better adapted to the individual case; they should put more stress on results achieved and less on traits of personality believed to be favorable to good teaching; and above all they should be worked out and applied coöрега- tively. This applies to the single-salary schedule itself. The teachers who study it and who undertake to help make it a success will bear a decidedly better relation to it and to the schools than teachers to whom it is merely announced. This seems to be widely but by no means universally under- stood. Finally, the considerations which have led to the introduction of the single-salary schedule for teachers will inevitably lead in due time to the establishment of similar schedules for principals. Time was when the importance of school work with younger pupils was seldom recognized. Most of the responsibility for their training was borne by the home . With the passing years the school has become increasingly important and early formative influences have been more justly weighed. Now few would deny that the older the pupil the less he needs a teacher at all; the more he can do for himself. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 377 Amodern platoon school in a large city, with nearly a hundred teachers, a resident psychologist, and highly differentiated courses has little in com- mon with the "deestrict" school of our fathers. It calls for a high order of ability and entails heavy responsibility upon its general manager. The public is gradually awakening to this fact. The salary schedules of ele- mentary school principals will not long continue to end where those of high school principals begin. RECENT LEGISLATION AFFECTING THE STATUS OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN TEACHER JOHN K. NORTON, DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH DIVISION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. One need not look far back in educational history to view the time when from a legal viewpoint the status of the teacher was extremely in- secure. Much of the teaching was performed by indentured servants, casual travelers, indigent old ladies, and others of similar character. Later, teaching became a transient calling-a stepping-stone for capable young men and women on their way into one of the recognized professions. It is not to be wondered at that the teaching profession under such con- ditions rested on insecure legal ground. Certification in its present sense was unknown. The principle prerequisite to qualification as a teacher was a willingness to accept the salary offered. But fortunately that day has passed, or is passing in many States. There are signs that the teaching profession is rapidly being placed on a sound legal basis-one which ap- proaches, even if it does not fully equal, that upon which rests the older and more firmly established professions. Admission into any calling that is to deserve the name profession, must be carefully guarded. The laws governing the certification of teachers in a number of States already protects the profession from those who are untrained. Such laws have been in effect for a sufficient period in some States, so that the teacher who has not normal-school training or the equivalent is the exception. Over eighty per cent of the teachers in Arizona, California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York , and Rhode Island now hold certificates that are obtainable only on the basis of normal-school graduation or equivalent training. These States may look forward to the time in the not distant future when they will employ none but trained teachers . The certification laws passed recently in other States aim at bringing all teachers up to standard requirements within a set number of years. The Pennsylvania law is well-known and has been followed by similar laws in other States. Washington at the last session of its legislature enacted a measure almost without opposition which sets 1927 as the date when no teachers but those possessing two years' training beyond high-school graduation will be employed. Montana passed a law which by a series of steps lifts certification requirements, so that by 1929 none 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION but those possessing forty-eight quarter units beyond high-school gradua- tion can qualify. Other States that have enacted measures of a similar nature are Colorado, Indiana and Kansas . The territory in the United States is rapidly shrinking where admission to the profession is possible except on the basis of careful preparation. There are also indications that salary conditions that justify careful preparation are being created. Certification laws are powerless to guar- antee trained teachers if salaries are too meagre to attract a sufficient supply of teacher candidates . The adoption of salary schedules by increasing numbers of school boards is a favorable sign. No more effective method of encouraging capable young women to enter teacher training can be found than the adoption by boards of education of salary schedules that promise a rea- sonable return after the period of training and apprenticeship has been served. Previous to 1919 less than half of our cities had definite salary schedules. In 1923 two thirds of our cities had adopted such schedules. Teacher candidates are now able to predict their future compensation with a greater certainty thas ever before . The form which many of these schedules are taking is significant. I speak of the single salary schedule. This type of schedule is a promise on the part of a school board that training, experience, and competency will receive equal salary recognition in all grades. It encourages all teachers whether they prefer to work in the first or the twelfth grade to undertake a sound program of preparation for their work. Nothing can do more to elevate the rank and file of the profession. In 1919 the single salary schedule was almost unknown. In 1923 one city in six had adopted the single salary schedule principle if not fully at least in modified form. Most important of all there has been a general lifting of the level of teachers' salaries throughout the cities of the country . In 1913 less than one elementary teacher in 1,000 received a salary of $2,000 or more each year. In 1923 one teacher in every five in city elementary schools received such a salary. In 1913 two high-school teachers in every 100 in cities received salaries of $2,000 or more. In 1913 sixty- one high-school teachers in every 100 in cities received such a salary. These increases, of course, must be discounted because of the rapid de- preciation of the dollar. Even when this factor is taken into considera- tion there has been real as well as a dollar increases in salaries paid in the great majority of American cities. In spite of the reactionary suggestions coming from near-sighted or selfish interests there is no general tendency to reduce salary. A survey just completed by the Research Division indicates that the majority of cities are maintaining their salary schedules. A small percentage of the cities reported schedules that provided for higher salaries in 1924 than in 1923. The city that reported an actual reduction was the great ex- ception. Legislation affecting teacher retirement has received much attention NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 379 in the last decade. At the present time two thirds of the States have passed teacher retirement laws. All of those on the books cannot be given unqualified approval. On the other hand, the tendency toward sound pension legislation cannot be denied. Several States, such as New York and Wisconsin, have already enacted laws the soundness of which cannot be questioned. Many other States are moving in the same direc- tion. The policy of coöperation between the States and the teaching pro- fession in enacting retirement systems that protect the children from teach- ers made ineffective by old age is receiving wider and wider acceptance. The extension of such legislation means much to the welfare of the pro- fession. The movement for tenure legislation is yet in its infancy. At present but nine States have enacted teacher tenure laws. There is some dis- agreement as to the form that this legislation should assume. The move- ment itself, however, which has as its objective the legislative regulation of tenure in some manner will continue. It is a live question in a number of the States at the present time. Discussion of progress in the enactment of sound State equalization funds may not at first sight appear to be appropriate under this topic. No legislation is of greater importance to the teaching profession. Such funds more than anything else will lift the profession to the place where none but capable persons will be admitted to its ranks. The equalization fund in effect does this. It creates a reserve from which money is supplied to those local districts whose wealth is so meager that reasonable tax rate will not provide the funds requisite for obtaining a trained teacher. Without the State equalization fund, certification laws are likely to be barren of effect, at least in the poorer districts. The effect of the Maryland State fund in elevating the teaching profession in that State may well be studied by students of education. Such measures are basic if we are ever to reach the place where the teaching profession is to be relieved of the incubus of the untrained, incompetent teacher. These, briefly, are some of the fundamental legislative tendencies that are affecting the status of the American woman teacher. Progress at times seems slow. Set backs are frequent. But that progress is being made few would deny. Sound certification laws, adequate salaries sched- ules, sound retirement systems, careful tenure legislation and basic State equalization funds reflect the willingness of the Nation's citizenry to sup- port the efforts of the profession to lift itself to a higher level of effi- ciency. The legal foundation for a new profession is being laid. If present tendencies continue this generation will see the time when the status of the teacher on the legal side will be as secure and as respected as the older and more firmly established professions . 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION COÖRDINATION IN PART- TIME EDUCATION MARGARET M. ALLTUCKER, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, RESEARCH DIVISION NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Nearly half a million children between 14 and 16 years of age termi- nate their schooling annually, and the total number of young people be- tween 14 and 18 who were not attending school of any sort in 1920 equaled 2,967,651, or 31.4 per cent of the entire population of this age group in the United States. The change from school to work is usually accompanied by the breaking down of the controlling influences of school association and environment. The interpreting influence of the part-time school where it exists, is the State's chief means of surveillance over its hordes of employed boys and girls. The problems of the part-time school are many and complex. First of all, it attempts to make the break between the school life of the child and the work life of the child less difficult through carefully adjusted counsel and training which take into consideration the practical aspects of a youth's duty as a citizen and his potentialities as a worker. The con- tinuation school should be above all a social laboratory in which the voca- tional, mental, physical, moral, and social equipment of the working boy or girl is analyzed, with a view to the development of such special abilities as are revealed, and to the correction of deficiencies. No one knows better than the part-time teacher that : "Few boys are born with talents that excel, but all are capable of living well." The special strength of the part-time school consists in its relationships to life. The difference between the general continuation part-time school, trade preparatory, and the trade extension and commercial part-time schools must be recognized. One of the chief objectives of the latter is to give instruction which is closely related to a particular trade or commercial occupation to boys and girls already at work in that trade or occupation. Usually the shop is best qualified to train in the manipulative processes, and the school in the technical side. Teachers of part-time pupils should take advantage of the uses of English and arithmetic in the daily work of the pupils, the geography and history connected with the industries in which they are engaged, and the hygiene and civics which are directly related to the pupils' daily work, community activities, and personal welfare . In regard to the general continuation school, many of the pupils, par- ticularly those between 14 and 16 years of age, are employed at jobs for which it is not possible to give any considerable amount of strictly voca- tional instruction closely related to those occupations. However, this does not mean that the part-time school is free from responsibility. It must be remembered that most of these pupils left school before completing the eighth grade, that their general education is inadequate, that their daily work often teaches them little that will help them get better positions when they are older; that the tendency is for them to shift from job to job often with long periods of intermittent idleness. The first job is often NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 381 entered blindly through circumstances. Hence the fact that a youth is atwork at a job is not conclusive evidence that that job is the one which will develop into his life work. Occupational adjustment is one of the problems which many pupils bring to the part-time school. It is best met through supplying occupational information and participation, so that eventually the boy places himself that is, so far as choice of occupation is concerned. Such pupils are best oriented in the part-time school through the "reservoir" class. Here their interests and needs are studied, visits are made to their places of employment and to their homes, and after a careful case study they are transferred to the class or course which appears to be best suited to their needs. When the demand for a particular course isnot sufficient to justify offering it or when working conditions cannot be duplicated to advantage in the school shop, the plan of "try-out" courses inoperation in Wisconsin offers a solution of the problem. Briefly, the plan is this: If a boy thinks he might be interested in the butcher trade, for example, he is placed in a butcher shop for four out of eight hours of required attendance at the part-time school each week. During these four hours each week he works under the instruction of the butcher. The school authorities offer to pay the butcher fifty cents per week for this instruction, but some of the tradesmen will not accept remuneration. Two or more boys may in some cases be placed in the same shop. The boys are not allowed to receive pay for the four hours spent under instruction in the shop. If a boy finally decides that he wants to learn the butcher trade, he secures a permanent position in a butcher shop and then according to the Wisconsin plan attends a trade-extension part-time class for eight hours a week. The plan may be applied to any kind of shop, store, office, or factory. It is obvious that no single factor can contribute as largely to the suc- cess of part-time and continuation schools as can an efficient scheme of coördination. Upon this work depends the degree to which the part-time school can actually serve the home and business interests of the country . Instruction for employed boys and girls must be made to have a practical value which is evident to them or they will not take an active interest. To use their own language, they "are strong for it," when, for example : the lesson in salesmanship gives them a cue that they put to work success- fully the next day. Copies of courses used elsewhere will not suffice. Courses must be adapted to well defined local needs. While the part- time school must first concern itself with present needs of pupils, it must also consider what needs a pupil must meet in order to develop into larger usefulness. The pupil must be so encouraged that he sets a goal for him- self. An intelligent incentive to do something necessarily precedes the training to do that thing. Teachers cannot hope to teach unless there is a desire to learn. The part-time school is called upon in many cases to supply not only the opportunity for an education, but also the motive power within the boy or girl for getting it. 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION However, the part-time school cannot assume the whole responsibility of training employed youth. This is a joint task of home, school, church , and shop-each playing an important part in its own sphere and each appre- ciating what the other is doing and coöperating with it. Coördination and follow-up work have been the means of bringing together in many communities groups of employers and parents for the purpose of discussing problems of continuing the education of employed youths. Coördination of all the forces which may be brought to bear upon the problem of part-time education in a community is, in the last analysis, a personal problem. It can be accomplished only through the efforts of coördinators, men and women to whom time is allotted for this purpose, and who because of personality and training are able to make a study of the needs of youth, both personal and occupational, and also a study of the means of satisfying those needs. The five chief functions of coördination are: ( 1) educational salesman- ship, (2 ) promotion of instruction, ( 3) placement, (4 ) personal advice and assistance, and (5) community coöperation. In other words, the co- ordinator in a part-time school must be an educator, a counselor, and a social worker, as well as an administrator. As an educator, he must know and apply the aims and ideals of part-time education and interpret its philosophy. Through occupational and job analyses he must learn what technical and related knowledge is required for success in a particular occupation or job, as well as its teaching content. Then he must apply this definite occupational information to the blocking out of instructional material . Unit lessons will often be given to meet needs which the co- ordinator discovered as he observed the youth on the job. Very often the coördinator is also able to furnish information that will aid the teacher in raising the standards of living of part- time pupils. As counselor and social worker the coördinator's chief duties include placement and personal advice and assistance. To place youths in em- ployment that offers a desirable occupational objective usually necessitates the making of a survey of the local community to find openings and also to classify local firms as to type of employment for minors, number em- ployed, nature of the work in each job, etc. It also includes case studies of the youths themselves. Scientific research is the only sound basis for organization of part-time as well as full-time schools. Placement should of course presuppose follow-up work. In some instances it may include the arranging of trade agreements . Counsel that is worth anything must be based on definite information regarding employment, schooling, progress, home life, abilities, health, interests, and ambitions . The fact that the co- ordinator knew about him, believed in him, and was a friend to him has encouraged many a part-time boy to overcome greater difficulties than some of us have ever faced. I have in mind one coördinator, whom I can best de- scribe as a "happy-tempered bringer of the best out of the worst." She not only visits part-time pupils' homes and places of employment and analyzes the needs which she discovers, but she visits the agencies of the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 383 community with which coöperation is possible, and secures necessary help. She knows the social status of her community; the habits of the people, their recreation, standards of living, and racial peculiarities. With this knowledge she is also able to assist in providing wholesome amusement . Fortunately for the part-time pupils this coördinator, who is so gifted in human understanding realizes that amusement, in order to be wholesome need not be tiresome. As an administrator the coördinator must "sell the idea" of part-time education to the public; to employers, parents, employees, and-yes-to educators. It is the coördinator who usually makes detailed arrange- ments of the time and place of class attendance. He tries to have the time schedules satisfactory to all concerned; employers, school administrators, and parents. He also establishes proper relationships with the attendance department and other school units . As an administrator the coördinator often secures community co- operation through advisory boards, composed of representative employers and educators. Such boards assist in publicity, in preparing for surveys , indetermining what vocational work needs to be stressed in the community, and in recommending certain expenditures for new courses or improvement ofexisting courses . The range of functions coming within the field of coördination in a large part-time school is so broad that the work of coördination belongs not only to coördinators, but to everyone connected with the part-time school. Teachers of part-time classes to be successful must be more than good instructors, they must in addition have a sympathetic attitude toward the problems of employed youth. The division of the various functions of coördination must, of course, be decided in each community and the number of pupils involved will largely determine the distribution of the work. But, regardless of the size of the community, every phase of co- ordination must be undertaken by some one, if part-time education is to function in its broadest sense. The vital point is not the manner or dis- tribution of duties, but the certainty that some one will, through a co- ordination of the educational forces of home, school, and job, furnish ade- quate opportunity for the development of the character and abilities of each youth of the community. REPORT ON SUMMER SESSIONS IN STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGES JOSEPH E. AVENT, UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE , TENNESSEE Inthis paper we shall report : First, The general plan of organization and administration of summer sessions in fifty-eight State teachers' colleges, located in twenty-four States; Second, The general type of those who teach in the summer sessions of five large teachers' colleges, located in representative sections of this country; Third, The striking facts of 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION students served by the summer sessions in the same five teachers' colleges ; Fourth, the relations existing between the summer session and the tra- ditional regular sessions; and Fifth, the purposes for which the summer sessions are conducted. In the answers here given we use the central tendencies, or medians, or averages of the data bearing on each topic. The data are those of summer session, 1922 . Organization and administration-It may be news to some that the summer sessions are not separately organized schools. As a matter of fact, they are under authority of the same boards as are the regular ses- sions. They are administered, in most cases, by the same executive heads. Thus is afforded a high degree of continuity of policy throughout the calendar year. It will probably not be news to be informed that the summer sessions are inadequately financed. They have an average of only $3.04 per student-enrolment-week. Regular sessions of teachers' colleges have nearly double that amount; the regular sessions of other types of State institutions have more than three times that amount. Of the $3.04 avail- able per student-enrolment-week in summer, however, 79 per cent goes for instruction. This inadequate financial support, for a summer session 47 days long, shows its retarding effects. For example, not enough teach- ers can be employed. There are on average 23 times as many students as there are instructors, in summer session. Now it is a standard among accrediting associations that the number of students enrolled in colleges should be to the number of instructors in a ratio of about 12 to 1, instead of 23 to 1. This is, however, a different thing from the size of classes. which may contain up to 30 students each. Again, practice-teaching fa- cilities need to be more than doubled, to give their student teachers six weeks' full-time practice. While these summer sessions enrol in their major term an average of 1,046 students, only one fifth of them can be accommodated in the college dormitories. On the whole, the plan of organization and administration does not differ materially from that of the regular session, except in the matters of financial support and provision for practice-teaching. Summer session teaching staffs-When we speak of those who teach in summer sessions, their personal data become interesting. In their edu- cation, they have had, on the average, four and a half years of education on the collegiate level. Though twenty per cent of them have diplomas of less value than that represented by a bachelor's degree, fifty per cent of them do have bachelor's degrees, twenty per cent of them have masters' degrees, and five per cent have doctors' degrees. In addition to their liberal and professional education, they exhibit the professional spirit, by having used, since graduation, twenty-six weeks of summer terms in further educational growth . Not only are the summer teachers thus qualified in their education, but they are experienced teachers. They have taught in the rural schools, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 385 village schools, and city schools in representative proportions. A substan- tial proportion of them have also had experience in normal school, or college, or university. This experience has been somewhat similarly dis- tributed over the primary, intermediate, advance, and high-school grade levels. This summer work is not new to them. They have taught a median of four previous sessions in summer. Their teaching load is but little heavier than in regular session. It consists of a median of 16.4 class-hours per week. Each class enrols 26 students. The courses given by these teachers in summer are substan- tially those given by them in regular session. These courses are : 66 per cent professional for teaching; 18 per cent of liberal arts character ; 7 per cent review for examination; 3 per cent vocational, other than for teaching. We have two facts about these summer session teachers more personal than the foregoing. These facts are their age and salary. Their median age is exactly 39 years. Their median salary for the year preceding sum- mer session work was $2300. These teachers do the summer work, seven weeks, for $377, which is at the rate of $40 per month less than that received in regular session. Though they actually work in summer at a smaller remuneration than in regular session, their average qualifications are quite as high. It is interesting to note, too, that 51 per cent of them are men. These teachers are, then, qualified in education, in teaching ex- perience and professional outlook, to do a worthy summer session task. Summer session students-It is a matter of common knowledge that any program of education becomes more simplified, when one has ascer- tained the outstanding characteristic needs of the students to be served . We have tried to ascertain these needs for the summer session students in the matter of their education, teaching experience, and certain personal circumstances. In reporting these facts, we shall show you the real reason why these students attend summer school. In their education they were not all high-school graduates. Only sixty-seven per cent of them had graduated from high school ; only fifteen per cent of them had graduated from normal school in either the two-year or the four-year curriculum ; only six per cent of them had graduated from liberal arts college, and twelve per cent from high-school training school . In their summer education forty per cent of these students were at summer school, at the time of our study, for the first time; the median previous attendance of all these summer students was 6.5 weeks; their average program was found not only in the first year on the collegiate level, but even in the first half of that year. That program consists of three subjects, one of which comes two periods a day. These students were more mature than those attending regular session . Three-fourths of them have had teaching experience, with a median of 3.4 Tears. This experience, in somewhat striking resemblance to that of the summer faculty, had been in representative proportions in rural, village, and city schools, and on primary, intermediate, advanced and high-school 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION grade levels. Their next year's position changed but slightly, and that change was in the direction of the more highly organized schools. The maturity of these students may be further seen in their median age of 23.3 years, ranging from 15 to 62 years . More personal facts about these summer session students are: ( 1) They come from larger families than those attending in regular session- namely, a family of seven members ; (2) Their father was living in 85 per cent of cases; (3) Their father was a farmer in 62 per cent of the cases; ( 4) Their father's family income was, on the average, less than $1500 per year, or less than $250 per member of the family per year, in terms of 1922 purchasing power of the dollar; (5) Those who taught the year preceding summer school attendance did so at a median salary of $947, and their contract for the session following the summer school was for $ 1010 ; ( 6) Their cost to attend summer school was $84, or $21 more than their next year's increase in salary ; (7) Three fourths of them earned the money with which to attend summer school ; (8) Forty per cent of them already were helping support dependents ; and ( 9 ) Financial aid to them from official sources was negligible, being given in less than 4 per cent of cases. In view of the foregoing, it is easy to see why the summer session students cannot attend the regular session at an annual cost of probably $500 and why they must use the summer session as the necessary means of their professional education. The real reason is that they need the education thus afforded to do their respective jobs; society demands their getting this education; their private circumstances prevent their seeking it in regular session . The relation of the summer session to the traditional regular session- You will be interested to know how close their relation is. The likenesses may be stated as follows: (1 ) Controlled by the same boards; (2) Ad- ministered by the same executive heads in 83 per cent of cases ; (3) Mannedby 73 per cent of the same teaching staffs ; (4) Offering courses of about 80 per cent identity; (5) The teaching load about the same; and (6) Credits earnable in summer 10 per cent greater than in regular session, in proportion to time. There are, however, certain noticeable differences: ( 1 ) Admission re- quirements are less stringent in summer session, especially when the work taken is not to be counted toward a diploma or degree; (2) The summer session enrolment is 26 per cent greater than that of the regular session; and (3) Though the summer session is only 26 per cent as long as the regular session, it actually turns out 42 per cent as many standard two-, three-,and four-year graduates. Note this third point: The summer ses- sions, operated on the average, with half the financial resources of the regular session, though running but 26 per cent as many days, are turn- ing out 42 per cent as many standard graduates. It may be surprising to you, but this output is 60 per cent greater than the number which would be proportional to the term lengths. Had you dreamed that the summer NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 387 sessions were making such a magnificent contribution to the professional education of teachers ? Summer session purposes-The summer sessions have developed so recently and their growth has been so rapid that possibly even those in the midst of this rapid growth were scarcely conscious of the real purposes which served as such drives to progress. We have been at some care to ascertain and to state the purposes served by the summer session. We shall state these purposes from the following standpoints : ( 1 ) Historical, ( 2 ) Statutory, (3) Administrative, (4) The educational and economic needs of students, and (5) The States' needs for teachers. Historically considered, the summer session has not been imposed from without the profession. No significant outside movements social, political, or otherwise, have affected, particularly, summer session purposes. Even those writers who have undoubtedly influenced educational policies in this country have passed over the topic of summer sessions in almost unanimous silence. If these writers, out of or in the profession, have influenced summer session purposes at all, it has been only as a by-product of their exposition, or advocacy of other phases of education . On the other hand, there have been influences within the profession which operated to stimulate the rise of our summer sessions and to give point to their existence. Summer sessions have risen from within the profession. The influences, which stimulated their rise, have been, some- what, as follows: ( 1) Voluntary decision of the managements of the teachers' colleges themselves to conduct summer sessions ; ( 2) Demands from teachers in the field, sometimes expressed through resolutions in meetings; ( 3 ) Certificate requirements ; ( 4) Zeal of certain educational leaders. In response to the foregoing influences, then, the purposes pre- vailing fifteen or twenty years ago were : ( 1 ) Partial pre-service educa- tion of persons planning to teach the following session ; ( 2) In-service education for actual teachers ; ( 3 ) Review and certification ; ( 4) Credit work toward diplomas and degrees. Passing now to the statutory purposes of summer sessions, we find that no State legislature has ever stated them, as separate from other institu- tional functions. Summer sessions are but a part of the expanding general function of the teachers' colleges themselves. That general function is the professional education of teachers for the public schools, and that function was stated in the original acts establishing the teachers' colleges. A separate function has nowhere been stated by statute for the summer sessions. Administrative purposes-These, as conceived and stated by the pres- ent executive heads of the teachers' colleges, by personal correspondence , by questionnaire, by published announcements, are as follows : ( 1 ) The further education of teachers who are already in service ; (2) Original, or renewed certification; (3) Professional graduation ; (4) Pre-service edu- cation for non-experienced persons who will teach the following session. 386 NATIONAL ED V grade levels . Their next year's ich was second not change was in the direction of t belongs and where The maturity of these students wement. Itwill of 23.3 years, ranging from 15 to service for their More personal facts about t pose of summer They come from larger families tth, as it should W namely, a family of seven memb ny years hence. per cent of cases ; ( 3 ) Their fatl ucation, before cases ; ( 4) Their father's family es of summer $1500 per year, or less than $25e hers' colleges. terms of 1922 purchasing power resent. It is year preceding summer school a ise for which $947, and their contract for the mal, political infirst; 34 for $ 1010 ; ( 6 ) Their cost to att 0 put profes- than their next year's increase in anal police 18 ted profes- the money with which to attend al other pur them already were helping suppor them from official sources was ny 4 of these cent of cases . In view of the for stead of session students cannot attend the Three- probably $ 500 and why they mus lowing means of their professional educati tofirst education thus afforded to do the not getting this education; their priva nent . in regular session. eyes, The relation of the summer se her You will be interested to know he may be stated as follows : ( 1 ) C- d ministered by the same executiv Manned by 73 per cent of the sa of about 80 per cent identity ; (5 ) (6) Credits earnable in summer 1 in proportion to time . There are, however, certain no quirements are less stringent in st taken is not to be counted toward session enrolment is 26 per cent and (3) Though the summer ses regular session, it actually turns ( three-,and four-year graduates . I - sions, operated on the average, v regular session, though running b ing out 42 per cent as many stand you, but this output is 60 per cen be proportional to the term lengtl COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 389 how : ( 1 ) About one-third of those teachers than high-school graduation ; (2) About chool; (3) About one-third have gone one hool graduation; and (+) Less than one- ed each year are furnished as graduates from rs' colleges . now prevailing in the schools of the States n of teachers in the schools, no one can deny ation of the States' teachers as the predomi- summer session is conducted in teachers' col- the supply of teachers somewhat more profes- d fom r sessions in our State teachers' colleges are respect differently from the regular session , ncial support and for practice-teaching. The edly composed of as highly qualified teachers 11 sion. The relation of the summer session to 1 is so close that many executive heads now as an integral part of the school year. The the professional education of teachers for the t different from the regular session in this re- purposes, however, concern a student body, 80 sonnel, relatively mature, somewhat experienced or intermittent in college attendance, and hav- ssional, educational, and economic characteristics ; in regular session. These immediate purposes, service education of these summer students, investi- with respect to prospective fields of service, the summer session policy. sare, therefore, respectfully reported to you as the for in-service education yet devised. They are not t. They will abide, but in the future they will from which teachers already having a standard pre- drink at frequent intervals, renew their professional heir professional growth. ORT OF STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGES ARSHALL COLLEGE , HUNTINGTON , WEST VIRGINIA n hour of investigations. Finances are to the fore. with fiscal support is announced you have a right to rce the evidence has been secured . The facts on n is based have been secured direct from the present colleges in Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota, Illinois, 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Notice what has happened. The in-service purpose which was second not many years ago now becomes first. That is where it belongs and where it will stay. The summer session is no temporary movement. It will become increasingly more valuable to teachers already in service for their continued professional growth. And the pre-service purpose of summer session work, which was first years ago, now becomes fourth, as it should be, until we shall reach a point, we devoutly hope, not many years hence, when every teacher will have had a standard professional education, before entering upon the work of the profession. The purposes of summer sessions, as conceived by the present executive heads of teachers' colleges and as checked up from other angles, are correct for the present. It is true that the students when asked to name the one main purpose for which they came to summer school did not put in-service education first; 34 per cent of them put certification first; 32 per cent of them put profes sional graduation first, while only 12 per cent of them checked profes- sional growth, and 22 per cent of them checked miscellaneous other pur- poses. Yet, when one considers Summer session purposes from the standpoint of the real needs of these students, he will see that the purposes, as stated by students instead of rebutting administrative conceptions, in reality, reinforce them. Three- fourths of these students had taught and did teach again the following session; two-thirds of them had no professional training previous to first coming to summer school; those attending were, on the average, not beyond the first half of the first collegiate year in degree of advancement. Although certification and graduation loomed large in these students' eyes, they are but incentives for the first and real purpose-namely, their further education for their professional tasks. Again, when one considers the economic needs of these students and finds ( 1) That their next year's increase in salary was $21 less than the cost to attend 6.5 weeks of summer school; (2) that their family and financial circumstances were such that these students just could not attend in regular session ; (3) that three-fourths of them had already earned the money for their summer expenses ; and (4) That 40 per cent of them were already helping support dependents. Whether certification or graduation be the major incentive urging these students on, the in-service education motive must operate, from the standpoint of administration, for the great majority of them; and the motive of partial pre-service education must continue for a substantial minority, until the State shall be able to fill all teaching positions with persons having a standard professional education received prior to entering the profession. The dominant purpose of the summer session, that of continued edu cation of teachers already in service, is brought out into even clearer re- lief and receives even further reinforcement, when it is viewed from the standpoint of the State's needs for teachers. Various official and scientific studies of the qualifications of those who are actually teaching in the States' schools, when averaged for the States in which our tour-year NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 389 teachers' colleges are located, show: ( 1 ) About one-third of those teachers have a general education less than high-school graduation ; (2) About one-third have finished high school ; (3 ) About one-third have gone one or more years beyond high-school graduation; and (4) Less than one- third of the new teachers needed each year are furnished as graduates from the normal schools and teachers' colleges . With such conditions right now prevailing in the schools of the States as to the professional education of teachers in the schools, no one can deny the privacy of in-service education of the States' teachers as the predomi- nant purpose for which the summer session is conducted in teachers' col- leges. It is to help increase the supply of teachers somewhat more profes- sionally educated. In conclusion, the summer sessions in our State teachers' colleges are administered in no essential respect differently from the regular session , except in provision for financial support and for practice-teaching. The teaching staffs are undoubtedly composed of as highly qualified teachers as those of the regular session. The relation of the summer session to that of the regular session is so close that many executive heads now regard the summer session as an integral part of the school year. The ultimate purposes concern the professional education of teachers for the public schools and are not different from the regular session in this re- spect. Their immediate purposes, however, concern a student body, 80 per cent different in personnel, relatively mature, somewhat experienced in teaching, temporary or intermittent in college attendance, and hav- ing quite different professional, educational, and economic characteristics from students attending in regular session. These immediate purposes, then, must make the in-service education of these summer students, investi- gated as to their needs with respect to prospective fields of service, the dominant principle of a summer session policy. The summer sessions are, therefore, respectfully reported to you as the most important factor for in-service education yet devised. They are not a temporary expedient. They will abide, but in the future they will become the fountains from which teachers already having a standard pre- service education will drink at frequent intervals, renew their professional youth, and stimulate their professional growth. FISCAL SUPPORT OF STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGES F. R. HAMILTON, MARSHALL COLLEGE, HUNTINGTON, WEST VIRGINIA We are living in an hour of investigations. Finances are to the fore. When a topic dealing with fiscal support is announced you have a right to know from what source the evidence has been secured. The facts on which this presentation is based have been secured the present executives in teachers' colleges in Colorado, Mist Illinois, 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kansas, Washington, Massachusetts, Iowa, Missouri, and West Virginia; and from the presidents of the universities and agricultural colleges in those States. It covers the ten years ending July 1, 1923. What is our national policy for training teachers? We admit the in- adequacy of the supply, but what are we doing to remedy it? We have carried on active publicity campaigns in the interest of reducing illiteracy, we have increased school attendance, but what have we done to secure a teaching personnel for this enlarged carrying load of the public schools? We have tried to relieve the situation caused by an inadequate supply of teachers by reducing standards and issuing licenses to teach on a con- sequent lower level. The public has demanded more and better teachers- but what effort has our Nation made to meet that demand ? Last year we paid 17 per cent less for training each prospective teacher than we paid ten years ago . The median expenditure on the part of the State for each teacher trained in 1913-14 was $ 165 ; last year it was $242.50, a loss ot 17 per cent based on the index number revealing the purchasing power of the dollar. For the past ten years the median expenditure for each teacher trained one year in our State teachers' colleges has been $214.00. During the same time the same States have spent $403 per year for each student in the universities and the agricultural colleges. Until it can be proved that we are not justified in investing that sum in each student seeking service from those higher institutions, it must be conceded that our pros- pective teachers, if they are not to be discriminated against, should have at least an equal amount provided for their training. Nor is that all. Prospective teachers are paying 43 per cent higher tuition and incidental fees than they paid in 1913-14. Last year the median fees paid by students training for teaching amounted to 10 per cent of the total expenditures for teachers' colleges, exclusive of capital outlay. For the past ten years students in the University of Missouri have paid annually approximately 11 per cent of the operating expenses of that in- stitution, while the prospective teachers in the teachers' college in War- rensburg, Missouri, have been required to pay annually 24 per cent of its total operating expenses. A study of the finances of our State higher educational institutions dur- ing the past decade reveals a strong tendency to require the student to carry an increasing percentage of the total cost of maintenance. Without opening that question for debate at this time it needs only to be pointed out that the teachers' college represents a particular type of professional institution in which the States and the Nation are so vitally interested that rather than follow this trend, our public welfare dictates that we should adopt a plan for more adequate support, even if not of subsidies for teachers in training. The founders of our State governments, realizing as they did, the necessity for these professional schools made almost uniform provision that they be open to prospective teachers without tuition. Observe the Gen- eral Laws of the State of Michigan, 1894, page 157, No. 138-An act to NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 391 establish a State Normal School-Section 13-"Those pupils who are admitted to the said school shall not be charged for tuition or for the use of any apparatus or for attendance on any lectures." Yet what are the facts? The prospective teachers in that institution have paid during the past ten years 11 per cent of its total operating expenses a clear viola- tion of the spirit of the statute under which the teachers' college was organized. Michigan is not alone. Read the corresponding sections of the general laws of Minnesota, of Illinois, of Washington, of Wisconsin, of Colorado, of your own State. Similar provisions are general. Yet what has occurred ? The State legislatures neglecting, refusing to ap- propriate ample funds for the proper maintenance of these public service institutions, have compelled the administration to subvert the law and devise incidental fees, enrolment fees, matriculation fees, laboratory fees and what not, until the student has paid 10, 15, 20, 25 per cent of the total cost of maintaining these "free" public teachers' colleges. But that is not the worst feature. It would not be so bad to require the prospective teacher to pay that percentage if he were given the opportunity to secure the vigorous, well-directed, high-grade professional training his work will require-but when we realize that too often the education is dwarfed in its posibilities because of its meagre, stinted, State support, the pathos of the injustice is manifest. Nor is that all. The prospective teacher is not only called upon to pay 43 per cent higher fees than he paid ten years ago, while the State pays 17 per cent less, he not only pays 10 per cent of the operating ex- penses of the college in direct violation of the laws under which they are organized, but he works in a library relatively more poorly equipped than it was in 1913-14. In that golden age these professional schools placed at the disposal of each prospective teacher a reference library of 26 volumes ; but today the library has not kept pace with enrolment and the meagre reference library has been reduced until the teachers' colleges can offer to each student only 22 reference volumes. While the world moves-the science, and art and literature increases, the teacher of today has a smaller opportunity to learn about such progress since her five-foot reference shelf has been reduced to four feet. Examine the expenditure pages of these teachers' colleges and you will see how dwarfed has been the outlay for library. Turn first to where we have every reason to expect the best- the cultured East-the State that claims to be the intellectual hub. In one State teachers' college in Massachusetts, which enroled 337 students last year, the treasurer reports a total expenditure for the library of $850 ; ten years ago that school had 282 students, and they were enriched by library accessions costing $755. But we must get the facts from Nebraska to know how a State can not only fall short in its obligation in this respect-but to learn to what extent the law relative to this phase of institutional development can be side- stepped. The Revised Statutes of the St braska, 1913, Article 7070, Section 371, states: "Students w normal school for 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the first time shall pay a matriculation fee of five dollars. The moneys thus received shall be paid into the hands of the State treasurer, and shall be held as a library fund; and the board of education shall from time to time appropriate the same for the purchase of books for the normal school library. " Specific language. But what are the facts? Not a normal school in the State has used the funds solely for which they were collected from the student and to which they were reserved by statute. Because the State legislature in Nebraska has failed to make adequate appropriation for the maintenance of the teacher-training institutions, from 14 per cent to 34.5 per cent of the moneys the students paid, in order that they might have better libraries, have been illegally and pathetically spent for general maintenance. Nor is that all. The students are not only required to pay higher fees while the State pays less; they are not only working with more limited reference material, but they are doing their work and living in dormitories that are not in so good physical condition as they were ten years ago. The States have not been robbing the maintenance accounts for capital outlay. The expenditure column year after year reveals a surprisingly small amount used for that purpose. The teacher-training institutions in the States involved in this study have spent annually, per institution, for capital outlay, land, new buildings, remodeling and repairing old buildings, onlv $29,000. The American city has built elementary school buildings-fine new structures for junior and senior high schools; the States have built penetentiaries, aslyums, capitols, buildings for training lawyers, doctors, engineers, merchants, farmers-but we have tried to solve our teacher- training problems with a capital outlay for repairs and expansion of $29,000 per institution per year. The data here submitted indicate that our fiscal support of State teachers' colleges needs revision with special emphasis on the vision . Our past and present policy will not do. Our in- adequate supply of teachers, trained and untrained, cannot be maintained without greatly increased investment in the teacher-training institutions. But standing on that platform as educational administrators bearing a two- fold responsibility-a responsibility to the taxpayer of today and a responsi- bility to the citizens of tomorrow-we must know what it costs to train a teacher, we must eliminate the losses and return to the public the better trained teaching personnel it has a right to expect, at the least expense con- sistent with high quality and ample supply. As educators working in State-supported institutions we have long enough dodged the ever-recurring question of costs, dismissing the inquiry generally on the basis that the service cannot be measured in dollars and cents or that it is impossible to arrive at any fair basis of costs by compar- ing items from similar institutions in other localities. While we must admit that there are not at present as accurate and as refined measures for comparing the various elements that enter into educational costs, as there ought to be, instead of that fact bringing with it our acquittal, it is rather NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 393 incriminatory evidence, that we have not discharged our obligation in the financial field as the public has a right to expect. A question of primary importance is " What is the relation between the size of the student body and the per-student cost?" We have been content when that question has been raised to let the answer go by default and as soon as possible turn the attention of the inquirer to other realms. The data from the teachers' colleges involved in this study indicate a negative correlation of -.63 between enrollment and per-student cost. That is, the larger the enrollment, the smaller per-student cost. The size of the institutions involved ranged from 192 to 3,137. While it is not contended that this study is conclusive, it is at least indicative of a basic fact that we have neglected. No one will present the claim that a teachers' college needs to have 3,000 students to be financially efficient. It can hardly be ex- pected that one of 200 can be as efficiently administered as can one with a larger student body. Of course much depends on the type of service and training offered. This figure is given greater significance as the result of another compu- tation. A comparison was made between the enrollment and the per student cost in these same teachers' colleges ten years ago-1913-14, and the correlation was found to be a -.37 . These two computations indicate that with the increased costs in educational service it is more important now than formerly that we conduct our teacher training institutions on a basis large enough to secure the maximum results per dollar expenditure. Our thinking in this field can be aided perhaps by still another computa- tion. All schools in the group having an enrollment of fewer than 600 students in 1922-23 were excluded and the correlation between the enroll- ment and per student cost was found to be -.38. By discarding these smaller schools the correlation changed then from -.63 to -.38 indicating quite clearly that schools having less than 600 students tend to increase the per-student cost. This conclusion seems to be justified-the smaller teacher training institution can be maintained only at a greater cost per student or on a lower service and professional level. As educational administrators , we cannot advocate either procedure. The alternative then is to establish our teachers' colleges on a high level-staffed by capable educators, ade- quately supported that they will present a strong appeal to prospective teachers, reached through systematic publicity that will result in securing a superior student body of not less than 600. There is one other phase that should be considered. Not only are we compelling the teacher in training today to pay higher fees, while the State gives less support; offering the student poorer library facilities, in buildings that are not being properly maintained-but more disastrous than these, he is being taught by instructors who are paid 14 per cent less than they were paid in 1913-14. The median maximum salary of professor in 65 teachers ' colleges last year was $2850. How does this compare with salaries in other State educational institutions ? In 1913-14 the median salary for professors 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in universities and agricultural colleges exceeded the median maximum salary in teachers' colleges by 22 per cent, but in 1922-23 the university group exceeded the latter by 37 per cent. Ought we not to expect to pay a professor as much to teach men and women to teach, as we pay to teach them to farm or to build bridges ? We have tried long enough to conduct our teacher training on this lower level. If we are to retain virile, superior men and women, with strong personalities in our teachers' colleges, we must staff them with professors whose services cannot be secured on the present salary basis. As administrators, what are our responsibilities in securing the proper fiscal support for teachers' colleges ? 1. Establish a costs system and know what it costs properly to train a teacher each year. 2. Eliminate the loss due to small enrolment and secure a student body of at least 600. 3. Secure large enough appropriations for capital outlay to put the plant in re- pair and properly house the student body we ought to have. This includes dormitories for young men and young women. 4. Reduce legislative requests to unit items ; e. g., instead of requesting an ap- propriation of $180,000 for maintenance ask for $300 for each prospective stu- dent-600 students to be the minimum. Our job is here. It is to furnish a thoroughly trained teacher for every school. Up to the present we have failed in part because we have not com- prehended our responsibility. Today our teachers' colleges face a new era- an era that is directly dependent upon proper fiscal support. Mobilized on a collegiate level, commissioned to train teachers for every branch ot service, the public schools are looking toward them as they have never looked before. In them enrolment is increasing. Higher standards are being maintained. They are anxious to deliver the well-trained teaching personnel that the public schools require. Since it is not our national poliev to charge the prospective student a portion of the increased cost for train- ing by raising the fees; we do not believe in curtailing the library; we do not believe in a plant in a poor state of repair and inadequate to house enough students to teach our rapidly growing school population, and since we do not believe in an inefficient under-paid staff, we submit that the fiscal support of our State teachers' colleges needs revision with special emphasis on the vision. SECRETARY'S MINUTES —WASHINGTON MEETING FIRST SESSION, TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 1, 1924 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 in the Lounge of the Hotel Washington. In his annual address the president discussed "Unifying Ad- ministration of Education with the Educative Processes ." William F. Russell, associate director, International Institute, Teachers College NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 395 Columbia University, New York City, spoke on "Education and International Understanding." 1 A. Duncan Yocum, chairman of the Committee on Teaching Democracy, gave the final report of that committee, presenting a resolution to the effect that the president of the National Council of Education, move in the delegate assembly, that the president of the National Education Association appoint a conference com- mittee to consider means for continuing the work of the committee on Teaching of Democracy and that with such action on the part of the National Education Association the committee as now constituted in the Council, cease to function. This resolution was unanimously approved by the National Council of Education. Arthur Chamberlain, chairman of the Committee on Thrift, reviewed briefly the work of the conference of the Committee on Thrift, recently held in Wash- ington. ( See Reports of Committees, page 338) . There was some discussion as to the next step in the work of the committee, and it was the consensus of opinion that the present committee should continue, at least until the final report of the Washington conference of the Committee on Thrift was completed and presented at the February, 1925, meeting of the National Council of Education. Mrs. Etta J. Leighton, of the National Security League, was allowed few a minutes in which to call attention to an outline for studying citizenship that had been developed by the League. SECOND SESSION, THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 3 , 1924 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 in the Lounge of the Hotel Washington. The paper presented by Frank W. Ballou, superintendent of schools, Washington, D. C., on the Junior High Schools in Washington, led to considerable discussion on the function and organization of the Junior High School, with the result that a motion by Superintendent E. E. Oberholtzer, Houston, Texas , was unanimously carried, that the president of the National Council of Education be empowered and requested to appoint a committee to begin at once an investiga- tion and study of the Junior High School organization, looking toward the gather- ing of data from the field of practice and the formulating of standards , objectives , and recommendations to be considered by the National Council of Education. Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, chairman of the National Committee on Illiteracy, introduced Charles McKenny, president, State Normal Teachers College, Ypsilanti , Michigan, to present the report for that committee. Many questions were raised during and following the presentation of this report. There was desire expressed that the paper be printed at once, and distributed, in order to reach the members without the delay occasioned by waiting for the printing of the regular proceedings ofthe meeting, but no action was taken on this. William B. Owen, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Illinois, chairman of the Committee on Reorganization of the National Council of Education, presented a resolution which he had presented at the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association, Thursday A. M., July 3, affecting membership of the Na- tional Council of Education. This resolution reads as follows: "Amend Article 4, Section 2, of the By- Laws by adding the following words : 'In addition to the 120 members thus selected from the active membership, the National Council may, in its By-Laws, provide for the admission to membership of representatives from the several depart- ments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department' At the request of Dr. Owen in the Representative Assembly, this resolution was to lie on the table for one year, to give opportunity for the National Council of Education to effect the reorganization. On motion of Charles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore School of Arts , Saratoga, the Council unanimously approved the action of Doctor Owen as chairman of the Committee of the Delegate Assembly for the change in the By-Laws affecting membership in the National Council of Education. 396 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION Because of the necessarily prolonged meeting of the Delegate Assembly, Thurs- day morning, in which members of the membership committee of the National Council of Education functioned, it was impossible for that committee to furnish a report to the National Council of Education for the filling of vacancies in offices and membership. At the close of the regular program, therefore, the president of the National Council of Education requested nominations from the floor to fill these vacancies. The Council then took action as follows : 1. There was unanimous approval of the motion of Katherine D. Blake that H. Lester Smith, Dean of the School of Education, Indiana University, be reelected vice-president for a term of three years, term expiring in 1927. 2. The secretary was instructed to cast a ballot for Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colorado, to succeed herself as a member of the executive committee with term expiring in 1927, and for Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and J. Stanley Brown, De Kalb, Illinois, to succeed themselves as members of the membership committee, with terms expiring in 1927 . 3. On motion of Charles H. Keyes, Saratoga, New York, it was voted that the ballot be cast by W. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vånia, for reelection to membership, with terms expiring in 1930, all mem- bers whose terms expired in 1924 and whose membership had not lapsed by absence. These members are : Cornelia S. Adair, Richmond, Virginia ; Sarah Louise Arnold, Cambridge, Massachusetts ; Adelaide S. Baylor, Washington, D. C.; John W. Carr, Murray, Kentucky; Oscar T. Corson, Oxford, Ohio ; J. W. K. Dwyer, Anaconda, Montana; Wil Lou Gray, Columbia, South Carolina; Carleton B. Gibson, Savannah, Georgia ; Edwin S. Monroe, Hammond, Indiana. 4. The Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Connecticut, for membership in the National Council of Educa- tion, with term expiring in 1930, to succeed P. E. McClenahan, Des Moines, Iowa, whose membership lapsed with the Washington meeting, and for Frank P. Graves , Commissioner of Education, New York, for membership in the National Council of Education, with term expiring in 1926, to succeed Frank B. Gilbert, Albany , New York, whose membership lapsed at the Washington meeting . 5. It was unanimously voted that other vacancies in membership be acted upon by the National Council of Education at the winter meeting, when a report by the committee on membership had been presented for approval. 6. It was voted that the eligible list approved at the 1920 meeting for supplying vacancies in the National Council of Education should be interpreted to apply only to such vacancies as might occur in the interim of meetings of the National Council of Education and could thus be supplied by the secretary to keep the full member- ship list intact, but that such list was not binding on the membership committee at the regular meetings. Katherine D. Blake, New York City, suggested that it would be desirable to have a committee working on the problem of "Teaching Science in the Elementary Schools." This suggestion was referred to the executive committee. Dr. J. M Gwinn, president of the National Council of Education and chairman of a com mittee to develop a plan for securing funds for special work in research, reported that the committee was not yet fully organized and therefore not prepared to report. He stated that Dr. Charles Judd, Dean, School of Education, University of Chicago, Illinois, and D. B. Waldo, president, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Michigan, had accepted membership on the committee. In the discussion that followed, it was the consensus of opinion that requests for funds should be made for special pieces of work to be undertaken, rather than for use by the National Council of Education as a research body. Attention was calledby Charles H. Keyes to the fact that funds from outside had been furnished the Committee on Health and the Committee on Thrift in their special pieces of research. Adjourned. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 397 UNIFYING ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION WITH THE EDUCATIVE PROCESSES J. M. GWINN , PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA The theses I shall consider in this discussion are : ( 1 ) Whatever inter- rupts the continuity in the education of a child, is bad for the effective- ness of that education; (2) The modern machinery for carrying on edu- cation often interrupts and interferes with the educative process ; ( 3 ) There has been a tendency to create machinery for machinery's sake, when it should be created for the child's sake ; (4) We must either discontinue the use of such machinery, or provide ways and means for lessening the losses. The machinery of education has greatly multiplied the effectiveness of teaching and learning, and has improved the quality and quantity of the learning and has resulted in more economical expenditure of the funds provided for education. The child now acquires the difficult art of reading in one fourth the time required a generation ago. The breadth of the educational achievements of a twelve-year-old child today is easily twice, if not four times, that of his parents at the same age, two score years ago. Despite adverse opinions on the part of some, the child today writes better, reads better, spells better, and knows his arithmetic better than the child of a century ago, or a half century ago. Improvement in the methods of teaching and learning have of them- selves contributed much toward the great increase in the total effectiveness of education. Equally great, however, if not very much greater, has been the influence on this increased efficiency due to the improvement in the machinery of education. By machinery I mean administrative ways and means for carrying on the educative process. Included in these ways and means are the or- ganization of the whole program of education into schools and classes ; the classification and grouping of children according to ability as well as according to attainments, to the end that each child may be afforded an opportunity to work up to, and not beyond, 100 per cent of his ability ; the material equipment of the schools, consisting of modern buildings , classrooms, and instructional materials ; the modern course of study with its well selected activities and subject matter so organized as to meet the needs of the particular child; special schools and classes for those children who are too far from the normal to profit much from the usual triple- tracked course of study. The importance and value attached to the machinery of education are evidenced by the fact that those dealing more directly with the machinery are paid twice to four times the salaries paid to those who teach. These increased rewards, with other causes, have resulted in the development of specially trained school administrators, and the growth of a great body of technical knowledge and procedure relating to school administration. 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The development of this special class of educational experts, with the corresponding development of the machinery of education, naturally brought about machinery for machinery's sake. Each city is tempted to introduce the newest administrative features so as to "point with pride " to the fact that its school system has all the latest features found in any other place in the country. The platoon school, the junior high school, the so-called informal school, tests and measures, and other administrative programs or devices each have advocates busily creating an educational philosophy to justify its existence. For the most part the existence of each can be justified, but not necessarily so for a particular system of schools. Some systems which have not been ready for certain of these features have introduced them, bringing the form if not the substance to their system. We note the common spectacle of junior high schools that are not junior high schools ; of platoon schools that are not platoon schools; of tests and measures that are neither tests nor measures. The main point under consideration is how to get the values out of administrative measures, and at the same time lessen the losses their intro- duction tends to bring. A new invention produces losses as well as gains. To gain one thing means the sacrifice of some other desired end or quality. A machine-made product, however good, lacks always some of the good qualities of the hand-made article. The introduction of the modern ma- chinery of education has brought some losses the child can ill afford to sustain. It is concerning some of these losses and ways and means for overcoming some of the necessary evils of the use of machines that I am addressing the Council today. Educational machinery is for the child's sake. It is on this basis that all administrative systems and devices must be judged. When the interests of the child are not served, the machinery is worse than useless. When the operation of the machinery seems to rob the child of some vital oppor- tunity or power, then, if such machinery must be used, ways and means must be made available for securing these opportunities and developing these powers. The program for the education of the children of America is so complex and extended that it is almost impossible for one to comprehend it as a whole, from home and kindergarten to university and the life beyond the school. The organization of this vast program has been by parts, so that the program is an aggregate of parts rather than an organic unity. This form of organization has, unfortunately, influenced the teaching, the learn- ing, and the supervision, to the end that the one being educated must feel that his education is fabricated. The life of the individual as a child and youth, as he advances through his educational program, is a unitary life, not broken in parts like the system through which he is advancing. There have been too many directors of the different units of administra- tion, and usually the director of one unit has quite a different educational philosophy from the director of the preceding or succeeding or parallel administrative unit. There is need for a comprehensive study to be made NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 399 of the whole of the organization of our program of education, in which study there should be kept constantly in mind the educational needs and the mental, moral, and physical nature of the individual to be educated. It is, of course, necessary to divide in order to conquer, but it is equally important to consolidate the gains after the several victories. It seems desirable that directors and supervisors in elementary and high schools should provide for the necessary continuity in education and not direct their attention to a segment of the educative processes with all other parts outside of their field of vision. Centralization of supervision, as well as administration, should be secured through the principal of a school, with directors and supervisors merely advisory to him. Administrative requirements have divided the school into parts. This has tended to separate the education and supervision into similar parts. The special supervisor or director appointed to have control over one seg- ment, either as a cross section or longitudinal segment of the course of study, has tended to divorce this portion of the whole course from the remaining portions and to produce losses in learning due either to chasms or conflicts. A second illustration of the evil results of school machinery is found in the frequent changes which the child meets in his progress through the grades. He passes a succession of teachers, a succession of schools with corresponding losses whenever changes occur. I appreciate the fact that these changes are necessary. I am pleading, however, for a lessening of the number of teachers the child meets on his way, and for greater con- tinuity between the kindergarten and primary grades; between the primary and the intermediate grades; between the elementary school and the junior high school, and between the junior high school and the senior high school. Among the means suggested for decreasing the losses sustained through changes from teacher to teacher, and from one part of the school system to another, the following are suggested : Promote the teacher with the class ; at least keep the same teacher with one group of children through the whole year in the primary grades. In the junior and senior high schools it is possible to keep one group of pupils with the same teacher for counsel and advice through two or more years. A second suggestion is that of individual instruction and supervised study. Athird, the appointment of deans of girls and deans of boys, or student counselor, in the upper grade schools. A fourth suggestion is found in a recommendation for broader education and outlook of the special supervisor and with decrease wherever possible inthe number of such special supervisors. This decrease cannot be made until the school principal is thoroughly prepared for his work. The school principal should be competent to be the educational as well as the adminis- trative head of his school. Magnifying the position of principal and pro- viding that special supervisors be consulting specialists to aid the principal inhis work inthe supervision of his school, instead of the supervisor work 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing directly with the teacher and independent of the principal, will doubt- less contribute much toward the solution of our problem. FINAL REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRAC- TICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA , PENNSYLVANIA, CHAIRMAN Although this is the final report of the Democracy Committee as at pres- ent organized and constituted, its work must carry on. There are two apparent methods of insuring this: First, the incidental applications, indi- vidually and locally made, of what it has already accomplished; second, the provision of a research and broadcasting agency which shall determine what democracy essentials are accepted by the majority of Americans, dis- cover and collect the materials which can most effectively contribute to their control of individual and group conduct, and adapt the form of pre- senting them to the peculiar province and broadcasting methods and ma- chinery of every agency which reaches a particular National environment or social group. These two methods are not mutually exclusive. Anyone familiar with what the Committee has done knows that its reports have already exercised a National influence-especially through local courses of study. The first part of the report in itself carries on this phase of activity by specifying the democracy "complexes" which must be built up in the minds of individuals, not so much as distinct from facts and experience as the controlling outcomes of them, if democracy is to become completely controlling. But there are two forms of education which are accepted by the ordinary American: the education gained through schooling, and that obtained through agencies and organizations of which he voluntarily becomes a member. Most of his feelings and his actions are not the product of any one of these influences, but of a combination of them; and what controls his conduct in things foreign and remote is his conduct as influenced by these things which are near. It is in order that the powerful resources made available through this second way of democratizing majority con- duct may be fully used that the Committee recommends the creation by the National Education Association of a Democracy Conference so consti- tuted that it includes official representatives of all agencies and organiza- tions having broadcasting machinery by which to reach and influence National groups . SPECIFICATION OF THE DEMOCRACY COMPLEXES Whether through teaching or through broadcasting, democracy can become controlling only by the building up in each individual of all the elements which complete, limit, and make each other controlling as a NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 401 democracy complex. The Specification of Democracy Essentials submitted by the Committee and approved by representative Americans in 1921 was in the form of a logical tabulation, and through the key-word, A- M-E-R- I-C-A, suggested the fundamental associations necessary to make the idea democracy inclusive : A-annulment of all individual rights proved to con- flict with the common welfare, inalienably associated with assurance in all rights not proved to so conflict; M-majority rule for the common wel- fare; E-equality as suggesting (e) equal rights and opportunities and equivalent return; (q) self-qualification ; ( u) unlimited compensation, except by justice and the common welfare; (a) abilities and achievements as equal only through highest effort, and ( 1) a leveling up instead of down; R-a sense of responsibility for democracy essentials for self and others, whether required or not required by law; I-individual strength of character strong enough to be democratic, largely measured by the extent to which the individual is self-sacrificing ; and C-coöperation in groups or blocs limited by the common welfare of all groups or blocs. But it is possible to think clearly and inclusively about democracy with- out being controllingly and inclusively democratic. Hence each essential as it is called to mind must not only be completed by everything necessary to make it useful and limited by everything necessary to prevent its being harmful, but must be made controlling by having developed with it: the impressions necessary to its being felt strongly enough; the vocabulary essential to its recalling experiences, situations, and problems and to its being recalled by them; the " suggesters" or suggestive words and phrases memorized with it, necessary to interrelate all other essential elements in the complex and to insure unlimited variety of associations for each; the habits, skills, and procedures involved in making applications; and the conditions favorable to new applications in the face of difficulties or obstacles. Together such elements form the constituents of the common welfare complex, the majority rule complex, the equality complex, the responsibility complex, the individual strength of character complex, and the cooperation complex necessary to the complete control of all Americans by the qualities which the majority of Americans admire as democratic when they find them characteristic of other Americans. The common welfare complex: The inseparable association of annul- ment of rights conflicting with the common welfare, with assurance in rights that do not conflict; a love of the common welfare and of all that is admirable in the various groups which together constitute the American people in particular and the human race in general; the realization that the common welfare is continually broadening ; an attitude of faith in the ability and willingness of the ordinary individual to make the self-sacrifices essential to a broadening common welfare; the habit and standard of per- sonally making such sacrifices; the habit and standard of according to others all rights not proved to conflict with the common welfare; the habit of looking for and of discriminating between what is obviously essential andwhat is obviously non-essential to the common welfare; the habit of 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION reading enough variety of newspapers and periodicals to get at obvious truth concerning the common welfare ; an attitude of faith in the reliability and disinterestedness of scientific authority for the determination of non- obvious essentials to the common welfare; an attitude of willingness to experiment with what seems to be essential to the common welfare, under conditions favorable to getting at the truth, but on a sufficiently limited scale to prevent serious harm if the experiment fails ; an attitude and stand- ard of insistence upon public access to all facts about private affairs, essen- tial to the common welfare, but of equal insistence upon no non-essential publicity or violation of privacy. The majority rule complex: The fundamental realization that the United States Constitution is an instrument for annulling individual rights which conflict and assuring individual rights which accord, with a con- tinually broadening common welfare, as deliberately determined and re- determined by majority rule; the habitual maintainance of the constitu- tional precautions to secure deliberate majority determination and re- determination, including sectional and State representation, slowness in law-making, Supreme Court adjudication, and the saving power of amend- ment; the realization that these precautions are not meant as means to removing governmental control from the people, but that each while check- ing too local or hasty popular judgment, is itself finally subject to the check of majority rule ; a standard of avoiding in oneself and of combating by all just means all devices for substituting in place of majority rule for the common welfare, the rule of self-interested minorities, such as (p) profiteering, graft and bribery; (r) railroading and jokers; (i) intimida- tion; (c) colonization and gerrymandering, and (e) easy-going citizenship and offensive partisanship (key-word, the P-R-I-C-E paid for rule by selfish minorities) ; the habit and standard of asking or accepting no politi- cal favor which in itself is against the public welfare, or from officials or leaders to whom the giving of support as equivalent return will be obvi- ously against the common good; the habit of voting at primary and all other elections, motivated by the realization that if all citizens do not vote, minorities rule; a limiting standard of respect for minority rights and of insuring fair play to minorities; where information is readily attainable, the habit of never supporting a candidate for public office without being well informed concerning his qualifications, and of opposing any candidate obviously ill-qualified or untrustworthy ; the inexorable standard of voting on all issues in the interest of anything obviously favorable to the common welfare, and of supporting all properly safe-guarded experiments to deter- mine what the common welfare is, no matter how adversely such support may affect personal or group interests. The equality complex : Certain association with the idea of equal rights and opportunities, of (e) equivalent return; (q) self-qualification; (u) unlimited achievement and proportionate compensation; (a) abilities and achievements as equal only in the sense of highest effort; and (1) equality through leveling up; association with kinds of equal rights, of equality NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 403 before the law, and social equality through equal opportunity to become qualified. Association with equivalent return, of its several types or standards; full performance of compensating duty in return for each political right; full responsibility in return for every privilege; full compensation in return for work or service or fully equivalent work or service in return for com- pensation, and highest effort by each in any work or service as the final guarantee of equivalent return to all for every work or service, whether in industrial specialization or selective conscription. Association with self-qualification: first, of the realization that since many democratic rights and privileges cannot be conferred by law except in the sense of equal opportunity, they must be self-achieved; second, of the standard of multiple specialization or the fullest practicable develop- ment of as many as possible individual ability and skill complexes helpful to the common welfare, combined with the highest possible development of the particular ability and skill complexes which will contribute most to self-expression and self-support, and the meeting of all standards essen- tial to unembarrassed and unembarrassing social intercourse. Association with unlimited achievement and proportionate compensation, of the realization that any limitation of individual achievement except in so far as it is essential to the common welfare, infringes individual rights and in its sum total limits the common welfare and the further realization that compensation for achievement beyond the common level of income essential to minimum social opportunity, should be proportionate to achieve- ment and to the risk assumed or injury or loss suffered in achieving. The realization that democracy neither offers nor demands equality in abilities and achievements, except through the equal personal satisfaction and public approval which is the common compensation for highest indi- vidual effort. The realization that democratic equality never results from a leveling down which appropriates, confiscates, or annuls what has been achieved by other individuals or groups, but from a leveling up in which, through equal opportunity and highest personal and group effort, every individual or group attains the highest social level of which it is capable. The realization that justice involves equity, in the sense of equal obedi- ence to law and equality before the law, of honesty in giving others an equal or proportionate share of all things in which they have a common right, and of truthfulness in so far as truth is necessary to some knowledge to which they have a common right. The responsibility complex: The realization by every individual that disrespect or disobedience exercised toward any law which he finds objec- tionable, but which is essential to the welfare of others, breeds correspond- ing disrespect or disobedience by others toward laws objectionable to them but essential to him; a sense and standard of responsibility for the observ- ance by self and others of all law established for the common welfare. A 1 common sense and standard of respor for the control of personal 404 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION conduct and the conduct of others by all democracy essentials not required by law. A peculiar sense and standard of personal responsibility ( c) for coöperation in common duties or service; (a) through superior ability; (n) to meet immediate need; (o) where one has ownership, and (e) for equivalent return. ( Suggested by "Paddle your own c-a-n-o-e.") A com- pensating sense and standard of responsibility for highest effort to attain every essential right and opportunity and to insure it for all others, in return for its being offered; and for highest effort to perform every duty compensatory for a particular right. The individual strength through self-sacrifice complex : Association with the idea, strength through self-sacrifice of the personal attainment by self and others for the sake of democracy, of independence, bravery, selt- respect, self-control, justice, generosity, cheerfulness, pleasantness, and the general standard of self-sacrifice. (A succession of standards each in gen- eral involving a little more self-sacrifice than the preceding one. ) A love of each of these standards, pride in the personal possession of each, and admiration for each as possessed by others; the standard of personally attaining each of them as controllingly as is possible and useful, and of help- ing all others to attain them; habitual limitation of each by other qualities essential to its usefulness. (See mnemonic rhyme in the Report printed in National Education Association Proceedings for 1922. The Report for 1923 partially outlines the complexes for these standards of strength.) The coöperation complex: A common love for the common welfare and of a variety of undertakings which further it, to which one can contribute through personal ability or skill; the standard of multiple specialization as a means to increasing opportunities for coöperation; common attitudes and standards concerning all coöperative undertakings; a realization of common needs and responsibilities in relationship to them; a realization of the growth or multiplication of common needs and responsibilities as the common welfare broadens; the gradual attainment of additional common attitudes and standards and of a realization of additional common needs and responsibilities, as personal abilities and skills multiply and as the common welfare broadens; the ability to discriminate between democratic and undemocratic leadership, and the habit of choosing and following the former. While these complexes are not complete in their inclusiveness, and while experimentation will from time to time probably add to each further ele- ments completing or limiting their usefulness, essential to their collective control, or favorable to their general application, it is probable that not a single element has been tentatively included in them that American public opinion will not accept and that experimentation will not verify as essen- tial. If this is true, it follows that in place of considering the democracy essentials merely as desirable to good citizenship, they become a part of the irreducible social and educational minimum, and must cumulativels and surely be made controlling in the conduct of every individual. The process of making them irresistibly controlling, if made adaptable to all NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 405 individuals, groups, environments, periods of development, and forms of instruction and propaganda, is assured by the fact that, while themselves invariable, they can each be developed by a great variety of contributory elements and material. They themselves remain a constant and common outcome, but a thousand quite different experiences and combination of experiences can result in them. On the other hand, many democracy essentials are contributed to in common by still more general controlling elements. A habitual independ- ence of material things, a habitual self-sacrifice, the habit of thinking upon the good and the pleasant side of persons and things, and a sublimation or useful redirection of the spirit of adventure, are not only potent con- tributors to many of the democracy elements specified as essentials, but severally tend to counteract what recent students of American national traits have selected as our most serious popular faults; an over-dependence upon material things, an individualism which demands self-expression with- out regard to the common welfare; what Richard Le Galliene calls the new cynicism; and a spirit of adventure which wastes itself in trying out anew what racial experience has proved harmful or false. With these great common factors in democratic conduct control accepted as the most fundamental aims of character education in general, the more specific democracy essentials built up at successive periods of development, related by a system of general and subordinate terms to all sorts of experi- ences which contribute to their control and to all the varieties of situations and problems in which they should be controlling, and continually reinforc- ing each other, will constitute instruction complexes wholly useful and essential and far more permanent and controlling than the accidental com- plexes which Freud has shown to be the subconscious determinants of human character. If every American school performs its peculiar part and every organization reaching a National group selects and broadcasts the elements which are suitable to its peculiar purposes, every American will probably come under the influence of enough schools and organizations for each element to become a controlling part of his life and character . Good citizens can be as certainly developed as good mathematicians or good chemists. THE RECOMMENDATION OF THE CREATION BY THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF A NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY To insure these ends, the Committee has become convinced of the proba- bility that most organizations reaching National groups will believe with it in the following: The practicability of creating an agency influential enough to insure the voluntary National and international acceptance of definitions of democracy and of findings concerning the materials and methods most effective for teaching and broadcasting it; the willingness of existing social agencies to further democracy thus defined; the rapidly in- creasing efficiency of a teaching which is beginning to substitute for mere knowledge assemblage of "life situations," the development of a 406 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION strong enough "complex" to make any selected idea control individual or group conduct; and the resistless force of a broadcasting which sub- stitutes for the propaganda found so successful by single social agencies, the united effort of all or of most social agencies. The Committee therefore recommends : I. The Creation by the National Education Association of a Permanent Conference for the Definition and Advancement of Democracy-The gen eral form of organization proposed is that of a permanent conference rather than that of a Government department or bureau, because it can strengthen democracy as a " moral force" only through a universal faith in its reliability, based upon the fact that it is non-political and non-admin- istrative, and that while representative of all interests and sources of truth essential to democracy, it is wholly a defining and broadcasting agency not committed to any political or social interest, but with all political and social interests committed to it. II. Composition and appointment of the Conference committee-Its membership shall consist of the Vice-President of the United States ; the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ; the chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs; chairman of the House Appropriations Committee ; the United States Commissioner of Education; the chairman of the United States Army Education Advisory Board; the representatives of various departments of the National Government who constitute the council ap- pointed by the President on citizenship training; the President and Secre- tary of the National Education Association, and the presidents or secre- taries of its various departments ; the President and Secretary of the National Education Association Democracy Conference Committee; the President or other executive head of every coöperating National agency or organization or an official representative appointed by him; together with the following members appointed by the President of the United States; four members of the United States Senate and four members of the House of Representatives, of a political party different from that of the President; eight university professors of education or the social sciences, and nine other citizens of National standing noted for their public spirit and not representative of any special interest. A smaller membership could not be made sufficiently inclusive and rep- resentative to insure the popular confidence in its findings which will result from the balancing of partisan political officials, by an inclusion of rep- resentatives of nationally influential bodies which stand for special interests, social, economic, and religious; and by the fact that to experts usually regarded as theorists are added members who by virtue of their positions are known to have direct responsibility in National affairs. III. The activities prescribed for the commission-The activities of the commission as distinct from any form of National administration or con- trol of education, shall be limited: first, to the organization and super- vision of educational research concerning the determination of democracy NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 407 essentials and their control of individual and group conduct; second, to the utilization and creation of all practicable means for the teaching and broad- casting of resulting information. More specifically these limited activities are as follows : The specifi- cation of the essential elements in democratic conduct. ( a) Through the adoption of a two thirds vote of recommendations, (b) made from time to time by a director hereinafter provided for, and (c) based upon the re- search carried on by an expert staff of which he is chief. (a) The primary obstacle to the failure of democracy to become ex- clusively determining in individual and group conduct, is the omission from our governmental framework, of any agency to define and interpret authori- tatively the democracy which is not required by law. And if the textbook used in civics in a district school must be approved as to its objectives and form of representing them, by a local or State board of education, it is obvious that essentials of democracy which are to be taught through every National and local educational agency, should be specified and interpreted by some National body representative of the whole people. It is equally obvious that in accord with Constitutional limitation of majority determination of the democracy enforced through law, at least a two thirds vote should limit and sanction its control through education. (b) These specifications should be recommended and adopted, from time to time, in order that whatever the number of democracy elements which may first be accepted, they may be changed or added to as more is known of democracy or as more of it becomes practicable or can be agreed upon. (c) And all of the added compulsion which the authority of science gives to the authority of law will be lost, if the recommendations of democ- racy elements to the Conference are not based upon the findings of experts selected on account of a National reputation for the reliability of their research. The carrying on through the organization hereafter prescribed of the research necessary: ( a) To collect and analyze the elements of democracy specified within the Constitution, interpreted by the Supreme Court, ap- plied in the Governmental affairs of the United States or other nations, and shown in American life or in that of other peoples. Without the study of every institution and every type of activity through which democracy can manifest itself, the democracy essentials unde- fined by law will remain individual and local or have a wrong suggestive- ness. Without an analysis of the essentials into their elements, they cannot be definitely enough expressed to be universally understood and accepted. For example, until majority rule is specified as majority rule " for the com- mon welfare," it is not democratic at all. Or the idea of equality may lead to undemocracy if it is not analyzed into equality of rights and op- portunities as opposed to abilities and attainments, a leveling up rather 408 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION than a leveling down, equality through self-effort, and equality both through equivalent return and through highest effort regardless of relative achievement. (b) To determine which democracy essentials and elements are accept- able to the majority of individual Americans and American groups: through submitting to representative individuals and groups in America, tentative lists of democracy elements: and through study of the writings, teachings, and propaganda of such individuals and groups. (c) To determine, without the submission of such lists, but through similar study, the attitudes of representative individuals and groups in foreign countries toward democracy elements; and so to learn what coun- tries are most likely to join international democracy conferences or to coöperate with the United States in furthering democracy and world peace through education. Except where information or coöperation is requested by foreign govern- ment or approved by the Secretary of State, the issuing of lists of democ- racy essentials in foreign countries might be a cause of misunderstanding, and, preliminary to their approval by the Conference or by Congress, might include democracy essentials which are not authoritatively American. But the study of the writings, teachings, and propaganda of representative in- dividuals and groups in foreign countries will aid the Conference in judg- ing, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State as hereinafter pro- vided: what foreign countries can be asked to participate in the universal furtherance of democracy through education, what forms the participation of each shall take, and what democracy elements can be presented at a conference of representatives of foreign governments or bodies with any hope of general approval. (d) To demonstrate scientifically the extent to which education can make democracy elements controlling in individual and group conduct, and from time to time to determine, to report upon, and to publish the most effective methods for making them so. The results of the army intelligence tests, together with various emo- tional reactions which have followed the war, have strengthened the belief held by many Americans that the masses are incapable of gaining the intelligence necessary to the judgments involved in popular government. and that even intelligent human nature is such that it can never be trusted to make the self-sacrifices involved in serving the common good. Evidence that the ordinary human being is capable of becoming demo- cratic. Such doubt and cynicism disappear and the will to sacrifice per- sonally is strengthened, as every citizen is made familiar not only with the biological fact of survival through coöperation and with historical evi- dences of human acceptance of continually broadening common welfare: but with continually multiplying current instances of self-sacrifice for some common good, such as: old railroad men forfeiting their right to pension by joining in a strike called by their union ; workers in a political organiza NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 409 tionin the interest of party harmony giving up candidacy for a long wished for office; powerful corporations accepting the judgment of a Government commission, and paying without appeal millions of dollars in back wages awarded their employees; and Americans accepting compulsory draft , foreign military service, and confiscatory taxation, in order that America could do her share in saving civilization and democracy. Almost every American is sacrificing some individual interest for the sake of some com- mon welfare. The control of individual and group conduct by democracy will be greatly hastened by the assembling of such instances and by their broadcasting in association with the idea of a continually broadening con- ception of the common welfare, and with a realization of the far larger return to the individual or group, when sacrifices no more difficult than these are made for the good of the whole community, for the welfare of all groups, or for the happiness of all peoples. Experimental demonstration of the irresistible control exercised by an education which aims at the control of conduct. But the removal of the doubts thrown upon popular government by the intelligence tests is less important than the realization that a super-education is being developed powerful enough to make democracy an all-controlling moral force. The full significance of a truly scientific instruction which has conduct control as its standard has not yet been Nationally realized. It has been easy to convince people who wished to stay as they are and to keep on acting as they do, that Freud and the psychoanalysts are right when they insist that back of our controlling feelings and our actions are subconscious "com- plexes" arising from incidents and situations long forgotten but determining conduct. But they do not yet see that since this is so, the building up of such complexes for each essential of democracy or of any other standard of living, can through greater emotional appeal and more certain repeti- tion, counteract or replace those developed through chance. Given normal or average ability to memorize, retain, associate, and feel, and education can make separately controlling for any individual, a sense of respect for authority, a realization of the necessity for personal obedience to law, an attitude of indignation and contempt for violations of law as established by majority rule, a personal standard which demands every self-sacrifice essential to the common good, and enough motives to carry the feeling over into any field of activity. And if any single elements such as these, made separately controlling can singly result in obedience to law, when all are combined together and have added to them the habit of obeying particular laws, a vocabulary which recalls experiences favorable to obe- dience to law, and a suggestiveness which multiplies associations with things related to the obeying of laws, they constitute the sort of controlling com- plex which through its cumulative and collective force can make the idea of obedience to law, or any other democracy essential, surely controlling in individual and group conduct. Scientific experimentation is showing that just as life makes single and accidental experiences occasional ' 410 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION so education which cumulatively develops and combines all the elements of conduct control can make selected experiences certainly and permanently controlling. When education is being made super-education, and propaganda for every undemocracy is becoming super-propaganda, education in democracy must no longer remain a game of chance. (e) To prepare for each democracy essential and complex, to circulate generally, and to furnish upon request, lists of experiences and materials contributory to it (a) practicable for various broadcasting agencies; and to accompany each item thus listed by a note specifying any limits and conditions to its usefulness, and (b) any democratically suggestive words and phrases which should be associated with it and with any similar ex- periences or materials, (c) provided that no specific lists of undemocratic material shall be issued, but that undemocratic characteristics shall be listed, together with a specification of counteracting material for each. These materials and experiences shall include: model lessons for schools and programs for organizations ; experiences, incidents, situations, experi- ments, problems or projects and dramatizations ; news items, editorials, articles, books, stories, poems, plays, quotations and other readings; phono- graph records and radio programs; objects and specimens, graphs, news- paper cuts, illustrations in books and periodicals, pictures and prints, stereographs, lantern slides, and motion picture films. Since the experiences and materials thus listed as helpful in the teaching and the broadcasting of democracy will be common both for instruction and everyday life, their very association with each particular democracy essential will do much to make both instruction and life democratically suggestive. Their separation into lists adapted to particular institutions or organiza- tions is a necessary step toward their voluntary acceptance. Foremost in such adaptation must be the translation of each democracy essential into the everyday vocabulary, as well as the familiar experience of the group for which it is to become controlling. But the essential complement of this translation of democracy into everyday experience is the translation of everyday experience into democracy. The definite association of democratic words and phrases with experi- ences listed and used in broadcasting will not only recall and give a demo- crative suggestiveness to them, but results in a greater likelihood of recall and suggestiveness for all that is democratic in experience in general. The number of words in individual vocabulary largely determines the number of experiences which can be recalled, and the kind of words, the kind of ex- periences, and their initial suggestiveness. Governments and institutions have not yet felt the full result of the vast and sudden multiplication of the experience of the ordinary individual through increased reading of books and periodicals, automobiling,what he sees at motion pictures, and what he hears by radio. The popular vocabulary suggestive of democracy must NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 411 be larger and more inclusive than that of autocracy, radicalism, or selfish interests. The lists thus annotated will be far more definitely suggestive of specific usefulness than ordinary bibliography, but they will include bibliographies of democratic history, biography, philosophy, fiction, poetry, the drama, music, illustrative art, painting, and sculpture. Specially emphasized in all this must be the counterbalancing of at least the more convincing forms of undemocracy which have come to charac- terize such American literature and art. Counteraction through edu- cation and broadcasting of strongly democratic literature and art, will be far more controlling than censorship. The two dominant notes in German literature before the war-a red-blooded realization which derided the "old moralities " and Nietzschianism which sacrified the "nearest to the far- therest" in order to ensure the domination of the strong-gave Germany the spiritual justification for all the falseness and brutality of the Great War. If a similar literature, reënforced by songs, motion pictures, and radio broadcasting which reaches the vast majority of Americans, is not to breed an unrestrained individualism in America, it must be counterbalanced by a still more impressive and frequently presented democracy. (f) To devise valid tests and measurements of the democratic control of conduct, and of the presence or absence of particular controlling ele- ments and of the materials and methods most effective in developing them. First, the studied adaptation of essentials thus approved and analyzed and of all contributory results of research and experimentation : to all domestic institutions, agencies, and organizations reaching large or representative groups : and the dissemination of adapted essentials and material to all of them found on inquiry willing to teach or to broadcast democracy as a whole or in part. Second, their adaptation and dissemination to foreign or international institutions, agencies , and organizations on the request of the foreign gov- ernments in the jurisdiction of which they are located, or on the approval of the Secretary of State. Almost every American is reached and influenced through a variety of institutions, agencies, and organizations, which may be roughly grouped as follows: the school system of the country, public and private, from kindergarten to university or professional school ; educational agencies, organizations, and associations other than schools; phonograph companies and radio broadcasting stations and agencies ; moving picture corporations, boards of censors and distributing agencies ; lecture bureaus, lyceums, and Chautauquas; libraries and museums ; educational foundations ; the press ; the churches; religious institutions and organizations, and church schools ; institutions and organizations intended to promote the welfare of special groups; financial, commercial, vocational, labor, and other industrial or- ganizations; non-partisan civic and welfare organizations; political or- ganizations ; organizations for the furtherance of the fine arts ; organi 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tions devoted to physical exercises and amusements ; women's clubs ; and social organizations, including fraternal and beneficial organizations, social clubs, patriotic societies, and associations of Americans who are foreign-born or of foreign descent. The irresistible force of a collective education and broadcasting through such bodies. Each body such as the foregoing has a far-reaching machinery for directing and influencing its membership. Each individual American is a member of a variety of groups and subject to the influence of a variety of agencies and organizations. As there is less likelihood of the peculiar selfishness or undemocracy of one group coinciding with that of others, than of its being counteracted by the corresponding democracy taught or broadcasted by a variety of other groups, when the majority of such agencies are united in a National democ- racy program each element in democracy is likely to be effectively taught to each individual American and to the whole American people. The willingness of varied and opposing agencies to further an authorita- tively specified common democracy . There are few American social agen- cies which are not already engaged in the furtherance of some element essential to democracy or in the actual performance of some form of demo- cratic service. Many industries are experimenting with means to insure equivalent return to capital, labor, and consumer. Great foundations have spent millions in unselfish efforts to better the public health or to make educational opportunities more equal. Churches have organized Ameri- canization activities through a sense of responsibility for foreign groups over which they have peculiar influence. Fraternal and social organiza- tions are engaging in numberless forms of welfare work and public service. Never in the history of civilization have so many agencies concerned them- selves with so many aspects of the common good. In addition to this, powerful agencies are insisting upon democracies, which they find essential to their own welfare. The Federation of Labor has insisted upon public official access to all truth concerning the affairs of corporations, necessary to judge whether or not they are so conducted as to conflict with the common welfare. The Railroad Board has made the claim that Governmental interference with railroad management and the limitation of railroad profits have not yet been proved necessary to the general good. Many agencies are themselves international, or, if not so called, inter- national in their activities . Many of these services and interests are inter- national. Many organizations furthering or capable of furthering democ- racy in America are themselves international. The likelihood of an enlarged furtherance of democracy by such agencies. The willingness of such agencies to enlarge their furtherance of democracy is made highly probable through the following safeguards against political or social propaganda on the part of the Conference or the suspicion of it: the submission to such agencies of tentative specifications of democracy essentials before they are recommended by the Conference; provision for NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 413 adapting both the mode of expressing them and methods of broadcasting them, to the peculiar purposes and organization of each agency; and the fact that each agency is asked to broadcast only such essentials as it volun- tarily chooses to further. THE PLANNING, SUPERVISION , AND SUPPORT OF CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS OR PROGRAMS AND PROCEDURES IN MEETINGS, LOCAL, NATIONAL, FOREIGN , OR INTERNATIONAL FOR THE FURTHERANCE OF THE TEACHING OR BROADCASTING OF APPROVED DEMOCRACY ESSENTIALS Organization of the Conference and its staff, and Procedure for organiz- ing the Conference-The officers of the Conference, who together shall constitute its executive committee, shall consist of a president, a vice-presi- dent, and a secretary, themselves members of the Conference, elected by its two thirds vote, and like other members, serving without salary. As soon as the necessary funds are available, the members of the executive committee of the Conference shall nominate one or more candidates for the office of director of the Conference, conduct an election by mail, and immediately appoint the candidate receiving a two thirds vote. The director shall serve for a term of five years. He shall serve as treasurer of the Conference, prepare its annual budgets, and disburse all monies, subject to the approval of the executive committee, and contingent upon the adoption of the budget by the Conference. He shall appoint and employ the entire working staff of the Conference as hereinafter specified ; and all appointees and their activities shall be under his control. With the approval of the executive committee, he shall, from time to time, call international conferences, for the advancement of democracy and world peace. He shall appoint two assistant directors for a three-year term, who shall respectively have charge of a Research Division and a Broadcasting Division, and who shall together plan the activities of an editorial de- partment. The Research Division. An assistant director responsible to the di- rector for all research carried on by: permanently employed specialists ; associates in research paid by the Conference but in the regular employ of American and foreign colleges, universities, and other scientific insti- tions; and research fellows who as graduate students in American or foreign institutions shall receive stipends from the Conference. The research staff thus constituted shall not only carry on each type of research as already specified and limited, but shall annually, or from time to time, report upon all research of significance to the advancement of democracy which has been carried on elsewhere. The Broadcasting Division. An assistant director responsible to the director for all broadcasting carried on by special agents, familiar with the contributions to democracy, the democratic or undemocratic character- istics andattitudes and the consequent needs of the various kinds and grades ofschools and types of organizations, already listed as broadcasting agencies ; and with the contributions and attitudes concerning democracy, interna- tional coöperation, and world peace of foreign countries or peoples and of 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION foreign or international agencies. These special agents shall be responsible for the adaptation of the results of research to particular broadcasting agencies; for the personal contacts, correspondence, circulars, and plate matter likely to be used in broadcasting by each particular agency and in each country and locality ; and for the holding of local democracy confer- ences and participation in group and local meetings and programs, subject to the approval of the assistant director. The staff of the broadcasting division shall also include representatives for each broadcasting organization and locality, who shall correspond with the assistant director or special agents concerning all of these matters, and take the initiative in having democracy emphasized in organization programs, and in coöperating with other agents in the same locality for joint action and conferences. The Editorial Department . Subject to the general direction of the director as to the apportionment of time and resources, among particular publications and to the specific suggestion of topics and material by the assistant directors, the Conference staff shall include a sufficient number of skilled editors or editorial writers familiar or who shall become familiar with the types of research carried on, and with the various types of broad- casting agencies. They, together with a sufficient number of translators, shall prepare for publication the results of research both American and foreign, and the material to be broadcasted at home and abroad. Financial support-In order to avoid all suspicion of domination by selfish individual or group interests, the financial support of the Confer- ence and its staff should be provided by a representative variety of indi- viduals, foundations, and organizations, and the management and expendi- ture of the funds thus procured should be wholly under the control of the Conference and its executive committee. Financial contributions by any organization or agency should not be a condition to its representation in the Conference, and non-contributing organizations should have the same voice and vote in the Conference as those that contribute. In addition to the full report of all expenditures made to the Conference itself, report should also be made to each contributor. The annual salary of a director with the required experience and standing should be at least fifteen thousand dollars; of each of his two assistants, seventy-five hundred; and of each of at least thirty specialists, special agents, and editors, six thousand. A minimum of fifty other employees necessary during the first two years of organization would probably average fifteen hundred dollars. The traveling and living expenses of the Conference and executive committee, and of special agents, must be provided for, together with an adequate per diem attendance fee for each member of the executive committee at its monthly meetings. All of these suggestions and provisions are tentative. The whole scheme is so elaborate and far-reaching that it can be finally formulated only after much deliberation and investigation. Since the Conference itself is coöpera- tive, the working out of its organization should be coöperative. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 415 The Committee which now asks to be discharged, has taken only the following steps: the calling of a democracy conference in connection with the present session of the Council and the Association ; an inquiry by the Conference into the conditions essential to the success of future confer- ences and to the work of a permanent staff; and its unanimous request now transmitted to Council that Council shall ask the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association to appoint a Democracy Conference Committee to prepare plans for a permanent organization such as has been outlined, discover the extent to which individuals, foundations, and organizations will financially support a Conference staff if organized, and call within a year another conference of representatives of all non- political organizations reaching National groups, with a view to the perma- nent organization of a National Democracy Conference. (Dr. Yocum then read the following resolution reported from the Democracy Conference : "RESOLVED, that this Conference on the Teaching of Democracy, consisting of unofficial representatives of the International Kindergarten Union, the Federation for Child Study, Daughters of the American Revolution, the United Child Welfare Association, the National Catholic Welfare Conference, Daughters of 1812, National Security League, Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, Girl Scouts, Transportation Institute, and many other National organizations which have expressed sympathy with the purposes of the Conference, requests the National Council of Education to recommend to the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association, the creation of a Con- ference Committee on the Teaching of Democracy, to which shall be transmitted the records and findings of the present committee of the Coun- cil, and which shall be authorized to continue in coöperation with other organizations in this field, the development of the National Conference on Teaching Democracy, along the lines suggested in the report submitted to the present meeting of the Council by the said committee." He then moved: "That the President of the Council be instructed to move in the Representative Assembly that the President of the National Education Association be authorized to appoint a Democracy Conference Committee to confer with other National organizations concerning the best means for carrying on the work begun by the Committee on the Teaching of Democracy ; "And that on the passage of such motion by the Representative Assembly, the Committee on the Teaching of Democracy be discontinued by Council." After commendatory remarks by Dr. Seerley and Dr. Keyes, the resolu- tion was unanimously adopted.) 416 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN WASHINGTON FRANK W. BALLOU , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. С. The junior high school is an accepted institution in school organization in the United States. It has passed the experimental stage. As to its educational advantages there is no longer serious debate among educators. The increase in the number of junior high schools has been nothing short of phenomenal. Educational authorities assert that the first junior high school was established in 1909. According to the United States Bureau of Education, thirteen years later, i. e., in 1922, 456 different cities reported having 733 junior high schools. Although the junior high school has become an accepted institution in theory, nevertheless it has not been universally established. Furthermore, the time has been too short for it to find its ultimate place in the six-three- three plan of organization. Some cities are moving rapidly toward a uni- form system of six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school, and three years of senior high school. Many cities are only partially organized on the six-three-three plan. For various reasons, still other cities have not adopted the six-three-three plan of organization, and hence have no junior high schools. In 1919, two junior high schools were opened in Washington, one for white pupils and one for colored pupils. These two schools were estab- lished in two old buildings formerly used for high school purposes, but vacated when new high school buildings were provided. From the begin- ning these schools increased greatly in size and prestige. The Board of Education has now adopted the policy of extending the junior high school system throughout the city. Immediately following the beginning of my administration of the school system of Washington, in 1920, appropriations were secured for two new junior high school buildings. These buildings were completed and occupied in December, 1923. In addition, one building formerly used as a high school building and another as an elementary school were converted to junior high school purposes in September, 1923. As a result, during the past school year there were in operation six junior high schools in the city of Washington. Steps have already been taken for the conversion of two elementary school buildings for junior high school purposes, one of which will be opened in September, 1924, and the other on February 1, 1925. In addition, sites have been purchased on which will be located two new junior high school buildings similar in plan and design to the new buildings which have already been occupied. The situation in Washington is most favorable for the organization and development of a complete system of junior high schools. A large anfount of schoolhouse construction must take place in the immediate future. All of the elementary schools are filled to capacity, and most of them are exceedingly congested. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 417 The high schools are likewise so congested that most of them have been obliged to adopt a double-shift program. From the standpoint of finance itwill be more economical to build junior high schools than it will be to build both elementary schools and high schools. Moreover, a system of junior high schools will provide better educational facilities than can be provided by making additions to the elementary schools and to high schools. By establishing a system of junior high schools, congestion can be most readily relieved in both the elementary schools and the high schools. In some cities, the junior high schools have been associated with the elementary schools in organization, administration, and supervision. In other cities they have been associated with the senior high schools, pro- viding a combined course of six years for junior and senior high schools. In Washington, the junior high school is a separate and distinct institu- tion. It is established in a separate building, with its own principal. While the first two junior high schools established in Washington were city-wide schools, the junior high schools subsequently established have been regional schools. The two schools originally established received the pupils from all parts of the city who elected to go to those institutions. This has been unsatis- factory, both financially and educationally. The number of pupils electing to go to the junior high school from any single elementary school has not been sufficient to reduce the number of teachers in that elementary school. The bringing together in the junior high school of these pupils from a large number of different elementary schools, has resulted in increasing very materially the total cost of edu- cating those pupils in the junior high schools. In addition, the pupils electing to attend our city-wide junior high schools have been for the most part pupils who were not getting along well in their respective elementary schools. Too frequently they have been "misfits" and "failures. " The bringing together of a thousand such pupils into one, institution has made a very difficult educational problem. Undoubtedly, as conditions make it possible, these two original junior high schools, which still operate largely on a city-wide basis, will become regional junior high schools. The regional junior high school is so located as to accommodate all of the seventh and eighth grade pupils in elementary schools within their respective districts. The ninth grade work for such pupils is also provided in the junior high school rather than in the senior high schools. Undoubtedly the most important asset of any school is its corps of teachers. This is doubly true of the junior high school, since it is a de- parture in many respects from the traditional elementary school on the onehand or the senior high school on the other. If the junior high school teacher is to succeed, she must have a clear idea of the educational objectives of the junior high school. This requires professional reading and sys- tematic instruction. Moreover, elementary school teachers who become junior high school teachers must be qualified to teach subject matter more advanced than the elementary school 418 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In preparation for the opening of junior high schools, it became incum- bent upon the school officials to determine upon a plan of procedure for qualifying junior high school teachers that would be reasonably sure to guarantee that those who qualified for such positions would have a thorough- going knowledge of the subject matter which they would teach in grades VII , VIII, and IX of the junior high schools, and that they should have a proper professional understanding of the aims, methods, and organization of the junior high school. In working out a program for qualifying teach- ers already in the service, it was the desire of the school officials to ask teachers to do no more than was necessary to demonstrate that they pos- sessed the above-mentioned qualifications. Each teacher of academic subjects in the junior high school is expected to teach two different subjects in order that pupils may not have too many different teachers, particularly in the early years of the junior high school. Teachers of music, drawing, shop work, general science, and physical training teach only their specialties. To qualify for a junior high school position, an elementary school teacher with the usual two-year normal school diploma, was required to pursue courses in subject matter of two academic subjects and an approved pro- fessional course on the aims, methods, and organization of the junior high school. In lieu of the usual written examinations, the board of examiners agreed to accept certificates covering such courses. The marks earned in the above mentioned courses were accepted in the place of the marks usually earned in the written examination, and no written examination as such was required. The school officials not only modified the usual procedure in the examina- tions for qualifying teachers, but they also, at the request of the teachers, organized courses for teachers to take as a means of qualifying for appoint- ment. During the summer of 1922, and looking forward to the opening of junior high schools the following year, three courses were organized and conducted for a period of six weeks. Fifty teachers took the course in English, 45 teachers took the course in geography, and 49 teachers took the course in mathematics. It stands to the professional credit of these teachers that they requested such courses and collectively paid the instructors for giving them, no public funds being available for such purpose. Arrangements were made with George Washington University, and with Howard University (for colored teachers), whereby teachers pursuing these courses successfully might secure university credit by registering in these respective institutions and paying a small registration fee. One instructor was from the Lincoln School of New York City , another from the Maryland State Normal School, and one was a principal of a Boston high school; all were specialists in their subjects and well qualified for their work. The instructors reviewed the subject matter in the course of study pre NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 419 scribed for the junior high schools. Emphasis was placed on subject matter. Methods of instruction were subordinated. Teachers who pur- sued these courses speak in the highest terms of the value of the courses offered. Teachers who took the two subject courses during the summer of 1922, needed a professional course on the junior high school in order to com- plete their preparation for appointment. Teachers requested the super- intendent to undertake to organize such a course. Accordingly, Professor Thomas H. Briggs, of Teachers College, Colum- bia University, came to Washington each Saturday morning during the first half of the school year 1922-23, and gave two 2-hour courses for a period of 15 weeks, beginning October 7. One hundred twenty white teachers registered for the course provided for them and one hundred fourteen colored teachers registered for the duplicated course. A teacher who successfully completed this course received two credits at Columbia University and the grade earned was accepted by the board of examiners inlieu of a written examination on this professional subject. In addition to the professional courses offered by Professor Briggs on the junior high school, George Washington University organized and con- ducted subject matter courses for junior high school teachers in general science and history during the school year 1922-23 . The salary schedule which was recently enacted into law by Congress, and which goes into effect July 1, 1924, provides that teachers with ele- mentary school qualifications who have in addition met the higher eligibility requirements above described for teachers in junior high schools, will be regularly paid annually two hundred dollars more per year than teachers in the elementary schools. The principle of additional compensation for additional preparation is thus specifically recognized in the new salary schedule for teachers who transfer from the elementary school to the junior high school. Teachers with high school qualifications, i. e., college graduates, who qualify for junior high school positions, receive, according to the new schedule, the same salary as senior high school teachers. In contrast with the legal requirements heretofore prevailing, it is im- portant also to point out that hereafter no distinction will be made between teachers on the two schedules in their assignments of work. Each teacher, whether possessing elementary school qualifications plus, or senior high school qualifications, will be expected to offer instruction to seventh, eighth, or ninth year pupils as the requirements of organization may demand. Moreover, the number of teachers who shall be promoted from the elemen- tary schools or appointed from the high school eligible lists is unrestricted. This means that as the supply of well-qualified elementary school teachers becomes low, all appointments to junior high school positions may be made from the lists of candidates possessing high school qualifications and vice versa. Appropriate courses of study for the junior hi. e undoubtedly 420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION second in importance only to the corps of teachers. Indeed, one of the primary purposes in the establishment of junior high schools has been to provide an opportunity for a thoroughgoing alteration, revision, elimination, and extension of the courses of study usually found in grades VII and VIII of the elementary school, as well as those in the first year of the high school. The courses of study for the junior high school system now being or- ganized in the Washington schools have originated with the teachers who are to use them. Early in the planning for opening additional junior high schools, committees on courses of study were formed for the different sub- jects of study to be taught in the junior high schools. Each committee was made up of the teachers already in the junior high school and those within the school system who had qualified for appointment to those schools. In addition to teachers the committees included also the heads of the de- partments in the high schools, who supervise their respective subjects in the junior high schools. The course of study which had been in use in the two junior high schools already established was placed in the hands of each committee. The attention of the committees was also directed toward courses of study in other cities and to such books as Charters' Curriculum Making. Each committee was given full authority to map out a course of study consistent with the purpose of teaching the subject and with the general organization of the junior high school. Such utilization of the knowledge, ability, and experience of teachers has the advantage of building up a practical course of study based on class- room experience, of securing the sympathetic understanding by the teachers of the course when adopted, and of affording helpful stimulus and proper encouragement to the teaching staff which must follow from such profes- sional recognition. Every thoughtful administrator of a school system realizes how important it is to the success of educational work that contentment of mind, har- mony, and coöperation exist among the workers in the school system. While any changes are likely to prompt uneasiness among employees in- volved, changes are essential if progress is to be made. Changes should be made gradually. Progress must be made by slow evolution rather than by sudden upheaval. Changes should do individuals no personal injustice. This broad fundamental statement of policy has guided the superin- tendent in Washington in his efforts gradually to reorganize the school system from the traditional eight-four plan of organization to the six- three-three plan of organization, which incorporates the junior high school as an integral part of the school system. With a view of utilizing the idea and abilities of officials concerned, and with a further view of keeping the whole school system informed of plans under way and changes contemplated, the superintendent constituted a committee of administrative and supervisory officials and administrative arrangements pertaining to the junior high schools. This committee con- sists of the six junior high school principals, two supervising principals NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 421 representing the elementary schools, two high school principals representing the high schools, and the superintendent of schools and his two assistant superintendents . This committee of thirteen school officials has passed upon the details ofevery course of study prepared by the committees of teachers before said courses were finally presented to the superintendent for his approval. This committee has determined all matters of organization as they pertain to the junior high schools, such as the length of the school day, the length of recitation period, the time and length of the lunch period, extra-curricular activities, provision for supervised study, provision for departmental teach- ing, program of studies and time allotments. The final conclusions reached by this administrative committee have represented the combined judgment of the members of the committee, and have uniformly been put into opera- tion by the official action of the superintendent. The significance of the success which has been attained in establishing six junior high schools in Washington in a period of four years cannot be fully appreciated unless certain local conditions are understood. In the first place, the plan of organization of the school system is deter- mined largely by law rather than by discretionary action of the Board of Education. The organic law governing the school system was passed in 1906, long before a junior high school was thought of in Washington. Hence, there has been no legislative recognition or authorization for junior high schools except as carried in annual appropriation bills, providing money for the schools. In the second place, appropriations for the schools are made in a very detailed school budget which shows just how practically every dollar is to be spent. Money is not appropriated for teachers' salaries, but rather for aspecific number of high school salaries and a stated number of elementary school salaries of various kinds. The salary schedule adopted in 1906 and in effect to June 30, 1924, provided for five different classes of salaries for elementary school teachers. The lower salaries were given the inexperienced teachers who uniformly beganservice in the primary grades. If they were to receive more than a hundred dollars increase after four years of service they must be promoted to the next higher grades. The result of this archaic provision was to put all inexperienced or comparatively inexperienced teachers into the primary grades and all the older teachers into the upper grades. As a result of the system of advancement of the more proficient teachers from lower to higher grades, some of the most efficient teachers in Wash- ington were already to be found in grades VII and VIII. Their high professional standing justified the school officials in giving them preferen- tial consideration in the qualifying of teachers for the junior high school. This made it easy to transfer classes from an elementary school to the junior high school, because frequently the teacher accompanied them. The serious administrative difficulty arose from the fact that a teacher on an elementary school salary could tea tary school subjects 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in the junior high school, and a teacher on a high school salary could teach only high school subjects. This made the organization of the junior high school a very difficult problem. However, the new salary schedule which goes into effect July 1, 1924, wipes out all of these legislative difficulties. The fact that these six junior high schools have been organized under such difficulties is due to the ingenuity of school officers and the fine cooperation of teachers. Athird fact of significance remains to be noted. The fundamental pur- pose of the junior high school is to improve the instruction of the pupils through a better adaptation to their needs of the subject matter and methods of instruction. In the judgment of the speaker, there is no city in the country where the organization of the junior high school is more likely to provide for this improvement than Washington. It seems to have been the policy over a long period of years to build elementary schools of eight rooms. The type of elementary school in Washington is an eight-room building with four classrooms on each ot two floors and a good deal of waste space in the middle of the building. This building was designed to accommodate eight grades, one room for each of eight grades. In Washington there are more than seventy-five such eight- room buildings. I need not point out that this type of building is wholly inadequate to provide the necessary educational facilities of the modern school. Such an eight-room building provides no manual training room, no domestic science or domestic art room. It provides for no kindergarten. It pro- vides for no differentiation of work among pupils, there being only one room for each grade. Moreover, the seventh and eighth grade classes in these schools are usually comparatively small, and the classes in the first two or three grades are usually far above the standard of forty pupils to the class. Obviously if the school system is to provide the facilities required in an up-to-date school system, the above mentioned facilities must be provided as additional accommodations. Pupils from these eight-room buildings are now sent to manual training and domestic science centers for specialized work. As a means of improving elementary school organization, where possible. eight-room additions are being constructed to eight-room buildings and provision is being made for the facilities which have heretofore been in- adequately provided. However, a most important means of improving the education of seventh and eighth grade pupils is by means of the junior high school. By taking seventh and eighth grade pupils out of these eight- room or sixteen- room buildings it will be possible to reduce the number of part-time classes and will decrease the number of over-sized classes in the elementary grades. Specialized facilities are likewise being provided in sixteen-room buildings, but in many instances the specialized facilities of the junior high school will be made available for pupils of elementary school age. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 423 More significant perhaps than anything else is the fact that by bringing together into the junior high school larger numbers of seventh and eighth grade pupils, it is made possible to classify these pupils in accordance with their educational interests, individual capacities, and probable future edu- cational careers. In my judgment, this is one of the most significant developments attendant upon the organization of the junior high schools in Washington. By way of closing let me point out that the establishment of junior high schools in Washington has been based on a clearly defined platform of which the following are important planks : The fundamental purpose of the junior high school is to provide better instruction than the traditional grades VII and VIII and the first year of high school have heretofore provided. The program and procedure of the junior high school must be adapted to the pupils rather than the pupils fitted into the school. The junior high school must be neither a glorified elementary school nor a young high school but a distinctive institution to meet its peculiar edu- cational problems. The courses of study must be especially prepared for the junior high school: they cannot be appropriated from the grades or from the high school. Teachers must be as specifically prepared for the junior high schools as they traditionally are for the kindergarten, for the elementary school, or for the high school. Junior high schools should be established no faster than qualified teachers and other prerequisites can be provided. AN ILLITERACY PROGRAM CHARLES MC KENNY, PRESIDENT, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE , YPSILANTI , MICHIGAN The purpose of this paper is to set forth the situation in the United States with regard to illiteracy ; to set up a goal toward which to work, and to suggest the agencies by which the goal may be attained. Very few of the facts contained in this paper are new. They are to be found in the various bulletins of the National Education Association and of the United States Bureau of Education, and in magazines and other publica- tions; but, so far as the author knows, they have never been brought together as this paper proposes to do. Before we can intelligently discuss the problems of illiteracy, we must agree upon a definition of illiteracy. Official reports which are quoted whenever this subject is discussed, are based upon the Census Bureau's definition. To the Census Bureau, an illiterate is a person who confesses that he cannot write in any language. The census enumerator gave no tests and required no proofs. And yet under these conditions the census xi- returns for 1920 revealed 4,931,905 illiterates. Here, the 42+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mately five millions above the age of ten who confess that they cannot write in any language. It has been generally assumed in discussing the census figures that inability to write carries with it the inability to read. This is not the case. In some American schools writing is not, or at least was not, taught in the lower grades, and some adults who attended such schools learned to read without learning to write. Some immigrants can read but cannot write. They say that in the schools they attended in their native country writing was not required. Five hundred thousand persons who could read but not write were listed by the Census Bureau. But who is an illiterate ? Clearly, from a practical social point of view it is one who has not mastered the arts of reading and writing sufficiently to use them in daily life. And this implies ability to read the newspaper and to write at least family letters. Unfortunately we have no census of a State or of a community based on such a definition. However, we have some very illuminating and disturbing data furnished by the tests given the men in the first army draft at the beginning of the World War. It will be remembered that leading psychologists, through carefully devised examinations, tested the mental ability of more than 1,500,000 men in the first army draft to determine the line of service for which they were best fitted. These tests incidentally revealed the condition of literacy among these men. The results showed that 24.9 per cent of the men examined could not read ordinary English or write a letter home. Here was a practical test of literacy and the findings were humiliating and alarming. Taking the army tests as a basis, it is reasonable to accept the conclusion of the Illiteracy Commission of the National Education Asso- ciation that there are approximately 20,000,000 of our population above the age of ten who are practically illiterate, i. e. , who cannot effectively use reading and writing in any language in their daily lives. The standing of the United States among the leading nations of the world with reference to illiteracy is not flattering to our pride. Our rank is tenth, with an illiteracy percentage of 6 per cent, based on the census of 1920, while Germany and Denmark lead the list with a percentage of less than two tenths of one per cent. Our nearest contestants for unde- sirable honors are France with 4.9 per cent, and England with 1.8 per cent of illiterates. Here, then, is our situation. Now let us look for causes. Outstanding are three : inadequate schools, inadequate and unenforced compulsory at- tendance laws, and immigration. Immigration is a large factor, as it sup- plies two fifths of our illiterates. Our ignorance and pride incline us to blame immigration for most of our illiterates, but the fact is that three fifths, that is, three millions of our five million illiterates, are native born ; and of the native born illiterates, approximately one and a quarter million are white, and one and three quarter million are colored. We then must blame ourselves and no one else for our three million native illiterates above the age of ten. The cause of this native illiteracy is twofold: NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 425 poor school facilities, and unenforced compulsory school attendance laws. In some of our States which rank well educationally, we are still breeding illiterates in sections which are sparsely settled, and in certain States which are educationally retarded the situation is extremely disheartening. We have decreased illiteracy but one per cent in ten years, and the last census returns show a half million native born illiterates between the ages of ten and twenty. What is more alarming, the last available figures for a complete year show that 1,437,783 children between the ages of ten and thirteen did not attend school a single day. Unless we mend our ways, the problem of illiteracy will vex us for a hundred years . But why bother about illiteracy ? There is less of it in the United States and in the world than ever before. What if a few millions of adults and children above ten years old cannot read or write? The human race existed on this planet several million years before written language was invented. There are enough who are literate to look after the con- cerns of humanity. Let the illiterates enjoy their ignorance. The reply to this let-alone argument is threefold: The first is humanitarian, the second is economic, and the last is patriotic. In the first place, we cam- paign against illiteracy for the purpose of subtracting from human misery and adding to human happiness. In this day of print, when the sleepless printing presses are turning out tons of literature in the form of daily papers, of magazines, and of books; in this day, when the world, so far as intercommunication is concerned, has shrunk to the size of a county of a century ago, it is pathetic to think that there are millions who are unable to get instruction or enjoyment from the printed page. When for any reason whatsoever we are personally deprived, for a time, of the pleasure of reading, we begin to appreciate in a small degree the pathetic condition of those to whom written language is an impenetrable mys- tery. The humiliation and the loss of self-respect which come to those who are illiterate are handicaps we can only imagine. Illiteracy is a badge of inferiority, a disgrace which is felt to a more or less degree by every one who is a victim of it. The testimony of those who in adulthood have learned to read and write is touching and compelling. A world- wide war against illiteracy would be justified on purely altruistic grounds, for happiness is a legitimate human goal. But there are other considerations as well. It was a maxim of Napo- leon that an army travels upon its stomach. So does a nation, so does the entire human race. We are assured by the world's best authorities that the human race is nearing a critical situation so far as food supply is con- cerned. Most of the nations of the old world have already arrived at a stage of over-population. The new world is approaching the saturation point. It will require all of the enlightenment and intelligence that the world can muster safely to adjust population and food supply. The hope of the world in this direction lies in the development, popularization, and spread of scientific knowledge. 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Here enters education. It takes educated brains to produce wealth. The illiterate is economically inefficient and unproductive both for himself and for society. Compare the most illiterate and the least illiterate States with respect to the production of wealth and note how the balance tips in favor of literacy. In 1920, the per capita production of wealth in the five States which had maintained the most efficient school systems, meas- ured by the Ayer's scale, was nearly double that in the five States which had maintained the most inefficient school systems. Franklin K. Lane estimated that illiteracy is costing the Nation $825,000,000 annually. The Commission on Waste in Industry estimates an annual loss of $1,000,- 000,000 in the United States on account of preventable sickness. These amounts each approach closely the total cost of our public schools. The only remedy for these enormous losses is education. Illiteracy breeds ignorance, unproductiveness, poverty, ill health, and low moral standards. For economic reasons alone the struggle against illiteracy must continue. But there is another consideration which impels us forward in the effort to eradicate illiteracy, and that is patriotism-our interest in the stability and perpetuity of our political and social institutions. With a faith in the political capabilities of the common man, which to the rest of the world seemed fanatical, this Nation established manhood suffrage and has added womanhood suffrage, and in several States the primary, the initiative, the referendum, and the recall have been adopted. The govern- ment of this mighty Nation is in the hands of the people. Public opinion elects our officials and controls them while in office. The ballot is at once the hope and the menace of all democratic nations. It is a savior of life unto life or death unto death. An ignorant voter is a menace and a threat. an intelligent voter is a well-placed stone in the foundation of the republic. A voter who cannot read is necessarily a prey of the demagog and the political and social profiteer. The number of such voters is appalling. In 1920, 4,333,111 illiterates were twenty-one years old or more, and con- sequently voters. In many of our States this unintelligent mass would be sufficient to turn the election and decide issues of tremendous social signifi- cance. In the old New England days, the town meeting was the forum of public discussion and through such discussion the intelligent though illiterate man could become informed on public questions. That day is gone for- ever and the printed page in book or magazine or the daily press is the source of information. A voter who cannot use the printed page cannot hope to be informed, and consequently is a dangerous voter. The country cannot safely perpetuate him. We have now considered the present situation, the cause which pro- duced it, and the reasons for an unceasing campaign against illiteracy. It remains to consider our objectives, ultimate and immediate, and the methods by which they are to be attained. Of course, our ultimate objective is the banishment of illiteracy from the United States. Our first immediate objective should be the stoppage of the supply of illiteracy. We stand NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 427 today in the situation of a man who is pulling victims out of a river while some one above is throwing them in. He has a perpetual job. The only sensible thing for him to do is to dispose of the men throwing the victims in. Analogously, it should be our first business to stop the creation of illiterates. A generation at most would settle the matter, if no more illiterates were bred. We have found that immigration has been responsible for 2,000,000 of our illiterates. Our new immigration laws will greatly reduce, though they have not yet wholly stopped the influx of illiterates from alien lands. The Bureau of Immigration reports that 11,356 persons who could not read or write were admitted to this country during 1923. The second source of illiterates is insufficient schooling of the children. Here the line of procedure is evident. Our States that are backward educationally must have more and better schools. If the amendment to regulate child labor becomes effective, as no doubt it will, one source of illiteracy will be stopped, for when States quit working their children, there is hope that they will send the children to school. Throughout many of our States there must be a better enforcement of the compulsory edu- cation laws. No blow at illiteracy would be more effective than one delivered against laxity in the enforcement of the laws compelling school attendance. Need or greed or the indifference of parents should not be permitted to rob the children of the United States of their rightful in- heritance through the public schools and to weaken our social and political structure through the breeding of illiterates. The prevention of illiteracy through better school facilities and a rigid enforcement of attendance laws is clearly up to the States. An educa- tional campaign of a fervid type is needed in some States to create new ideals and set up new standards. Nothing is so hard to change as custom. What is stands in the way of what should be. It is equally true that the education of adult illiterates belongs to the State. Illiteracy is a social blight and the resources of the State should be pledged to its removal. A matter of such general concern should not be left to philanthropy. A State program administered through the office of the State superintendent of education is a sound and approved method ofprocedure. Another immediate objective should be the writing on the statute books of every State a literacy requirement for voting. As has already been stated, an illiterate voter is a dangerous voter. Earlier in this paper, the statement was made that in some States there are enough illiterate voters to decide an election. In an attempt to discover what the several States are doing to insure intelligent voting, the writer sent the following question- naire to the State superintendent of education of each of the States: 1. Does your State impose a literacy test for voters ? 2. In your opinion, is it effective in its nature and operation ? 3. In what year was the literacy law ena 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The replies show that thirty-three States have no literacy qualifications for voters. Fifteen have such qualifications. Of the fifteen, seven, namely, California, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New York, and South Carolina, have a law requiring educational qualifications for voters which is reasonably effective. We may reasonably challenge some of these replies. Massachusetts has had a literacy test for voters since 1780, while the New York law was passed in 1921. The writer has not investigated the nature and efficacy of these State laws with the exception of New York's. A constitutional amendment adopted by the State of New York provides that all new voters shall pass a literacy test, and the legislature has placed the issuing of literacy certificates in the hands of the Board of Regents of New York University. The law is in successful operation and is a model for the other States to copy. It is likely that no single act would call the attention of the American public to the subject of illiteracy more than legislation making literacy a qualification of all new voters. So far our attention has been centered upon those who cannot read or write in any language, but we must not overlook the ten million immigrants who, though they can read and write their native tongue, are illiterate so far as English is concerned. These, too, should be included in our pro- gram. We should not trust the interpretation of our social and political institutions and traditions to a foreign language press, not so much from fear of wrong motives on the part of such a press, as of inherent inability to understand and appreciate our institutions and ideals. Splendid work has been done for this class in several of our States. The writer has recently received a letter from Charles N. Herlihy, State supervisor of adult alien education of Massachusetts, which states that during the last five years more than 100,000 adult illiterate foreigners have learned to read and write English in the public school classes in the following States: New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, South Dakota, Minnesota, and California. It is encouraging to know that several of the Southern States are efficiently organized in the matter of eradicating illiteracy, namely, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama Arkansas , and Oklahoma. We have stressed the responsibility of the States in preventing and re- moving illiteracy, but this does not signify that we think the Federal Government has no responsibility in the matter. On the contrary, we hold that education is a National concern and that the Federal Government should coöperate with the States in promoting it. The country is ready for a great forward movement against illiteracy Since this is distinctly an educational movement we have a right to look to the educational forces of the States to initiate it where it has not already been launched. The years ought not to be many until every State is thoroughly and effectively organized for the purpose of removing the dark disgrace of illiteracy from our fair land. Department of Business Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-FREDERICK G. NICHOLS, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts Vice-President- FREDERICK BEYGRAU, Evander Childs High School New York City . Secretary-HELEN L. PRICE, South Philadelphia High School for Girls, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Local Committee-H. E. Warner, Principal, L. G. Hines, Junior High School, Washington, D. C, The Department of Business Education was created in response to a petition read at the meeting at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, from the Business Educators' Association, requesting admission as a department of the National Education Association. See Proceedings of 1892, page 31. The Business Edu- cators' Association was organized in New York City, in 1878. Its constitution was revised for acceptance by the Department of Business Education and may be found on page 958 of the Proceedings of 1894. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON , JULY 1 , 1924 HIGH-SCHOOL , BUSINESS TRAINING PROBLEMS PRESIDING- Isaac Gans, President, Washington Chamber of Commerce. TEACHING WORLD ECONOMICS IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS-E. Dana Durand, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washing- ton, D. C. EDUCATION FOR RETAIL SELLING-Alvin E. Dodd, Manager, Domestic Distribution Department, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. BUSINESS EDUCATION FROM A BUSINESS MAN'S STANDPOINT-Brig. Gen. Anton Stephan, General Manager, Dulin & Martin Co., Washington, D. C. SECOND SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON , JULY 1 , 1924 JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL BUSINESS TRAINING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE SEPARATE COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL AND THE COSMO- POLITAN HIGH SCHOOL-Allan Davis, Principal, Business High School, Wash- ington, D. C. THE SCOPE OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL COMMERCIAL EDUCATION-Clyde B. Edgeworth, Supervisor of Commercial Education, Baltimore, Maryland. CONTENT AND PRIMARY AIMS OF AN ELEMENTARY BUSINESS TRAINING COURSE AS A FORERUNNER OF BOOKKEEPING- Elizabeth Smith, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. BUSINESS ARITHMETIC FROM A VOCATIONAL POINT OF VIEW-C. E. Bowman, Head of Commercial Department, Girard College, Philadelphia, and Instructor in Teaching Methods, School of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia. THE VOCATIONAL NEED FOR BUSINESS WRITING IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND HOW TO MEET IT-Elmer G. Miller, Director of Business Education and Super- visor of Writing, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TYPEWRITING TEACHER AND H TO SOLVE THEM-Laura Hedges, Washington Junior High School, Rod New York. [429] 430 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THIRD SESSION --THURSDAY AFTERNOON , JULY 3 , 1924 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL BUSINESS TRAINING Chairman , John Aubel Kratz , Chief, Rehabilitation Division, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. С. BUSINESS MEETING. GETTING THE MOST VALUE OUT OF COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY- Calvin O. Althouse. Director, School of Commerce, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pennsyl- vania. CLASSROOM HELPS IN TRAINING A TYPIST-Mrs . Frances M. Butts, Business High School, Washington, D. C. CLASSROOM HELPS FOR THE SHORTHAND TEACHER-Mrs. Helen L. Campbell, Eliza- bethtown College, Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania. OFFICE PRACTICE ON A VOCATIONAL BASIS - Lewis A. Newton, Office Practice De- partment, East Boston High School, Boston, Massachusetts . BUSINESS ENGLISH AS A PART OF STENOGRAPHIC TRAINING- S . Augusta Taintor, Theodore Roosevelt High School, New York City. TEACHING BOOKKEEPING SO AS TO REALIZE ITS MOST IMPORTANT EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL VALUES- L.L. Jones, West High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio. DISCUSSION ( Ten Minutes ) . At the business meeting, which was called to order at 2 o'clock, the following officers were elected: President-L. L. Jones , West High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio. Vice- President-Irving R. Garbutt, Supervisor, Commercial Education, Cincin- nati, Ohio. Secretary-J . O. Malott, Commercial Department, Yeatman High School, St Louis, Missouri . TEACHING WORLD ECONOMICS IN HIGH SCHOOLS- ABSTRACT E. DANA DURAND, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE, WASHINGTON , D. C. Comparatively few of our youth are able to continue their scholastic education beyond the high school. The high-school course, therefore, should be as far as possible complete in itself, and should give the boy or girl all that its limited duration will permit in preparation for life. The tendency after leaving school is toward specialization. The high school must, therefore, seek to impart breadth of knowledge and of thought. The biggest phenomenon in the world is its economic activity, making a living, producing, exchanging, and consuming goods and services. No education is worthy of the name which neglects this all-important field. For the man or woman engaged in any independent business, a broad knowledge of economic phenomena, and ability to reason concerning them are essential to success. For others, whatever their occupation or station, such knowledge and reasoning power are essential to good citizenship. Educators generally recognize the importance of including in the high- school curriculum something regarding such subjects as the basic principles DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 431 of economics, the economic history of the United States, its industries and commerce, its economic life and problems. There is, of course, great room tor improvement in instruction in this field. It is my task to emphasize the need for giving our high-school boys and girls a world point of view of economic life. It is trite but profoundly true that the world is growing smaller, more closely knit together; that each nation is becoming more dependent on the others. The World War not only aroused our consciousness of world interdependence but actually greatly increased the number and strength of the bonds which tie the United States to Europe, to Asia, to South America, to Africa, to the islands of the sea. While there is no other important country whose prosperity is so little affected by foreign conditions as the United States, nevertheless our economic and political relations with the rest of the world are highly and increasingly important. Foreign coun- tries increasingly supply us goods essential to our comfort, and conversely we must seek abroad for markets for increasing quantities of goods with which to pay for needed imports. The United States has become the chief creditor nation, the greatest source of capital for foreign investments. The business of many million Americans is very directly affected by things foreign, and in any case the American, as a citizen of the world, owes it to his fellow citizens throughout the world to seek some knowledge and understanding of their economic life. In high-school study of world economics, emphasis should be laid on broad aspects rather than minute details. One must not lose the forest in thetrees. Casual relations should be stressed. Broad comparisons should be made among countries as regards the basic characteristics of their eco- nomic life, such as density of population, standards of productive efficiency and of living; relative importance of agriculture as compared with manu- facturing and mining industries; degree of economic self-sufficiency, and the like. In the study of history--and modern history certainly has an important place in the high-school curriculum-emphasis should be on the broader aspects, on underlying causes, on the relation of economic factors to political and military events. It is perhaps hardly practicable in the high school to offer courses specifically designed to prepare the student to engage in foreign trade. The number of persons whose future career will be chiefly concerned with foreign trade is limited and few of those who actually enter it can foresee that it will be their field. The training that will best prepare for domestic business will go far toward preparing for foreign business. One should not confuse broad training for business with specialized training in clerk- ship, stenography, letter writing, accounting, though of course the im- portance of clerkship as an occupation in itself or as a stepping-stone to higher occupations is not to be minimized. 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BUSINESS ARITHMETIC FROM A VOCATIONAL POINT OF VIEW-ABSTRACT CHARLES E. BOWMAN, HEAD OF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, GIRARD COLLEGE , PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA Surveys and interviews with employers of clerical help show that, aside from absolutely necessary qualities of character and general intelligence. boys and girls are desired to show qualities of accuracy, are careful and systematic, make good figures, and do neat work generally. They are not so particular about technical training. To meet these conditions and develop these qualities, the following out- line of a course in business arithmetic for junior high schools is suggested: Content-The course should be intensive, not extensive, covering the arithmetic common to most business houses, chiefly the fundamental opera- tions applied to whole numbers, common and decimal fractions, and per- centage, with business applications. More advanced topics should be covered in a later course, preferably near the end of the senior high school course. This course is primarily to develop foundational skill in general business arithmetic, being entirely non-technical in character . Method-Accuracy should be the first consideration; speed secondary. Pupils should be trained to depend on themselves for the mathematical accuracy of their work, not on the teacher or a set of answers. To accom- plish this, they should be required to go over their work after it is com- pleted, carefully checking results. They should be taught to realize the value of accuracy, and the cost of inaccurate results. Daily drill should be given on the most important units, such as addi- tion, invoicing, and interest. Drill should be given under pressure as regards time, and no credit should be given for inaccurate results. Fre- quent contests should be held, to stimulate interest. Results should be posted. A spirit of competition should be developed. This part of the arithmetic course should call for no outside or home work. Intensive, sustained effort in class, with every pupil busy all the time, will make for skill. Very little class time should be used by the teacher in explanation of principles. The arithmetic of business calls for no involved problems, at least by pupils of this age. Reasonable short cuts should be taught and required to be used. The pupil should be taught to scan his results from the standpoint of reason. thus avoiding absurd answers . High standards of neatness must be main- tained in all written work. Plain, legible figures, systematically ar- ranged, must be insisted upon. Results Such training will function in two ways-it will carry over whenever the child secures a position, and will establish a thorough founda- tion and ideals of accuracy invaluable in more advanced commercial work. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 433 THE VOCATIONAL NEED FOR BUSINESS WRITING IN THЕ JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND HOW TO MEET IT ELMER G. MILLER, DIRECTOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION, PITTSBURGH PENNSYLVANIA Since there are but fifteen minutes at my disposal in which to speak on this important subject, I will assume that each of us recognizes and accepts three pertinent facts: first, that good writing is more than an accomplish- ment, it is a modern need ; second, that writing is the vehicle which carries forward all other subjects of our curriculum to greater progress and de- velopment; third, that we shall have need for good writing just as long as we have need for written expression in education. The junior high school and vocational education are perhaps the two most important features of present-day educational programs. How should. handwriting function in the junior high school and what is its place in vocational education ? As a means of written expression, handwriting in the high school is as important as any other school subject. .Speech is considered the noblest acquisition of mankind, yet, strange to say, after years of study under the best instructors in English, it is not uncommon to hear it said of our high school graduates, "They have been exposed, but somehow the subject matter did not take." Small wonder then that handwriting, which is the most useful of all arts, does not always "carry over" one hundred per cent from the intermediate grades through the high school without any further special attention. When our teachers and school officials once recognize that handwriting is not only a manual art but a mental art as well, they will understand more fully why most people consider the process difficult and also why the progress is not more rapid. Since the introduction of the typewriter in our junior high schools, there is a tendency to minimize the importance of the teaching of handwriting. This is not only a mistaken idea but also a short-sighted policy, for, while it is true that the typewriter has greatly reduced the volume of longhand writing, it has not in any way lessened the demand for good quality. In fact there never was a time when good writing counted for so much with bankers and business men as it does today. It is quite obvious that business writing is a vocational need in the junior high school. As a vocational subject, instruction should be offered, with credit, to ninth year pupils only. They are then ready to pass with a grade of from 80 to 90 on the Ayres scale and from that stage on through the high school, it is more or less a problem of administration. The principal of the school has a right to expect and to demand that the writing, at all times, be at least on a par with the standard set by the Ayres scale. In other words, the principal can have just the kind of writing he desires , and he usually does. In the seventh year, spelling and handwriting hould be taught together, ٢٦ the writing lesson always preceding the In the eighth 434 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION year, writing and junior business training should be combined, the first twenty minutes being devoted to writing, and the remainder of the period to business training. In the ninth year, writing and first year bookkeeping should be taught in the same period by the same teacher, the first fifteen or twenty minutes for handwriting, and the remainder of the period for bookkeeping. This plan affords a splendid opportunity to bridge the gap between the movement drills and the actual writing; and, after all, it is this application of the skill gained during the writing lesson to the daily written work that makes for progress in the teaching of handwriting. It is a good plan to follow a systematic outline for each semester's work, and to keep before the pupils the definite aims to be accomplished. Mind and muscle must work in perfect unison to produce satisfactory results in the short time allotted to this study. While following a definite outline it is also important to grade the letters of the alphabet according to form and movement. Measuring the results at frequent intervals is another very effective method of stimulating interest on the part of the pupils. There are many recognized standard scales for measuring handwriting. The following list will be found in general use : Ayres, Freeman, Houston, Lister, Palmer, Thorndyke, Walker, Zaner. On account of its simplicity and of its wide recognition by school authorities, the Ayres scale is very popular. By the use of a measuring scale, the teacher can evaluate the personal equation in the examination. Pupils are better satisfied with this method of grading because they themselves can use the scale in measuring their own work. Always remember that writing scales do not deal with the process, neither do they show how to improve poor writing; they simply measure the finished product. Some of our educators stress the importance of teaching individuality in handwriting, while others contend that it develops sufficiently withou being taught. Individuality should be encouraged to a reasonable degree, but it should be kept in mind that individuality does not mean peculiarity or illegibility, it means something characteristic and distinctive. In clesing let me add that the progress made in this study depends somewhat upon the mental attitude of the teacher toward the work. As a great poet has said: "For his heart was in his work, and the heart giveth grace to every art. " The teacher who handles this subject as if it were a million dollar job usually "puts it over." While Mr. Roosevelt occupied the highest position in our country, a senator marveling at his success, took occasion to ask the President the real secret of his ability. In his characteristic manner, Roosevelt replied, "I like my job." DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 435 CLASSROOM HELPS IN TRAINING A TYPIST FRANCES M. BUTTS , BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON , D. C. If "Classroom Helps in Training a Typist" be understood as not mean- ing devices merely, but devices plus all other classroom factors affecting the progress of learning, any detailed and analytical discussion of the sub- ject must of necessity include the relation of aims and ideals in typewriting to the underlying aim in commerce ; honest and efficient exchange, which is a direct outgrowth of the great American ideals of self-reliance; respect for public opinion; equality of opportunity and education, and will to activity, as well as the following topics : The teacher : Aims and attitudes; breadth of vision ; personality ; aca- demic training; professional training; professional experience ; practical experience. The pupil: Aims and attitudes ; native abilities; acquired abilities ; physi- cal fitness; education; will to activity ; environment. The classroom: Heat; light; ventilation; equipment, i, e. , desks, chairs , typewriters, filing cabinets, phonograph, display boards, etc. The textbook: Clear and explicit instructions in operative technique, the mechanics of English, secretarial training, business ethics, and profes- sional subject matter; practice material to give facility of execution, impart knowledge, and develop æsthetic appreciation; drills to develop accurate reach-touch habits, evenness of touch, concentration, and rhythmic speed ; illustrations of form and artistic arrangement, machines and attachments, technical performance, finger gymnastics, speed artists in action, graphs and charts, and commercial activities ; supplementary practice material and achievement tests for intensive practice; information and descriptions of domestic and international speed contests and civil service examinations ; worthwhile publications listed and described. Methods and devices : The three stages of progress: the initial habit formation period, the habit acceleration period, and the period of artistic production and creative typewriting. The initial habit formation period : Habit analysis ; uniform conditions ; the right beginning; class en rapport : position at machine, correct reach and touch, keyboard technique by example. Rhythm drills : Home-row, reach-touch drills, four-finger reach-touch drill, and two-finger reach-touch drill, words of high frequency for addi- tional practice. Paper control: Size and quality; insertion and removal; margins and spacing; stamped papers; proof reading; error analysis ; grading; budget preparation; filing; manifolding; review and repetition for habit fixation. The habit acceleration period: Literary gems and business selections for copy. Motivation: The phonograph and speed records, the dictaphone ; count- ing; direct dictation ; speed contests ; graphs and devices . The period of artistic production and creative typewriting: The mathe +36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION matics of typewriting ; the artistic side of typewriting, i. e., order, balance, symmetry, rhythm ; placement principles; arrangement principles ; tran- scription; stencil cutting; office appliances ; form letters; personal com- munications ; report writing ;specialized secretarial training. CLASSROOM HELPS FOR THE SHORTHAND TEACHER- ABSTRACT HELENL. CAMPBELL, DIRECTOR, COMMERCIAL TEACHER TRAINING DEPART- MENT, ELIZABETHTOWN COLLEGE , ELIZABETHTOWN , PENNSYLVANIA After the enthusiasm and vision of the splendid speeches and inspiring addresses of the Convention have faded a little, the teacher searches her memory for some concrete bits to fit into her everyday life in the class- room -some ways to vary and lighten the monotony of recitations, to share with her pupils what she has so generously received. There is not a great deal that can be done about the classroom, too often it must be accepted " as is," but we want to talk a bit about the way it can be adapted to the use of the shorthand class. Much of the discipline of a class can be controlled by the mere me- chanics of the recitation, and since discipline is so often the teacher's bug- bear, some of the plans for the recitation that will help on this big problem may be discussed here. And since so many hours of both teacher and pupil must be spent in routine class work in the schoolroom, it seems wise to plan to make that work as easy of accomplishment, as helpful to all concerned and as stimu- lating to teacher and pupil as is humanly possible. It is the little "some- thing new" that wakens interest and vitalizes the recitation, and any device that gives the individual pupil a part to play, is sure to be worth while from the standpoint of discipline and subject matter. We seek to find every new scheme and suggestion to make the routine and repetition that we know is inevitable, a little more interesting by a thoughtful development of personality in the work, and a recognition of the "joy of achievement. " BUSINESS ENGLISH AS A PART OF STENOGRAPHIC TRAINING-ABSTRACT S. AUGUSTA TAINTOR , THEODORE ROOSEVELT HIGH SCHOOL , NEW YORK CITY In certain circles nowadays, we hear much about fundamentalism and modernism, two principles around which the world of religious thought seems to be revolving and dividing into warring factions. These names have become a part of our daily speech, and have taken on a wider sig- nificance than that merely religious, for we often hear them used in educa DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION +37 tion, in business, and in politics. May we not with equal success use them in relation to the much discussed and apparently unsettled question of what kind of English will best prepare stenographers to do their work to the better satisfaction of their employers and to the happiness of all concerned? I believe that we all subscribe to the fundamentalist creed of what a stenographer should be able to do. We believe that she should be able to spell; to punctuate; to recognize and to write good sentences; to know something of paragraph structure; to compose letters herself that are not only clear, concise, and correct, but also attractive and pleasing in style. Themethod of obtaining this result is what is of interest to the modern- ist. Casting aside theories that seem to him to have failed because they apparently have not produced the results desired, he loudly affirms his belief in what he is pleased to call Business English, as the only means by which the stenographer can attain to her earthly paradise. Certain fundamentalists, on the other hand, harking back to their own English training and to the principles on which they were brought up in their youth, believe with all their heart that only by a somewhat intensive study of certain classics, whose age vouches for their respectability, can one be saved. Still others of a more modern school have ventured to state their con- fession of faith in the beliefs of both fundamentalists and modernists, knowing that, after all, both are seeking the same salvation but are merely taking a different road on their way to the City of Attainment. To these there is no such thing as school English or home English or business English, but there is, most emphatically, such a thing as good English. which one can acquire, if one is not born to it, by uniting the best of the views and theories of both modernists and fundamentalists. We have been mistaken in the belief that business demands little and we have also been mistaken in the assumption that it is possible to gain that little by constant drill on what seemed to be the essentials without also giving something which would lead one to think, to grow, and to live. Business demands much, and because it does, it behooves teachers to make equally great demands upon students, so that they will talk well, write well, and think well. TEACHING BOOKKEEPING SO AS TO REALIZE ITS MOST IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL VALUES—ABSTRACT LLOYD L. JONES, WEST HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE , CLEVELAND , OHIO Has bookkeeping a place in secondary education ? Most of us will answer in a lusty affirmative. But it is true that any hurried, half thought out plan to revive the course, set up objectives, change the methods, and select the materials would be bad judgment. It seldom happens that two 438 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION high schools in the same county, or even in the same city, agree as to courses in bookkeeping, or as to when to begin, or when to stop, or what sort of teachers should handle the subject. In Cleveland, a committee on book- keeping was appointed and organized to study the problems . The talk will be a brief summary of the work of the Cleveland committee on bookkeeping. This committee of five has been working since September of 1923, and it is very fortunate, indeed, to have for its chairman, W. L. Connor, Director of Reference and Research, Board of Education, Cleve- land, Ohio. The committee found that it is the duty of the teacher to determine the objectives of courses in bookkeeping, in secondary schools. Next, these objectives were to be evaluated and material found by which these objectives may be realized. It is the duty of the teacher to find out whether the books offered as material are interesting, complete, accurate, and contain sufficient practice material to realize the objectives. The teacher of bookkeeping cannot do these things alone. He ought to be organized with other bookkeeping teachers and in close touch with the regular Educational Research Department so that the efforts of all teachers may be coördinated, and assistance rendered at points where needed by the effective research department. Department of Child Hygiene SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-Dr. William A. Howe, State Medical Inspector of Schools ...... Albany, New York Vice-President-Dr. E. A. Peterson, Public Schools ... .. Cleveland, Ohio Secretary Dr. Charles H. Keene, Director, Bureau of Health Education, Department of Public Instruction .... .... Harrisburg, Pennsylvania The Department of Child Hygiene was known as the Department of Child Study until July 13, 1911. See Proceedings of 1911, page 870. The Department of Child Study was created at the Asbury Park meetings, July 10, 1894. See Pro- ceedings of 1894, page 40. In July, 1924, the department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See Proceedings of 1924, page 96. Tuesday Afternoon, July 1, 1924 INTERESTING SCHOOL CHILDREN IN HEALTH Dr. Elton G. Littell, Medical Director, Board of Education, Yonkers, N. Y. DISCUSSION LED BY C. E. Turner, Assistant Professor of Biology and Public Health, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. NUTRITION OF THE SCHOOL CHILD Dr. Talliaferro Clark, United States Public Health Service, Medical Officer in Charge of Field Investigation in Child Hygiene, Washington, D. C. DISCUSSION LED BY John Gebhardt, Director, Department of Social Welfare, The Association for Improving Conditions of the Poor, New York City. THE EDUCATION OF CRIPPLED CHILDREN Edgar F. Allen, President, International Society for Crippled Children, Elyria, Ohio. DISCUSSION LED BY Alice Christianar, Principal of the Sunbeam School for Crippled Children , Cleveland, Ohio. DENTAL HYGIENE IN THE SCHOOLS Dr. Nils Juell, Member, Board of Education, Minneapolis, Minn. Thursday Afternoon, July 3 Joint Meeting with the Department of Physical and Health Education PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CITY SCHOOLS Dr. Walter F. Cobb, Director of Physical Education and Hygiene, Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. MENTAL HYGIENE AND THE SCHOOL PROGRAM Dr. Francis N. Maxfield, Director, Bureau of Special Education, State De- partment of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. DISCUSSION LED BY Dr. Shepherd Ivory Franz, Director of Laboratories, U. S. Hospital for Insane, Washington, D. C. [ 439] 440 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION GAMES AND HEALTH PROGRAM Anne Raymond, Specialist in Health Education, Playground Athletic League, Baltimore, Md. WHAT 13 NEEDED FOR BETTER SCHOOL MEDICAL INSPECTION AND HEALTH SERVICE William A. Howe, State Medical Inspector of Schools, Albany, N. Y. DISCUSSION For minutes of business meeting see Department of Physical and Health Edu- cation. INTERESTING SCHOOL CHILDREN IN HEALTH— ABSTRACT ELTON G. LITTELL, MEDICAL DIRECTOR, BOARD OF EDUCATION, YONKERS , NEW YORK Coöperation is of extreme importance in school health service. The coöperation of the children is essential to the correction of their physical defects and faulty health habits. In order to get the coöperation of the children, it is necessary to resort to devices that will hold their interest. Among such devices are scales for weighing the children, from time to time ; procedure in nutrition classes ; class health challenge cups; health contests of various kinds; health honor rolls; health ships; health plays and demonstrations ; health crowns ; health houses; health thermometer; school board of health; health army ; and health charts. To arouse the interest of the child in achieving and maintaining health, an appeal may be made to his personal vanity: The boys may be inspired with the desire to become bigger and stronger, and the girls bigger and prettier. Continually watching the scales will so interest some children, that they will endeavor to increase their weight by following the health rules given. Children readily become interested in nutrition classes. The ideal way to conduct such a class is to have a nutrition expert take charge of the work in a scientific way. The children should be weighed and measured as early in the term as possible, and once each month. Their weights and heights should be charted by classes. Children more than ten pounds underweight should be weighed weekly. They should have individual weight charts, and should be admitted to the nutrition class, under the direction of a teacher or nurse. Then those who fail to gain in weight for one month, should be referred to their own physicians, or to the nutrition clinic at the dispensary. Health contests are of value in stimulating interest, as only a contest can. The conditions of these must be determined by the need of the school . The contestants should be classes rather than individuals, or the contest may be between groups such as clubs. The health contest should aim to correct physical defects; to show a percentage of 100 in the use of the toothbrush; to have all pupils free from nits ; to have no cigarette smokers ; to have every child vaccinated; to attain perfect regularity in DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 441 attendance; to achieve strict obedience to all the health rules; to draw the best health posters, and write the best essays on health subjects. Class health challenge cups-These cups are silver trophies, presented not to an individual but a class for its health efforts. They promote class spirit. The individual receives the benefit in better health. An individual cupmay be presented to the child making the greatest physical gain in the school year. Weight charts-These may be recorded by classes with monthly weigh- ings, or for individuals who are under weight and are weighed weekly. Health honor rolls-They are readily made of sheets of cardboard, cut to receive small slips, each with the name of a pupil who has had all his defects removed. The children will strive to get their names on this roll. One boy with a sinus discharging matter into his mouth, resisted all efforts formore than ayear, to have that source of poisoning removed. On learn- ing that if his tooth were extracted, his name would be placed on the health honor roll, he asked permission to visit the dentist, and had the tooth extracted. Health ships-These are made of cardboard, and carry names of defects as they are removed, either on the sails, or on the lifeboats to be attached to the ship or the life-buoys. Health plays and demonstrations-These are of great educational value to the children and others, and may include toothbrush drills, exhibitions by Cho-Cho, the Health Fairy, Happy, etc. Health crowns-The names of defects as they are removed from the entire class, are recorded on the points of the crown. Health houses-These can be built to show the ideal house, with the proper sanitary arrangements in each room, or the actual construction of the house, each brick carrying the name of some child who has removed all of his remediable defects, or who has attained the highest score in health habits. Health thermometer-The rising mercury shows the number of defects corrected, or the increasing number of children who are taking milk instead of tea and coffee. Health ladders-With the child ascending as the number of his defects are corrected. School board of health-This consists of a health officer and a representa- tive from each grade, who help with the morning inspection records and general health work of the classroom. Health education may be introduced into the classroom as a part of the curriculum, in English, as subject for composition on health and foods; in geography, in showing the production and preparation of foods; in history, what the development of medical science has done to make habitable certain portions of the world, such as Havana, Canal Zone, Manila, etc., and in art, the drawing of health posters on health subjects. 442 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This health work in the public schools is of the first importance, as, for some, it is the only chance they will ever have to get an understanding of hygiene and the right principles of living. NUTRITION OF THE SCHOOL CHILD -ABSTRACT DR . TALLIAFERRO CLARK, UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, FIELD INVESTIGATION IN CHILD HYGIENE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Heredity may be considered the principal factor in evolution of the race. On the other hand, environment, if interpreted to include social conditions, may modify heredity for better or for worse. Among the social conditions operating to fix heredity characteristics, none plays a more important part than those relating to the nutrition of the race. This is confirmed by animal experimentation and observations on the human subject which have clearly shown the effect of the lack of certain food elements in causing the development of "deficiency" diseases. But of still greater importance to the race is the effect of underfeeding in certain essential food elements to a degree not necessarily accompanied by evidence of ill health, and con- tinued from generation to generation, in causing retrogressive changes in heredity characteristics. Experimentation on rats has shown that defective nutrition has remote effects with cumulative action through successive gen- erations, so that the physical condition of the stock becomes progressively worse. Because rats do not differ materially in many respects from human beings in their reactions to dietary restrictions, and because of the more exact knowledge of the principles governing nutrition gained through animal experimentation in recent years, it is apparent that measures designed to improve the nutrition of the school child may properly be considered from the standpoint of (1) the nutritional status of the individual to enable him to take the best possible advantage of educational opportunity, and (2) the effect of these measures on the child as the potential father of the race. The great prevalence of malnutrition among all classes of school children. reported by observers from all sections of the country, indicates that the maintenance of good nutrition is a major health problem which may be adversely affected by a number of factors. Of these may be mentioned economic status; parental ignorance of basic principles of good nutrition; community customs and habits, which are responsible for the raising of staple crops of inferior food value because of the ease and relative low cost of production; and the improper wholesale preparation of food before it reaches the ultimate consumer. Examples of this are found in the excessive bolting of flour in milling, manufacture of butter substitutes, and in canning. To these must be added lack of parental control and the personal food likes and dislikes of individual children, and the success achieved in combating them. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 443 The maintenance of an adequate school medical service and sanitary supervision of school buildings, classrooms, and school grounds is a prime requisite for promoting the nutrition of school children, individually and collectively. Special attention must also be given to the hygiene of in- struction, provision for play, regulated exercises, and the organization of classes for children suffering from handicaps. Through the instrumentality of a properly equipped follow-up system into the homes, the school can bring about desirable changes in the habitual diet of children in conformity with well established principles of good nutrition. In many respects the importance of efforts to maintain nutrition of the child as an individual, is overshadowed by the larger aspect of the effects of these efforts on future generations. Unless they succeed in bringing about an understanding and appreciation of the far-reaching effects of these measures on future generations, when continued from generation to genera- tion, the full fruits of such endeavor will not be realized . There is increasing evidence that large classes of the population may be suffering from vitamin underfeeding and living in "the borderland between health and disease." For this reason no effort should be spared during the impressionable period of school age to bring about an almost automatic observance of the requirements of healthy living. To this end, all funda- mental related forms of school work should be harmoniously fitted to the general plan of health instruction and health supervision, and the combined wisdom of the teacher and the medical advisor should be utilized for this purpose. Courses in health should be prescribed and given weight in the school curriculum corresponding to that for major subjects. Educators are now taking a broader view of their responsibilities, and a deeper interest in health as an educational problem than in the very recent past. Every year witnesses better provision for school health supervision, and closer correlation of health teaching with the teaching of other sub- jects in the curriculum. One could well envy their opportunity for promoting health and the part they should and do take for the betterment of the race. THE EDUCATION OF CRIPPLED CHILDREN-ABSTRACT EDGAR F. ALLEN , PRESIDENT, INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR CRIPPLED CHILDREN, ELYRIA , OHIO In discussing the question of the education of the crippled child, it is essential for us to have brought plainly into view what we mean by a crippled child, and where the crippled children are to be found. Also, we should have rather a complete knowledge of the real needs of the crippled child, as well as an understanding of the fact that the physical care and education of such children necessarily go hand inhand. Somehow, a recognition of this hitherto neg .. of our people is taking shape in the minds of our citizens. is pained 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION by the thought of suffering crippled children, while the same public mind and eye see real economic value for the State in their restoration to inde- pendence and usefulness, through the means of special education and scien- tific care, leading to the helping of their physical condition, and often their cure. But neglect or misunderstanding of the crippled child has continued for so many centuries, that it is now more than a problem of marshaling and applying medical and educational forces to alleviate suffering and create valuable citizens. With little or no help in view for them, crippled chil- dren have slunk far into the pit, where they are not seen. They must be sought out. They must be made to understand that it is not a disgrace to be crippled. The child and parent must have faith restored, must be encouraged to hope, and, above all, made to feel that we care. I do not wish to infer that crippled children have, in all cases or every- where, been neglected. Private philanthropy has cared for many. Med- ical men, who come closely in contact with them, have done much in acting and speaking in their behalf. Where parents have had sufficient private means, the crippled child has, of course, had care, but with these we are not here concerned. Although surgical, medical, and other relief measures are many times essential, and indeed often urgent, it must not be forgotten that approxi- mately only twenty-five per cent of the crippled children of the country require hospital care. It is obvious, therefore, that the majority of the crippled children should be provided with either correctional exercises or special pre-vocational training, according to the nature of their handicaps. Two objects should be kept clearly in mind in dealing with this problem: first, the general educational and pre-vocational training of the crippled child; second, the establishment of means for supervising the physical development of the child. This second factor comprises such services as massage, muscle training, supervised exercises, and various forms of mechanotherapy, together with regular medical attention. To obtain the special school for crippled children is simple. In most cases a room set apart in a regular school building, with equipment pecu- liarly adapted to the handicapped child, is provided. Such a special school makes possible additional pre-vocational training. It provides proper and adequate diets. A limited number of pupils permits of special attention from the teacher, and this offers a means whereby selected calisthenics, massage, and exercise of the weakened body may be had. It permits medical inspection and advice; and modern transportation facilities make regular attendance possible. Rest periods, which are a part of the daily routine, assist in the most rapid mental and physical development of the child. In order to establish the work, it has seemed advisable in some States to provide, through legislation, for the reimbursement to local boards of education from State funds, of an amount sufficient to cover the additional DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 445 cost of special care for the crippled child. The amount should cover such items as transportation, extra pay for teachers specially trained, hot lunches, special gymnasium equipment, adjustable seats, and such other appliances as may be necessary for the adequate physical care and education of crippled children. The sizes of these classes should be limited both as to minimum and maximum. The cost of too small a class is excessive. Too large a class makes effective teaching impossible. A minimum of eight and a maximum of from sixteen to twenty is suggested by some who have studied this problem. The procedure for the establishment of special schools for crippled children is somewhat as follows: Enumerate the children eligible for special instruction; obtain the approval and coöperation of the superintendent of schools and the Board of Education; where State aid is available, request the assistance of the State Department of Education in arranging the details of organization. In the education and care of the crippled child, two questions must be answered. First, what do we mean by, and how do we define, a crippled child? Second, where does the crippled child live? For want of a better definition, we have used the one recommended by the Board of Inquiry at Birmingham, England, as follows : " One whose (muscular) movements are so restricted by accident or disease as to affect his capacity for self- support." Second, the problem of the education of the crippled child in a large way has a great deal to do with the location of such children, because if we could say that, in a certain State, as, for example, the State of Michigan, all the crippled children were located in the city of Detroit, it would be one problem. But if, as really is the case, these children are located in every section and in every corner of the State at a ratio of perhaps three to every thousand population, then we are confronted with another problem. Please bear in mind that in all our efforts in behalf of the crippled child, we have worked on the fundamental theory that facilities for the care, cure, and education of crippled children should be made available near home; that the institutional plan is not fitted to bring the greatest service to the greatest number. Viewing the problem on that basis, it would seem to me that we have in the education of the crippled child, the city and rural problem. The greatest problem in the education of the crippled child is that of the rural districts, and especially so in those isolated districts where property value is so low that the cost of special education is prohibitive. Regarding the location of these children, let me explain what I mean, by taking the example of the State of Ohio. We have in that State seven cities which have a total population of close to three million, and in those seven cities, about half the population of the State is represented. Located in those seven cities are probably nearly half the crippled children 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State. But there are three million people living outside of those seven large cities. Now it is children outside of the large cities that are the most diffi- cult to reach. We found in one county 196 orthopedic cases-not a thing being done for them, and no educational facilities-children from ten to twelve years old, that had never been to school. I have no formula to meet this con- dition, but it suggests itself to my mind that State aid must be given to meet such conditions, which are even more pronounced in many States than in Ohio ; so, in a State educational program it would appear that the crippled child should be included. This may be worked out by the establishment of special classes for crip- pled children with the consolidation of rural schools, and in the con- solidations of such schools, plans can be made for the establishment of the special classes for the crippled. My plea is for scientific care and better educational facilities for crip- pled children within the public school system of a State. The education of a cripple "is not philanthropy, it is enlightened self-interest." It is my suggestion that each State make a survey of the conditions in that State, with reference to the education of crippled children; that proper laws be enacted to give small communities State aid; that the necessary requirements for the establishment of schools in districts, in small cities, and in large cities, be outlined; that a tabulation of costs be made as to the expense of the education of the crippled child compared with the edu- cation of the normal child ; that the training of the personnel necessary for those schools should be promoted; that the value of training and education for the crippled child be approximately figured out, to the end that the public may understand and be aroused to the possibility of changing these human liabilities into assets . After fourteen years of study and work for and among crippled children. it is my opinion that the greatest service we can perform for them is edu- cation. While we should care for them and cure them if possible, educate them we must, because, when we realize the value of an education to the normal child, we can really multiply that by ten in computing the value of an education to the crippled child. As a matter of fact, if that child cannot be cured, his only hope of becoming a self-supporting and respected citizen is through education. DENTAL HYGIENE IN THE SCHOOLS—ABSTRACT NILS JUELL, D. D. S. , MEMBER, BOARD OF EDUCATION ΜΙΝΝΕΑΡPOLIS , MINNESOTA One of the first things with which an American, traveling in England. is struck is the frequency and the frankness with which the Englishman mentions his liver. The English liver, it seems, is continually getting into polite conversation, on every sort of occasion. Both men and women talk DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 447 about it. It is the first organ inquired after, when one Englishman meets another. "Good morning, old top! I say, how's your liver this morning ?" Now, I am not here to say that we as a Nation are making a mistake in not taking a franker interest in our livers. The fact is, the liver actually doesn't deserve the national reputation it enjoys in England, be- cause there are other organs of the body whose welfare is even more vitally bound up with the Nation's good health and prosperity. It would show more scientific enlightenment for a nation to talk about its teeth. It would be an excellent idea for us in America to dignify our teeth to the position of social prominence which the liver enjoys in England. Suppose, for instance, we greet each other every day with the question, "Good morning. How are your teeth this morning ?" Now, that would be a good National habit for Americans to get into. It would be a constant reminder of the importance of healthy teeth and their relation to daily health. Medical science, day by day, is attaching more and more importance to the teeth and the fundamental relation they bear to the health of the en- tire body. America as a Nation is getting self-conscious about its teeth, even though our teeth have not yet become a leading topic of social con- versation. The time is coming, and coming rapidly, when bad teeth and an unhealthy mouth will carry a social stigma, simply because they will be looked upon as a physical disgrace. Social opinion always eventually follows and supports scientific opinion. All scientific minded persons are in thorough agreement about the im- portance of the oral hygiene movement which is endeavoring to make a wedge in social opinion by operating through the public schools. The big undertaking that lies just ahead is the education of the public. That always is the stumbling block in the way of any progressive endeavor. | It is generally the case with any new scientific movement that very little impression can be made on the members of the older generation. That | obstinate reactionary idea that what was good enough for the past is good enough for the present is practically incapable of being uprooted. It is too firmly entrenched in human nature. Therefore, the logical channel through which to induct any progressive idea into society is through the channel of youth. The younger generation is just as receptive to progres- sive ideas as it is to reactionary ideas, and in fact more so. That is the reason why the future of the oral hygiene movement depends upon the thoroughness and efficiency with which it is put into operation in the public schools. The school children of today are in a position to acquire scientific habit of thought concerning the care of their teeth. We, as teachers and school administrators, are in a better position than anybody else to realize the urgency of the situation which calls for a more complete and better equipped system of oral hygiene in the public schools today. We realize the appalling truth of recent statistics which declare that "seventy to ninety per cent of American school children have decayed or defective teeth." The results of this condition, its relation to mental ability, and the handicap which it places upon the school child in his 448 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION scholastic progress are familiar facts to us, because they are daily forced upon our attention. Dr. Charles H. Mayo's recent assertion that "Ninety per cent of all diseases are conducted through the mouth and the sinuses of the head," is a statement of whose significance the educator is keenly aware, because he realizes, to the fullest extent, the close relation between physical fitness and mental achievement. The educator is in a position to lend to the oral hygiene movement the coöperation which is so vitally important. Particularly is it important that the teacher in the classroom should grasp the vision of what a thorough program of oral hygiene may mean to the future of American school children. Many teachers are responding to that vision, and in certain schools the success of the oral hygiene work is largely attributable to the enterprise which individual teachers are devoting to the teaching of hygiene in the classroom . The toothbrush problem in connection with the dental hygiene work was, of course, a large one. In some cases the parents indicated an un- willingness to purchase toothbrushes for their children. The cost was, in some cases, a serious obstacle. The problem was finally solved by getting a $500 appropriation from the Junior Red Cross, together with a $ 100 fund from the board of education, to be used as a revolving fund for toothbrushes. Five thousand brushes were sold last year at a cost of 10 cents each. These brushes were distributed by the medical nurses, dental nurses, and through the clinics. On the second survey of each school, each child's teeth are checked with reference to cleaning, filling, and extraction. If no work has been advised in the preliminary survey, the case is checked OK and a gold star placed after the name. As fast as each child has his teeth put in a thoroughly healthy condition, he obtains his gold star. At every examination, each child receives a notification slip, which grades his mouth as "good," "fair," or "poor. " If his grade is "fair" or "poor," he receives in addition a dental certificate to be signed by a dentist upon the completion of all necessary dental work. When the certificate has been signed, indicating that the work has been done, it is returned to the teacher, who keeps it until the check-up the following month. On the second and successive visits, the records are checked by collect- ing the signed certificates and rewarding gold stars to those pupils who merit them. Those who have neglected to have the advised dental work done are further urged to complete their treatments, or are referred to the nurse for clinical attention, if the parents are too poor to send the children to their own dentist. The success of the educational program in the schools, and the appeal made to the pride of the pupils themselves can be gauged by a comparison of the results found by the dental nurses in the same schools on two suc- cessive surveys, thirty days apart. On the first examination of 47 schools, seventeen and one half per cent of the children were found to have perfect teeth; on the next examination thirty days later, the record had gone up DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 449 to thirty-seven and one half per cent perfect teeth. This progress was a result of the ardor with which the children threw themselves into the game of ahealthy mouth, and endeavored to bring their rooms up to 100 per cent. The reparative work in the Minneapolis schools is accomplished by three clinics, with two chairs in each clinic, one for the dentist and one for the hygienist. Dentists are engaged for half time and paid on an hourly basis . Comparative daily and weekly reports to the supervisor are required, and these have proved a means of increasing both the quality and the quantity of the work. In the past year, 6729 patients were taken care of at the reparative clinics. Twenty-one thousand three hundred twenty-five opera- tions were performed. Three thousand seven hundred eighty-six defective six-year molars were restored to usefulness. The number of prophylactic cases reported by the clinic nurses was 13,379. These three phases of dental work in the public schools, the educational, prophylactic, and reparative, cost the Minneapolis taxpayers, last year, $12,763 for service, and $1249 for dental supplies and equipment. The budget for the coming year allows $16,696 for service and $1200 for sup- plies. This expenditure represents only five cents out of the health promo- tion dollar expended by the Minneapolis public-school system. No pro- vision is made in the budget for dental work for grades above the seventh , so, to take care of this lack, the Ladies' Auxiliary of the Minneapolis Dis- trict Dental Society has proposed to found and equip a modern clinic and pay the expenses of a dentist for one year. This proposal has been gladly accepted by the schools. To supplement the lectures on oral hygiene in the classrooms, Minne- apolis teachers are using a reader, "The Tooth Brush Man's Own Book," written by Hayle C. Cavanor. This book has been adopted for use in the lower grades and is highly recommended by teachers and dental staff. A series of "Health Habits " cards written by Nettie M. Strate is also used in the oral hygiene classes. The crux of the dental hygiene campaign, then, as educators should see it, is the response of the individual pupil. If we can foster the "clean taste habit" among the youth of the Nation we have achieved the most vital aim of oral hygiene. MENTAL HYGIENE AND THE SCHOOL PROGRAM– ABSTRACT FRANCIS N. MAXFIELD, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PENNSYLVANIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA The importance of mental hygiene in the early years of childhood is coming to be recognized. Many of the mental attitudes and mechanisms and characteristics of personality which make for successful social adapta- tion and happy living in later life, or tendencies to sullenness, fits of 450 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION temper, unsocial attitudes, and the like, have their origin in the mental atmosphere of the home during the pre-school period. Many of the mal- adjustments of so-called normal adults, as well as the mental disturbances of patients in mental hospitals, owe their origin to lack of careful training and preventive mental hygiene in this early stage of development. But in spite of the importance of this pre-school period we must not ignore the fact that the school has a responsibility in this matter of mental hygiene which must be recognized. It is more important for a boy or girl to learn to get on with other people than to learn to compute interest or to know the principal exports of South Africa. To learn to control out- bursts of temper, to develop qualities of leadership, to mingle happily with others in work or in play, is a part of any well-rounded scheme of educa- tion. It is not a fad or a frill. Although no two children are exactly alike in their emotional and social reactions, any more than they are in their abilities or capacities for learning, and though heredity is a factor that cannot be ignored, the fundamental tendencies from which these emotional and social reactions develop are much more nearly the same at birth than many of us realize. These instinctive tendencies to want food, to be afraid, to be angry, to enjoy some sense experiences, and to dislike others, are characteristic of the human race rather than of the individual child. We call these by the term "human nature, " signifying thereby the common heritage of all human beings. They are of a neutral character in that, of themselves, they are neither bad nor good, but are potential for either satisfactory or unsatisfactory develop- ment, which depends far more on nurture than on heredity. They show themselves in many types of behavior not properly described as instincts but included in the concept "human nature." Let me mention curiosity, the desire for approbation, readiness to imitate others, the joy in plays, the competitive spirit, jealousy, etc., as examples of names which we give to some of these aspects of the child's character and personality. We are not much concerned in this discussion with any scientific classification of these tendencies, impulses, desires, or interests of childhood. The problem of the teacher is much the same, however systematic psychology may name, define, and classify. Health is a primary consideration. The child is a psycho-physical organism, and mental life is intimately bound up with physical growth and development and with physical well-being. Hours of sleep, proper exercise and diet, and regularity of meals are as important for mental hygiene as for nutrition and growth. The functioning of the endocrine glands and the body metabolism generally affect character as well as height and weight. Focal infections produce mental as well as physical symptoms. The health education program of the well-organized school system is the foundation on which a program of mental health must be built. Moreover, many of its organized activities in games and athletic sports not only lay the founda- tion for mental hygiene work, but themselves may teach directly such DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 451 desirable qualities of character and personality as self-control, a spirit of fairness, team work, and qualities of leadership which make for successful social adaptation during the school period and in later life. Not only is health a primary consideration in a mental hygiene program, but conversely good mental hygiene is promotive of health. Especially in our emotional reactions we find an interplay of cause and effect in the nervous, vascular, visceral, and endocrine systems, which we cannot separate as "mental" or "physical." "Mens sana in corpore sano" has been quoted in support of our physical education program, but it means more than a daily dozen, or six glasses of water a day. In its broader meanings this motto signifies the inseparable connection between the aspects of hygiene which have been designated as mental and physical. A corollary of these` propositions is that in the case of problem children a careful medical review of the case is imperative. Nor should we forget that negative findings are significant in this analysis. The physical surroundings of pupils must also receive consideration. Not only such matters as lighting, heating, ventilation, adjustment of desks, sanitary conveniences, etc., but the presence of sunlight, the cheerful effect of properly tinted walls, pictures on the walls, and plants and flowers in the windows all play a part in creating a desirable schoolroom atmosphere. Some schoolrooms are cheerful or even exhilarating, while others are un- pleasant or even depressing. The personality of the teacher cannot be too strongly emphasized. No trained skill in the methods of teaching the subjects of the curriculum canentirely make up for the bad effects of the strident voice, the irritated or fatigued air, or the nagging manner of the teacher whose own mental hygiene is not what it should be. It is desirable for teachers as well as parents to understand more fully the psychology of the development of social conformity in children. From birth the child's impulses and inherited tendencies to different types of behavior bring him in contact with his physical and social environment. Some of these reactions bring him certain satisfactions, largely of a sensory character at first. These reactions tend to repeat themselves and to become fixed as habits or behavior patterns. Other reactions bring him discomfort and are less likely to be repeated. He reacts to praise or blame, to social appro- bation or disapproval, and still later in life to certain ideals of conduct. But through all the life of the individual there continues much of this conflict between that which gives immediate satisfaction and gratification, his own selfish egocentric wants and interests, and the demands of his social group. The desire for self-expression and independence of action is often inconflict with the demand of the environment, and in particular with the rules and standards of the social group. Social conformity is demanded of him at every turn. Successful social adaptation implies learning just 1 how far he can go in independent action and where he will meet with social restraint. 452 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Teachers and parents often forget how many things a child has to learn in order to practice social conformity. They seem to take it for granted that it is an easy matter for the child to know that he will be praised for this and blamed for that, as the case may be. Yet the complexity of social adaptation can hardly be exaggerated. If we play a game we must have rules. The rules might be different and we could still have a game, but without rules there would be no game. A desirable organization of mental hygiene work in the schools means close coöperation between the schools and the child welfare agencies for recreation, correction, and social service in the community. The juvenile court deals with the failures of the home and the school and yet school authorities often have little contact with the judge and his probation officers. Unfavorable home conditions may be improved by good social work. The playground, the dance hall, and the boys' clubs as well as such organizations as the Junior Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A., Boy and Girl Scouts,etc., all may share in the solution of this problem. One of the most promising developments of teaching method in recent years for purposes of good mental hygiene in our schools is the socialized class exercise, or recitation. If children can be made to feel that the teacher is one of them, or more experienced member of their group, engaged with them in the fascinating process called "school," the less likely will be the appearance of symptoms of maladjustment and failure to make social adaptations. The socialized recitation or group exercise has a wider degree of adapta- bility to individual differences, and gives more opportunity for the favor- able development of personality than the old fashioned question and answer methods. Its objectives include good mental hygiene as well as the mastery of content. When this kind of school work starts with the nat- ural interests of children, and includes a range of activities so that there even the child who is dullest at academic work has some part suited to his ability, and the brightest child is finding opportunity to do his best, chil- dren not only learn more but improve in mental health, and maladjust- ments in school work become less frequent. A development of the individual child in character and personality so that he will be wholesome minded and happy in the work and play of the world, making satisfactory social adaptations in family, business, and community life, sensitive without more sentimentality, self-controlled with- out morbid repressions, finding self-expression but remaining social- minded-it is this kind of development that is the objective of the mental hygiene program in our schools and colleges . DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 453 GAMES AND HEALTH ANNE RAYMOND, SPECIAL HEALTH TEACHER, PLAYGROUND ATHLETIC LEAGUE, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND When visiting the physical education group, I was anxious to see how the members of the physical education family worked together. At once I was impressed by the tremendous social value of play, and realized that people obviously could not teach others how to play fair, how to win and lose, without themselves learning to play the game. I saw what a fertile field was before me for the health education pro- gram. To me, health education had always had its magic beginning and thrilling interest sustained by the play spirit. Long since, sponsors of the health education program, particularly the child health organization, realized the magic of play and games when they called their program, "The Game of Health," and necessary health practices, the "Rules of the Game." From the time the little fellow of three toddles after his daddy, playing Bear, until the conservative older individual follows the golf ball into "the rough," the magic of play calls alike to his inner man, and the spirit of play thrills him with its magic. I have been associated with many groups which have accomplished great things in health education, but never in my experience did the way seem so clear, the journey so easy as in my work with the physical education groups. Every person, from the top down, was ready for the additional stress of Health Habits in Play. They were eager to have their school or their city or their county make a good showing in the big field meets. April was obviously not the time to begin to get ready for June, so what more logical than to take stock in September, weighing and measuring and examining children, and trying, through the entire winter, to have every boy and girl in perfect condition by June. A description of how one county carried on its program will give a concrete example of the way in which health teaching became an integral part of the physical education program. The school authorities had felt the need of better health habits, and already had placed an excellent report card in their schools. A full page was given to the health report of the child, with leading questions such as, "Do I weigh just right ?" " What should I weigh ?" "How many hours do I sleep ?" etc. A required number of health habits was specified as a beginning for the teacher. Then came the special health teacher from the Physical Education De- partment of the State. This department had built up in every county of the State a faith and comradeship which insured to the special health teacher the immediate interest and earnest coöperation of every person from the superintendent, to the smallest child who had some secret am- bition to play on some team. So widespread was the interest of the county in the activities of the Physical Education Department that, at many a county meet, there were representatives from every school in the 45+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION county, even from the most outlying rural sections. The attitude of the children, teachers, and school authorities toward the Physical Education Department and an excellent supervisory staff from the board of educa- tion, combined to make conditions extremely favorable for beginning a health program. The special health teacher of the Physical Education Department began the health program as the next logical step in the general physical educa- tion program of the State. Her first contact with school authorities was made through the medical inspector, and her first attempt to interest chil- dren and teachers in "Playing the Game of Health" was made in connec- tion with the physical examinations in the rural schools. My work was particularly with the teachers, as they are with the chil- dren each day, and are in a position to make the teaching of health habits effective. Teachers were reached directly through classroom demonstrations and personal conferences and large regional meetings. Their interest was sustained by follow-up letters containing new suggestions and a certain amount of assistance in the form of games, stories, and devices. The demonstration classes were the most effective means of getting my program to the teachers. Such a period of teaching was the means of demonstrating the possibilities of "Playing the Game," in connection with the regular school work, and showed conclusively that instead of being an added burden, health teaching could be used to make other subjects more interesting and vivid. Perhaps the greatest value of such a class was to show the teachers how eagerly children respond to the appeal of this subject when it is presented to them in terms of everyday life and achievement. Special emphasis was given to the value of weighing and measuring as the means possible of gauging each child's results from month to month. Keeping or gaining right weight became to a child a stepping-stone to the fulfillment of his desire or ambition, whether it were the immediate attainment of a place on the team, or some secret ambition to become a captain on the high seas. The demonstration class was followed by meetings with the teacher in which period a fuller explanation of the subject was given. Definite objectives were defined and described, helpful material and references furnished, and a few concrete devices, games, and projects suggested as a beginning for the work. In the regular large teachers' meetings, a place on the program was given to health education. An endeavor was made to reach every teacher personally at least once, either with a visit to her room or in a small teachers' meeting or institute. Direct follow-up was impossible, except in a few instances, so contact was kept with the teacher through cor- respondence. Follow-up letters sent from the central office encouraged teachers to DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 455 continue the health work and gave them new games and suggestions for their program at least once a month. Teachers were encouraged to write in for assistance and to send in any suggestions which would prove helpful to someone else. I tried to show how play, which is a joyous activity to every boy and girl, can be used as an incentive to accomplish many a task. A boy may wish to be president at some far away date, but he very decidedly wants to play well and be happy today. Pointing out to him his defects in a way to cause him shame or confusion mortifies him and achieves nothing. But we can show him how he can improve on what he has and is. In the first establishment of health habits, the play spirit and games offer an ever thrilling interest and carry over many a habit which had previously been slighted. If a child gets to be captain of his row, and can choose sides for dodge ball, washing, drinking three glasses of milk a day, and eating green vegetables do not seem too great a task, and after a while become habits, and even before that, the boy sees a difference; first, when old Judge Scales weighs him, and then, later, in the improvement in the games themselves. Many a girl and boy goes to sleep early with a smiling face, realizing the advantage he is getting over an opponent by three hours' longer rest. Life, after all, is but a sense of values, and we must help our children establish their standard. The relay race, long cherished by children and teachers alike, loses no value when used as a teaching device in a spelling class. Instead of one point, obtainable in the old game for speed, we now have four points to work for. One point for correct spelling, as we write a word on the blackboard and dash back to our seats ; a second, for naming some food which will help growing boys and girls to gain; a third for variety in the foods we've learned to eat, and, lastly, one point for speed if we think and act quickly. The game of "midnight," when the old fox gets us if we are up after 12 o'clock, does not lose when called "eight o'clock" game, and instead of the fox, an old witch steals the sparkles from our eyes if we are up after "eight o'clock." She is too busy before that, getting the sparkles from little children's eyes, but at eight o'clock she comes to us, and if we are not in bed then, she steals one sparkle, and next day all the school can tell which ones were caught by her. I do not wish a milk bottle as a prize for every race; but to me, play and getting ready for play are inseparable, and I am looking forward to the day when the physical education program will include the elementary principles of the health education program; the day when correct health habits and right height and weight are part of the requirements for every child; when we see at every athletic meet the "athletic lunch," and "milk bar," and no longer the dill pickle, hot dog, and coca-cola lunches. 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHAT WE NEED FOR BETTER SCHOOL MEDICAL IN- SPECTION AND HEALTH SERVICE WILLIAM A. HOWE, M. D., STATE MEDICAL INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, ALBANY, NEW YORK We need first to understand what we mean by school medical inspection and health service. In brief, it might be described as modern preventive and corrective medicine, educationally applied to the mental and physical health of school children. It is a medical educational system of health examinations, of health teaching, of health training, of health achieve- ment, of health restoration, of health conservation, of health direction. It is, in short, the establishment and maintenance of mental and physical health. In its practical application, it deals with the complex organism of the human body, with its many interdependent functions of life, and with environmental conditions that exert a strong determining influence over mental and physical development. What we need, in order to organize and administer more effectively such a system of school medical inspection and health service, might be briefly presented in part as follows : School authorities need to appreciate more deeply the value of the work. and to give to it their enthusiastic support, financial and otherwise. School medical inspection and health service should be made a major subject in every school. It is the duty of school authorities to see that this is done. This is primarily and fundamentally one of our most urgent needs for the advancement of the service. As active workers in this health field, we should exert our individual and united efforts to secure its proper recog- nition and placement in the educational system of the country. Better school housing conditions are much needed. We can not expect to accomplish satisfactory health results, either mentally or physically, in buildings that are insanitary and otherise unfit for the housing of children. Many of the acquired physical defects of children, as well as much of the inefficiency of teachers and the retardation of pupils, are due to bad hous- ing conditions. These should be promptly remedied, when found. Every school building should have one or more rooms suitable for a school health center, in which should be assembled and closely articulated the activities of the school medical inspector, the school nurse, the physical director, and all others doing health work in schools. Better medical service and more appreciation of its importance are needed. We must have efficient medical direction, if we hope to secure satisfactory results in school medical inspection and health service. We must not depreciate the need and value of capable medical guidance, and we must insist upon its provision. We need more physicians, better trained and better paid, to take up the work. Our medical colleges and post graduate institutions should provide special courses in preventive medicine and sanitation. Practical field instruction might be given by those in charge of the health work in schools in the city in which the medical college is situated. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 457 Better understanding and more sympathetic coöperation by parents must be encouraged. We can not expect parents to coöperate with us in our health program, unless they fully understand what we plan to do for and with their children. Parents should be made to feel that next to the home, the schools are the most concerned with the mental nad physical welfare of their children. Their confidence in the safety and wisdom of the health service should be carefully safeguarded. Teachers better trained in personal health and in child health, are much needed. To the classroom teacher is given the greatest opportunity to render effective aid in school medical inspection and health service. By her mentality, her temperament, her personality, and her health, she molds the mental and physical lives of the pupils under her direction. She needs to be better prepared to meet this great responsibility. She needs to know more of the establishment and maintenance of good health for herself and for children. It is the duty of the State to see that she is thus informed and trained. This preparation should begin on her first admission to school, and should continue throughout her normal or college training. All normal schools and institutions in which teachers are trained , should estab- lish and maintain a model system of school medical inspection and health service. Physical as well as mental qualifications should be demanded for admission. Practical health instruction and direction should be given to prospective teachers throughout their training, and physical fitness should be required for graduation. Simple practical health instruction and direction should be given to every child. When a child first enters school his physical and mental training should become a regular part of his education. It should be made a part of and not a part from his entire educational career. It should begin with a thorough physical and mental examination. The findings should be fully recorded, and he should be given a rating on the basis of conditions found. These ratings should be reported to his parents, who should be urged to give such attention as might be necessary to improve the condition of the child. Children should also be advised regarding their physical defect. We must have the confidence and coöperation of children, to get them well and to keep them so. School credit should be given for physical fitness as well as for mental advancement. Parents and children should know this and give it their support. The health instruc- tion to be given to children should be reduced to its simplest terms in subject matter taught and in training given. It must be made interesting, easily understood and of such a practical character that they can easily utilize. Better educated and better trained nurses and hygienists are much needed to assist in the work. For many years the nurse has contributed much to the success of school medical inspection and health service. More recently the dental hygienist has fully demonstrated his value in the field of pre- ventive dentistry. More and more is being expected of these co-workers inthe program of school health. As their services will be increasingly 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION instructional and directional, it will be necessary to establish higher educa- tional qualifications for their preparation and adıninistration of the work. Better coöperation among ourselves and with others is another great need. To secure coöperation one must so conduct himself that others can work with him. Show a desire to assist others and you will find others willing to assist you. The greater you succeed in coöperating with others, the more you will accomplish by their reciprocation in the particular field for which you are responsible. Mutual care should be exercised not to confuse coöperation with administration, as is sometimes done by well- intentioned people. Better administration is greatly needed in most systems of school medical inspection and health service. The efficiency of any system of health serv- ice is largely determined by the efficiency of its administration. Certain fundamental essentials for better administration should be borne in mind; i. e. , responsibility of its administration ; standardization of administration ; simplification of system ; correlation of all interdependent activities. Better financial support for the work is greatly needed. Economy ap- plied to the health of school children is expensive business. The child, the helpless victim, is the one who eventually pays the price, ill health, un- remediable defects, failure in life. Too many of our systems of school medical inspection and health service are poorly financed. There are too many instances where the cheapest doctor, who makes the poorest medical inspector, is employed to direct the work. This discredits the system with parents and the community, and invites failure. Legislation in keeping with present ideas of school medical inspection and health service is also much needed. There is great need of better legislation to promote school medical inspection and health service. This could be obtained by keeping our legislators better informed as to what we are doing for the health of children, and what should be done for them Most of our lawmakers are keenly interested in child welfare, and would gladly support any practical measure presented to them to advance such work. More of the right kind of publicity regarding the work is much needed. Physicians, as a class, are not given to publicity. To do so is not regarded by them as ethical. This policy should not be disturbed, as personal school health conditions should be regarded as confidential between the medical advisor, the child, and the parent. We should remember that there is a greatdifference between parental notification and public information. The public, however, should be informed as to the general activities of the service and of the results accomplished. This should be done by those in charge of the work and signed by them. The better we can keep the public properly informed, the greater will be public interest and support. We need to establish and maintain a moderate school day , with a moderate amount of work for children. From the viewpoint of health, mental or physical, our curricula are overloaded, and the hours demanded for study DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 459 and recitation are too long. The school day of the average child in the upper grammar grades and in the high school begins at eight o'clock or earlier in the morning, and ends at nine, or even later, at night. We should have a school day of sufficient length and a course of study of such a kind as would enable children to do a reasonable amount of work and then quit until the next day. Such a plan would be more conducive to their mental and physical health. They would accomplish more throughout the school year than under the present plan of mental speeding and in- sufficient rest. More generalization and less specialization is desirable. In health work in schools, we need to avoid the grave danger of over-specialization. Ex- cept for supervising and stimulating purposes, we cannot expect school authorities to finance experts for an increasing number of special fields of school health service. To be sure, we need a certain number of efficient specialists for administrative and reference purposes, but we are in greater need of more co-workers with a better general knowledge and with a keener observation of the health conditions and health requirements of the whole child and of every child. Department of Classroom Teachers OFFICERS President-IDA CHRISTINE IVERSEN , 215½ Catalina St.... Los Angeles, California Vice-President-LUCY M. HOLT .... Norfolk, Virginia Secretary-ANNA RIDDLE .... ..... St. Joseph, Missouri Other Members of the Executive Committee : JULIA E. SULLIVAN .. Charlestown, Massachusetts ANNA M. THOMPSON Kansas City, Missouri JULIA SPOONER ... .. Portland, Oregon The Department of Classroom Teachers held its first session at the St. Paul meeting, July 8, 1914. It was organized in response to petitions representing class- room teachers in all parts of the country. See Proceedings of 1914, page 909. The Department of Classroom Teachers coöperates with the National League of Teachers' Associations, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Mrs. Elizabeth Haney, 314 University Avenue, S. E., Minneapolis, Minn.; vice-president, Anna Peterson, Haddon Hall, Cincinnati, O.; secretary, Harriet Scofield, Park Avenue, Minneapolis, Minn; and the National Council of Primary Education, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Ella Victoria Dobbs, Associate Professor of Industrial Arts, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri ; Secretary, Lucy Gage, Assistant Professor of Education, Peabody College, Nashville, Tennessee. SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 1, 1924 Meeting called to order by the president. President Iversen : You will see that the program calls for one inspirational speaker followed by committee reports. It is with a sense of real satisfaction that I present to you Mark Keppel, superintendent of Los Angeles County schools, California, who will speak to you on "Teacher, Whither Goest Thou ?" Mr. Keppel : Your chairman has told you that I have been engaged as an inspirational speaker. Well, now, if the speech is inspiring, I wish you would tell me about it afterwards . President Iversen : Before proceeding with the committee reports, I am going to ask Miss Spooner to make a report for the executive committee. There will be no discussion or action, as that will be taken care of at the business meeting on Thursday. Miss Spooner: The department at the Oakland meeting directed the executive committee to prepare rules of procedure to govern the election of officers for the department, the report to be made at the first business session this year. We are reading the report at this meeting, which is not a business session, and you will act upon it Thursday. (The report was then read. ) President Iversen : Next on the program will be discussion of the National Education Association Tenure report by Mr. Fred M. Hunter, of Oakland, Cali- fornia. We have been hearing a great deal about the tenure report, but I under- stand that you want to hear still more. It seemed to the executive committee at the Chicago conference that it would be well to have a supplementary report from [460] DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 461 the National Education Association chairman on this committee. We will let Mr. Hunter have fifteen minutes if he wants it, and then you may talk back to him as much as you please. It gives me great pleasure to present Mr. Hunter, now. Mr. Hunter: I assure you that what I shall do this afternoon will be pretty much of a repetition of what I did at the Representative Assembly yesterday morning. However, inasmuch as this is a problem in which the Classroom Teachers' Department is particularly interested, I am very glad to take up the report again for discussion here. Our worthy president may be somewhat dis- appointed if she anticipates that the committee has added anything to the report, or that this is a supplement to it. It is precisely the same report, but it is presented here for a little more intimate discussion, and for consideration by the body of classroom teachers in much the same way that it was considered before the Representative Assembly. President Iversen : May I say, Mr. Hunter, that in large bodies this group is more or less timid, but we feel that here we shall be likely to give fuller expres- sion, and I think you will be glad to have us do that. Mr. Hunter: I shall be delighted to have a full and complete discussion. I am glad indeed that the classroom teachers are learning to give expression to their own attitudes and desires. My own experience with classroom teachers in California has shown them to be not quite so timid as the president indicates. Now this tenure report is serious business. It is serious business from the standpoint of what the National Education Association, the great National organization of the teachers of the United States, is going to do, whether or not its leadership is to be intelligent; whether or not it is to be of real help to those groups and those organizations that are trying to bring about sane tenure legisla- tion. What we do here at this meeting will have much bearing on what teachers' organizations in the various States do in carrying out their programs toward teacher tenure. It is most important to see the point of this whole matter in the large. It is most important that we know what we can expect, that we do not try to do too much at once, nor go too far; that we understand the public that we have to deal with, and that we do not overreach ourselves in our attempt to do the right thing by ourselves and by the schools. Agood many of you, I assume, are not delegates and possibly did not hear what was said yesterday, so I am going to repeat the outline. I shall not go into much detail . A lively discussion from the floor followed, in which a large number participated. President Iversen: A report from the Committee on Single Salary Schedules will now be given. The returns from the questionnaire sent out to the field indicated that the question of single salary schedules was one of great interest, and as the city of Denver has so well worked out this principle in its schedule, Cora B. Morrison, an elementary teacher of Denver, was asked to serve as chairman of the committee. The report was given by Alma Krusen, president of the Denver Cassroom Teachers' Association, and discussed by Miss Dutton, of Illinois ; Miss McDermott, of California ; Miss Pettibone, of New York ; Miss Spooner, of Oregon; Miss Oldham, of Washington ; Mr. Cranston, of California, and others. President Iversen: The next subject is organization. We have a good organi- zation worker in Missouri, and we have made him chairman of a committee for the study of organization work. It gives me great pleasure to introduce Mr. Russell Sharp, teacher in the high schools of Kansas City, Missouri. Mr. Sharp: Your committee has been somewhat doubtful as to the ends which itwas to attain and the limits of the discussion within its province. We built without a foundation; we shot at an uncertain target. Our fondest hope has been that we might provoke a thought or arouse a group interest from which something more definite might develop during the years ahead. Please bear in 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mind that the members of the committee confined their labor to collecting data, and that the speculative conclusions of the report are drawn by the chairman alone. In the initial analysis of our problem, we regarded it as having two aspects, and we set ourselves the task of making the following contributions : collection and compilation of data concerning local organizations of teachers , and recommendations as to the methods whereby the National organization may establish more intimate relations with local groups. By means of the first investigation, that is, the collection of data concerning local organizations, we hoped to formulate some definite suggestions as to pro- cedure in organizing. We have not accomplished this purpose; our failure is due in part to insufficient time and insufficient data, but chiefly it is due to the fact that conditions vary so greatly in different systems that any attempt to standardize organization would be worse than useless. It goes without saying that the secret of success for this or any other department lies in its ability, first, to establish contact with small units or individuals, and second, to furnish a constructive program of leadership for the group. No one doubts the presence of leadership among the classroom teachers of America, but leadership is well-nigh useless without a means of communication between the leader and his followers. The local organization problem, and, in fact, the entire question of wholesome development of the Department of Classroom Teachers are dependent upon securing contact of groups and upon the service of the department as a clearing-house for ideas and a device for the promotion of constructive movements . The effect of such publicity upon local organizations would, we believe, be astonishing. With an effective medium of communication among teachers, the leadership which is now exhausted in local campaigns could contribute to National progress. In return, realization of the effectiveness of the service of the National Association to the individual and to the local group would induce many who are not affiliated with the National Education Association to come into the fold. Thus, eventually the cost of maintenance of the publication would be offset by the revenue from increased membership. The time is not yet ripe for other proposals in behalf of local organizations, though much constructive work is to be done. Your committee will be glad to turn over to the proper person the remaining suggestions and data not here presented. We now make the single recommendation that the department strongly urge that an adequate medium of communication under the sole direction of the Department of Classroom Teachers be provided for by the National Education Association. I wish also to file with you a splendid report of the history and aims of teachers ' organizations in Massachusetts, perpared by Miss Annie G. Scollard, of the Wendell Phillips School, Boston, President Iversen: Now, I am sure that you have something on your minds concerning this subject, and will you let Mr. Sharp lead you out a little bit, or will you lead him out? This led to a discussion from the floor on the subject of effective organization and the value of establishing some definite means of communication between class- room groups. Miss Julia Spooner, speaking for the executive committee of the department, stated that the publication of a bulletin had been thoroughly consid- ered, and that it would probably be published as soon as it could be worked out. President Iversen: About a year ago, Dr. Guy M. Wilson, of Boston Uni- versity, offered us his services. The problem on which he has been working has to do with the evaluation of teacher recitations. This work by Dr. Wilson and his associates is in the nature of an introductory report. If it is something that we like, we shall go on with it during the year; if we do not care for it, it is our privilege to reject it. It gives me great pleasure to introduce Dr. Wilson, of Boston University. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 463 Mr. Guy M. Wilson: I have been going home from the meetings of the National Education Association, the past few years, telling my students that I thought at last we were arriving at the point of a real profession. If, during this convention, I do not attend any other meeting than this one, I shall go home feeling the same way. It is very inspiring to see the classroom teachers themselves discussing the larger, if we may say, extramural problems of the profession in this statesmanlike way. The time was in the past when we discussed only the problems relating more strictly to the classroom work. Nevertheless, I am sure that we don't forget those problems, but I shall ask you to follow me for just a few minutes in presenting to you this problem, which was initiated a year ago last February in discussion with the former president of this organization. The idea is this, as I understand it, that in certain lines we have come to the point of using more or less scientific methods of judging results. In many progressive classrooms today, instead of the teacher giving a grade on writing, for instance, she allows the pupil to judge the quality of his work by using scales of comparison. The suggestion made was that we do the same thing with reference to the units of classroom work. In the discussion which followed, many interesting illustrations were given of the ability of children to measure and classify their own work when they were given the opportunity to develop judgment with reference to their own products. SECOND SESSION- THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1924 BUSINESS MEETING The meeting was called to order by President Iversen at 2:45 o'clock. A pro- gram of procedure was announced. Miss Spooner was appointed acting secretary to relieve Miss Riddle, who was slightly indisposed. Mrs. G. M. Brumbaugh, of Washington, D. C., acted as parliamentarian. The minutes of the business meeting held at Oakland were read and approved. Miss Iversen then gave her president's report, which included a report of the Chicago conference and a regional conference held at Oakland, California. Miss Iversen: The executive committee at the first meeting in Oakland made regional conferences its objective. It was a new field, and the committee pro- ceeded carefully. Each member responsible for the regional conference in her own section did what seemed best for each particular section. Nine conferences have been held. Recommendations from these conferences as acted upon by the executive com- mittee will also be open for your deliberation and action. Suffice it to say here that regional conferences have met with the unanimous approval of all partici- pants, and promise a practicable machinery for future contact. The mid-winter executive committee meeting was held at Chicago in February. They were a succession of executive meetings, one program conference, and one get-together breakfast. This conference was a success. Every one present- about forty-talked freely and happily. According to the department by-laws, no business can be transacted at the winter conference, but the following recom- mendations were made: ( 1 ) That hereafter the delegates' list which appears in The Journal shall have the delegate's name, with the educational position of the delegate; ( 2) That this conference request the secretary of the Association to furnish the editor of The Journal all the information as to delegates by position, so that the first report of the delegate body in The Journal may contain that in- formation; the purpose being to know how many classroom teachers are delegates. These requests were sent to the secretary of the Association. The publications conference, held at the Willard Hotel, Monday evening, June 30, was at the request of the teachers at the Chicago conference. Practically all 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION local bulletins were represented. There was no program, only informal discus- sion. Much interest was evidenced, and the suggestion was made that this become an annual affair. It was the first time that the editors or representatives of local bulletins had met, and much good may come from this small beginning. Surely there is great work for local bulletins. Communications-After the Chicago meeting, the executive committee wrote letters of appreciation to boards of education, recognizing the value of participa- tion in organization work as a means of professional growth, and also recom- mended that all possible publicity be given school boards which recognized pro- fessional growth through organization work as well as growth through university extension work. There is a growing generosity along this line. Every teacher present at that conference was there without loss of salary. A teacher from Columbus, Ohio, said it was the first time in the history of her city that a classroom teacher had been sent under those favorable conditions . Correspondence-Letters have been sent to State Association officers concerning recommendations made at the various regional conferences . Several communica- tions have been sent to each of the seven hundred affiliated classroom teachers' organizations including a brief report of the winter conference. Reports and other material have been sent directly to the editors of local bulletins. Much cor- respondence has been carried on with the director of the Division of Classroom Service at headquarters. Budget-The committee, in accordance with the by-laws, submitted to head- quarters before June 1 a budget request totaling $10,500. Last Saturday the executive committee was invited by the National Education Association commit- tee on audit and budget to meet with them in conference. Owing to the deficit in the Association's treasury, we were requested to revise the budget downward. Since it seemed commensurate with good business, the budget now reads: Travel- ing expenses of president and executive committee, $3500 ; allowance for part- time freedom of president, $ 1000 ; secretarial help, $400 ; printed reports, $200 ; office supplies, $ 100 ; regional conferences, $ 1800 ; total $6000. Fraternity-I firmly believe that the department president should visit the field, but that takes time and money. My delightful visits en route from Chicago to the organizations in St. Joseph and Kansas City reaffirm my convictions. There has been abundant opportunity to visit nearby cities in my, own State, but that was precluded because of school work. Invitations to participate in general programs, State and local meetings, have been taken advantage of as far as an all-day school program would permit. I make no apologies for the administration. It is not the work of one individual; it represents the thinking of many. The department has advanced since a year ago. The surface may not reveal it, but remember that in the building of a permanent structure much work must be done under ground. A more workable relationship with headquarters has blazed the way for the next administration. Regional conferences have been sufficiently tried to prove their worth. The class- room teachers are closer together than ever before. I heartily believe that the department is on, the threshold of a great work. Miss Iversen then gave a brief résumé of the regional conference held at Oak- land April 12, 1924, with about forty teachers in attendance. I have learned (1) that a regional conference, particularly if it is to be a work conference, can- not be linked up with a State meeting; ( 2) these conferences must reach more local organizations as a nucleus for further dissemination; ( 3) the Oakland con- ference was a success for the lessons it taught, and all present were unanimous in their approval of the regional conference idea as a means of bringing classroom teachers into closer working relationship. Regional conference reports by members of the executive committee followed. Miss Riddle : We organized a regional conference in St. Joseph February 16, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 465 1924, which was attended by 225 people, including about 80 teachers from the rural district. While it was called a northwestern regional conference, it was really a regional conference of northwestern Missouri. In organizing, one of our big objectives was to interest the out-of-town teachers, especially the rural teachers, who feel that they do not have the means of contact that we city teachers have; so we were very much pleased to have 80 of those teachers present. The conference was most informal, and most of the time was spent in discussing ways and means of promoting the interests of the classroom teachers throughout that section. We are making a study of the single salary schedule and of tenure. We indorse the recommendations of other regional conferences in these matters. Miss Sullivan: I held two conferences before the Chicago meeting. The first one included representative teachers around Boston, and the other one was for teachers representing the towns south of Boston. In New England we have some traditional difficulties that we are trying to overcome, and you may remember I had a paper last year on the question of equal pay. From various towns I received letters asking for data and for suggestions as to help, and I was going to select some of those towns in which to hold regional conferences for instance, in Providence, and around Portland, Maine. Of course, that would mean the loss of two days, and $200 would not mean very much, so I abandoned that idea for this year. At the Chicago meeting I made the report on my two Boston con- ferences and submitted the two resolutions from those conferences. These were adopted, and probably will be brought up later for action by this body. Miss Thompson: Madam President and fellow teachers, last autumn we steered our bark on uncharted seas. We called a regional conference in Kansas City, Missouri, October 29, 1923. A large and responsive group of classroom teachers from Kansas City, Missouri ; Kansas City, Kansas, and the smaller towns in Missouri and Kansas responded. Mr. Russell Sharp was appointed secretary, and the speaker was elected chairman. Since we had no traditions to follow nor precedents to break, we plunged headlong into a discussion of classroom problems from the viewpoint of the teachers. Four definite recommendations were made and plans were laid for a dinner conference later in the year. An enthusiastic group of teachers attended the dinner. An interesting program was rendered, and the efforts of the members of the various committees to coöperate was an evidence of good fellowship. The contacts of members from different cities working on the same committee estab- lished new viewpoints for all. The important achievement was the report of the recommendations committee, whose chairman was Miss Helen McMillan. The major problem which the Kansas City Teachers' Club had tried to solve the previous year was to make fewer the number of interruptions of classroom work. A burlesque, "What Killed Teacher," was presented to show the baneful efforts of propaganda and other interruptions which disturb the minds of pupils and prevent concentration and continuity of thought. The next regional conference was held in St. Louis at the time of the Missouri State Teachers' Association, and included teachers of East St. Louis, Illinois, and adjoining territory. The subject of rating was discussed from every angle. Miss Olive M. Jones, our honored president, explained the New York plan and gave wise counsel regarding the use and abuse of rating systems . Miss Jones has on several occasions highly commended the work of the St. Louis conference . St. Louis also held a fellowship meeting, the minutes of which are submitted, the principal subject of discussion being teachers' pension laws. On February 2, 1924, a regional conference was held in Topeka, Kansas, at the time of the State meeting. We have endeavored in these conferences to secure coördination of effort and unity of action by classroom teachers from all types of schools. We believe 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that more harmonious relations exist among teachers from the kindergarten to junior college as a result of these discussions ; and a closer union, we hope, be- tween local groups and our National Education Association will be the outcome of these regional conferences . Miss Spooner: The first of the regional conferences in the West was held in Seattle during the latter part of October, 1923. We sent a communication to all organized groups announcing the meeting, which was to be held on the Saturday following the Washington State Association meeting. It was announced also in the Seattle Grade Club Magazine and in the Portland Grade Teachers' As- sociation Bulletin. Wherever there was no organization of teachers, the county superintendent was written to in order to have him announce to his teachers this conference. The meetiing was handled on the delegate plan. Every organization, rural or city, was asked to make one person responsible for that meeting. Twenty-three persons, representing fourteen organizations, besides unorganized groups of the State, and covering every part of Washington and two counties of Oregon, attended. Miss Elyea, of Tacoma, was made chairman and Miss Mitchell, of Spokane, was appointed secretary. The discussion was not on any assigned topic. Professional training and ethics, teacher welfare work, participation of teachers in National, State, and local convention programs, recognition of classroom teachers on the National Education Association executive board, and relation of social problems to educational work were some of the subjects discussed. The second conference was held at Spokane in April, in connection with the meeting of the Inland Empire Association. The local committee of teachers graciously took over the work of notifying the Montana, Idaho, and Washington teachers, and I took care of eastern Oregon. Two hundred teachers were present. I do not know how many different organizations were represented, for I was not able to make any tally of the different organizations or the names of the persons present. The officers elected for the Seattle conference presided. We were glad that the teachers in the Inland Empire regarded this as a second meeting of the one regional conference. They told me they believed that next time they will succeed in inducing the officers of the Inland Empire Association to provide in their program for a conference of this kind. The formal subjects presented at this meeting were: What the National Edu- cation Association can do for the rural classroom teacher ; teachers for special subjects, and preventive rather than curative measures . There was but one recommendation made by the Spokane conference, and that grew out of a paper by Miss Jean Soules. The Department of Classroom Teachers was asked to conduct a survey which would ascertain whether the cost of overcrowding class- rooms, with consequent retardation, is not equal to or greater than the cost of supplying an adequate number of classrooms and teachers. The request was granted. In addition to reaching the teachers of this northwest region through these two centers, our financial condition will enable us next year to add a southern Oregon region, one centering in Pocatello, Idaho, or Salt Lake City, Utah. Perhaps we will be able to begin work in the unorganized small towns. With the increase in our appropriation, I am sure the worker in the western district will be able to get some good results. Reports were published in various bulletins, and pub- licity was given in some of the newspapers . Summary of the recommendations made at the regional conferences-That we favor classroom teachers as chairmen of all classroom committees and depart- ments in State and National organizations ; also classroom teachers be given place on convention program; that all data collected this year by committees be passed on to next year's committee; that the executive committee select certain definite topics from the reports of the regional conferences, submit them for discussion at DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 467 conferences next year, and make a summary to be presented at the 1925 meeting ; thatthe matter of delegate basis of classroom teachers be considered by the classroom executive committee with the view of bringing it before the Washington meeting; that a survey of local organizations be made, culminating in the publication of rec- ommendations as to the best type and methods of organizations; that a campaign be started to abolish the short period of licensing of teachers ; that a campaign be car- ried on to convince administrators and the public of the right of teachers to a voice inthe shaping of educational policies ; that the principle of a single salary schedule be endorsed; that a general effort be made by classroom teachers to encourage uni- versal attendance at Sunday school; that a study be made of the question of teacher rating; that a certain amount of professional study be done by every classroom teacher each year; that the Journal of the National Education Association be made more valuable by the publication of a summer school directory, giving the cost per point and other helpful information; that there be an open forum in the Journal in which articles by teachers may be published; that the classroom teachers put on acampaign of education through the Journal of the National Education Associa- tion, emphasizing the great need of fewer interruptions and less distractions in classrooms, and more opportunity for concentration, and that the subject of un- interrupted classroom work should be presented by a teacher to every parent- teachers' association; that a nation-wide campaign be launched for a 'Quiet Zone' period of twelve weeks in each school year, during which time no outside affairs be given place or publicity in the schools ; that the Department be asked to take up with the National Association the matter of representation on its executive board; that the department be asked to promote and standardize the preparation of teachers ; that normals and schools of education be asked by the department to teach professional ethics and that in States where a code has been adopted, the teaching be in accordance with the code; that the department communicate with each State organization and ask that the Classroom Department be given aprogram on the State convention; and that the Department of Elementary Edu- cation be abolished . The following officers were elected for the year 1924-25 : president, Julia A. Spooner, Box 188, No. 3, Lents Station, Portland, Oregon ; vice-president, Eula F. Hunter, 1324 E. Morphy Street, Fort Worth, Texas ; secretary, Rosa M. Burmaster , 21712 W. Main St. , Muncie, Indiana. Miss Jean Soules, of Spokane, Washington, was elected for a term of three years as the representative of the Western sec- tion on the executive committee. Other members of the executive committee are: Miss Anna Thompson, of Kansas City, Mo., (term expires 1926) , and Miss Julia Sullivan, of Boston, Mass., ( term expires 1925 ) . Recommendations-The secretary stated that the executive committee had con- sidered all of the recommendations made at the various regional conferences , and was ready to place some of them before the department for consideration from the floor. The following recommendations were adopted: We endorse the principle of the single salary schedule, provided it is worked out on an equitable basis for teachers' experience and those of college training, and refer this resolution to the committee to bring in recommendations of what con- stitutes such a basis . We recommend the study of the question of teacher ratings. We recommend that a certain amount of professional study should be made by school authorities. We recommend that means of making The Journal more valuable to the National Education Association members by an open forum in which articles by teachers may bepublished. We recommend and endorse a greater effort for universal peace. We recommend that the clerical work of the teachers be reduced to a minimum. 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION We endorse the standardized preparation of teachers and ask the National Edu- cation Association to promote standardization. We recommend that the executive committee be instructed by this department to make urgent requests of the proper authorities that the classroom teachers be given an adequate medium of communication. We recommend that the editor of The Journal print the delegate list in The Journal with the educational position of each delegate. Adjourned. The annual dinner of the department was held on Thursday evening, July 3, in the ballroom of the Raleigh Hotel. Good fellowship reigned among the three hundred guests, and all joined heartily in the songs written for the occasion. Miss Ida Christine Iversen, retiring president, introduced the new officers and paid tribute to the faithful service of those retiring. Brief addresses were given by Superintendent Frank Ballou, Washington, D. C.; Miss Olive M. Jones, Presi- dent of the National Education Association, and W. T. Longshore, president of the Department of Elementary School Principals. The speaker of the evening was then introduced : Mr. Reynold E. Blight, editor of The New Age, who spoke on modern schools from a layman's standpoint. CONSTITUTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Adopted at Boston, Massachusetts, July, 1922; amended July 5, 1923 NAME ARTICLE I. The name of this department shall be the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association. PURPOSES ARTICLE II. The objects and purposes of this Department shall be : SECTION 1. To secure higher educational qualifications for teachers ; to secure teacher participation in school management; to secure adequate salaries, tenure, pensions, and such other conditions as will enable teachers properly to function as a vital factor in educational progress to the end that the teaching service of the country may be improved. SECTION 2. To promote, encourage, and assist organizations of classroom teach- ers and to promote coöperation among such organizations and the members thereof. MEMBERSHIP ARTICLE III . Members of the National Education Association who are employed as classroom teachers and all members of classroom teacher organizations acting as officers or agents of such organizations, whether employed as teachers or not, shall be eligible to membership in this department, provided that no person shall be eligible to membership herein unless such person shall be a member of the National Education Association. OFFICERS-ELECTION - DUTIES ARTICLE IV. The officers of this department shall be a president, a vice-presi- dent, and a secretary, and all such officers shall be elected by a majority vote of the members present at the annual meeting of the department. The officers shall serve for a term of one year from the date of their election and until their suc cessors are elected, and shall perform the usual duties pertaining to the respective offices which they hold and such other duties as may be imposed upon them by DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 469 this Constitution and the By-Laws of the department. It shall be the special duty ofthe president of the department to prepare a program for the annual meeting of the department by and with the advice and consent of the executive committee and advisory council. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE -ELECTION ARTICLE V. SECTION 1. The president, the vice-president, the secretary, and three members of the department, who shall represent three different sections of the country, to be elected in the manner hereinafter provided, shall constitute the executive committee. Elections to the executive committee shall be made by the department at the meeting at which this Constitution is adopted. The candidate receiving the highest number of votes shall serve on the executive committee for aterm of three years ; the candidate receiving the next highest number of votes shall serve on the executive committee for a term of two years, and the candidate receiving the next highest number of votes shall serve on the executive committee for a term of one year. Annually thereafter, the department shall elect one mem- ber of the executive committee in place of the member whose term expires and the members of the executive committee so chosen shall thereafter serve for a term of three years. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE -DUTIES SECTION 2. The executive committee shall assist the president in preparing the annual programs and shall perform such other duties as may be imposed upon itby the department. The executive committee shall have power to employ an assistant secretary and such other employees as it may deem necessary to carry on the work of the department, and, subject to the ratification of the department, to fix the terms for which such employees shall be employed and the salaries to bepaid to such employees and to prescribe the duties of such employees, in addi- tion to the duties imposed upon such employees by this Constitution and any by- laws adopted by the department. The executive committee shall have power to designate centers at which regional conferences of the department shall be held. Theexecutive committee shall conduct the business of the department in the interim between the annual meetings of the department. The executive committee shall be authorized to fill all vacancies in its own membership. All such interim ap- pointments shall be filled by election at the next annual election. BUDGET SECTION 3. On or before the first day of June in each year, the executive com- mittee (of this department) shall prepare and submit to the executive committee, the board of directors, and the representative assembly of the National Education Association, through the secretary of the Association, a budget setting forth the proposed expenditures to be made by this department during the ensuing year and thepurposes for which such proposed expenditures are to be made. Such budget shall set forth a statement of the estimated receipts of this department during the ensuing year from membership dues levied under the provisions of Section 9 of Article V of the By-Laws of the National Education Association, and a statement of the amount of money estimated to be necessary to be appropriated from the funds of the Association for this department for the ensuing year. It shall be the further duty of the executive committee to see that the funds so set aside and so appropriated shall be disbursed for the purposes of this department in the manner provided for in the budget. REGIONAL CONFERENCES ARTICLE VI. SECTION 1. Regional conferences shall be held at centers designated bythe executive committee for the purpose of discussing and formulating educa- nonal policies and programs for the general meetings of this department and for the further purpose of carrying into effect the policies and programs of this 470 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION department and for the purpose of extending and educating the membership of this department. The president shall have power and authority to call such regional conferences at such time as he shall deem advisable, provided that no such regional conferences called, as herein provided, shall conflict with any meetings of the Association. ADVISORY COUNCIL SECTION 2. The officers of such regional conferences shall be a chairman, selected by the conference, and a secretary, appointed by the executive committee. The chairmen of the regional conferences shall constitute the advisory council of this department, and when any conference fails to elect a chairman that center shall be represented on the advisory council for that year by the secretary. The officers of the regional conferences shall submit written reports to the assistant secretary. ANNUAL MEETING ARTICLE VII. The annual meeting of this department shall be held at the same time and place as the annual meeting of the National Education Association, and shall consist of business sessions and such programs as may be authorized by the executive committee. A conference of the officers, executive committee, advisory council, and other members of the department shall be held at the same time and place as the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Edu- cation Association . The president of the department shall be charged with the duty of preparing a program for such conference. AMENDMENTS ARTICLE VIII. This Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting of the department, provided notice in writing of such proposed amendment shall have been filed with the secretary of the department at least ninety ( 90) days prior to such annual meeting and pub- lished in the two issues of The Journal of the National Education Association next preceding the annual meeting of the Association, or by unanimous consent of the members at any annual meeting when notice of the proposed amendment has not been filed with the secretary and published as herein provided. TEACHER, WHITHER GOEST THOU ? MARK KEPPEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF LOS ANGELES COUNTY SCHOOLS LOS ANGELES , CALIFORNIA Education is at once the most intensely local question, and at the same time the most intensely National question that confronts any people. In our country, the development of an educational system has been very largely a matter of chance. It has been so because of the peculiar fact that edu- cation is a local question and a National one. In its administration, it is almost absolutely a local question ; in our political approval of education, in profoundly wise pronouncements with respect to it, it strikes us as a National question. Call on any great political leader in America, and ask him to talk to you about education, and he will give you the finest wisdom that can be offered by anybody ; and yet, as a matter of fact, if you will study the real story of the real statesmen of America, you will not be able to find half a dozen men in National public life whose declarations with respect to education are any more than oratorical platitudes. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 471 Theodore Roosevelt understood the problem of education, and understood it so well that he expressed it as it ought to be expressed. He said : "The United States of America is as much interested in the educational welfare of a little boy on a ranch in Texas, as in the educational welfare of the proudest child of the proudest family in New York City." And there were leaders who said that Roosevelt was playing to the galleries; that he was indulging in a political platitude. To the average National politician, a doctrine of that kind is nothing more nor less than political platitude. Under our system of education, the support of schools is local, and so it a child is so fortunate as to choose a great city as his birthplace, he has an opportunity to be educated in one of the best free public school systems that can be found, but if he is so unfortunate as to choose as his birthplace a far-off mountain canyon, a stock farm in the desert, or any place that is somewhat remote, or more remote, or most extremely remote from a great city, he has the misfortune of having chosen for himself inadequate educa- tional opportunity. Now, I am well aware that most educational leaders are prepared to tell us that one of the great things we need for education, first of all, is adequate training of the teacher; following adequate training of the teacher we need tenure for the teacher; and following tenure for the teacher, we need the continuity of support. To my mind, the thing that is needed most in education in America, is equality of educational opportunity for every boy and girl, and we cannot possibly realize equality of educational opportunity until the teachers-the classroom teachers of America-realize the need for that thing. I see you here today. I know perfectly well that you come from the rich cities of America. There may be a few of you here from smaller com- munities, but you are from rich communities. When I say " rich com- munities," I mean communities that have a great deal of wealth in propor- tion to their number of children. Now, you may know superintendents or supervisors who happen to be paid a fair salary for serving in a school system that is relatively poor, but the rank and file of the teachers, the class- room teachers of America, who are teaching in the school districts where wealth is expressed in children and not in money-those teachers are not here. Even on excursion rates, they cannot afford to come, because the salaries paid to them are inadequate ; and the salaries paid to them are not inadequate because the people of those communities do not believe in education. It would be difficult to find a community anywhere in America where the common people do not believe in free, public education. It would be diffi- cult anywhere in America to find a community where the people are un- willing to go their limit in taxing themselves to give to their children the kind of educational opportunity that they ought to have. In California, we elected a governor by a majority of 200.000, whose platform was that he was going to practice rigid economy. Communities support him and his State policy, and turn right around and put a bond 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION issue on themselves to the utmost limit. They applaud him for his address declaring that the thing that is needed is economy, that this wicked, waste- fulness in the public schools must stop, and then they turn right square around with the sound of his speech still echoing in their ears, and vote bonds to the limit, because to their mind there is no extravagance in a local community taxing itself to the limit for the support of its schools. And if wealth were equally divided, if the relative amount of wealth per child were the same in every community and every State, everywhere, there would be such a thing as equality of educational opportunity; but there canbe no such thing, because we have by chance permitted our educational system to develop in its administration and in its taxing power as a local institution. We believe in it as a National institution; we believe that education is the supreme business of the state; our political friends tell us that the teachers in time of peace are the Nation's first line of defense. and that in time of war they are the second line of defense, and they tell us how they love the little red schoolhouse. You ask Congress to go down into the National pocketbook and dig up an adequate supply of money so that there may be a fair and equal chance for every boy and girl inAmerica, and see what happens. Well, the thing that happens will not be the thing that matches with the words of the people who do the talking. Strange to say, there are a lot of us who refuse, by active personal individual sup- port, to adhere to the doctrine which we declare we intimately believe in, namely, that there ought to be equality of educational opportunity for every boy and girl. And so we try to tell what is wrong with the rural schools; this is wrong and that is wrong; but there is only one thing wrong with the rural schools, and that is poverty-upright, outright, downright, inright, persistent, ever- lasting, eternal poverty. And that condition will continue for the rural schools until the classroom teachers of America get it into their inner con- sciousness that that is the real thing that is wrong with the schools of America. I believe that when the classroom teachers of America really understand that, they will be able to do the things that need to be done not only to speed up the oratorical ability of our congressmen and our senators and our presidents, but to speed up their official activity to the point where they realize that you cannot provide the bread of life by offering people pretty speeches . The best schools in America are in the cities. They will continue to be in the cities. In my own little county, if a girl wants to teach in the city of Los Angeles she may start in at $1400, and if she teaches long enough she may get $2100 as a grade teacher. If she wants to start in a little city alongside of Los Angeles, after she has taught three years in that city she may get $1400. Then if she wants promotion, she must move into the city of Los Angeles. And that city that can never pay more than $ 1400 under present conditions, can never hope to hold in its teaching faculty the live, progressive, aggressive, determined young men and young women who, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 473 while they are willing to devote themselves to the blessed cause of educa- tion unreservedly, prefer to devote it without starvation. As a matter of fact, that little district alongside of the big city helps to keep the big city alive, helps to make its wealth. The great city of New York depends for its wealth upon every man and woman and child beneath the starry banner of liberty, and it owes to every one of us a fair measure ofsupport for our schools in our communities, no matter where they may be. But I hear the people say, "Oh, you couldn't tax the whole country for education for a local community. You couldn't do that." Well, our writers tell us that in times of peace the teaching body of America is our first line of defense; what is our second line of defense in that time ? Why, the army and the navy. It is our first line in time of war; and I don't belong to that school of people who are going to close up the army and the navy; I am ready to do away with the army and the navy when the time comes that selfishness is no longer dominant in Europe. We never hesitate to tax anybody, everybody, everywhere, to get the money to take care of the army and navy : and having laid the taxes, we are not seriously concerned where we put the navy or where we put the army, or where we put the navy yard or where we put the arsenal, or where we put the fort. We are not seriously concerned about that. We put those things where we believe they will best contribute to National defense. Where would the money spent on free popular education best contribute to National defense? It would best contribute to National defense in those schoolrooms where now there is not enough money being spent. And where isthat? It is increasingly as you get away from the larger cities, but you beginto find it as soon as you get away from the city. There are American States that under present conditions, if they tax themselves to their taxable limit for the education of their children, cannot possiblyprovide all the teachers that are necessary to teach all the children in those States, where they have 40 children to the room-not 20 to the room but 40 to the room-and pay an average salary of $900 a year to the teachers. And I have heard statesmen, I have heard ministers, I have heard Lawyers, I have heard newspaper editors, I have heard all the representa- tives of the learned professions except school teachers, telling people that they ought to go back to the country. As long as present educational con- ditions continue in America, no wise father or mother whose boys and girls are growing up is going to be lured by that cry of "back to the country." The country is not the best place for a boy or girl these days, because the proper opportunity is not offered to the boy or girl in the country. Pick ahundred thousand country children from the back counties of any one of our States and put them alongside a hundred thousand picked from one of our great cities; you will find that the children of the great cities, by years, weigh more, are farther advanced in their studies, are clearer of mind, are stronger as athletes, and are more capable in every respect. Why? Because they have all the opportunities that wealth can offer to 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION them, while the children in the country have had only the opportunities- practically-that nature could offer to them. And nature is dependent on rainfall and snow and sunshine, and a lot of conditions that need to be greatly helped by the thoughtful and energetic study and activity of man. Now you say, "What is the teacher going to do about it?" I hope the teacher is going to think about it. And no thought is worth thinking that does not pass over into action. You haven't any time to waste in thinking if your thinking is not going to pass over into action. Have you read the newspapers ? Have you read the indictments of the public schools? Are you familiar with what they charge us with? We are charged with everything. They charge us with those two boys in Chicago. We are no more responsible for those two boys in Chicago than we are responsible for the Crucifixion, 1900 years ago. They charge us for the wave of crime that is sweeping the country. We are not responsible for the wave of crime. The responsibility for this condition that is upon America is upon those who have not adequately, through their statesman- ship, grappled with the problem of ignorance. The great menace of mankind is ignorance. The slavery of mankind is the slavery of ignorance. The great Teacher declared that he was come into the world that men might know the truth, and the truth should make them free. There is no freedom in the world except the freedom of intel- ligence, and the only way to get the freedom of intelligence to the great mass of the people, is by giving the great mass of the people an adequate public school system. Giving them an adequate opportunity is to provide enough money to pay an adequate salary to a properly trained man or woman to teach in the classroom of every public school in America. How much ? I don't care. I am not at all affrighted about the money that we put into education. Our great fire insurance companies have a lot of paid orators going up and down the country telling us about preventable fires. Last year, five hundred million dollars worth of property burned, and $375,000,000 of it was preventable, and they have men telling us about it, and telling us to be careful where we throw our cigarette stumps. Well, if I was a school teacher I would be careful about that. But those selt- same fellows that are so tremendously interested in preventable fires tell us nothing about that preventable fire that represented an expenditure of $2,300,000,000, last year, for smoking-tobacco. Why worry about the $500,000,000 that we wasted in houses and barns and car shops and hav- stacks, and things of that kind, when we aren't at all concerned about the $2,300,000,000 that we wasted for cigarettes and pipe tobacco and so forth? I have a notion that, if we had the figures collected, we would find there are today in America six million boys and girls who are not given a fair and equal educational opportunity, and that there are 250,000 classroom teachers who are not receiving a square deal, because we have a financial system for the support of free popular public education in America that is just about as inadequate and inefficient and childish as anything that can be found in Government in America, and I do not believe that any political DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 475 party now operating has any intention of doing anything about it. They may pass resolutions. We have been spoon-fed on resolutions. It is baby food. What we want is action; what we want is money. How many thousand years will it take Congress to appropriate a hundred million dollars to start this work going? Perhaps our grandchildren will have opportunity of announcing that the bill has been signed by the President. Perhaps we need a minister in the President's cabinet. It might be a good thing to have a watch-dog who would bark a little bit, but I want to tell you that we need a few paper dollars back in the little rural schools in the mountains, on the deserts, and in the cotton fields; wherever there is inequality, we need a few of the paper dollars that belong to Uncle Sam agreat deal more than we need a minister in the President's cabinet. What we need is the bread of life for our boys and girls who are not now get- ting it. How are we going to get it? Well, there is only one way to get it; that is to go after it. I have heard some friends say that it is the duty of every boy and girl to educate himself or herself, and I agree with that. Self-effort is supreme ; it cannot be avoided, but there must be opportunity afforded for the exercise of self-effort. The gate of opportunity is open to boys and girls in the big cities, but it is not open to boys and girls in smaller cities, and still less is it open to boys and girls in the country; and the more remote you are, the less the gate is open; and if open at all, the shorter the time that it is open. And the teachers, as we follow them in our thoughts out into the country and away from the cities, are increasingly, ever more and more, giving their lives as martyrs, trying to maintain an American Nation with American ideals, and trying to do it with inadequate salaries and inadequate sup- port. When I think about it, I feel like saying, "Teacher, whither goest thou, to martydom or to crash the gate ?" DISCUSSION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TENURE REPORT FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, OAKLAND CALIFORNIA, CHAIRMAN I am glad indeed that the classroom teachers are learning to give expres- sion to their own attitudes and desires. My own experience with classroom teachers in California has shown them to be not quite so timid as the presi- dent indicates. We have a bunch of them in Oakland that tell the super- intendent where to head in, when they feel like it, and the superintendent usually heads in, too, let me tell you. And some of them are right here in the front seat. Now this tenure report, fellow teachers, is serious business. It is serious business from the standpoint of what the National Education Association, the great National organization of the teachers of the United States, is going to do whether or not its leadership is to be intelligent; whether or 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION not it is to be of real help to those groups and those organizations that are trying to bring about sane tenure legislation. What we do here at this meeting will have much bearing on what teachers' organizations in the various States will do in carrying out their programs toward teacher tenure. It is most important to see this matter in the large. It is most important that we know what we can expect; that we do not try to do too much at once; that we do not try to go too far; that we understand the public that we have to deal with; and that we do not overreach ourselves in our attempt to do the right thing for ourselves and for the schools. The purpose of the Tenure Committee was, in the first place, to make sure that there was a very clear distinction between the purposes of tenure: between what teachers' organizations are going to do in tenure, and the interests of the public schools. We can expect not to get very far, if we undertake simply in a selfish attitude a program toward tenure. What we do must be done for the children and the schools of America. Your interests and mine are identical with the interests of the public schools of this country. The interests of the classroom teacher, so far as tenure is concerned, are identical with the interests of the schools of this country, and I think the evidence here in this report shows that very clearly. That was the first purpose of the committee. The second purpose of the committee was to furnish a body of facts. What are the facts ? Now, most of the arguments against tenure are sup- ported by opinion; and I am afraid in the past a good many of our efforts in behalf of tenure have been supported pretty largely by opinion. Our opinions may be right, but when we get up against political machines, and sometimes when we get up against entirely sincere but hardheaded business men and statesmen, we need facts, and it was the purpose of the committee to furnish, in its survey, some means whereby organizations that are striving to bring about the right sort of legislation as to tenure might have the materials with which to work. Now the committee hopes finally to suggest a remedy as to what a tenure law should be, and to suggest a set of standards towards which teachers should work in defending their policy of tenure. The policy of tenure is unquestionably defensible, as you will see from the evidence given here. If teachers are to defend that policy, then it is the opinion of the committee that there must be some standard of professional improvement which the teachers themselves set, and with which they can go to the public and say : "These are the things that we are doing to improve ourselves professionally. These are the things that we are doing to make ourselves better and stronger teachers. We are asking nothing in this matter of tenure only in the name of right and justice and of the public schools; if you give it to us we will look out for the very best professional interest of the whole teaching body of the United States and of our State." Now, the outline of the facts as presented here is as follows: The com- mittee first considered the problem of teacher turnover. They considered the matter of political dismissals ; they considered the matter of court cases DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 477 or the status of the teacher as shown by court decisions in this country ; they considered the matter of present practices in tenure, that is, what do the State laws now contain on teacher tenure ? What do the local regula- tions provide concerning teacher tenure? What do foreign countries do with reference to teacher tenure? All of these points were considered by the committee. Then the committee secured a list of the proposed measures, which are being pushed before State legislatures by teacher organizations, and the tendency of those measures. They then attempted to set up, by what we think is a defensible and valid method of investigation, a standard, I will not say of attainment, but a standard upon which all teachers could stand relative to dismissals. Friends, if we were to do what some of us have sometimes, in our feeling of outraged justice, proposed to do, make it im- possible ever to dismiss a teacher, we would do the worst thing for sane tenure that we could possibly do. You all understand that, just as well as I do, and all of you ought to remember that, even at times when you are smitten. Even at times when we feel that political groups have outraged the profession in your community, remember not to do things that are going to react upon the sane program that you are finally seeking to secure. Now, I have heard groups talk, sometimes, just a little bit insanely about thismatter. I have heard them advocate things which, upon sane reflection, they could not defend, and which would react against the very thing that they are intending to secure. The teaching profession must set up its own standards of merit. For what ought a teacher to be dismissed ? All the tenure laws thus far name certain things for which a teacher ought to be dismissed, or provide for dismissal for certain causes. Where shall we go for the best standard for that? Shall we leave it to the legislature to do by guess ? Shall we try to guide sentiment in communities and States, out of our own wisdom, out of our own research, out of our own findings ; or shall we let it be done by political groups ? No; the only wise way is to do it ourselves, just as in the case of professional standards, the profession ought to set those standards, and so we ought to decide by vote the best way that we can, as to what the standards for dismissal or retention should be. And finally, the committee attempted to prove the validity of its methods. We will first consider the instability of the profession-and, friends, here is a place where the identity of the interest of the teacher and the interest of the school, or the interest of the public school system, are entirely coincident : Is our profession stable ? Well, it is not, and the statistics and other definite facts show very conclusively that it is not. A survey made by the teachers of the State of Washington shows that tenure in that State is very unstable. The percentage of teachers in the various groups or communities that are new to their positions each year, in small communities is 76.9 per cent. A survey by Mr. Sanderson, assistant State superintendent ofWisconsin, shows a percentage ranging from 65 to 68 T per cent of rural te the State of Wisconsin, to be new in their 478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION positions. In New York the survey shows that the life of the teacher's cer- tificate is about six years, and surveys in various other States show the same deplorable condition. Then the committee secured at first hand the estimates as to teacher turnover from the State superintendents, all States but two responding, representing 705,000 teachers. These estimates show that at least 110,000 are new each year in those States. That is a percentage of 16. Sixteen per cent of the total teaching body of the United States is new each year. The range is from four per cent in Florida to 47 per cent in Wyoming. Now, take the cases of political dismissal. The report does not contain all the facts concerning the cases of political dismissal, but I was directed by the committee to present them to you now. I am not going to hesitate in the least to tell the facts that are in our possession. I think they should have been printed in the report. However, some of the officials of the Association thought it unwise to print these, but I am going to see that they are printed in the record here, and I will be glad to furnish a list of those instances to any group of teachers who are working for tenure, who may want to use them. I am going to tell them to you now. There have been a number of outstanding and noteworthy cases of dis- missal of high educational officials, that have attracted the attention of the Nation. Such examples as these : Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, of Pennsylvania; Dr. Charles E. Chadsey, of Chicago; Dr. Withers, of St. Louis; Superin- tendent Stockton, of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Dr. William L. Ettin- ger, New York City. Dr. Ettinger was dismissed by a political machine there within a month or two of the end of his four-year contract, simply for political purposes and political punishment. I would like to ask if any superintendent of schools that dares, with his teaching body and the profession behind him, to stand for a progressive program in education that means the education to good citizenship of all the children of all the people, is safe in his position? Is there any place in the United States where he is safe ? If there is, I don't know of it. The cases that I am about to present are outstanding instances of spoliation for political purposes of teaching bodies, most of them in large cities. There is first the Portland case: The report from the subcommittee of the Portland case says the public schools suffered from politics and gross favor- itism; injustice was inflicted on many teachers who were dismissed without warning and without even knowing the cause of their dismissal. No teacher felt secure in her position solely because of her efficiency. If her principal or some influential patron had a grievance against her, she had no oppor- tunity to defend herself, or to disprove the assertion of one whose com- plaint might be founded on a trivial matter. The whole teaching corps suffered from the demoralization that such a state of uncertainty would inevitably cause, and the election occurred so late in the school year that teachers who were not reëlected had scant opportunity to secure positions in other schools for the next year. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 479 In many instances, this state of affairs resulted in subservience, and efficiency suffered accordingly. The next case is that of Chicago. It is well known all over the country. You people know it probably as well as I do, but I will give the figures ofit as reported by the subcommittee for Illinois, working under the tenure committee of one hundred. Sixty-eight teachers were dismissed in Chicago tor purely a political reason and no other, fifty-four of whom, as the report says, were rated A and B on a four-point scale. That act, combined with the result of a court decision-I shall mention court decisions very shortly, andyou will see the point of this when I do-resulted in the Illinois tenure law, which I am very sorry to say applies only to the city of Chicago. In the city of Denver, in the summer of 1915, seventy-six teachers were dischargedby a political board after school was out, without warning, and a school system was wrecked, for what purpose? To satisfy the desires ofapolitical machine, in order that they might appoint teachers to the places ofthese who had been dismissed, and for no other reason. Then there is the case of San Diego, California. This is in our own State, and I happen to know just what happened down there, and I know how quickly the other school systems of the State picked up the teachers who were dismissed. We took two of the principals in Oakland, they have been two of our leading principals ever since. The city of Los Angeles took the dismissed high school principal, and put him in as assistant super- intendent. He is there now, one of the most efficient in the whole corps . My friends, the San Diego school system was simply wrecked by a political board that went in for that purpose, to create for itself support through the teaching body of the public schools, and to intimidate teachers so that they would not express their own opinions, and would do nothing but stand behind the political board who intended to build up a political machine for itself. Twenty-one teachers were discharged, every one of whom, principals and all, had a satisfactory record. The case for tenure can be proved on this evidence alone. I am not sure that it can be proved upon the matter of teacher tenure, because we are not sure yet that tenure will cure this instability that is shown in the data concerning teacher tenure, but in this matter of political dismissals there is yet to be found a single instance in which any board or any group of politicians has been able to take over for political purposes the teaching body in a city where tenure prevails under State law or city rules. The case for tenure, I say, can be made upon this matter of political dismissals. Now, I must say one more thing. Court cases and what they show have agreat deal to do with our program. Our program, friends, must be set up in view of the fact that practically all the court decisions show very conclusively that the attitude of the court concerning the position of teachers is that boards of education, in the absence of tenure legislation, are the judges of the fitness of teachers, and the sole judges of the fitness ofteachers. It is all right to clothe boards of education with certain powers 480 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to judge the fitness of teachers, but is not right to give them absolute power to "hire and fire" at will, because if that power is given, friends, boards of education themselves being political bodies, are subject to the machinations and the intrigues of these various political groups that the public schools ought always and must always fear and guard against. So remember that. SINGLE SALARY SCHEDULES CORA B. MORRISON, ELEMENTARY TEACHER, DENVER, COLORADO, CHAIRMAN In February, 1924, at the request of the president of this department, a committee of Denver teachers was appointed by William A. Shute, president of the Classroom Teachers' Association, to prepare a national report on the single salary schedule "for the edification of classroom teachers." The committee so appointed consisted of thirteen women and three men, and represented all grades in the system from the kindergarten to the twelfth year, inclusive. This committee decided to secure first hand data which would enable it to determine the following points of outstanding interest to classroom teachers: How many cities have adopted the single salary schedule? What were the reasons for changing from the conventional type? What argu- ments are used for or against it where it has been tried? What has been its effect upon the teaching body subject to its provisions ? Is there any evidence that interest in the plan is increasing? Three different questionnaires were sent: one to 166 teachers' organiza- tions; one to twenty-five cities known to operate under the conventional schedule; and one to 154 cities reported by the Research Bureau of the N. E. A. , as claiming some sort of single salary schedule, a total of 345 questionnaires. Each questionnaire defined a single salary schedule as one which embodies the principle of equal salaries for all teachers of equal preparation and experience. Thirty replies were received from teachers' associations in cities having the conventional type of schedule. These cities were large, fifty per cent having populations in excess of 100,000. Ten of these organizations reported that either the superintendent or the board of education did not approve the single salary schedule. In eleven cases there was no opposition by the administration. In ten cases the ex- pense was regarded as prohibitive, and in fourteen cases teachers were charged with lack of effort to secure it. Six organizations were studying the subject and preparing to ask for the new schedule. Fifteen teachers' organizations, in cities having the single salary schedule in operation, replied, eleven from cities west of the Mississippi River. In eight of these, the teachers had been active in securing the new schedule. In two cases the superintendent had been the leader in the movement. In one, it was a substitute for a merit system. In only three cases was the schedule worked out by the superintendent without the aid of teachers. In DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 481 one case the work of the teachers' committee was revised by the superin- tendent with unsatisfactory results. The reasons for establishing this type of schedule, the arguments favoring it and results obtained from it were practically the same as those reported by superintendents in systems operating single salary schedules. Two questions were asked on a questionnaire sent to twenty-five large cities operating the conventional schedule: "Are you in favor of the single salary schedule for teachers ?" and "Will you state your reasons for or against this form of schedule ?" Eleven superintendents replied. Of these one had just established the single salary schedule in his system; another will put it into operation next year; two are now studying it; one had made no study of it ; one was very much opposed to it; and four expressed approval of the single salary sched- ule. One of these, from a great northern industrial city, wrote as follows : "I believe in the slogan: Equal pay for equal training. I believe, further, that much of the success of a child in his school work is determined by what happens to him in the early grades . I know, also, that the care and education of children in the kindergarten and first grades if this care and instruction are based upon intelligent measurement and study-require a very high order of ability. .. I am convinced that a person cannot be adequately trained to do the work in the elementary grades in less than four years, and that if there were incentives for elementary teachers to invest the amount required for four, six, and eight years of study on elementary problems, the investment would be made. The best incentive that I know of is the salary schedule. In my judgment the ideal salary schedule would give equal pay for equal ability, but at present the most satis- factory means of encouraging development of ability is through equal pay for equal training." This particular group of eleven superintendents studying the new schedule, certainly shows the balance of sentiment is in its favor. Seventy-three of the 152 cities reported as claiming to operate single salary schedules, replied to the questionnaire. Thirty-six of these ranged in population from 3000 to 50,000. Nine reported populations ranging from 100 to 400 thousand, Minneapolis being the largest and Denver next in size. Nine of the twenty-five States represented are east of the Mis- sissippi river. The first question asked was this : "What conditions led to the estab- lishment of the single salary schedule in your school system ?" Replies indicated that recognition of the unfairness to teachers of the old type of schedule, combined with the necessity of finding some way of holding superior teachers in the service of the elementary schools, had led to adop- tion of the single salary type. In many cases it was evident that the dis- satisfaction of teachers with the differentiated schedule had been a factor in the establishment of a democratic plan of paying teachers. In a number of cases no schedule had existed previously and the adoption of the single salary type registered, perhaps, the advent of a young and progressive superintendent. Concisely stated the new schedule was advocated by superintendents for 482 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION these reasons: It is easy to operate and permits better business methods; it eliminates class consciousness among teachers and defeats unionism; it contributes strongly to a feeling of unity and satisfaction in the corps ; by financial recognition of additional experience and training, it promotes tenure; it attracts superior ability and training to the elementary schools, and gives elementary teachers a higher appreciation of their service; it emphasizes high standards of professional attainment and encourages pro- fessional study and growth, thus producing more efficient teaching in every grade; it permits the transfer of teachers without financial loss from posi- tions for which they are not adapted to positions where they can render efficient service; the work of the elementary teacher is as valuable to a community as the work of the high school teacher, and should receive the same reward where qualifications are the same; preparation, experience, and professional growth present the "only reasonable basis" for salary differences; "justice" or "fairness to the teachers" was named by thirty- six superintendents as the basic argument for the single salary schedule. An eastern superintendent wrote : "I cannot see why any arguments are needed to justify the single salary sched- ule. The program justifies itself on its face. Only those who are grossly unfair in their attitude toward life would dare oppose it." Another from the middle west replied : "This form of schedule puts an emphasis upon adequate training for teaching, upon experience, and upon growth in service. It recognizes practically, what any reasonable person must admit in principle, that a child is as important at the age of five or six as he is at the age of fifteen or sixteen, and that the teaching process is probably equally difficult at every point. It ends the old draining away of crack teachers from the lower grades. As far as getting men is concerned, we have had no trouble in commanding able men with salaries that honestly pay thoroughly able women." In most cases the change to the new schedule was immediate and with increase. In general, the mechanical process of putting the plan into opera- tion was to formulate the schedule, basing it upon training, experience, and professional growth ; to secure its adoption by school boards ; to obtain from teachers in the service definite statements of their professional preparation and experience; to evaluate these according to definite standards included in the schedule, and then to place teachers in their respective salary groups after formulating a new budget. Difficulties to be overcome were: Evaluating preparation and professional training; recognizing and evaluating experience gained in other school sys tems. The practice varied from no recognition in some cases, to five or six years in accredited schools in others; adjusting elementary teachers already in the service on the higher levels of the schedule according to preparation and experience in the particular system; placing on the schedule the older teachers who could not be expected to meet the new standards. but who had given long years of faithful service in the system. In this, usually, great consideration was shown by special adjustment. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 483 No one reported any friction and frequently it was stated " easily done." In no case were existing salaries reduced, and in all cases new teachers entered under the provisions of the new schedule. The effect of the schedule upon extension courses and professional study and growth was encouraging. The following are examples of the com- ments made on this point: One hundred per cent increase; one hundred per cent attended summer school the first year, ninety-five per cent the second ; from six teachers taking professional courses before it was introduced to 100 the first semester after; more than doubled the amount of profes- sional study, etc. The larger number of superintendents reported an increase in the financial burden ranging from ten per cent to fifty per cent. Eighteen reported no increase, but indicated that the additional expense was met by increasing teacher load, by better business management, and other econo- mies. No one reported any objection on the part of taxpayers to the new plan. The committee briefly summarized the results of this investigation as follows: 1. The number of cities operating a single salary schedule probably does not exceed eighty and a great majority of these are small. 2. There is an indication of increasing interest in this subject on the part of superintendents and teachers in large systems. The establishment of the new schedule in the great city of Minneapolis is encouraging. 3. Many arguments are advanced in favor of the plan, and practically but one, its cost, against it. 4. The effects of the schedule upon the morale and efficiency of the teaching body are uniformly good. 5. The argument that high school teachers would not favor the establishment of a democratic schedule is disproved. 6. Classroom teachers of all groups were active in formulating schedules and securing their adoption in the majority of cities operating this plan. 7. Ignorance and indifference in regard to this important question exist to an amazing extent among organized groups of classroom teachers, particularly in eastern localities . SPECIAL REPORT FROM DENVER Out of our experience in a system which has successfully operated a single salary schedule for four years, the committee begs leave to submit the following special report : First, we define a single salary schedule as one which pays equal salaries to all classroom teachers having equal academic and professional prepara- tion and training, and equal experience. Second, we assert as a fundamental truth that the teaching service ren- dered on each successive level of the school course of twelve years requires equal-though not necessarily the same ability and knowledge, is equally valuable to the community, and, therefore, should receive equal reward where teacher qualifications are the same. 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION We realize that single salary schedules will vary in form and detail in different localities, but the true single salary schedule, which type we claim in Denver, will take into account, we believe, but two fundamental factors in determining the salary of a particular teacher at a given time, namely. academic and professional training, and length of service. The success of every school system depends in largest measure upon the faithful service of the average teacher, the type which comprises the great majority of classroom workers in each group in the system. It is this large body which school administrators should especially consider, because under right conditions and progressive leadership the level of natural ability and of professional attainment and efficiency in this great majority will rise higher from year to year. No single factor in a school system contributes more to this upward trend in the mass of teacher ability and service than does the salary schedule. The schedule, therefore, is of vital importance, not only to teachers, but to administrators . The so-called merit factor, operated to influence salaries, destroys at once, we believe, the single salary feature of the schedule, and the morale, and, hence, the efficiency of the great body of teachers on whose happy and earnest coöperation the success of the system depends. So, too, that par- ticular form of special privilege which establishes a differential based solely upon sex, destroys the single salary feature of the schedule as well as the principle of justice and democracy which it is designed to establish in the schools. We therefore regard the factors of merit and sex as objectionable features which should be carefully considered by classroom teachers. These features, we believe, will disappear, as teachers, both men and women. throughout the country become more alive to their individual responsibili- ties, and as a result, refuse to endorse conditions which react to lessen the highest efficiency and progress of the great body of workers in our public schools. We in Denver claim that the single salary schedule, safeguarded by a probationary period of three years for entering teachers, and by a progres- sive system of supervision, is, in itself a merit plan, reducing inefficiency to a minimum on every level of the system. The claim that such a schedule drives men out of the system is denied by the men on this com- mittee, who assert that, instead, men in larger numbers will be drawn into the service of the elementary schools where the salaries are equal to those in the high schools. The building of the schedule is of prime importance, because it deter- mines the future qualifications of the teaching body. It should state definitely the standards of professional attainment on which salary rewards are based, and its provisions should foster constantly rising standards. Superintendents should have the ability and the willingness to lead in build- ing a schedule, but a single salary schedule should, we believe, be made cooperatively, superintendent and teachers working together. In no other ৮, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 485 way can the object to be attained by the schedule be understood and ap- preciated by those who must serve the schools under its provisions. Fur- thermore, when the schedule is thus formulated, there will exist that close and sympathetic coöperation between the two factors which insures success in carrying out its provisions and securing its objectives. This type of schedule is not, as some seem to believe, the product of jealousy and selfish ambition ; rather, it is a supreme expression of the longing of the American classroom teacher for justice and democracy in the schools. The discerning superintendent will not fail to recognize this fact, and to take advantage of the tremendous forces which underlie this reform. The claim is sometimes made that the single salary schedule will tend to become automatic. "Once the principle is established that high school teachers and elementary school teachers are equal, why not all teachers, irrespective of merit, length of service, or preparation?" Those who make this claim overlook the basic principle of the single salary schedule. This schedule, as we have said, rewards with equal salaries high school teachers and elementary teachers of equal preparation and length of service. To argue the disappearance of this distinctive feature of the schedule, is simply to argue the substitution of a different schedule for the type which is under consideration. Incidentally, we should like to ask those who advance the objection if anything can be more automatic or more deadening in its effect upon the great mass of teachers in a school system than the conventional differenti- ated type of schedule ? Under such schedules the only hope of teachers in the lower grades for social, professional, or economic recognition is to leave those grades as soon as they can and join the elect in the high school. As the number of positions in the higher years of the school course is limited, eighty per cent of the teaching body must remain where it is un- recognized, unappreciated, and grossly underpaid. It is impossible, we believe, to overestimate the destructive influences of such schedules upon the efficiency of the elementary schools and the evil effects do not end there and we unhesitatingly assert that the sooner the differentiated type of schedule is displaced by something more reasonable, the better for the educational interests of the Nation. Elementary teachers provide the foundation for all higher education. In addition they bear the sole responsibility of educating the masses of the people, and to them also is chiefly entrusted the task of Americanizing the foreigner, and of socializing and democratizing community life. Increas- ing demand for greater efficiency in the elementary schools makes it the duty of administrators to establish those conditions which will react in adequate service to the public. We believe that the single salary schedule presents a reform in our educational system which will accomplish this purpose, and we therefore advance the following as our final argument inits favor: The single salary schedule recognizes the fact that the elementary +86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION teacher, in order to meet efficiently her vital responsibility to the public, should be as well trained and educated as the high school teacher, and it endeavors to provide a salary which will not only enable her to make preparation, but which will hold her permanently in the service of the elementary schools. At the same time it protects the right of every ele- mentary child to a well prepared, adequately paid instructor, and by so doing advances the educational interests of the masses of the people, which in every community depend so largely upon the elementary schools. The single salary schedule may increase the cost of the schools to the public, for it means higher salaries to the largest group of teachers, but it means immeasurably better schools. In time the American public wil be convinced, as the Denver public is convinced, that "the product of superior teaching is real," and then the cost of this reform will become a matter of secondary consideration. It would be impossible for a committee of Denver teachers reporting on the single salary schedule to close the report without an expression of appreciation for our Board of Education whose broad-minded, public- spirited policy led them to adopt this just and democratic principle in salary rewards, nor can we fail to mention the splendid leadership given to this reform by our superintendent, Mr. Jesse H. Newlon. We cheerfully commend Mr. Newlon as a master builder of salary schedules, and we take pleasure in announcing that the final adoption of the single salary schedule early in 1920 marked the beginning of a new era of progress and achievement in the schools of Denver . REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON EVALUATION OF IN- STRUCTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS GUY M. WILSON , PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, BOSTON UNIVERSITY BOSTON , MASSACHUSETTS, CHAIRMAN A STANDARDIZED SCALE FOR MEASURING RECITATION UNITS Professional leadership in education is not confined to any one group. Each group is developing its own leadership, setting its own problems and goal, and working forward coöperatively. The superintendents, the prin- cipals, the classroom teachers, the normal schools, the colleges each group is developing a professional policy and program. While each group wel- comes help and suggestions from others, yet the best psychology to apply is quite surely Dewey's doctrine of interest or growth from within. Not only is it good teaching psychology, but the suggestions coming from the group itself are more likely to be cogent and applicable. The president and council of the Classroom Teachers a year ago last February at Cleveland began to consider a means of improving classroom DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 487 work through a definite scale consisting of evaluated recitation units. They wanted something definite and specific with which to compare daily recitations and by which to judge them . In carrying forward the work it was decided to recognize the well-known recitation, techniques as developed through professional schools-namely, drill, appreciation, problem, and project. With this in mind, teachers throughout the country have been asked and are hereby further asked to assist in getting good word-pictures of recitation units, with the idea of having them judged and arranged in order of merit. The purpose is to construct finally a scale of standardized units applicable to each recitation type. The work has gone forward slowly, and in this preliminary report the attempt is made merely to get the idea before the classroom teachers and to solicit further coöperation. Fairly good drill units are at hand and these will be used to illustrate the plan. The technique of drill-Good drill technique is generally recognized as involving the following points : (1) Thorough motivation, which means that the work is understood by the child, that he sees its use and application, that it is vitally connected with his present interests, that a feeling of need is developed, that his fundamental impulses are involved, and that there is real desire and choice. (2) . The second step in good drill is that the child knows what to do . He not only knows what to do, but he knows exactly in what manner it is to be done. Drill work is usually simple, but it sometimes goes for- ward without the child knowing what it is all about or why he is doing the particular thing. (3) The third step in good drill is systematizing the drill. This means that all members of the series shall be included, that the work is broken up into appropriate units, that most emphasis is placed upon the more difficult points, and that records are kept on each pupil as to his weakness or particular needs. (4) Good drill technique observes the laws of memory . The following are some of the details included under this point: ( a) Repetition is effective in proportion to interest and attention ; (b ) Variety in procedure helps in holding the interest and attention ; ( c) Time limits should be ob- served and drill should cease before interest and attention begin to wane ; (d) Secure accuracy and correctness in all responses ; ( e) Arrange for recall and use at gradually lengthened intervals . (5) Application. The final step in drill is adequate use or application. This is easy, provided the first step, proper motivation, has been observed, because it means that before the drill begins there is use for the material and that nothing is drilled upon which is not useful and for which there is not an immediate worthwhile application. In line with this technique, a scheme for scoring drill teaching units has been worked out, but before giving the completed scheme it will be necessary to note the general points to be kept in mind in all teaching. 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Teaching levels-The general points involved in good teaching may be usefully designated as connected with various teaching levels. Four im- portant teaching levels according to the chief center of interest are the following : ( 1 ) textbook as center, (2) subject-matter as center, (3) teacher as center, (4) pupil as center . Rousseau insisted that the child become the center of the school work, instead of subject-matter or book. Froebel carried Rousseau's philosophy into the schoolroom and worked for motor expression and social participa- tion. Pestalozzi emphasized self-activity. Herbart gave us the doctrine of interest, which under Dewey, became a more vital force in the school- room and is recognized generally today as motivated or purposeful activity. In work that is fully motivated or purposeful, the child is the real center. His interest, his needs, as they broaden out into the community and real life contacts, become the proper basis for teaching. The score card for drill technique-The score card for drill technique takes into consideration the levels of teaching as well as the technique of drill. It adds also the proper choice of material, socialization of the recitation, and the skill of the teacher. Thus as it finally stands, it in- volves five points: material, motivation, technique, socialization, skill of the teacher. The tentative form of the score card for drill technique as distributed for use in judging recitations follows on page 3 . This score card was applied to reports of drill units of work and was found much more helpful than at first anticipated. Following are a few of the samples which have been judged together with the scores of the judges and the median of total scores . The samples given are arranged in order of median score from poorest to best, but they are not intended as a final scale, scarcely a tentative one. They are given merely to indicate the method of procedure until standardized units have been selected for each value on the scale. It may finally be decided to show several samples for each value, so as to make the final scale as helpful as possible in all drill subjects . EXERCISE I Mathematics-Reported by F. G. Houghton When I was very young I attended a small country school. The teacher called me to her one day and said, "You say your tables so well that I am going to give you a big arithmetic." She handed me a copy of Greenleaf's Practical Arithmetic. and assigned a half page to be memorized. The lesson was headed "Arithmetical Principles ." One was that multiplying a dividend multiplies a quotient. I think I had never learned the terms dividend or quotient, but I memorized the rules before I went home, and I received commendation for a perfect lesson. So far as the technique of teaching was concerned I think that was the poorest I ever experienced. Criticism of the Poorest Lesson 1. Story of the lesson. a. Assignment. Simply a statement of the page and extent of the lesson. b. Recitation. Child repeated the words included within the assigned para- graphs. The teacher praised the child for perfect memory work. c. Next assignment. Child told to do examples in addition given on a certain page. No relation to the preceding lesson. TECHNIQUE DRILL 20 40 60 80 100 0 . material Useless mate- chosen W (1)mate- chosen W ell (ell . rial rial . . rial . rial . rial No interest . Motiva- T2 )(horough Motiva- T (2) horough Motiva- T (2) horough T(2 horough )Motiva- Poor . Technique tion : tion : tion : tion : use sees child The 1. use sees child The 1. use sees child The 1. use sees child The 1. Teacher . Indifferent .application and . application and . application and . application and be must work The 2. be must work The 2. be must work The 2. be must work The 2. con- personal and real con- personal and real con- personal and real con- personal and real present with necting present with necting present with necting present with necting . interests . interests . interests . interests be a must There 3. a be must There 3. a be must There 3. be a must There 3. need . felt . need felt . need felt . need felt de- be must There 4. de- be must There 4. de- be must 4. There be de- must There 4. choice .and sire choice .and sire choice .and sire choice sire .and in- There must be 5. in- be must There 5. in- be must There 5. in- be must There 5. . appeals stinctive . appeals stinctive . appeals stinctive . appeals stinctive Drill Oof 3)(bservation Drill Oof (3) bservation of ODrill (3)bservation : Technique . Technique . Technique 1. Knowing to what to what 1. Knowing 1. to Knowing what do . . do do . the 2. Systematizing the Systematizing 2. the 2. Systematizing drill . . drill . drill 3. laws the Observing laws the 3. Observing 3. Observing the laws of . memory . of memory of . memory )R. epetition a ( R.a )(epetition )R. epetition a ( pro- )Vof b (ariety of pro- b )V( ariety b ) Vof pro- (ariety cedure . cedure . cedure . cor- and )A (ccuracy cor- and )A (ccuracy c )A and ( or- ccuracy .of response rectness response .of rectness response rectness .of time the of d L ) (imit time the of L d ) (imit time of the ) L d ( imit . drill of . drill of of . drill DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS re- for e P )(rovision re- for e P )(rovision re- )Pfor e (rovision . call . call call . .Application 4. . 4. Application . Application 4. ) ocialized (4 SRecita- . tion tion . .of Teacher 5 )S(kill 489 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2. Analysis of lesson. Technique-none . Teaching done by the book. Teaching skill-none. Results-first assignment gave child satisfaction in accomplishing an as- signed task. Second assignment gave increased skill in adding. 3. Cause of failure. No teaching done. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE 1. MATHEMATICS Scale Scores Material 05-5-20-20-00-0 Motivation 0-10- 0-50--0--0 0 0-0-0-0-1) Technique 0-0-0 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Socialization Skill of teacher . 0-0-0-0-5-0--0-0 Score.. 0--15-5-25-25-0-0-0 Median o EXERCISE V Arithmetic, Grade I-Reported by Gladys Darrah I. The poorest lesson I ever observed was a number lesson taught in the first grade. The teacher asked the question, "How much is 2 plus 2?" Back came the answers, " 6," " 10," "3," "4," "7." Here the teacher stamped her foot and said, "Hush! Hush ! Some one gave the right answer. How much is 2 plus 3 ?" II. Analysis of lesson. 1. Technique involved-I think it was meant to be drill. 2. Type of teaching-there did not seem to be a center. At least I couldn't find one. III . Degree of skill-no skill visible. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE V. ARITHMETIC. GRADE I Material 5--0-50-20-0-20-10-0-20-20-10-0-10-0 Motivation 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Technique Socialization 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Skill of teacher . 5--0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0--0 Score... 10-05-0-20-0-20-10-0-20-20-10-0--10-0 Median 5 EXERCISE X Grammar. High School-Reported by A. E. Lewis I. Story of Lesson: The pupils of a city high school were to study the parts of English Grammar. The teacher sat back and took things easy, the most conspicuous part of his job lay in his nibbling a cake of chocolate. The pupils were indifferent and inattentive, the answers to questions were given in a sluggish manner and their answers lacked accuracy. The next assignment was a further study of English grammar in form of a review of the day's lesson. II. Analysis of Lesson : The technique involved seemed to be based on drill. The parts and rules of grammar were to be memorized verbatim. The book was the center of the lesson. Both teacher and pupils were concerned only in the book and its content. III. Degree of Skill : Neither on the part of the teacher nor the pupils was there any degree of skill displayed. It seemed that both the teacher and his pupils had to be there at that time, and both justified the requirements of attendance in body only, their minds being elsewhere. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 491 IV. The result: The result of the lesson was as near nil as a lesson could be. The total effect was detrimental . V. The Résumé: The cause for this failure seemed to rest wholly upon the teacher . He was sluggish and certainly lacked ambition. His attention was not on the lesson nor on the pupils. He did the minimum. All he did was to ask questions of those pupils who indicated, by raising their hands, that they knew the answer. The teacher answered "Yes" or "No" to those answers. At times he was too lazy to say "Yes" or "No," but indicated it with a movement of his head. The pupils, as a whole, gave little attention; they were either dreaming or doing other lessons . They seemed to take the teacher's attitude toward the lesson, and he seemed extremely bored. The display of laziness and inattentiveness shown by the teacher was an incentive for the pupils to imitate him. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE X. GRAMMAR . HIGH SCHOOL Material 0-10-20 0-5-5-10 Motivation 0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Technique 0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Socialization 0-0-0-0-0-0 0 Skill of teacher . 0-0-0-0-0-0-10 Score. 0-10-20- 0-5-5-20 Median 5 EXERCISE XI Arithmetic, Grade IV-Reported by Marie Boland This is a report on teaching long division in the fourth grade. The pupils were given a number of three or four places to divide by thirteen ; the teacher assumed that this was the most logical procedure, as the class was supposed to have mastered the table of twelves. The children were then told to multiply thirteen by all the numbers between one and ten. They were then told the number of figures in the dividend , two or three, as the case called for. This number was compared with the multiples of thirteen and the multiple nearest the partial divi- dend was selected. The quotient figure was then written and the multiple written under the partial dividend. The figures in the dividend were crossed as they were used in the partial divisors. This method of writing all the multiples of every divisor used (between thirteen and one hundred) preceded every long division example. By this method a great deal of time was wasted and the work was inaccurate. This method was a failure because the subject matter was made the center. The preparation for the lesson was also a failure. The pupils were not made to realize that they already had in mind many facts about division that would serve as a background in solving the new problem. If the class had been led to see the relationship between short and long division, the process would not have been so difficult and uninteresting. Moreover, the class lost the valuable practice of thinking for themselves and estimating results . SCORINGS ON EXERCISE XI. MATHEMATICS . GRADE IV Material 20-20-20-10-5-5-20 Motivation 0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Technique 0-0-5-5-5-5-0 Socialization 0-0-0-0-0-0-0 Skill of teacher 0-0-0 5-0-0-0 Score... 20-20-25-20--10-10-20 Median 20 EXERCISE IX Reading, Grade I-Reported by E. J. Andrews It was years ago and I can see her now as she sat beside her desk in the little school. She was not so old in years, but her methods were. She was .. aad begun teaching after leaving high school, with no training for her 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Reading was taught by spelling the words from the board, over and over again, until form and spelling were fixed in the minds of the pupils. She was conscientious , worked hard, and the children learned the facts taught. They could read their First Reader from beginning to end. The reading lesson consisted in each child reading the entire lesson while the teacher pointed to the words. A special reading lesson stands out in my memory. John, who was very slow ( and who would not be slow under these conditions ? ) , had at last mastered the art. Would I like to hear him read ? Of course I would. "John, get the book and come here." John did. The place was found so that John had close contact with it while he hugged it close. The teacher pointed-"Now ready." "I-can-see-the-cat, " said John, with no change in the voice to show that it was a sentence that had reached an end. "Drop it !" "I-can-see-the-cat," said John, and down went the voice and nod went John's head. "Yes, go on." "Do you see the cat?" and again came the same monotone and the same in- definite ending. "Hook it!" "Do you see the cat?" Thus John hooked it. Analysis-technique-drill. Words learned by speiling. Type of teaching-book as center. Degree of skill-poor. Results-poor; still in justice I must say that the children knew what they were taught. Causes of failure-The teacher was not trained for the work. Her limited outlook was not conducive to growth. EXERCISE IX: READING GRADE I Material .... 15-15-10-5-15-10-15-15-15-15-15-15-20-10 Motivation 0-0-0-0-0-0-0 - () - 0-0-0- 0-0-0 Drill technique 0- 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-5 Socialization 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-50 Skill of teacher..... 55-5-0-10-5-5-5-50-550-5 Score.... 20-20-15-5-25-15-20-20-20-15-20-20-25-20 Median 20 EXERCISE VI Spelling , Grade VI-Reported by A. Rebecca Parsons The lesson was spelling in a sixth-grade class of fifty-one pupils. The assignment was from the Merrill Spelling Book, sixth year, page fifty-nine, lesson forty-three. Learn to spell the words, look up their meaning in the diction- ary, and use them in sentences . During the twenty-minute period allotted to spelling the teacher dictated the words in lesson forty-three and five review words. The pupils collected these papers and also the sentences . The teacher then returned the written spelling papers of the previous day and told the pupils to write each misspelled word one hundred times after school. During the remainder of the period she read sentences from the written papers of the previous day's lessons. The pupils tried to correct the mistakes or to im- prove the sentences. The following show how little the children accomplished by trying to select a meaning of an unrelated word and then using that word in a sentence : Insincere means artificial. My mamma wears insincere teeth. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 493 Ventilate means to fan. Mamma ventilates grandma when she is sick. Medley means mixed . You can buy the best medley sodas at Mr. Bemis' . The next assignment was the same as the previous day, except that it was lesson forty-four. In fact, all of the assignments and recitations were the same except on Fridays. Then the pupils wrote the words assigned for the week. Once a month they had a spelling match. Usually the pupils were spelled down on the month's review; if not, the teacher turned to the words of the previous month. Analysis of the lesson: The only use for the material studied was to obtain a passing mark of seventy per cent in spelling and to avoid writing words one hundred times after school. Since the lesson was not taught and since the responses were not automatic, no technique was involved. The teacher was the type that used her energy on the subjects she liked to teach, and, unfortunately for the class, spelling was not one of them. Forty-three pages of Merrill's Speller was the center. Degree of skill and results were very poor. Causes of failure: I. The material was not suited to the class and did not supply their needs . II. The method did not reach the individual pupil. III. It did not provide for recall and drill. IV. It did not develop the interest of the pupils or develop their responsibility. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE VI: SPELLING GRADE VI Material 10-5-20-10-5-10-10 Motivation 0-0-5-10-5-5-0 Technique 0 5-0-5--10-5-5 Socialization 0-0-0-5-0-0-0 Skill of teacher .... 0-5-5-5-5-10-10 Score.. 10-15-30-35-25-30-25 Median 25 EXERCISE XIV Spelling, Grade V-Reported by Rebecca Parsons This lesson was conducted in grade five. The material was the Ayres' Spelling scale used as a study list. The only class work done by the teacher was to assign ten words to be studied at home. The class work consisted of writing the ten new words assigned and the ten review words taken from any of the four previous assignments. The work was motivated by a star record. Each pupil having 100 per cent paper getting a star for daily work and two stars for a weekly review paper. The lessons were further reviewed by a monthly spelling match. The technique was not evident. The teacher was not aware that she was not doing good work. The text was the center. Skill was lacking . Results were poor. The cause of failure was inefficiency of the teacher. The lesson lacked thorough motivation, skilled teaching, drill technique. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE XIV: SPELLING-GRADE V Material 20 20-20 20-20-20-20 Motivation 100) ( ) 20 10-20-15 00 5-0- 0-0-0 Technique Socialization 10 ( 1- 10--0 0 Skill of teacher.... 10-10- Score. 10-20- 40 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION EXERCISE VII Arithmetic, Grade IV-Reported by Isabelle Heinlein The following lesson was given to a fourth grade : The teacher had "flash cards," each card containing a combination from the multiplication table. She told the class that they would play a game to see which row could get the most correct answers . If a pupil missed , he was to leave his seat and go to the back of his row. She told them they must be able to answer at once, or she would call on another pupil. Accordingly, she began by holding up a card before the class and called on the first one in the first row; then another card for the second, and so on, calling on each row in turn. The consequence was the last three rows knew they would not be called on at once, so they had time for giggling and whispering. Then, too, the teacher did not understand how to manipulate the cards quickly, so the lesson lagged. At the close of the lesson, she made no attempt to have the combinations missed written on the board for further drill. She simply let the class answer in concert those which had been missed. The errors in each row were counted, and 10 was allowed for each correct answer. The first row had won. This lesson was a drill lesson. The material was good and was poorly motivated. The teacher was inexperienced, awkward, and unskillful. The lesson did not show good results because the teacher did not understand the technique of drill. The pupils understood what they were to do, but the teacher did not make the drill short and snappy. It was long and dull. The teacher secured repetition but not with attention. She drilled on the easy combinations, such as 3 x 10, as much as on the difficult ones, such as 7 x 9. She ought to have kept an account, or rather, had each child who failed keep an account of his errors, so as to prevent the same mistakes in the next lesson. The recitation was not socialized . SCORINGS ON EXERCISE VII : ARITHMETIC-GRADE IV Material 20 20-20-20-20-20-20 Motivation 5-10-5-15-20--10-10 Technique 5-5-5-0-10-10-5 Socialization 5-0-0-0-0-0-0 Skill of teacher 5 5-5-0-0-5-0 Score. 40-40--35-35-50 45-35 Median 40 EXERCISE XIII Spelling, Grade IV-Reported by Rebecca Parsons This lesson was taught to a fourth-grade spelling class. The teacher was using the Merrill Speller as the basis of her work. She carefully eliminated from the word list any words which the children could not readily understand. The majority of the class were very alert and seemed more interested than the majority of classes about a written review lesson. A second look at the happy faces, how- ever, marred the beauty of the picture, for dotted here and there among them were little people who seemed to have no part in the contest. When I inquired the cause of the keen interest expressed by so many, she said that this was the last review lesson of the month and that all of the pupils obtaining 100 per cent on the four review lessons were to have a group picture taken and were to receive one as a reward for good work. The teacher had a list of the twenty-five review words on the board. She began the lesson with the following oral drill : A child went quickly to the board, pointed to a word and called on another pupil to pronounce it; he pronounced the word and pointed to another, and in turn called on a third to continue the work. After all the words had been pronounced, the pupil who pronounced the last word DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 495 passed to the board and quickly erased a word and asked some member of the class to spell the word erased. When all of the words had been erased, they wrote the review lesson, collected the papers, and gave them to the teacher for correction. She then taught the lesson for the following day: ( 1) She went to the board, pronounced a word plainly and then wrote it on the board in syllables, after which the class pronounced it together. ( 2) Several pupils made a sentence containing this word. (3) Individual pupils in a section pronounced again. (4) She then underlined the part which she considered hard. ( 5 ) The children then looked at the word two or three times. ( 6) After erasing the word, several pupils spelled it. (7) She continued in this way till five words were taught. ( 8) The pupils then tried to write the words from memory. ( 9) All of those who succeeded were allowed to stand; by this they showed that they were considered the best workers by their teacher. ( 10) She then rewrote the words on the board so that the pupils might have the correct lesson and also that she might have them for review work on the following day. She closed the lesson by telling them that they were beginning a new month's work and that she hoped the ones who failed this month would study hard enough to be included in the next group picture. A glance at the teacher's plan book showed that she used a variety of drill devices; that she used various spelling games which kept the interest of the class ; that all words assigned were understood and useful. The technique was drill. The teacher was enthusiastic and interested in her work. The pupil was the center. The degree of skill was fair.. The results were good from the teacher's standpoint. She used as her basis of measurement the marks obtained on the studied reviews which covered only a week'swork . The cause of success was that the teacher used well chosen material; that she thoroughly motivated her work, and that she used the drill technique with a fair degree of skill. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE XIII: SPELLING GRADE IV Material 15-20-10-20-20-20 Motivation 15-10-25-20-10-20 Technique 10-15-20-20-15-15 Socialization 10-5-10-10-15-10 Skill of teacher. 10-10-15-15-20--15 Score... 60-60-80-85-80 80 Median 80 EXERCISE XII Arithmetic, Grade VII-Reported by Gladys Darrah I. Study of Lesson : 1. Assignment-drill in using decimal point in U. S. money problems. Seventh Grade. Each child went to store and asked for a blank form of a bill on which he was to order a bill of goods containing at least seven articles. 2. What happened during the recitation period : Articles on the bill the sig- nificance of the spacing and how to total a bill-placing special emphasis upon the decimal point used in U. S. money. The pupils then filled out the bill as directed. Onepupil acted as a storekeeper-placing a large advertisement for special sale of groceries on the board. From this sale bill the child was to select the articles he wished to buy. Another child acted as clerk and together they marked bill paid, ifthe child had his bill in correct form and added correctly. 3. The next assignment-a similar plan to be followed the next day in which each child was to plan what food for one day would cost in his family and to pre- sent this in the form of a till. 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION II. Analysis of the lesson : 1. Technique involved drill. 2. Type of teacher-placed the pupil in the foreground. She was energetic and thoroughly interested in each child's work and the work being presented. 3. Degree of skill- excellent. 4. Results were excellent. Children so interested they appeared disappointed when the period closed. SCORINGS ON EXERCISE XII : ARITHMETIC-GRADE VII Material 20-20-20-20-20-15-20 Motivation 20-20-30-20-20-20-20 Technique 20-20-20-20-20-20-20 Socialization 20-20--15-20-20-10-20 Skill of teacher... 20-15-15-20-20-20-20 Score.. 100-95-100-100-100-85-100 Median 100 EXERCISE VIII English, Grade IX- Reported by Bernice Hartley I. Story of the Lesson: 1. Assignment-a drill in letter-writing for ninth grade English. Each child was asked to write the teacher a letter of request with the promise if well written that the request would be granted. One boy asked to make a post-office and be a postmaster. This request was granted. On a day appointed each child was to write two letters that would require an answer, one of these to be a business letter. These letters were to be put into the "post-office" and the postmaster was to distribute them with the help of an " assistant." The class was divided into "pairs" so each child would receive two letters . 2. What happened during the recitation period: ( a) The teacher made arrange- ments for the postmaster to take charge. After the letters were distributed, several were read by pupils and ( the pupil) . ( b) Necessary corrections were written by the pupils. The children were very much interested in the letters they received and took great care in replying. The teacher gave help if necessary. After the letters were answered the "postmaster," the " assistant" and teacher cor- rected the replies as they were read by students. A committee of three students made a list of errors in grammar and spelling, to be taken up in the following lesson. 3. The next assignment, a new "postmaster" was chosen by the class and details of general postal knowledge was assigned for investigation. The following were noted : ( 1 ) money order, ( 2) registered mail, ( 3 ) special delivery, (4) foreign mail, ( 5 ) parcel post. One boy volunteered to find laws regarding mails that every one should know. ( 7) Classes of mail. These topics were assigned to different students, who were to file such informa- tion with the "postmaster" within one week, when the class would take up this work again. II . Analysis of lesson : 1. Technique involved-drill chiefly. Next assignment might be a problem, but involved much drill. 2. Type of teacher-pupils were center, vitally interested in drill in letter writing. Teacher in background, but in control always. She aided pupils and made suggestions, but at the same time the pupils felt that it was their "drill, " not one imposed upon them. Each child participated. 3. Degree of skill-good subject matter, good motivation, good drill; evidently a high degree of skill. 4. Results-excellent. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 497 SCORINGS ON EXERCISE VIII: ENGLISH- GRADE VII1 Material 20-20-20-20-20-20 20 Motivation 20-25-30-20-15-20-20 Technique 20-25-20-20-5-20- 20 Socialization 20-15--15-20-15-20-20 Skill of teacher 20-15-15-20-15-20-20 Score.. 100-100-100-100-70-100-100 Median 100 Let it be repeated that the above eleven units have not been sufficiently judged and have not been compared with a sufficiently large number of other similar units to make possible any final judgments as to relative rank . However, the eleven illustrations give an idea of what is wanted in the final product scale. These illustrations become mirrors by which the teacher sees herself. If the classroom teachers succeed in carrying through this enterprise to its satisfactory completion, it will mean that there are good illustrations for each level of excellence from zero to approximately one hundred, for practically all of the subjects of the schoolroom and for each of the major techniques, possibly also for certain combinations of techniques. This enterprise undoubtedly is one thoroughly worth while. The teacher is aided by general self-criticism, or by the application of general stand- ards. However, if we are to learn to speak in specific terms as to the merits of a recitation we must have more than general standards. We must have a scale of definitely evaluated units . Scales for the other major techniques-The coöperating group have made beginnings on each of the other major techniques : Appreciation, problem, and project. They involve the same five points : Material, motivation , technique, socialization, skill of the teacher. The chief point of difference isin the details of teaching technique. It is assumed that teachers in gen- eral know what we mean by appreciation work, by problem work, and by a real project. ( See Strayer, " The, Teaching Process;" Earhart, "Types of Teaching;" Davis, "The Technique of Teaching ;" and Wilson, " Teach- ing Levels, Teaching Technique, and the Project," in the April and May numbers of the Journal of Educational Methods.) The other techniques will not be here developed in detail. Coöperation for the final scale-Classroom teachers are asked to co- operateby carefully writing up recitation units similar to those listed above for possible use in the final scale for drill technique. Report fully and accurately. Reports are needed for all points on the scale from poorest to best. At present the largest number of the illustrations are either very poor or very good. Not many have come in on the intermediate points . Teachers willing to coöperate are urged therefore to make full reports on average recitation units, as well as on very poor and very good ones . Reports are wanted for each major technique, drill, appreciation, problem, project. Report fully. Study the samples given. Send reports to G. M. Wilson, School of Education, Boston University, Boston. This is an enterprise depending upon the cooperation of classroom teachers. The work can not be satisfactorily completed unless there are many reports. Too few reports will be a handicap: too many will not be . 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE CLASSROOM TEACHER-ABSTRACT REYNOLD E. BLIGHT, EDITOR, THE NEW AGE MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The classroom teacher is the most important factor in the entire school organization. He is the real educator, because he directly contacts the pupils. He not only informs the minds of the little ones under his care, but subtiy and surely he molds character and determines the set and direction of the little lives under his influence. It is no hyperbole to say that he is fashioning the very character of the civilization that is to be. He has the making of the citizens of tomorrow. The very substance of future social organization is being created in the classrooms of today. Knowing the splendid significance of his work, he should always be a progressive, ever holding heart and mind open to new ideas, finer ideals, and more splendid objectives, not only that a higher educational efficiency may be promoted, but that the best results may be produced socially. If the ideal citizen, that highly desirable combination of intelligence and disinterested patriotism in whom alone the assurance of democratic progress lies, is ever produced he will be developed in the classrooms of the public schools. For this reason, it is imperative that the classroom teacher keep himself free from every non-educational influence. Neither fear nor hope of favor should be al'owed to divert him from his high calling. Unhappily, there are many non-educational interests that are seeking to interfere with the natural and orderly progress of education. Let me identify two of them, that I may make myself clear. The first I would mention is the ordinary board of education. There are members of boards of education with an educational sense and an endowment of common sense, who realize that the noblest function of a board of education is to keep "hands off. " The usual board of education suffers from an abnormally large bump of conceit and officiousness and is continually interfering with the teachers, to the detriment of the children and the retardation of education. Education is a highly complex thing and only those who are specially trained to education should presume to direct it. It were as wise to set a committee of plumbers to run a battleship, or a board of grocers to per- form the surgical operations of a great hospital, as to expect a board con- sisting of a lawyer, a politician, a suffragette, a fariner, and a gravedigger to supervise the educational activities of a community. On many occasions I have declared that the ordinary board of education is an incubus upon modern education and I reiterate it. Education is a matter for experts. There is a tendency that is fraught with grave danger, the tendency to exalt the business department at the expense of the cultural devartments. Plausible arguments can be advanced for a two-headed school system, the business department to be supreme in all business transactions, the cul tural to be supreme in all distinctively cultural activities. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 499 Such an organization is sure to come to grief. Business seeks to curb education in the alleged interests of economy, or efficiency, or scientific management, or some other equally specious thing, and the fight is on. Ofcourse it goes without saying that school funds should be administered with efficiency and economy, but it should never be forgotten that the sole purpose of a school system is to educate the children, and there is no secondary objective. Money, supplies, records, organization, everything should be subordinate to this one great purpose; and auditors, business supervisors, efficiency experts, and other financial specialists should never be permitted to handicap the normal development of education under the guise of economy or efficiency. The public school is the most significant institution in America, and its future rests in the hands of the classroom teachers. Hold high the torch of enlightenment and let its radiant beams dissipate the night of illiteracy and ignorance. Your work is not done until knowledge covers the land as the waters cover the sea. Department of Deans of Women SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-Agnes E. Wells, Dean of Women, Indiana University ...... Bloomington, India First Vice-President - Anna V. Day, Dean of Women, Milwaukee-Downer College. .....Milwaukee, Wiscon Secretary-Florence Kellogg Root, Dean of Women, The College of Wooster.. Wooster , O The Department of Deans of Women was formerly the National Association of Deans of Women. Its meeting is first reported in the Proceedings for 1918, pages 391-417. The eleventh regular meeting of the National Association of Deans of Women opened with a business meeting Monday, February 25, 1924, at 10:00, Miss Agnes E. Wells, presiding. The reading of the minutes was dispensed with, since they had been published and sent to all members . The minutes of the Executive Committee meeting of October 13 were read and approved. Moved, seconded and carried that the recommendations in the report be adopted. Miss Allin, chairman of the Local Committee on Arrangements, welcomed the members of the Association on behalf of the deans of Chicago. The minutes of the Executive Committee meeting of February 24 were read and approved. Various announcements were made. The report of secretary was read. Moved, seconded, and carried that it be accepted and placed on file. Treasurer's report was read. Moved, seconded, and carried that it be accepted and placed on file . The next business to come before the meeting was the proposed amendments to the by-laws . All the proposed changes were read and then taken up seriatim. 1. First Amendment to Article III . (a) After Section 4 insert an additional section, designated as Section 5, to read. The title of life member shall be conferred upon any active member who pays fifty dollars at one time. She shallbe exempt from payment of further annual dues Movedby Miss Blitz and seconded that amendment be adopted as read. After some discussion it was moved by Miss Pierce that motion be tabled. Motion was lost. After more discussion the original question was voted upon and carried. 2. Second Amendment to Article III . (b) Renumber present sections 5 and 6, to 6 and 7, respectively. Moved by Miss Newton that amendment be adopted as read; seconded, and carried. 3. Amendment to Article VII. Cross out figure 2 and substitute 3. Article as amended to read: Annual dues of all members shallbe $3, payable at or before the annual meeting Movedby Miss Kerr that amendment be adopted as read; seconded, and carried. 4. Amendment to Article IX . Section 2. 15001 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 501 After the word vice-president insert the word secretary. Section as amended to read: The program committee shall consist of the president, the second vice-president, the secretary, the chairman of the committee on relations to other organizations, and the chairmen of the sections. Moved by Miss Amos that amendment be adopted as read ; seconded, and carried. Election of officers . Miss Anna M. Klingenhagen, reporting for the Nominating Committee, presented names ofAgnes E. Wells, President, and Martha Doan, Secretary. Miss Klingen- hagen moved the adoption of the report. Seconded and carried. Moved that secre- tary cast unanimous ballot for these officers . Meeting adjourned. Florence K. Root, Secretary. SECOND BUSINESS MEETING- FEBRUARY 27, 1924 The second business meeting of the Conference of the National Association of Deans of Women was held Wednesday afternoon, February 27, 1924, at 4:30 @clock, in the ballroom of the Blackstone Hotel, Chicago. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved. Reports of Standing Committees Press and Publication-Miss Katherine Alvord, DePauw University, Greencastle, lad. Moved by Miss Pierce, seconded, and carried that this report be accepted and placed on file. Relations to Other Organizations-Miss Anna M. Klingenhagen, Oberlin Col- lege, Oberlin, Ohio. Movedby Miss Alvord, seconded, and carried that this report be accepted andplaced on file. HealthCommittee-Miss Anna E. Pierce, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N. Y. Moved by Miss Kerr, seconded, and carried that this report be accepted and placed on file. Membership Committee-Miss Thyrsa Amos, University of Pittsburgh, Pitts- burgh, Pa. Moved by Miss Pierce, seconded, and carried that this report be adopted andplaced on file and that the plans be put into immediate operation. Report of Audit Committee was postponed till end of meeting. Special Committees : Budget Committee-Miss Florence Loring Richards, Winona State Teachers College, Winona, Minn. Moved by Miss Grote, seconded, and carried that report be accepted and placed on file with the understanding that this budget is tentative and should be for guidance in the expenditures for the years 1924-1925 . Platform Committee-Miss Anna E. Pierce, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N. Y. Moved by Miss Kerr, seconded, and carried that this platform be adopted. Committee on Registration of Available Deans- The substance of this report was given by Miss Wells. The action of the Executive Committee in regard to this was read by the Secretary. Moved by Miss Voigt, seconded, and carried that the vote of the Executive Committee to discontinue this committee be confirmed. Resolutions Committee-Miss Irma Voigt, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Moved by Miss Klingenhagen, seconded, and carried that report be accepted and placed on file. The reports of all these committees will be found in the published proceedings of the Conference . Moved by Miss Voigt, seconded, and carried that Miss Voigt be our representative. Report of Audit Committee. Moved by Miss Kerr, seconded, and carried that the report of the Audit Com- mittee be placed on file. Moved by Miss Easley, seconded, and carried that there be a written statement of our appreciation of the thoroughness and accuracy of our treasurer, Miss Man Hooker Johnson, and also a vote of thanks to the auditor. Adjourned-5:30. Florence K. Root, Secretary. PLATFORM FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN ADOPTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DEANS OF WOMEN, FEBRUARY 25-28 , 1924, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS To carry out the object declared in its by-laws, the Department of Deans of Women is committed to the following platform: 1. A thoroughly educated and otherwise qualified dean of girls or of women in every secondary school and institution for higher education of women in America having 50 or more girls or young women in attendance. 2. Publication and general distribution of all papers prepared by deans on the various phases of their work helpful enough to deserve perpetuation. 3. Organization of State and local associations of deans in all States and com- munities where the number of deans and advisers justifies it. 4. Continued and thorough investigation of educational and social problems to the end that the schools may attain greater efficiency and make the largest possible contribution to public welfare; this investigation to include a study of the facilities and professional preparation needed by deans of women and of girls to insure the highest type of service in this field. 5. Coöperation with other organizations and with men and women of intelligence and vision everywhere who recognize that there is a scope to the work of deans of women which as yet has not been realized. HOW HIGH SCHOOLS ARE COŐPERATING WITH PARENTS BERTHA FERGUSON , HOME VISITING TEACHER , ROOSEVELT HIGH SCHOOL ΜΙΝΝΕΑPOLIS , MINNESOTA In one of H. G. Wells' novels, "The Time Machine" is a magical con- trivance enabling its possessor to go any number of years either forward or backward. Had we a time machine, we should visit today a certain school, in a certain city, in a certain mid-western State, some thirty-seven years ago. The school at that time enrolled six hundred and fifty-four pupils. possessed a faculty of twenty-nine ; offered four courses of study-English. Latin, Greek, Modern; had a manual training department with thirty boys taking carpentry and mechanical drawing. The main difference be tween the English and the Latin course was that the former featured DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 503 etymology, mental and moral philosophy, while the latter featured Latin. The presence of Greek and the absence of chemistry marked the Greek course. German and French were offered in the Modern course . Old-fashioned classrooms abounded. One long table constituted equip- ment for chemical research. In the graduating class were fifteen who had come up through the tribulations of etymology, higher mathematics, Greek, and Latin composition. The idea dominating this school was the tradi- tional one of preparation of a select few for college. If a boy did not succeed in Greek or Latin, or vaguely doubted their value to him, the probable answer was that he did not know what was good for him. If he didnot"do well in school," why, the door always opened outward. Great simplicity marked the whole scheme of education in the good old days . Today that school is the same in name only, and its progress is approxi- mately that of the nine other high schools of that city or of any other mid- western city of the same size. That school has today the best of modern equipment; it enrolls 3542 pupils, 1733 of them boys; it graduated last year 509; it has a faculty of 121, and offers five strongly differentiated courses the academic, industrial, commercial, technical, and agricultural. The idea dominating this school and its courses of study is not the traditional one of fitting a somewhat privileged group for college, but rather that expressed in 1911 by a certain committee of the National Education Association, "to return to society intelligent, able-bodied, and progressive citizens ." Toward this end of serving society, there is, at least, the beginnings of a system of vocational guidance; there is offered a variety of subjects to help students explore their tastes, capacities, and limitations ; there are scholarship committees for those who fail, placement bureaus for those who must work; medical attention, child guidance clinics, student advisers, and home visiting teachers for those maladjusted in any way. What has happened within these thirty-seven years ? What Aladdin rubbed his lamp that all these servants to education should appear ? From coast to coast has swept almost like a religion a somewhat touching faith in education. Thomas Jefferson's dream of popular education is being realized. Since 1890 the number of public high schools in the United States has increased from less than 3000 to more than 14,000, and the number of all high schools, both public and private, from less than 5000 to more than 16,000. Within the same period, the number of pupils attending has increased from about 300,000 to more than two millions. Great industrial, social, and educational changes have taken place, changes which are enabling millions of boys and girls to remain in school beyond the elementary grades. It must be said to the credit of the Ameri- can public high school that when at its doors there finally arrived the poor child as well as the rich, the slow as well as the brilliant, the socially unprivileged as well as the socially privileged, the foreign born as well as the native born-its inelastic, inflexible, traditional courses began to adapt. Its etymologies, its higher mathematics, its philosophies did bend and crowd 50+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION up and out a bit to make way for courses more suited to the varying needs and capacities of the individual. Do we realize that no other country in the world is making so tremen- dous an experiment in free education for "all the children of all the people ?" Within the last thirty years parents have turned over their chil- dren to the schools in such numbers that the first care had to be to give them a room, a seat, and a book, and to provide for them something like mass education, at least. But there is no such thing as pausing in this tremendous experimenting with free education. Much has been accomplished since 1890. The large public high school has, like the young man in the Bible, many possessions and, like him, is seeking the Kingdom of Good. But like him, when measured by the standard of the highest, we who are closest to it must admit that notwithstanding its many possessions, it, also, is yet sadly lacking. From the point of view of one privileged to visit constantly the homes, one who finds that few serious problems arising in school do not first arise in the home, one who knows how few are the problems that can be solved without including the home-from this point of view the large high school of the present time is lacking. It is lacking in opportunity for per- sonal contact between teachers and pupils, teachers and parents, teachers and the community as such. If we, parents and teachers, care to rescue the schools from becoming regulation factories where buttons press, belts move, machinery whirrs, and teachers step out in turn to fasten on this, that, or the other educational nut, bolt, or screw as the child passes by like a little Ford car in process of assembling, then more time must be found somewhere for teachers to become better acquainted with the child and the environment from which he springs. This piece-work scheme is better in the assembling a.Ford than in the assembling of a future citizen; however, I believe that if more sympathy and imagination could be put into even a Ford, the sum total of the world's weariness would be greatly reduced. But I am not afraid that the schools, like the young man in the Bible, must go sorrowful away, when the demand comes for humanizing. This demand will be heeded as other demands have been. There are organiza- tions already existing to establish closer connection between parents, teachers, and children. Parent-teacher associations, student advisers, deans of girls, school nurses, child guidance clinics, guidance and placement J bureaus, and visiting teachers are already plying between the school and the home, helping the school to educate the home and the home to humanize the school. In the mid-west parent-teacher associations have done, perhaps, their most successful work in child welfare, a work completely systematized, and guided in part by boards of education; in the better enforcement of the anti-cigarette law, and in maintaining speakers' bureaus for furthering educational measures. In Minneapolis, as a means for peaceful penetra- tion of the home by the school, a magazine has been very successful. Parents DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 505 and teachers form the staff, and contributing editors are the superintend- ent of schools, city librarian, professors of the State university, social service workers, psychiatrists, and psychologists from the child guidance clinic. This magazine is sent free of charge to all parents having children inschool up to the sixth grade. Its circulation is forty thousand, and it is designed to reach those who do not attend meetings, and who do not read unless the material is put before them. Student advisers, deans of students, scholarship committees, in the limited time allowed them, are significant. Later arrivals in the field of school and parent coöperation are the child guidance clinics and the home visiting teacher. Six child guidance clinics are now in operation in the United States. Two are demonstrating at present-one in Los Angeles, and one in Minneapolis. That word demonstrating is good, for to the average person, the work is a showing of something new, yet something that, one might think, should have occurred to us years and years ago. Child guidance clinics, by treatment in childhood, aim to reduce the number of people who may become social misfits, mental wrecks, delinquents, or dependents. The child guidance clinic deals with the problem child, the child who shows by his conduct that he is in some way maladjusted, the causes being either physical, mental, or emotional, both heredity and environment contribut- ing. These problem children are the ones not reached by the usual treat- ment of the school, the ones requiring closer study by trained workers, such as physicians, psychologists, psychiatrists, experts in mental testing, and special social workers. The fact that no intelligent treatment can be given without close study of the close cooperation with the home, points the way to a time when the school will not wait for so much actual delinquency to arise before entering the home with authority to study it and educate it. Another effort of schools to coöperate with parents was that made in 1906-07, when educators in Boston, Hartford, and New York felt the need for some one who would study, from the point of view of the school, the home, and the neighborhod, maladjusted children, or in plain words, children not "getting along in school." They called upon educational Burbanks to produce a strange, new variety of teacher, who proved to be an interesting combination of truant officer, school nurse, classroom teacher, and social worker. Although the social worker tends to predominate in the visiting teacher, there are about her vestigial remains of her three former stages of evolution-truant officer, school nurse, and classroom teacher. In 1921, New York had 17 ; Boston, 15; Chicago, 8; Minneapolis, 15, with numbers since that time steadily increasing. The home visiting teacher is the most direct and frequent coöperating medium between home and school which school systems possess. She deals with anything referred to her by parents, principal, or teachers. She uses all the means existing in the home as well as those within the school, con- nected with the school, or coöperating with it. Every one else around the school is more fixed than is the visiting teacher. She must be willing to go 506 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION or to stay, to sit or to stand, to listen or to talk, to mediate, mitigate, or militate. Her day is a monotony of variety. Always there are the problems of failures in scholarship and failures in conduct with causes most complex. Heredity or environment which ? I used to think that over the shoulders of every child peered generations of his ancestors. Sometimes I was almost embarrassed by the glances of these peering ancestors, and imagined I saw hardy Highlanders, tempera- mental Irishmen, sea-roving Vikings, or more langorous peoples from sunnier climes. My embarrassment has considerably lessened since I have learned that environment plays a greater part than before supposed. I am now much more concerned with the very direct glances of the fathers, mothers , sisters, and brothers whom I meet in the homes . Children fail in both scholarship and conduct, because they lack adjust- ment educationally, physically, or emotionally. Hatred of some subject has sent boys in my district to hide in the woods. I spent gasoline to no avail on a certain boy named James, until I learned from James and his mother how the lad loathed music and art. He said he had no voice and seemed to live in fear of being called on to sing a solo. Music made his tame breast savage. "Why can't I drop them ?" he implored. "Why not?" said his teachers. "Why not?" said I to the principal. It is now a year since poor James was delivered from music, art, and truancy at one stroke. In certain cases, the greatest service the school could do the home would be to make some such change. Which is sacred, the course of study or the child ? One day last fall when the whole countryside blazed green and gold, and every bush was a-burning, Olaf, a friend of mine, aged fifteen, heard the River Bottoms, an enchanted region near the Falls of Minnehaha, calling with all too siren a song. His parents had seen him headed for school with an unusually studious look on his shining morning face. That morning he did not arrive. The news was soon relayed to me, and I was presently chugging up to his father's grocery store. "Not in school, eh ?" The rising inflection. Alas for Olaf! Yet did he in fact need my pity, disporting himself as he, no doubt, was at that moment among the gorgeous colors that were blazing and trumpeting from every hillside ? In conversation with Olaf next day, I learned of mystic rites observed between him and his father in the woodshed behind the grocery store. He was a shortset, sturdy, little Viking, with blue, unwinking eyes, and impas- sive face, who thought things out for himself. Another visit to the home. and another with Olaf brought out a carefully concealed hatred of the course he was taking. After that change was made, he has braved the temptations of another wonderful autumn without truancy. The emotionally disturbed child is to be reached only through some change in environment. I once plainly asked the parents of a boy who was a behavior case, to forego quarrelings and threatenings of divorce until the boy had finished high school. He had told me in gloomy slang that he "was goin' to beat it, if they didn't quit chewin' the rag where he DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 507 was." Their conversations at home were sort of endurance tests to see who should have the last word. They agreed to "cut it all out for the kid's sake." The boy gave no more trouble after that, commenced to look happy, actually gained flesh, and plans to graduate next year. Badly dressed children are apt to be unhappy and to take it out in some conduct disorder. An old red sweater huddled up around a boy's ears is more than a physical irritant. He perhaps knows he is making no hit with the girl near him, and there will be attempted compensation some- where in the school day for that humiliation. Often a pretty blouse for a hovdenish girl acts like a charm. She must, of course, live up to her clothes. Whenever the fateful sentence is heard, "I must go to work," there must be first aid from the visiting teacher. If a boy has just passed his sixteenth birthday and left school without notice, then the school visitor must try to get him once more into the fold. Parents are cordial, interested, and often surprised that we take the trouble. Violets in early spring are not prettier than is the sight of one of these rescued ones to the rescuer. But often there is no rescue. Not long ago, a mere scrap of humanity just fourteen, blue-eyed, fair, immature in every way, followed me down the hall to say: "My grandmother says to tell you if I can't get a work permit and a job. I must go to work." I visited. He must indeed go to work. Fourteen dollars a week, earned by his grandmother who worked in a laundry, did not give much margin for herself, the boy, and the grandfather, old and sick. Came a day when, through the placement bureau, there was news of a job for the Blue-Eyed Scrap. Rejoicing ! Back he came to wind up his business at school, rescue his gym shoes, return his locker padlock, and get his precious fifty cents, restore certain objects to other "guys" and bid goodbye to teachers. He was flushed and happy at the future unrolling before him, for was he not to be a gorgeous errand boy? Poor little soldier of fortune. It all looked like a fine, new game to him. He could not know that almost surely the cards were stacked against him . The big worry now is lest he lose that precious job by "playing around on it," for there is likely to be quite a bit of play yet left in a lad of fourteen . Sometimes I return to the school before the close of the afternoon session . The building viewed from the outside is handsome, modern, the best look- ing building in the district. Is it my fancy that it seems a bit aloof, remote ? The people of the district worked hard to get this school; they are immensely proud of it, and sometimes, I think, a trifle afraid of it. There is so much for that school to do for that district. In order to do it, its parents and its teachers must get Dewey's idea ( I quote him) "that every community has the right to expect and demand that schools supported at public expense shall serve community uses as widely as possible, that they must cease to be isolated , academic institutions." Parent- teacher organizations should get that idea, too. I pass within the building. The bell terminating the fifth period will 508 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION soon ring. I stand close to the wall to be out of traffic. Doors open on every floor. Here they come, the ninety and nine just ones with whom I have little to do, and the few not so just, with whom I have much to do. As they pass on their way to another hour of shop, laboratory, library, cooking, sewing, gymnasium, orchestra, chorus, study, or recitation, they seem to me, on the whole, products of something hopeful. Their different destinations suggest a promising variety of courses, and programs-evidence that the schools do seek to adjust to the changing needs of a democracy. I am almost pharisaically thankful that I am attached to the public schools , because I feel that in the matter of seeking to adapt to the changing needs of mankind, to put it conservatively, they compare very favorably with the church, for instance, the courts of law, the penal institutions, all designed to guard society. I know well that in that crowd surging past me, go altogether too many who will drop out because of poverty, and I wish that the public would move more rapidly in the matter of scholarships for these and good systems of part-time education. I know that passing me in that crowd are pupils who will emerge as serious problem cases, trouble, which might be pre vented, could the school reach the home more rapidly, frequently, and thoroughly. Then I find myself wishing for a larger number of teachers, smaller classes, longer advisory periods, and opportunity for some teacher to enter every home in the district. All these things mean increased expense, yet what James Bryce called our great experiment in democracy must fail if our other great experiment in free education be in any way checked. When the schools let the parents know what is being attempted, what is yet needed, and what values they plan to return to society by the right kind of schools, do you think there will be much question as to whether or not America's experiment in free education shall continue ? IDEALS WOMEN SHOULD UPHOLD IN POLITICS HELEN FRASER, LONDON , ENGLAND This subject covers so wide a field-it covers all the ideals of democracy in reality, that it is difficult to do more than choose in a short speech some of the many great things we should work for and uphold. It is appropriate and suitable to discuss this subject in a world in which the women of twenty-nine countries are voting, and we know our problems as women in democratic countries have a great similarity. I should place before us as our first ideal the necessity of our doing every- thing possible to see that women are interested in their citizenship-every- thing we can do to make women and men feel that democracy's hope rests on interest in politics and on intelligence, knowledge, and vigilance in preserving liberties. In our country women vote well in parliamentary DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 509 elections, the average vote being about 75 per cent of the electorate. In a division where I fought, it was actually 87 per cent. The second need and ideal is education in politics, and that we need among women. Here those non-party or rather all-party organizations we have can play an admirable part, because we need not only the party education, but the education these bodies give. Our great need is to desire, to get at and to work from, the facts of our social conditions and laws. There is, for instance, the great field of social and moral relationships, marriage, the right of release from unhappy marriage, parentage, child wel- fare, social well-being, to say nothing of the great field of education, in which we ought to be informed. There is finance, how governments get and spend money, and there is our industrial system as affected by law. These should be known to the electorate, so we should set education in politics before us as a definite ideal. Then I should put next our duty of carrying on the work for total equality for women, equality of opportunity to serve, to have all life and all labor for our province. You who meet here today, I who speak, are here because women and men pioneered in the past and stood for this great principle of equality. We should carry on the work and seek to establish in our laws, moral and social, this principle expressing in law the highest level we have reached. But here I wish to emphasize that I feel strongly that the only laws that are sound on morals and relation- ships, are those that express a reality of standards reached by a large number of us. To pass laws that are "outside" of our facts is of little use. Our aim then here is to get the full free expression of the genius of men and women in democratic government. We know that we need that basis of equality of expression and service to build well. If we take our work in the political machines of our country and see what usefully can be put before us as ideals to strive for, I want to suggest that we women should strive to cultivate impersonality in our work, to realize and to act on the realization that contests on issues and principles need have nothing personal in them, nor should personal rancour be there. Politics demands from those active in it the power to give and take hard knocks, to regard victory or defeat as equally unimportant if the issues fought for are believed in. The way we fight is the thing, and it is wise to preserve our tempers and our sense of humor. Every crowd knows the difference and feels it, between hard knocks taken and given with good feeling and sportsmanship and the opposite. We must learn to know when it is worth while to stand out to the end for some principle and when it is wise to compromise and make terms . This demands that valuable quality built partly of knowledge and partly of experience, judgment, and this brings me to another ideal we should place constantly before us, the finding of good leaders. Democracy cannot succeed without good leaders and good representatives. We are always complaining of our governing houses, but is it not true to say that a country generally gets the government it deserves. We must seek our leaders, 510 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION daring leaders, cautious leaders, home leaders, international leaders, every type and kind of good representative-we need them. We need to feel and to make our young people feel that to be a politician is as great a vocation as exists . I sometimes say half-humorously and half-seriously that here in America the word politician is an expletive while with us it is a proper noun! We need to make politics an honorable profession and see that we let into it only those who have the right qualities. Women can help here appreciably. We should see to it that we face and make our leaders face issues honestly and without sentimentalism, that we get some idea, not only of the issues we face, but of what solutions we have. It is a period in which we appear for the moment to have no background ideals. Many of us have lost those we had. They were changing and going and the war helped the shatter- ing. We have plunged into an era of experiments in every line, and politics is not in a water-tight compartment by itself-all the great things of life, religion, science, education, industry, politics, are intertwined, and every- where there is a hunting for truth and a throwing up of facts. It is probably all useful, but man seems to need as well some sort of ideal con- ception as to where we go and what we strive for, and I venture to suggest that politics might concern itself with at least two, one the problem that is essentially that of this civilization, whether we are going to do what we must do if we are to go on advancing as a civilization-make the material forces we control, the mechanism we have built up, serve the spiritual, the moral, the full life of a man. This is our great problem and I suggest our ideal should be to control material for spiritual ends, to work for the building of a world in which individuals shall find their vocations, shall live free and full and rich lives, shall realize true values a world in which we shall not have senseless vulgar luxury at one end of our scale and destitution at the other. It means greater and greater wisdom, more and more knowledge-it means vision and proportion, tolerance and faith; it is an ideal worth working for. The second is international relationships. Our ideal should be under- standing and coöperation between nations ; a world working in real peace. We shall reach that ideal, I believe, not only by frontal attacks on war, but by getting those great forces in man, self-assertive, self-preserva- tive, and aggressive, turned in to fighting, as William James suggested, and to subduing nature, to fighting disease, wrongs, injustices, cruelties, and evils of every kind. Constructive work together among the nations helps to this ideal; of the great work of education, your special task, one can only say in truth that there is no work greater today. It has no frontiers-knowledge, art, and science know no national boundaries in reality, and, perhaps, it is true to say that the struggle rests between education and the destructive forces of the world. To work out these ideals politically is a great and, I venture to suggest, an inspiring task. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 511 WOMEN IN POLITICS MRS . FRANK M. WARREN , REGENT, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA The discussion which has just preceded these remarks has shown you clearly the ideals which should animate those who propose to be good citizens in our country or in any other. My remarks are directed to make clear the need for having citizens with such ideals actively working to maintain our government, and to make clear also the method by which such people should work for their country. Today I am speaking to you not as an educator, not as a member of a university board, but as a prac- tical politician, as one who has served as a county chairman for the women of the Republican Party in Hennepin County, Minnesota. For just a few moments I should like to review some of the political history of women since the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment . You can remember the war days when our government for the first time realized fully the value of the work of the women of this country. In the spring of 1920 we began to hope that our work would be appreciated and that we should have the right to vote in the Presidential election. In Minnesota we could not vote in the June Primary Election. We had to wait until Tennessee had ratified. In November we voted for the first time. However, we did begin to organize in the spring of 1920. Why ? Because in North Dakota we had a group of disgruntled and discouraged farmers who were ready to barter their birthright of freedom for the sup- posed remedies that might be found under the red flag which was being obscured under the organization of the Non-Partisan League. They were ready to accept, apparently, any cure for their economic and political ills. The leaders of the Republican Party in Minnesota saw that if the Non- Partisan League were to be defeated in our State, it must be done by the women's vote in the November election. In May the responsibility of organizing the women of Hennepin County, which is one-fifth of the vote of the State of Minnesota, was delegated to me as county chairman. This history I have passed on to you because of my desire to impress upon every woman present the fact that the question of government is in no way an abstract matter. Our government does not exist apart from us. We, the people of the United States, are the government. We talk about government of the people, by the people and for the people. What have we in reality ? A government of the people by a comparatively few politicians largely in the interest of those who work for legislation. Women inpolitics! Men in politics ! Neither is true. A few women are in politics and a few men. This statement is proved by any close analysis of any vote cast in any election of our country. The largest vote ever cast in my own county was cast in 1920 and was a 70 per cent vote. The percentage in the last three years has varied to as low as a 30 per cent vote in special elections. 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION So today I am here to talk to each of you about your government and to help to answer some of those fundamental questions which each woman must answer if she is a good citizen and a real lover of her country. The first question is, "Why go into politics ?" ( The word politics is used as it always should be used, to signify the science of government, the active participation in the work of government.) Why go into politics ? Because we believe in our experiment in government. We want to see our Republic succeed. We want to know that we have each done our part in making that success possible. We want a right to criticize. This right we could not have and could not rightfully exercise if we hold aloof and let the other fellow do it. In 1920 we were threatened in Minnesota with a program that would have wrecked our State just as it did almost wreck North Dakota. If the women had stayed at home and neglected to go into politics, there might be today in Washington not only an agricultural bloc, but a very real, radical menace . Our great Nation cannot survive if the thinking people are not actively interested in the practical work of government, which means politics . More and more it is coming to be a question of the Con- stitution or not the Constitution. Every woman must answer this ques- tion, "Why do I not go into politics ?" You may say, "Yes, I am interested in my government, but what must I do to show my interest ; to make it effective?" The answer is, "Join some political party." We, as women, have inherited a belief in the so- called indirect method. We have always achieved our results through some kind of external influence. Now we are obliged to face a change whether we will or not. Two of the greatest of our political ills come from an effort to gain results without party organization. First, the government by blocs, and second, government by propaganda. The present situation in many of our State Legislatures and even in Congress today is a direct result of the belief of many citizens that it is better to vote for the man and not the party. How can we have a government which will work out a constructive program if that government is made up of individual programs ? Rep- resentative government which was planned under our Constitution cannot function without party programs. We cannot have programs without organization behind it. It is the duty of every voter to contribute to the making of those programs, and so I say, "Join a party !" Just now we are having a demonstration of an effort to govern by propaganda. Perhaps the Bok Peace Plan is the greatest effort that has been made to create a national program through propaganda. Undoubtedly, it deserves support and appreciation. What results may be achieved are not yet clear. In Europe we are watching closely the breaking down of party government and the effort to maintain national policy through a government by groups. It would seem that we might learn a lesson from the countries across the Atlantic. The kind of party organization which we should join is not the old party which we think of as the old machine, DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 513 but the kind of organization which begins in each voting precinct and which gives each voter a real share in the party plan. This kind of party organization is possible only when the voters are all interested and anxious to serve. Who are the greatest enemies of law ? We might name them "Miss Sentimentality, " " Mr. Self Interest, " but greatest of all, "Mrs. Indifference." Perhaps more difficult to answer than "Why go into politics ?" or "How?" are the questions, "When ?" and "Where ?" Government begins with the choosing of the candidate. We have unsatisfactory conditions largely because citizens of splendid character and high ideals have no desire for office and have no self-interest to prod them on. Not long ago one of the men who had been an outstanding leader in our State Legislature said to me, "What a pity it is that the good people have no political programs and no candidates who are willing and anxious to run." We have now two methods for choosing candidates; one known as the Primary Election, and one as the Caucus Convention System. Either orboth might be effective if the patriotic citizen would work at the right time. The only effective time to work to accomplish political results is when the candidates for office are being chosen. Last year in our city there were two vacancies to be filled on our School Board. Under our primary law any one who is a citizen and of age may file. The candidates who filed voluntarily were those who had been on the board and had rep- resented on the board the radical group and the organized labor group, and had not represented all of the citizens of Minneapolis. This seemed a matter which should interest the mothers and fathers of the children of the city. We wanted to elect one woman, if possible. No machinery was provided to support any candidate or to persuade any candidate to file. For almost two weeks three of our Minneapolis women worked almost continuously to persuade a woman who was qualified and who would merit the support of the thinking voter to run. Then, in order to elect the candidate, they formed a voluntary committee of about two hundred. This committee collected the necessary funds to meet the expenses of the campaign. In the meantime, a group of men brought forward a candidate. The result was that the two unsatisfactory members of the board were defeated by a very convincing majority. This election proved conclusively that the intelligent citizen must work in the nomination of candidates. Moreover, it proved conclusively that Minneapolis is not Socialist, and that its citizens can be counted upon when real issues are rightly presented. It showed also the need for some plan for persuading the right citizen to file for election and for following this up through the campaign. The Primary Law, as we have it, successfully brings out the candidate who wants the office, but also successfully leaves at home the man who is fitted to fill theoffice. Our second method of choosing candidates is the Caucus Convention method. In every State this spring some plan will be put in operation for choosing delegates to National Conventions where candidates for the 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION office of President of the United States will be selected. My experience with caucus and convention method is limited to Minnesota. I can only tell you how we are going to work in that State. Under the party organiza- tion of the Republican Party there will be in each precinct a caucus on the third of March. The delegates chosen at this caucus will go to counts and district conventions. The county convention will choose delegates to go to the State convention. The district conventions will choose delegates to go to the national conventions. We shall have two delegates from each of the ten districts, in all twenty, and seven delegates at large from the State convention to the national convention, so that when the national convention assembles at Cleveland Minnesota will have twenty-seven delegates. Hence the voter in Minnesota, who has a choice for candidate for President must register that choice on the 3d of March in the precinct caucus . In 1920, who nominated the Republican candidate for President? Was it the good citizen who traveled over the country talking for Mr. Hoover, or for Mr. Wood, or for Mr. Lowden, or Mr. Johnson ? Was it the independent voter who voted for the man ? You will agree with me that the delegates assembled in the National Republican Convention in Chicago nominated the Republican candidate. Undoubtedly, you will say the caucus and convention system is bad. In my estimation, neither system can possibly be good when approximately 50 per cent of the citizens of our country make no effort to express an opinion at the right time. Our Republic is established and our Con- stitution has made it a representative Republic. The citizens who wish that Republic to succeed must work not part of the time, but all the time- not at the wrong time, but at the right time. It seems particularly fitting that the educators of the country should lead in the creation of a sentiment among our people for good government and good government should mean government which is really effective. Effective government should mean intelligent work at the right time. Every one who lives in this country, whether she wishes it or not, is more or less in politics. My plea is to be not only in politics, but to be in it intelligently. What are the obstacles which confront the conscientious man or woman who is making an effort to do political work ? The first is a general feel- ing, especially among the women, that political work is not "quite the thing." This feeling, especially among women may be, perhaps, justified. The business man has felt that he has not time to give to political work. The average citizen has failed, even to vote. Yet, we must find some remedy and surely the remedy is not to be found by staying at home and by staying out of politics. The second obstacle which the political worker finds is the exaggerated idea of independence, especially the idea of the voter who sees the man and not a program. In this connection I have no wish to be misunderstood. I am, by no means, in favor of a policy of the party, right or wrong. The intelligent voters must work together for a constructive program and only organized effort can be successful. The third great obstacle to be DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 515 overcome in political work is the very general ignorance on the part of the voter of when to work. Most voters feel that going to the polls on election day and marking carefully a ballot constitutes his sole duty as a good citizen. The last, and perhaps the greatest difficulty in political work, especially for women, is the problem of financing what we call politics. In the past party organization has largely been financed by a few. It is not surprising that there has been so little real interest in party government, since so few of the voters in any party have been interested enough to give any financial support whatsoever. When we were working in suffrage organizations we looked forward to the day when women might express themselves through the ballot . What are we, who are interested in the Government of our country today, looking forward to? First, a time when we shall have an awakened citizenship, a time when we shall have at least a ninety per cent vote in everyelection. Next, a time when the work of the Government will attract to it our finest business men, our most intelligent women who will be sup- ported in this work by a loyal and patriotic citizenship. And lastly, we look forward to the time when the leaders for the next generation will be trained in our educational institutions in such a way that the service in politics will be as interesting and as vital as any service to their country in time of war. This program requires the devoted support of all of the educators of our country. THE RURAL SCHOOL DEMONSTRATION WORK IN LAGRANGE AND JOHNSON COUNTIES, INDIANA , AND THE NEW DIVISION OF SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING IN THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION H. L. SMITH, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION , INDIANA UNIVERSITY BLOOMINGTON , INDIANA The 1921 session of the Indiana State Legislature was confronted with the problem of school legislation. There was a general feeling among the teaching profession that progress along certain lines of educational develop- ment could best be fostered by additional legislation. This thought was shared by the 1921 legislature, but the members were not sure of the nature of the legislation required. It seemed to them advisable, therefore, to arrange to have the situation carefully gone over before reaching a definite decision as to the special legislation to propose. Consequently, when a group of school administrators in the State advocated a State School Survey as preliminary foundation work on which to base future legislation, the legislature approved the plan by passing an act providing for the appointment by the Governor of a State educational survey com- mission, whose duty it would be to arrange for a survey and report findings 516 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to the Governor within a year so that time would be available for a careful study of the findings before the meeting of the next legislature. This commission carefully canvassed the country for the proper persons or organizations to make the survey, It soon developed that the funds available for the work were by no means sufficient to pay for an adequate survey. Only $10,000 of State money was available and a satisfactory survey was estimated to cost between $40,000 and $50,000 . It was finally decided to request the General Education Board to provide the additional funds necessary and to make the survey. The request was made and the General Education Board replied favorably . Dr. F. P. Bachman, of the General Education Board, was made responsible for preparing the report to the State Survey Commission. The report was made to the survey commission late in the fall of 1922. On the basis of this report the survey committee made its definite recommendation to the State legislature. Many weaknesses in the Indiana public school system were revealed in the tabulations and discussions contained in the survey. Consequently, many bills were proposed at the succeeding legislature calculated to remedy the situation. One important measure relating to the training required in the preparation of teachers was passed. Another important proposal relating to the unit of administration of the rural schools was defeated. Other less important matters related to the schools were considered, some passing and some failing. The State legislature having failed to satisfy itself as to just what meas- ures should be adopted to remedy the evils revealed by the survey, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction decided that he must assume the re- sponsibility of gathering more information of a definite character that might be put at the disposal of the 1925 legislature to assist in the proper solution of the State's educational problem. He, therefore, asked the General Education Board to place funds at his disposal with which to make certain educational experiments and to carry on other educational demonstrations that would determine the educational value of certain forms of organiza- tion, instruction, and general administration. The General Education Board responded favorably and placed at the disposal of the State superintendent a total of $52,000 divided into two funds. One, a fund of $12,000 for the development of a division of school- house planning within the State Department of Public Instruction; the other for the purpose of demonstrating the value of supervision of instruc- tion in the rural schools. To the total fund an additional $20,000 has been given by the General Education Board. It should be said also that the original $52,000 was given outright for expenditure as the State superin- tendent sees fit. The General Education Board is not conducting the demonstration work, nor is it officially supervising the work. The State superintendent chose as his assistant in carrying out these two projects H. L. Smith, of the School of Education, Indiana University. who gives two thirds of his time to the State work, one half of the State ப LI DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 517 time being devoted to schoolhouse planning work and one half to the rural school demonstration work. In the schoolhouse planning part of the work effort is made to advise with school officials who seek advice concerning standards that should prevail in the construction of new buildings. It is the hope that this division will have considerable influence in assuring future school buildings that will be more adequately planned and more safely and endurably con- structed. Aside from aid given school officials in connection with the selection of proper school sites and the planning of proposed buildings this division has sponsored the first State-wide Indiana conference on schoolhouse planning, which was held at Indianapolis, February 7, of this year. This conference was attended by city boards of trustees, township trustees, county and city superintendents, architects, construction engineers, heat- ing and yentilating engineers, contractors, and members of boards of health . There is also in press now a State department pamphlet of directions concerning schoolhouse planning that is intended for general distribution to school officials within the State. The organization for the operation of the schoolhouse planning division consists of the director of the division and two assistants, who are mem- bers of the Inspection Division of the State Department of Public Instruc- tion, but who have arranged to give a portion of their time to the school- house planning work. It is not compulsory that the State department be consulted in these matters, but the service is provided for those who care to avail themselves of it. Because of limited funds the consultations are generally held in Indianapolis though the director or one or the other of the assistants willgo inperson to any locality where an official invitation is extended and a guarantee of payment of expenses incurred is. made. For the demonstration work Lagrange County, in the northern part of the State, and Johnson County, in the south central part, were chosen. The trustees of these counties as well as representative citizens and the county superintendents requested that these counties be chosen. Two rural school supervisors were chosen for each of the counties. These four super- visors have been spending all of their time supervising instruction. The general administrative duties are still carried on by the superintendents who, in reality, are assisted in their supervisory duties by the four super- visors. The conviction on the part of those that are conducting the demonstra- tion is that the additional expense incurred through the addition of super- visors will be amply justified by the increased knowledge gained by the pupils. In order to test out this supposition, educational tests were given three weeks after the opening of school in the fall in reading, arithmetic, spelling, language. Similar tests will be repeated near the end of the year and the progress made in the meantime along these lines can thus be determined. 518 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Two check counties were also chosen. These counties are Whitney, in the northern part of the State, and Rush, in the central part. The same tests were given in these counties in the fall and similar ones will be repeated there at the same time they are repeated in the two demonstra- tion counties in the spring. These two check counties will not have the benefit of supervision, though, and any greater gain that may be made in the demonstration counties than in the check counties can probably be charged largely to the factor of supervision. The county superintendents and the teachers in the check counties were urged to put forth their best effort during the year in order to show as much progress as possible. Moreover, arrangements were made for the county superintendents in the check counties to accompany the superintendents in the demonstration counties on a trip to Maryland, where rural supervision in operation was observed for a one-week period. The plan is to continue the demonstration for a period of two years in the hopes that two years will be sufficient time in which to indicate to the citizens of Indiana something of the value there may be in better supervision of instruction. The supervisors give all of their attention to improving the actual classroom teaching. They do this by teaching for observation on the part of the teacher, by suggesting teaching materials and methods that the teacher has not thought of and in criticizing the work of the teacher as it is observed by the supervisor. The division of school demonstration is organized with a director responsible directly to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Recommendations that pass through the director to the superintendent are worked out in conferences with one or the other of two cabinets. One of these cabinets is composed of members of the staff of the State superintendent of public instruction. It is desirable that the demonstra- tion work receive the benefit of the judgment of the State superintendent's staff. Moreover, it is the purpose of the workers in the demonstration counties that State department policies be supported insofar as possible. The second type of cabinet is composed of the workers in the field. There are two of these cabinets one in each county. Through the courtesy of the county superintendents who, together with the trustees, are by law responsible for the administration and supervision in their respective counties, these duties have been delegated to the State superin- tendent of public instruction, who, in turn, has delegated them to the director of demonstration. The director of demonstration, therefore, becomes ex officio the chairman of each county cabinet, which is composed of the director, the county superintendent and the two supervisors. In Lagrange County the city superintendent of the Lagrange schools is also a member of the cabinet, since the city schools of Lagrange are included in the demonstration. The city schools of Johnson County are not included in the demonstration. In the absence of the director the county superintendent is chairman of the cabinet meetings. In these cabinet meetings educational policies are worked out and the detail of putting DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 519 them into operation is left to the initiative and judgment of the respective officers. The county superintendent assumes the responsibility of general administration and the supervisors assume the responsibility of supervision of instruction. The director advises with each in his or her particular line of work . The policies worked out in these cabinet meetings are always in harmony with the aims and purposes originally set forth in a three days' conference held at Indianapolis, Indiana, in August preceding the beginning of the demonstration at which the State superintendent, certain members of his staff, the director of demonstration, the director of the Indiana school survey, the county superintendents of the two counties concerned, the superintendent of Lagrange County, representatives from the county, and city boards of education of these counties were in attendance. With the aims and purpose of the demonstration crystallized in the large at this original conference, the workers went directly to their respective counties and with these aims as guides decided in conference with the teachers of the counties just which of these aims should be undertaken and when. The actions of the county cabinets during this year are limited to the purposes agreed upon in the county institutes with the teachers. Thus, the teachers themselves become a party to the project. The county and the township institutes are organized in both counties with the idea of furthering the demonstration work. On the administrative side the demonstration seeks to bring about a more effective use of the school funds. To this end the textbooks were furnished to the pupils at 5 per cent profit for operation. This resulted in considerable saving of money and also in getting the books into the hands of the pupils with a minimum of delay. An attempt was made also to effect a system of cooperative buying of fuel and school supplies. This plan did not materialize in Lagrange County and was only a partial success in Johnson County. A saving of more than a thousand dollars in the year's coal supply was effected in Johnson County, however, through the pooling of the buying power of thetrustees. The main effort of the demonstration, though, is directed toward the im- provement of instruction. The full time of the two grade supervisors in each county and one day a month given to the high schools by a member of the State superintendent's staff is given for this work. Occasionally, general meetings between the director of the demonstra- tion and the four rural supervisors have been held for general discussion of the problem and its proper solution . The burden of the work of supervision of instruction is carried by the four supervisors-two in each county, though the director of the demon- stration, the county superintendent, the city superintendent, and the principals have a part in the work. The director and the county and city superintendents advise with the supervisors as to and methods of carrying them out. The county and city sur asionally ac- 520 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION company the supervisors in their daily work and advise with them after- wards. The director of the demonstration is now devoting one day each week in each county to such visiting with the supervisors. The principals are invited to visit classes with the supervisors also so that they may be better prepared to keep the supervisors' plans going well in their absence. The supervisors themselves conduct their work through several channels. The first few weeks they spent largely in developing their plans and getting these plans before the teachers in bulletin form. These communica- tions were followed by short visits to the various rooms. These visits were followed with group meetings of teachers of the same grades or types of school . These meetings were at first generally held after school hours. Some of the trustees have more recently consented to have these meetings during school hours. When they are held during school hours the usual plan is to have all but one of the schools dismiss so that the teachers may gather at the school first to observe teaching and later to discuss the teaching observed. The great portion of the time of the supervisors now is being devoted to personal visitation of teachers and observation of their work in the schoolroom. These observations are followed by individual conferences in which the work observed is discussed. The two months following the close of schools in the spring will be devoted to an analysis of the work of the year, the preparation of a report setting forth the results of the efforts thus far made and in formulating plans for next year. THE NEEDS OF HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS AND HOW THESE NEEDS ARE MET BY A DEAN OF GIRLS JEANNETTE MC DONALD, DEAN OF GIRLS , TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL OMAHA, NEBRASKA For every girl in the high schools of the United States ten years ago, there are three today; for every one twenty years ago, there are four today; and for every one thirty years ago there are ten today. This' increase in high school attendance is to be attributed mainly to two causes- the growing belief that a high school education is a distinct business asset and the compulsory education laws, which in many States require school | attendance of every child under sixteen. In Nebraska high school enrol- ment has increased 2539 per cent in thirty years . In 1890 the high school student body was a highly selected group, com- posed mostly of boys and girls from cultured homes-homes where books and pictures, good taste and good cheer made an adequate foundation upon which to build the academic work of the high school of a generation ago. I recall a class which I taught some fifteen years ago. There was scarcely a pupil in that class whose parents were not well-educated. I was teaching the sons and daughters of lawyers, doctors, ministers, DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 521 teachers. In those days the shifting of responsibility for the conduct of the child from the school to the home was a logical procedure. His parents were quite as capable of dealing with the problem as were the school officials. The latter felt, and rightly, that their obligation was met when the parents were notified. This custom still persists in most high schools, though the returns today do not justify the expenditure of time, effort, and money. Today the percentage of high school students who come from adequately equipped homes is shockingly less than it was even ten years ago. The bulk of the increase in attendance, then, is to be accounted for in the great influxof young people from families, whose highest ambition for their children even ten years ago did not exceed the possible completion of the eighth grade. In seven years I have found among the parents I have had occasion to interview only one who is a graduate of a high school . For the most part, these parents have had little of formal schooling . They are hard-working, and honest, and ambitious for their children, but they are quite unable to furnish, or even to grasp the need of furnishing for the growing child, the proper environment. Neither have they the preparation for dealing with the adolescent. Their energy goes to the struggle for food, clothing, and shelter, and they are all too often unable to supply these necessities in sufficient quantity. They look to the school, and justly, I believe, to do whatever is necessary to make of their son or daughter a social asset. The opportunities for schooling which they have not had, and which they are struggling to give their children, seem to them a panacea for all ills. The notice saying that their girl has not met the requirements of the school is a blow, against which they do not know how to defend themselves other than by berating the girl and blaming the teacher. Haven't they done their part? Why doesn't the school do its part? Some of us are still trying to run our high schools on the plan of thirty years ago. The personnel of the student group today bears no resemblance to that of the last generation. The needs of our group have changed, but we still strive in many places to meet those needs with antiquated machinery. Theoretically the responsibility for the social, moral, and religious life of the child should fall upon the parents. Prac- tically this responsibility cannot be met in the homes until we grow in every community a set of parents capable of dealing with the very com- plicated problem of supplying the environment, the activities, and the high ideals necessary for the nurture of a well-rounded social being. It is difficult for those of us who belong to the last generation to realize that the day when the high school's sole responsibility was scholarship is past. A new vision of the school's obligation to the community has broad- ened our field and increased our task, until nothing that affects the life of the girl or boy is extraneous to the interest of the school and its officials. Most of the girls in our high schools today are between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. A few are under fourteen, more perhaps are over 522 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION eighteen; but the mass will be found to be within the given limits-the age of change and unrest. What are the needs of these girls? Perhaps there is nothing so soul satisfying to the administrative officer as the well organized plan for the year's work a teacher's schedule, a room schedule, a program card for every pupil and everything in readiness to push the button on the opening morning. It does seem that it should all work smoothly. The first day, as we all know too well, closes with chaos in the vicinity of the main offices. Most complaints are easily ad- justed. But here is Mary who weeps because she has been assigned to sewing, or cooking, or biology, or almost anything. It doesn't matter just what-Mary is fifteen. She had a vision of what her program might be; and lo! it seems to be something else. Mary's troubles are real to Mary at fifteen-more real, more serious, more poignant than they will ever be again. She needs to confer with someone not immersed in the general rush of routine duties; someone with time, patience, and under- standing, to whom she may pour out the cause of her dissatisfaction. It is useless to tell her she must follow her program. She is fifteen and un- happy. The school exists to serve her in the interests of the community. It is vital that Mary shall approach her work happily. Nobody can esti- mate the value of Mary as an asset if she determines to make her life a success; nobody can estimate her possibilities for harm, if she remains dis- contented. The school must not fail. Here is a task for a dean of girls. There are other unhappy Marys in every school ; and of no two are the causes of their miseries, real or imaginary, identical. Sometimes it is a broken family-the father and mother have separated; or there is a step- parent. Sometimes there is financial depression in the home; the father out of work ; the mother ill. The prolonged interview with Mary brings out the real cause of her distress. The vital task is to help her adjust her difficulties, to see them in their right relation, to recognize herself as a responsible member of society whose business it is to live in peace and comparative happiness with her family. Sometimes it is necessary to see the step-father or mother and to smooth the way for Mary's new resolu- tion to find an opportunity to function. Such adjustments are the province of a dean of girls . There is another Mary who, together with one or two special chums, thinks herself sophisticated. She and her companions have been exposed to much misinformation about sex. This forms the basis of vulgar, obscene notes which pass current among the girls and boys who, because of ig- norance, are attracted by such. From time to time, all too infrequently, these notes are intercepted. Here is a plague spot revealed. On whom shall devolve the task of eliminating the poison and putting in its place the beautiful truth about the beginnings of life? These impressionable fifteen-year-old Marys are eager for the truth. They want to know. It is useless to send for their parents. If, as parents, they were capable of doing their duty by Mary, she would have been inoculated against the disease of obscenity. Her mind would not have been soiled with vulgarity. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 523 Who then shall help patiently, understandingly, effectively ? Who but the dean of girls? In every high school is the girl who tries to conceal her real complexion from the world. She admires lips of carmine, such as blaze on the covers of cheap fiction magazines. She affects the plucked and penciled eyebrow ; she likes her lashes separated with messy black pigment ; and she especially admires the vivid orange-red cheek bones, surrounded with an undue amount of powder applied in hasty daubs, or slightly revealed through a solid mask of whitewash. Who shall deliberately, persistently, gently, convey toher the fact that our external appearance is not our own business, except in the privacy of our own rooms ; that, when we go forth to mingle with our kind, good taste demands that we shall consider the standards ofthose with whom we would associate, and that we may not offend with impunity? Here again is work for a dean of girls. Closely allied to the girl with the excessive make up is the girl who wears inappropriate clothing. If long dresses are fashionable, hers are the longest; if tight skirts are worn, hers are the tightest; if short sleeves are in vogue, hers are the shortest; if earrings are dangling, hers are most conspicuous for their length, breadth, and brilliancy. One girl so ar- rayed seems like fifty. She is omnipresent. Her chosen field for conquest is the gathering place of the athletic teams. These heroes seem to be especially susceptible to this type of girl. She will walk through a group of boys, and by some art known only to her, touch with her elbow, or hand, or foot every boy in the group with the result that some boy or boys will follow her down the corridor or the street as she, with apparent in- nocence, goes on her way. Who shall deal with the school "vamp " ? " Whose shall be the task of laboring to bring about a change, or deciding that the school is better without this particular center of insidious in- fluence ? The lines must be carefully drawn. Here is not the place for hasty decision. Evidence must be conclusive. The gathering of evidence requires time; the evaluation, judgment; and the decision, courage. Who in a school faculty will undertake the task except the dean of girls ? Katherine, ambitious, determined, trustful, with home conditions wholly inadequate to help her fulfill her ambition, wishes a high school diploma. Her mother has not learned to read or write. The family finances are low. She needs clothing and school supplies. She doesn't wish to be an object of charity, but she does need money. Can we find a place for her to work after school ? She can take care of children. Perhaps there will be an opening later; but in the meantime she must continue. A loan is arranged for. Katherine borrows on her note whatever she needs to meet immediate demands. Katherine's private financial affairs must not be known to her fellow students. Her business transactions must be carried on confidentially. Who shall manage this and all similar cases ? Who so well as the dean of girls ? I have been citing individual cases-cases with which I have had to deal. Every girl who is not happily adjusted to her surroundings at home or at 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION school becomes a problem. To ignore her or to deal with her inadequately is reckless. The routine and publicity of the main office is little suited to the intimate interview. Whether it be dissatisfaction with a program, failure in the home, excessive use of cosmetics, vulgarity, extreme dress. lack of material resources, or the petty discipline which results from friction in the class room, irregular attendance, and undue tardiness, every high school has its quota of such problems, and should have an official whose special function it is to study the affected pupils and lessen, at least, the possibilities of permanent harm. I am devoting the greater part of my discussion to those intimate prob- lems which must be dealt with sympathetically, firmly, and above all privately-those problems the solution of which requires so much attention and patience-those problems which are most vital in the lives of the adolescent girls affected; but there is another and a larger group of girls of whom the dean must think. In every high school, as in every other group, the normal, healthy girls predominate and the needs of these girls should be the chief concern of every dean of girls; for, from among these must come the women who are to be the leaders in the community life of the next generation. These girls need a vision of what their lives should be. They must make their ideals effective through activities; they must develop character through accepting responsibility; they must be practiced in coöperation; they must. in fact, be prepared for a more adequate motherhood than were the girls of the past generations. Wherever one thousand, two thousand, or more young people are gathered together there is unlimited opportunity for girls to get the vision of a larger social service, through direction of their in- terests. It is a physical impossibility for a dean to come in close personal touch with every normal girl in a large high school; but it is essential that a line of influence be established between the dean and each girl. The latter must come to feel that influence and to know that the way from her to the dean is open and inviting. In no way can a dean so directly reach all normal girls as through an organization with membership dependent only on enrolment. A girl's presence in the school makes her perforce a member of the organized group. Girls desire popularity and leadership, and in an organization they readily see an opportunity to have their efficiency recognized. In planning an organization including all girls, care must be taken to arrange for a widespread distribution of responsibilities. It is most desir- able to have as many sets of officers and committees as there are classes in the school. Girls will approve a plan which calls for six or eight presi- dents, as many vice-presidents and secretaries, with the same number of sets of committees. Each section may work separately at times; at other times, in conjunction with other sections. The executive committee should be composed of officers of all sections. Each section may have charge of a general assembly at least twice a year. Thus they will have experience in 1 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 525 planning and carrying through a program with all that such an exercise entails of selection, preparation, and direction. Every committee of every section should have a member in each of the smaller units of the school, so that information concerning any project undertaken by a committee may reach all girls directly. Such an organization as this would not and should not overlap in any way a self-government plan which may be functioning. This organization should devote itself wholly to questions which especially pertain to girls- questions which the girls feel should not be discussed in mixed assemblies. In a high school attended by both boys and girls we know how rarely agirl is elected president of any group if there is a boy in line. In a high school which graduated its first class in 1876, the election of a girl to the presidency of the senior class for the first time was considered of sufficient importance to be noted on the front page of a leading paper. In this par- ticular school the girls have probably predominated in every class. Women need to develop confidence in each other, Why not begin the development with the high school girl? The unostentatious directing of such an organization as I have briefly sketched will consume both time and thought but will yield large returns. Through it the dean may touch the life of every girl. Through it she may awaken in the girl a desire for social service, and give her ameans of training the forces within her, of recognizing her human relationships, and ofmaking the best use of her social and material environment. Arranging programs, planning entertainments, establishing standards of conduct and scholarship, writing notes of sympathy, finding ways of being helpful, devel- oping a sense of at-oneness with all the girls of the school, of the neighbor hood, of the world-these are specific lines along which a group of or- ganized girls may move. Every high school in which girls are enrolled must eventually have the services of a woman specialist, or of several women specialists, whose duty it shall be to create an atmosphere and develop an influence which shall pervade the life of every girl and make it possible for her to experience the joy of becoming a well-rounded woman whose privilege it is to serve. All of this has become the province of the high school since our student body is no longer a selected group. HOW THE NEEDS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL GIRL ARE BEING MET BY THE PARENT MRS . W. S. HEFFERAN , NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS CHICAGO , ILLINOIS The discussion of the occasion covers the most critical period in the life of the individual-adolescence-a period which is the acid test in both home and school as far as training is concerned. Becaus lequacy 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of most homes the training offered by the high school assumes immense importance. More and more it is assuming responsibility for the care of the health of youth, its scholarship, and its social development through service. Through its extra-curricular activities and its tests for aptitudes. the high school assists youth to select its life work. Adolescence is a new birth, for then the higher and more human quali- ties are born. There is a physical, mental and spiritual change of which parents become aware but because of lack of intelligence and training are unequipped to meet. Modern life is hard and increasingly so upon our youth. The home and the church and very often the school fail to under- stand its nature, its needs, and beyond all else its perils. Now youth de- mands a greater knowledge of mind and body to protect it against tempta- tion and to assist it in the choice of a vocation and nothing helps more than long intimate talks with the elders on life's problems; the making and spending of money, on men and marriage, politics and civic affairs. It flatters them and makes them want to do and be and act their very best. The idea of service can now be best developed and the opportunity for service must be given in the home through participation in the work and welfare of the household. Unfortunately, home study and music absorb most of the leisure hours of high-school girls, and desirous of seeing them progress they are shielded from active participation in household cares and responsibilities which would be immensely developing. I shall rejoice on the arrival of the day when household economics is no longer an elective but a required subject, given a dignity and a recognition-this recognition, that the first requisite of any human life is the need of being fed and clothed and even bathed, in order that efficiency may be secured for the higher things of life, for some time as a mother, a daughter, a wife, or sister, the health and happiness of a household are in a woman's hands. Until one hundred years ago there was little machinery arranged for girlhood's education. Her important training lay with the family groups and she was educated through participation in the work and welfare of the household. It has been said that then girls were workers in every kind of task from lighthouse tending to scalping marauding Indians. Ninety-five per cent of all teachers are women and ninety-nine per cent of the training of the young is in the hands of women in the home and school. Every woman, as parent, precedes the teacher as the child's earliest and most important teacher. Again 27,000,000 women were brought into citizenship by the Nineteenth Amendment and every woman, as citizen, becomes responsible for the better conditions in home, school, and society. Therefore the girl's education today must equip her for a threefold func- tion, either or all of which may be hers-parent, teacher, citizen. In this preparation the schools must assume a large share of the responsibility. Vast changes in the education of girls have taken place since a Massa- chusetts town discussed whether females, being a tender and interesting part of the population, should have any rights to be pupils in the public DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 527 town school. Where there happened to be extra benches they decided to admit them for two hours a day. By the State, county or city, education is now possible for girls and boys alike from kindergarten to the professional school. The most important additions to the opportunities offered by the high schools are the extra-classroom activities which have been vastly increased inthe last decade and which have been greatly improved since the advent of the dean of girls. These activities are quite sufficient to develop the social nature of the pupil and to take up all the time the high school girl can afford to give or should give to social life. Music can be supplemented inthe home, but the auto and movies, which together take up much of the time of the adults, leave few opportunities for the home to do anything worth while for the social life of the child. I know a school which in a large sense promotes the social and service life of the child in a very satisfactory way. Once a month there is a forum open to all high school pupils. The first half of the program was made up of debates, readings, music, etc., and the last half dancing. Part of the faculty and several of the parents attend each time, the meeting closes at 11 P.M. and children must go home. Then there are four parties, freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior, closing at eleven o'clock, and chaperoned by many parents and most of the teachers who participate in the dancing. Children must return home, that is, they must not attend another dance. Then there are classes in social dancing during winter semester. The school requests that social affairs during holidays be arranged after consultation with the parents so there will not be an excessive amount of entertaining. I should say that 95 per cent of the social life of the pupils centers in school. At Christmas and Thanksgiving time a well ordered plan ofparticipation by the children in simple giving is carried out. Where the homes of children outside this school have touched socially on the lives of these children there has been a marked contrast: I have come to realize that, with the tendency of young people to domi- nate the home and the inadequacy of parents generally that the educational institutions must plan simple but delightful social functions and call upon the parents for financial and moral support. The result will be better all around. Social activities sponsored by schools are far more democratic than those held in the home because they must include all of a class and there would be no chance for social distinction. Here and there a parent-teacher association has attempted to plan chaperoned dances with some degree of success, but when planned by deans and executed by both parents and teach- ers the result is more satisfactory. Never have our young people been subjected to so severe temptation as inour own time. Increasing city life with its prematurities, the get-rich- quick spirit in the air, the desire on the part of the young to be all, act all, and do all befitting adult estate all these lack the regulations that healthy 1 youth must have, and in an atmosphere of . ” they rush rather than grow into maturity. 528 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To the deans, the universal mothers, we turn with hope that with woman's instinct they sense the needs. We ask that you men and women of the secondary schools put down the algebra or Latin occasionally and talk to the young people about the care of the body, the attitude toward the opposite sex, courtesy, kindness, the making and spending of money, and ideals. The reactions are far beyond anything we can immediately sense. If we are to educate these young people, using the word in its broadest, fullest meaning, the more entirely we can fill their field of vision with the school and its allied activities, the greater hold we shall have upon them. Education has hardly tapped the intellectual and spiritual energies of youth. Your young people have ambitions which are infinitely precious. To a large degree our ability to meet successfully the baffling social prob- lems of our present civilization rests upon our utilization of these energies and ambitions. The future depends largely upon our young people. If they are given an opportunity to prepare themselves, not only will they play their part courageously, but they will bring a high degree of genius to the solution of the most intricate problems humanity has ever been called on to face. NEEDS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL GIRL AND HOW THEY ARE MET BY SOCIAL AND PHILANTHROPIC ORGANI- ZATIONS ANNE T. BINGHAM, M. D., PSYCHIATRIST, GIRLS' SERVICE LEAGUE OF AMERICA, NEW YORK CITY In studying the life of an individual, the school period stands out as an important one . It represents at the start brand new adaptations which are difficult for many children, some of whom react by developing neurotic or personality traits which never cease to hamper them. As the work becomes more difficult, demands on physical strength, on brain and nervous balance are naturally greater, and children having narrow margins of reserve in these fields show signs of strain. It is well known that not only mental development, but also the emotional life is strongly influenced by school experiences of all sorts and since during adolescence, which coin- cides with the high school period, the emotional life is particularly active, it is of vital moment to society and to these problem youths that they be understood and properly treated. I have come here today to tell you of the beginning that we have made along this line in New York and of how it all came about. In social work, as in medicine, prevention should be our ultimate aim, and we believe that it is becoming so. Therefore, a desirable reaction to experiences with physical, mental, or social illness is a wish to prevent these abnormal conditions. For over ten years the organization which I repre- sent, formerly known as the New York Probation and Protective Associa- tion, now the Girls' Service League of America, made intensive studies of DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 529 so-called delinquent girls. As a result of such studies, we convinced our- selves of the truth of certain things, an important one being that there is no criminal type. This means, of course, that we must reckon with the individual, with his peculiar personality, his very own reactions to circum- stances which his emotions and his degree of intelligence or mental sound- ness determine. It means also that impersonal treatment is unintelligent and wasteful. We believe that the same principle of individualized study and treatment applies to any sort of problem, whether delinquent or not. Further, in our experiences with delinquents, we found repeatedly such un- desirable characteristics as a grudge attitude, a feeling of inferiority, morbid repression, excessive sensitiveness, seclusiveness, inhibiting dissatisfaction. Inmany instances, habits of pernicious thinking and doing had become so fixed that it was hard to alter them. While this was especially true for those whose mental equipment was poor, it was by no means confined to such, and we felt that if antisocial tendencies and unhealthy mental attitudes could be detected and treated early in adolescence, social disaster might be prevented for some, and nervous or mental breakdown averted for others. And so, when about three years ago our Association, organized to help girls, received an appeal from one of New York's largest high schools for as- sistance in understanding some of its problem girls, it responded by offering the time of its psychiatrist for two half days a week, because this work seemed alogical part of our preventive program. There may be confusion about this word "psychiatrist." To some, it is synonymous with "psychologist" ; to others it implies one who is merely interested in the mentally sick, the insane, while many are inclined to apply in a vague way the term "psychoanalyst" to anyone interested in mental processes. By way of explanation, may I say that the psychiatrist, unlike the psychologist, has had general training in medicine, in addition to special- izing in nervous and mental diseases, and is further interested in studying in great detail a person's adaptation to life, his personality make-up, his emotional reactions, his intellectual development. Physical and nervous states are also taken into consideration by the psychiatrist, who after ac- cumulating all this material, seeks to evaluate it and then to see what needs to be done and what can be done, the idea being to prevent as far as pos- sible nervous, mental, social disaster if they are threatened and to help the individual concerned to live efficiently and happily. None of you think for a moment that the only function of the school is to train children along academic lines. To develop ability in mathematics or languages or sciences is not enough. We need in our communities citizens with good nervous balance, a proper regard for ethical values, whose viewpoints are not warped by unhealthy personality traits. In far too many instances, since homes and churches may be inactive in meeting these needs, it is to the schools that we look, and I believe that modern psychiatry can offer practical coöperation. In March, 1921, we began in Wed Irving High School, New ‫ةيلا‬ York City, what is, I believe, pion ing psychiatry to high 530 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION school problems. Let me emphasize the important fact that this school recognized its need for a greater understanding of difficult cases so that from the start the principal, the two deans, and the teachers were most delightfully and intelligently coöperative. Without such a spirit, the work of a psychiatrist in the school would have been of little value, as so much depends on the execution of suggestions and on an intelligent use of material which the examination reveals. Briefly outlined, the method that we use is as follows: A girl who is considered a problem may be referred for examination by any teacher or by any one else in the school having contact with the pupils. Among reasons given for asking for an examination are : (1) scholarship: which may be either poor, or inconsistent with rating obtained in entrance group psy- chological tests ; ( 2) behavior, either unruly, as found in discipline cases, or peculiar. You all know that the majority of pupils in high schools at least adapt themselves after a little time to classroom routine, but there are always some who are conspicuous because of such things as over-aggressive- ness, painful self-consciousness, evidence of tension, of emotional instability, of excitability, of depression or apathy, or pre-occupation. It is with these exceptions that the psychiatrist is concerned, as they may be cases of definite mental or nervous sickness, or they may be hampered by a natural pre- disposition for such conditions and be passing through some trying experi- ence where help is badly needed. Peculiar behavior is found also in those with difficult personality traits, already alluded to in speaking of delinquents. One sees in those children who complain of favoritism at home and unfair marks at school, and disloyalty of friends, the beginning of an antisocial grudge attitude, or an even more serious paranoid trend. In addition to unsatisfactory scholarship and peculiar behavior, the pupil may be refered for examination because she appears (3) physically unfit. Of course, no medical treatment is given in the school, but when conditions demanding attention are found, the children are sent to different places where they can receive it. I am sure I do not need to dwell upon the influence which a physical defect has upon scholarship and behavior, nor on the benefit which follows suitable treatment. Inattention, lack of interest, restlessness, lawlessness in school, frequent absence, truancy, unde- sirable companions, are frequently associated with eye strain and headache, and proper glasses, faithfully worn, may bring about surprising changes in school work and conduct. The child who is always having colds and tonsillitis naturally becomes discouraged over getting back in school work and may cease to try, a bad attitude to acquire. Certain conditions of the ductless glands result in restlessness, irritability, and headaches, symptoms which are relieved when properly treated. Both teachers and doctors should get the habit of looking at these conduct phenomena as manifestations of something, the causes of which we are to seek. Important as are the physical reasons for referring a child for examination, even more impor- tant and certainly less often recognized are obscure emotional states. dependent on great sensitiveness, feelings of inferiority, perhaps because of DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 531 deformity or speech defect, or morbid fears, anxiety, depression, all of which have a great effect in the development of the personality, and which consequently need to be recognized and treated. The next step after the name of a pupil has been presented for examina- tion is to have some one, a dean, a grade adviser, or some teacher assigned to assist in this special work get together material which the psychiatrist needs to have; that is, a clear statement of the problem as the school sees it, the scholarship and behavior record, and an account of any contacts with the family, and the report of the psychologist, for, in addition to the group psychological tests, we have individual Terman tests given to all these chil- dren, who are specially studied. Washington Irving High School is for- tunate enough to have its own psychologist, paid for in part by a private individual, the balance supplied by proceeds from a school play. In other schools where we work, our organization gives the time of its psychol- ogist for the individual Termans. The follow-up work which develops from a study of the case is carried on usually by the one who has gotten the material together and by a visitor who does some calling in homes. The service of the visitor is for the present supplied by our organization. The method of the examination which we use is to meet the pupil in- formally, the introduction including some general statement as to the purpose of the examination, and the implication is often given that since the doctor's time in the school is limited, and, therefore, all students can- not be seen by her, it is a special advantage to those selected. In other words, we try to prevent any feeling that a special examination designates one as peculiar, and we think we succeed, for it is a rare exception if a girl fails to give good cooperation. An important part of the examina- tion is a detailed account of the family and home situation, with the girl's reaction to her parents, her brothers and sisters, her school experiences. We want to know also where her interests lie, whether in books , music, sports, domestic arts, handwork, or chiefly in "having a good time." We getan idea of her general physical condition, including previous illnesses, operations, accidents, tendency to headaches. We question her about her hygiene of living, such as habits of eating, tea and coffee drinking, sleep- ing. We get an idea regarding her nervous stability, from finding, for example, if she has had convulsions or St. Vitus dance; whether she is excitable, easily frightened, possessed of a violent temper; whether she is anail biter or a sleep walker; whether in times of stress she becomes nauseated or develops a headache. Following this inquiry a physical ex- amination is given for the purpose of finding if there are conditions which need attention. Then comes inquiry into mental processes; we ask about the mood, whether phlegmatic, happy-go-lucky, depressed, elated. We seek to know how much a part imagination plays in the girl's life; how mach she day-dreams, and if she does, to what extent a phantasy life en- croaches on reality. We try to get at causes of sensitiveness, of feelings of inferiority, or "being different," or of being discriminated against. We question regarding the presence of fears and compulsive ideas. We wish 532 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to gain an idea of the girl's instinctive needs, her affections, her sources of satisfaction. We want to know her ambitions, her plans for the future in order to see if they are impracticable. In this connection we take into consideration the findings of the psychologist, and the scholarship record, and the presence or absence of talent which her class work has brought out. On the basis of positive things, which all this examination reveals, a plan is suggested for each pupil, and, of course, these plans are essentially individual. They may be concerned merely with a temporary change of program, or a radical change of course, or extra help with a difficult subject. The lack of understanding or of sympathy on the part of a member of the family may call for an interview in which one seeks to interpret the child to the parent, or vice versa. Additional recreation or a special type may be indicated, or companionship for a shy, lonely girl who broods over her unpopularity. Special consideration may be asked of teachers for girls who over-compensate for timidity and painful self- consciousness by quick rather than thoughtful answers or for those who can never bring themselves to take any voluntary part in class work. One wonders how teachers of large classes are able to individualize their pupils at all and it is not strange that these difficult adolescents are often not understood, that they need to be interpreted to their teachers, as well as to their families. There may occur in our plans suggestions for physical betterment which may be undertaken in the school, such as correctional exercises, or extra food for malnutrition children, or we may attempt to develop more intangible things, such as an ethical sense, a more responsible attitude, self-confidence based on achievement, or a better realization of personal assets. We know that much energy is lost through inhibitions and conflicts of an emotional nature as well as by the lack of harmony be- tween ambition and capacity for achievement. Therefore, it is absolutely essential that the child's inner life be reached if we are to understand and plan wisely. About a year after this work had been started in Washington Irving High School we were asked to give some time regularly to two high schools in Brooklyn, Erasmus Hall and Bay Ridge. We have been able to examine in these two schools, girls who present unusual difficulties. We have also seen by appointment at the offices of the organization girls sent from other high schools in Manhattan. When possible, we think it a mutual advantage to go to the schools, as the whole process then becomes simpler and more natural. Also, it is valuable to have opportunities for conferring on the spot with the teachers of these girls whose real problems are often quite different from those which appear in the classroom. Last year we held in two of the high schools where we have made ex- aminations a series of case conferences which were attended by teachers especially interested in the pupils discussed, and also by representatives of different social and religious organizations working with adolescents. We had several objects in view in holding these conferences. We wanted to present cases in their entirety so that the teachers might look further DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 533 than classroom behavior in their understanding and treatment of problem children. Also, we wished to help teachers recognize early signs of nervous and mental illnesses, as well as to realize that certain personality traits which are actually or potentially serious, may be checked or modified if detected early. Other reasons for these conferences were to bring to- gether for concrete application the resources of the school and the com- munity and to get from diversified points of view expert help for our problem girl. Since we began our school work three years ago, about two hundred girls have been examined. Unsatisfactory scholarship comes first among the reasons for referring, but the underlying causes for this condition are interestingly various. For example, among three girls seen in one day on this score, one was definitely dull and not mentally capable of carry- ing the course which she was attempting. The second was bright enough to do creditable work, but was a spoiled child who had never exerted her- self to do anything hard and she had no stimulation at home to do her best. Her parents indulgently overlooked her failures, telling her that next time she would surely do better and not to worry, so she did not. Very satisfactory improvement which has persisted resulted from an appeal to her to brace up, followed by judicious encouragement in school and a more sensible parental attitude. The third girl who had a superior type of intelligence was undoubtedly kept from doing the brilliant work which might have been expected of her because of an emotional experience. She was an only child, fond of both parents, but particularly devoted to her father. No wonder she was upset when she found that her mother was suing for a divorce, which was granted. The conflict which all this in- . duced was terrific for this sensitive adolescent, whose reason told her that she should not love her father as she had, whose emotions told her that she did. She could not concentrate on school work and planned to leave to take a position. Relief undoubtedly followed the telling of her trouble ; she was encouraged to remain in school and certain adjustments were made there. The child became much happier, more nervously stable and the quality of her work improved. A sixteen-year-old girl was referred because she had attempted to cut her wrists, supposedly with suicidal intent. She was a neurotic child, with a pronounced inferiority feeling. This probably originated on a physical basis, as muscular weakness following diphtheria necessitated the wearing of braces when she was small. She felt that she could not run 'nd play like other girls; that she was clumsy, and she dreaded ridicule to a morbid degree. She avoided competition where she would appear at a disadvantage, and when she entered high school, physical training was dreaded, because she feared physical injury and also failure and ridicule . She cut classes to such an extent that she knew her parents must soon hear of it, and she felt she could not face her father's displeasure. Per- haps even death was preferable, she thought. At any rate, she might become an object of interest and pity. The whole situation was talked 534 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION over with her, including an analysis of the development of her fears, and the need stressed for gaining ascendency over them. Long and valuable interviews were held with both of her parents who gratefully promised to coöperate. Her physical training teacher gladly gave her special at- tention until she gained enough confidence so that she voluntarily took the once-dreaded exercises. Since then, there have been no further complaints of her conduct in school and her work in all subjects has improved. An examination was requested for an attractive fourteen-year-old girl because she seemed nervous and unhappy and reported having done auto- matic writing. She was an orphan living unhappily with paternal uncles. who compelled her to give up one pleasure after another. Her mother. whom she idealized, had died in a hospital for the insane. This child was naturally nervous and sensitive, and because life was so hard for her she found her phantasies a great resource, and came to depend on them more and more. Shortly before we saw her she had been feeling quite dis- turbed because told that she must leave school, almost her last pleasure, in order to do more work in her uncle's bakery, which she hated. When trying futilely to do French exercises she found herself writing automatically what she considered a reassuring message from her dead mother. Cer- tainly her conflicts and yearnings were reaching a pathological expression, and we recognized the serious possibilities. We were not able to persuade her relatives to leave her in high school, but in order to insure for her en- couragement and recreation we brought her to the attention of teachers in a continuation school, as well as to the Protestant Big Sisters. This girl regarded those who interested themselves in her in high school as real friends and came back to see them sometimes. After a while she asked for an office position which was procured for her and which proved a happy placement. She now seems quite normal and adjusted. Among the first girls seen in Washington Irving High School was one who was referred for what her teachers considered a speech defect but who was found by the psychiatrist to be a case of dementia præcox, with definite hallucinations. She was in the dressmaking course and received passing marks in that, but she took little or no part in oral class work . She might easily have been sent to a hospital for the insane, but since she presented no dangerous symptoms, did not disturb classes, and was evidently getting something from school, we resolved to let her stay, for we realized that her interest there was her strongest link with reality and that, consequently, it was to her advantage to have every effort made to foster such interest. Each term her new teachers were told about her so that they might understand her better and she has just graduated. We do not know what the next chapter in her life will be, but certainly it is greatly to the credit of a huge city school that such a child has been patiently and skillfully handled for such a period of time. I should not stop without making a point that although in speaking on the topic assigned, my emphasis has been placed on high school girls, all DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 535 that has been said applies equally to boys. In fact, an adviser of stu- dents in one school where I work often says that more problem boys than girls are sent to her and in dealing with them she has received valuable help from getting a psychiatric viewpoint. The special nature of this help has been illustrated in the cases cited, but since they are described so briefly, the point may not have been made clear that it is that of an expert, that it cannot be given by people without medical and psychiatric training. The experience of the psychiatrist in dealing with the mentally sick makes it possible for him to recognize early danger signs which are not obvious to the untrained observer, but which when found indicate pathological mental processes. These are discovered through studying the behavior of the child, learning the mood, getting the modes of reaction, listening to spontaneous talk and drawing the in- dividual out so that she reveals her perplexities. Only after the psy- chiatrist has obtained this intimate knowledge of the individual is he in a position to plan constructive treatment. In connection with these special examinations, certain clear cut needs have been emphasized, such as a greater variety of courses in high schools so that a pupil may be tried out in different lines of work in the same school rather than be sent from one to another or discharged, procedures which are certain to accentuate a sense of failures. Besides waste of time and injustice to children, there is incalculable expense involved in forcing them to continue in courses obviously unsuitable, as shown by repeated lack of success. These special classes are needed for two types of pupils, the dull, slow ones who can learn, given time enough, and those who are so dull that they cannot ever hope to complete regular academic work, but who can get a cultural background if given more time in school. Extra time of teachers to give individual help would be a boon to many pupils whose difficulties are specialized. We need greater facilities for making home and family adjustments, work which the right kind of visiting teacher can do so efficiently. We cannot expect such conservative bodies as Boards of Education to provide for psychiatric work in schools until its practical value has been proven. Accordingly, demonstrations of such work for a time will prob- ably need to be financed by foundations, private organizations or philan- thropic individuals. The important thing is for the schools to appreciate this special need and demand that it be met. I wish that I might inspire you to go back to your schools, resolved to leave no stone unturned to have your problem children understood and treated. In conclusion I wish to quote from a report of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene a paragraph which has a direct bearing on what we have been talking about : "It is becoming more and more apparent that the most effective work in the prevention of insanity, as well as in increasing the efficiency and happiness of those who do not become insane, must be done in early life. 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION We know that much mental disease and more disaster from imperfect ad- justments to life of a little different sort depend upon inadequate equip- ment to deal with difficult situations and upon attempts of people to live upon levels of activity for which their mental equipment and training has not fitted them. We know that in not a few cases these inadequacies of equipment and this tendency on the part of people to take up tasks for which they are manifestly unfitted may be recognized at a very early period and there is reason to believe that much could be done to remedy these conditions by recasting educational methods and providing for indi- vidual needs . This, after all, is the true purpose of mental hygiene." Department of Educational Publications Chairman, Arthur H. Chamberlain, San Francisco, California; program prepared by J. W. Searson, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 1, 1924 NEW PROBLEMS IN BUILDING A TEXTBOOK BUSINESS Mr. Hesse, World Book Company, Yonkers, N. Y. DISCUSSION Henry B. Dewey, Educational Manager, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Mass. EDUCATING THE PUBLIC TO HIGHER STANDARDS OF TEXTBOOK MAKING C. E. Douglass, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. DISCUSSION Charles Swain Thomas, Educational Editor, Atlantic Press, Boston, Mass. EDUCATING THE PUBLIC TO HIGHER STANDARDS OF TEXTBOOK MAKING C. E. DOUGLASS , ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS BALTIMORE, MARYLAND It is becoming increasingly important that school administrators keep the public informed of the aims, activities, and achievements of the school system. The present is a period of questioning, and the attitude of the public is markedly critical. An adversely critical attitude thrives upon misinformation or upon ignorance. We may deplore the consequent ob- struction to the constructive work we wish to accomplish, but this critical attitude follows now, as it always does follow, a period of positive, creative achievement. It is a perfectly normal condition. This wave of critical inquiry offers an opportunity which should be seized. Facts should be set forth convincingly to the end that the public may endorse every justifiable means to promote the cause of education. Recent growth in systematic school publicity is quite noteworthy. In many cases publicity work has had its inception in the "drive," and has been inspired by war conditions. Fortunately, however, the "drive" with its attendant ills, has largely given way to a same day-by-day, week-by- week, year-by-year presentation, in a systematic way, of the information which the public needs and wants . It is well indeed if the hurrah cam- paign for better salaries and better buildings can be supplanted by the more dignified continuous information movement which addresses itself to in- telligence and good citizenship. [537] 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A great deal of excellent publicity has been given to teacher salary needs and to building needs, but the supplies and equipment needs have fared less fortunately. This is particularly and singularly true of the textbook requirements. In this case, the public has too often been fed upon scandal, real or supposed, more often supposed than real. We are fed up on "book graft," "state adoption scandals," "corruption of school officials," petty "controversies" over religious, National, or racial bias in content of books and so on ad nauseam . The textbook has often been the football of politics, and the "tax bugaboo" has been used to secure some of the worst of legislation, abominable alike to the schools and to the publishers . We agree with Mr. S. Y. Gillan "It is not a square deal to assume that publishers are pirates or to ignore the profoundly important service which they render to our schools through the sharp competition which keeps them always alert to produce books that reflect the best in modern authorship and mechanical make-up." A frank and open dealing with the public should clear the field of the misapprehensions and prejudices which now operate to deprive the schools of the best to be had in school- books. The textbook is second in importance only to the teacher. "The teacher and the textbook make a school." Doubtless, in many instances in this broad land of ours the text is more than the teacher, regrettable as the case may be! The teacher is merely the "loud speaker"; in the book is the worth while message. In the words of Dr. Judd, "There is no in- fluence in American schools which does more to determine what is taught to pupils than does the textbook." Much the same may be said of meth- ods of teaching. This insistence that the text is a determiner of school practice may seem to run counter to the tendency to decry a reliance upon the text as indicating a mechanical and lifeless type of classroom work. The text is and will be a major factor in school practice. What is needed is an improved skill in the technique of the use of the texts. Ifitbe desired that pupils shall go "less by the book," less in learning by rote, the answer is not less book, but more books. Neither " an emasculated book" nor a "cuckoo" for a teacher, as one has put it, will serve in a live present- day situation. "No field of human achievement, " says Mr. Gillan, "not even the ap- plication of science and invention to industry, shows greater improvement than is seen in the schoolbooks of today as compared with those that were in use a hundred years ago, or even fifty years ago." And Dr. Winship declares the progress in the making of schoolbooks is marvelous, almost miraculous. No agency in school progress receives higher praise than this. Publishers must be given credit for more than commercial enterprise. No doubt, they are all in business to make money. They have done more. Through the medium of books they constantly collect and disseminate new ideas and new ideals. In this regard, there is no other agency which excels, They are quick to discover budding genius, and to bring it out into the light of day. They furnish a highly specialized staff of critics who separate the worth while from the worthless, and having discovered worth, have fur DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 539 nished the proper avenue to the public. In fairness, this much should be said to offset the common run of gossip that publishers are intent always upon gouging a long-suffering public, intent only upon sales however made. The book representative is usually both commercial and professional, pro- fessionally trained and with professional experience. Being thus equipped, he is in aposition to render a distinct service to educational progress. Books are about the cheapest thing we buy. Even in these days of rapidly vaulting prices, books remain on a comparatively low level. Competition has clearly operated to keep down prices and to raise the quality. We look invain for the doings of the much mooted "textbook trust." The book item in the total school budget is only about two per cent. And this item is second in importance only to the teacher! The actual and the relative cost of books has been played up to the public more often in a false than in a true light. It has too long been the happy hunting ground for the small politician. The cry of extravagance in the purchase of textbooks is inmost cases pure buncombe. To haggle over the difference between the best and the cheapest books, as is sometimes done, especially in state adop- tions, is small beyond words to express. Dr. Winship, in appropriate sar- casm, shows how we might by years of economy, through the use of the cheapest books on the market, save the price of a circus ticket. The public will be quite willing to buy the best and buy in sufficient quantity when properly informed. The present tendency of school boards and boards of estimates to stint the schools in books, arises from insufficient information as to costs and the importance of the whole question. It is up to the ad- ministrator to see that the necessary information is supplied. In no case should he be willing to compromise and accept a cheap product. Nothing but the best can be justified in the long run or in the short run. "The remembrance of quality will remain long after the price is forgotten." It is not solely a question of quality ; it is also a question of quantity. More and more books are required to carry out a modern course of study. Some school patrons are like the old farmer who refused to buy a book, saying, "No, I got a book." 'This is not a one book age. A few years since a single reader was found in the first grade! Now we are not quite respectable if we do not have ten or a dozen. Let the parents see how much better their children read all of these dozen books than they could read the one when they passed from the first grade. Through the use of better books and more of them, the first grade teacher has doubled her achievement. No better justification of costs need be given. Much could be said in favor of the scientific use of score cards in the selection of books. They undoubtedly aid in the formation of clear judg- ments. They do more. They indicate the lines upon which those who select should begin their campaign of education in the use of the books when they have been adopted. Every problem of selection involves the teacher, the principal, the supervisor, and the superintendent. These are they who canbest inform the public as to reasons for their choice. They, upon the adoption of a text, are called upon to properly introduced. Here is the proper beginning of any att public to higher 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION standards. The assumption that a new book will be seized upon and worked to its maximum efficiency even by the best teachers is without secure foundation. The common practice in letting a new adoption find its way by chance is to be condemned. There should be a reason for every adoption, presumably, a reason that reaches into every classroom where the book is to be used, and it will require much effort to secure the results desired. The administration only begins with the formal adoption; the major part of the work comes in effecting the adoption by the entire educational force. A teacher of shop practice is presumably well-trained in the use and care of tools. Doubtless, the major part of his training centers about just this. However great the variety of the tools in his shop, he must know their varied uses and abuses. He must know how to secure from them their maximum efficiency. It really seems not to have occurred to us that there is a parallel in the case of the grade teacher. Here the texts are the tools, and there should be developed a technique in the use of books, which in the nature of the case,would require as much or more skill than is required of the shop teacher. Some enterprising publishing houses have been more ready than school administrators to see the importance of such technique and they send out missionaries under the title of "expert demonstrators." In most cases they establish standards of efficiency in the use of their books quite unattained even by the best local teachers and supervisors who have not concentrated upon the problem. It is still left as a matter for the imagination to determine what improvement we should see if our school systems should be put on a thorough going campaign in the use of all basic books, and should we carry this idea into all teacher training institutions. Some day we shall see that there is as much technique in the use of a map as there is in the use of a saw . We shall parallel the publisher's extreme care in the choice of type, the color of paper, the length of time, and scores of other details which make the modern text a finished product, by an adequate appreciation expressed in the skill with which we use the tool. There is much to be accomplished in the development of technique in text- book use, in order to conform to the demand that pupils be made more independent in thought. We must do far more than merely get information from the printed page. The central administration should assume the obligation of seeing that the use of all adopted books is thoroughly taught. Here is the beginning of that education of the public to higher standards. The trained teacher will in turn instruct pupils in the use of books. Pupils must learn to work conscious of their skill. For a student in the machine shop not to know a buzzsaw from a grindstone might be fatal; for a student in geography not to know the various uses of maps may be fatal to him, but the date of the funeral would not be so definitely fixed. The pupil should be carefully introduced to the nature and habits of a buzzsaw before he is given his license to operate it; the student of history or geography should know something of the nature, the individuality, the aims, of his texts which are to serve him before he begins to solve the prob- lems of the universe. Books have an individuality, and it should be culti DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 541 vated. Often we hear pupils say, "the book says," or even more familiarly, "it says." This must be downright flattery to the author who has put so much of himself into the text, and the publishers who have dressed "it" up with such pride! Dr. Hall-Quest very appropriately advises a preview of schoolbooks. The public will demand the best available textbooks when the school people themselves stand adamant for them. The public will appreciate the value of texts of the highest order only when the school people themselves demonstrate their value. No teacher should underrate the tools with which she works. "Unskilled workmen blame their tools." The textbook, hav- ing reached a high plane of development, requires increased skill to make it function. Parents want and are willing to pay for the best for their children. It is an obligation upon school people to show what is best, and to show why the schools demand more and more. Just how this desired end shall be attained, depends upon the locality involved. There is no better means of publicity than the school itself. Schools in which there has been for a number of years a consistent, continuous effort at publicity now find many problems easy of solution, because the public knows the school's work and the school's needs. The "open house" plan by which patrons secure first- hand information in regard to their schools, is perhaps most effectual. The daily press should be a constant ally in publicity work. The press and the school have a common interest. A school system is fortunate if it has a well-established publicity department, and through its publications can do much to disabuse the minds of the public of the many false notions concern- ing textbook deals which run rampant. There is scarcely a community which does not have organized groups through which the schools make their case. The woman's club may be a source of strength at budget- making time. School administrators who wisely carry on a continuous information service rather than depend upon a spasmodic "drive" in times of need, should find their reward in an enlightened public which will see that the need for the best books shall be cheerfully met. EDUCATING THE PUBLIC TO HIGHER STANDARDS OF TEXTBOOK MAKING CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS , HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS Emerson in one of his poems phrased his optimistic philosophy in a rhyme that makes it easy for us to recall this thought : Heartily know When the half gods go, The gods arrive. It is true, of course, that in recent years, under the tutelage of Dean Inge in England, ably supported by Senator Lodge in America, some of the more skeptically minded and the more easily swayed have commenced to 542 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION doubt the law of progress. But there is yet within us enough of the mid- Victorian philosophy to encourage allegiance to the dictum that through the ages there is still running one unceasing purpose and that the thoughts of men are widening with the process of the suns. And we can steadily reassure ourselves by the patent knowledge that as a people we are irrevoca- bly committed to the optimistic belief that the products of today are infinitely superior to the products of yesterday. If anyone doubts this, let him try to sell a 1917 automobile at a price which he thinks it is really worth. His conviction in the public's preference for the newer model will be most grimly confirmed. Here the ratio of values, past and present, is far in excess of "sixteen to one." While all publishers can, on taking their inventories, find solace in the contrasting thought that some of their textbooks which were published in 1917 are not completely depreciated by the swift procession of these few years, we nevertheless know that our clientele is growing keener and keener in examining the dates of publication of specific texts; they examine them critically, not cursorily. The pre-Volsteadian preference for the older vintage is no longer obtrusively voiced. The search for textbooks-like the search for automobiles-is for the more recent models. But if my suggested analogy with the automobile is correct, this search for the newer model is not decided by a mere fetish for newness; we are not completely blinded by glossy varnish, by the shimmer of nickel, or by the luxury of velour. The reason for the demand for the new is based upon the conviction that experience and research in educational engineer- ing have evolved a product that is better fitted for the present system of the transportation of ideas. Publishers have, in fact, educated the public by educating themselves. Their editors are closely identified with educational research; they have encouraged it in many ways. They watch the professors in their investiga- tions. They are here at this great convention to inform themselves of the newer discoveries and the newer emphasis in education. One of these ideas may yet be a mere embryo. It will develop into something tangible when the educational investigator and the educational editor, having pooled their mental and material resources, present a product that elucidates in the cosmic form of a text an idea that was but recently an uncaptured nebula, carelessly whirling in an unacademic macrocosm . But this process of evolving a text is not so simple as this condensed nar- rative might imply. Before the new textbook is allowed to appear in its final dress, there must be many conferences, prolonged correspondence, and the most cordial co-workmanship with the artist, the engraver, the printer. and the bookbinder-all bending one way their total coöperant to the end of producing a faultless piece of work. How unattainable this ideal is, no one knows so well as the publisher himself. No one knows so well as he how many plans have to be made and re-made, how many adjustments and re-adjustments in the process of manufacture. All the while, the embattled imps of error seem to be lurking on all the outskirts of our skirmish lines. Just how they execute their campaign we never know. But in their guerrilla DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 543 warfare they mix our sheets, renumber our pages, blotch our illustrations , crumble our plates, cut our threads, thicken our ink, put curious crimps in our paper, and finally make our type mysteriously read what the maddest man in his maddest moment ne'er conceived. Even before the book is off the press, we have commenced our never-ended work on the corrigenda blanks. But this is not an inventory of our woes; we'll not darken the picture further by dwelling upon the nefarious articles which our critics write, when our work is finally reviewed in the press. Nor shall we detail what happens to it when it is subjected to the scrutiny of unfriendly competitors. Yet just because we have kept in such close touch with modern educa- tional thought, because we have been ready to coöperate in bringing into concrete form the results of scientific research, because we have kept valiantly at our fight to reduce error and present an aesthetic product, be- cause in the face of criticism we have kept our blooded head unbowed- because of all this persistent spirit of endeavor, we have finally won the confidence of those administrators who have been intent on the task of pro- viding their children with the most efficient tools for carving out their school career. In the midst of his coöperation with the spirit of modern research, the progressive publisher has not been so deeply engrossed with the newer scientific movement in education as to allow himself to grow callous and indifferent to other vital needs. Indeed, the most marked characteristic of this type of publisher is seen in the important consideration which he gives to the human element in education. He has fully realized that the most significant initial act in the learning process is mental arousal. Both he and the teacher must consistently act in the spirit of the great pedagogical credo we must interest before we can instruct. Thus to secure the highest success in making his textbook a real impart- ing agent, the alert publisher is sparing no pains. He goes out to secure an author who knows practical classroom conditions and who has the power of communicating his ideas in ways that are simple, graphic, cogent. The publisher insists that while this man may be temporarily employing his time as an author, he is all the while a teacher-a super-teacher, if you will, no longer isolated in the narrow walls of District 10; his classroom is the whole nation, the number of his pupils an uncounted multitude. But his method is still personal; he is not satisfied until his clear, direct English has made each item intelligible even to Bud Slow of the low I. Q. Moreover, this author-teacher-or perhaps you prefer the reverse order, this teacher-author-is no longer so heavily garbed in the traditions of the hampering academic gown, nor so choked by the starched collar, that he cannot be human and natural in his treatment and comment. He is even so human that he can at times be humorous; for humor, he insists, should now play a part that has been too long denied its proper place in educational procedure. The editors of the present era are a more liberal spirit in the un-academic material which the Just as a politician 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION who is still living may in reality be a statesman, so a modern author may really write as good English as many of those whom we call classic. We still encourage the classics, of course, but we accept the dicta of our teachers of English that pupils are demanding their proportionate share of the mod- ern. And we, as publishers, are glad to meet this demand, for our sympa- thies are also modern. Shakespeare lived three hundred years ago. His thoughts were not always our thoughts, nor his ways our ways. Booth Tarkington, Charles Boardman Hawes, Owen Wister, John Masefield, Rudyard Kipling each is of our generation. We all understand each other. If by issuing the modern material in attractive form we can help the teacher to develop in his pupils a keener interest in reading, we cer- tainly shall not be hampered by the outgrown orthodoxy which but so recently restricted the realm of choice. We have by our more liberal policy enlarged the vision of drama and of poetry. We have almost completely sheared away the pupils' former dread of the essay, and all that the term once unhappily connoted. We shall persist in our desire to humanize the schools by viewing sympathetically the tastes and the attitudes of the younger generation. While we concern ourselves with the substance of our textbooks and strive to make this substance intelligent, we shall recognize at the same time that there is in each child an aesthetic nature that should be developed, a nature that quickly responds to the beauty of the printed page and the cover which enshrines it. By our attention to type, to illustrations, to paper, to binding, to color, and ensemble, we are trying to create correct aesthetic values. We are anxious that the child shall take pleasure in possessing the book, in calling it his own, in placing it upon his own shelf. More and more we shall wish to publish our textbooks-especially those of the less technical type-in a form that will win a permanent place in a private library. How then shall we educate the public to higher standards of textbook making ? Again our analogy. Simply follow the methods of the automo- bile manufacturer and promoter. The best sales-talker is, after all, the product itself-its obvious excellencies în substance and format. We natu- rally covet the best surroundings ; an attractive room, a trimly dressed teacher who knows the art of salesmanship, an attractive bouquet of cut flowers a rubber plant, too, if you insist. But our cautious customer will not be wholly won by these externals. How does the instrument perform ? How does it behave in action? How well does it transport its load on unpaved highways ? How effectively does it function ? And what of its endurance ? Once convinced by these tests, and our patrons will freely buy . We have educated the public up to a certain standard by taking the initiative ourselves and building, with the aid of educators, a better product. We shall educate them to still higher standards by building still better products , and convincing them of the new inherent values. Our best advertisers should be those pupils who study our texts, and carry away with them the message which we have taken infinite pains to impart. Department of Elementary Education The Department of Elementary Education, formerly the Department of Elemen- tary Schools, was created in 1870 by constitutional provision, when three different National associations-the National Teachers' Association, the American Normal Association, and the National Superintendents ' Association-were merged into one all- inclusive organization. See Proceedings of 1870, pages 214-215. Inasmuch as the work of this department has been taken over by the Department of Class- room Teachers, it was discontinued by order of the Board of Directors in July, 1924. See Proceedings of 1924, page 96. Department of Elementary School Principals SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-W. T. Longshore, Greenwood School . .Kansas City, Missouri Secretary -Mrs . Jessie M. Fink, Palmer School ... ..Grand Rapids, Michigan The Department of Elementary School Principals, temporarily organized as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in February, 1921 , became a department of the National Education Association at Des Moines, in July, 1921 . CHICAGO MEETING Time again has rung down the curtain upon a most successful meeting. Chicago surpassed herself upon this occasion. From every standpoint it was a great meet- ing. The largest number in years of noted educators in all fields of education were in attendance. The general spirit of the convention was marvelous in its harmony and constructiveness. The Smith-Jones combination effected an hitherto unap- proached achievement in peace and prosperity. Each zealously determining to magnify the service of the other, these two great leaders set the pace for pro- fessional courtesy and genuine expression of appreciation. The programs of our Department were splendidly presented and caused much favorable discussion. The attendance at every meeting was record breaking. [545] 546 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Second Annual Dinner The Department of Elementary School Principals met in their second annual dinner in the ball room of the La Salle Hotel, at six- thirty o'clock, Tuesday eve- ning, February twenty-sixth. Five hundred sat down to a feast to delight the most fastidious , and to regale the most blasé intellectual of the intelligencia. Seated at the speakers table were : President, W. T. Longshore, toastmaster, Dr. Edward J. Broome, superintendent of schools , Philadelphia ; Mr. Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Oakland, California ; Olive M. Jones, President of the National Education Association ; Charles H. Judd, of the Department of Edu- cation of the University of Chicago ; Miss Rose A. Pesta, president of the Chicago Principals ' Club ; Dr. A. E. Winship, of Boston, Massachusetts; Charl O. Wil- liams, legislative secretary of the National Education Association ; Mrs. Jessie M. Fink ; John L. Bracken ; Dr. William B. Owen ; J. W. Crabtree; S. D. Shank- land; Arthur S. Gist ; George A. Beers ; Mary McSkimmon; Anna Laura Force ; J. D. Williams ; Miss Margaret McCooey; Mrs. Fred Hunter ; and Mrs. W. B. Owen. The qualifications of the Chicago principals make them a select group. Each must be a university graduate, and in addition must successfully pass a special examination for the principalship. Thus Chicago assures itself the best in way of preparation and scholarship. That this highly specialized group has formed a professional association for the advancement of the principalship and the adequate recognition of its responsibil ities and possibilities is an outstanding accomplishment. The eyes of all the sister clubs of this country are upon it and are rejoicing in its success . Don C. Rogers has demonstrated his efficiency in the report appearing in this issue of the Bulletin. It will serve as a pattern for many a smaller club and undoubtedly be the means of effectively answering some of the stupid laymen who beset our budgets and who are actually incapable of analyzing a situation or properly interpreting a scientific analysis when presented. The hospitality extended by the Chicago Clubs will long be among our most pleasant memories. The Chicago Principals' Club gave a charming reception to this Department at the Chicago Art Institute, Monday evening, February 25. The Ella Flagg Young Club is an organization of women principals in Chicago. Miss Isabel Dolton is the president. The Ella Flagg Young Club entertained thirty-five delegates with a ride over the boulevards of Chicago and a most charming tea at The Edgewater Beach Hotel. Saturday afternoon, at Mandel's Ivory Room at a beautifully appointed luncheon, the Club again entertained Miss Olive M. Jones, president of the National Education Association, Miss Sara Rhodes, president of the New York Principals' Club, and Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, secretary of the Department of Elementary School Principals . A constant flow of wit, humor, and wisdom for three hours kept the large as- semblage in a state of delight. Every section of the country was represented and brilliantly did the delegates acquit themselves. Not a stock story nor a stupid thing was enunciated ; everything was alive and up to the minute. There was a radiance of brightness that was truly refreshing. Peace and brotherly love abounded. The custom has been established to make these events annual, and certainly nothing can do more to bring us to a greater understanding of our individual and collective aims than these discussions under such auspicious cir- cumstances . The Officers' Luncheon The officers of the Department met at a luncheon at the Hotel La Salle Tuesday noon. Present at this luncheon were President W. T. Longshore, Secretary Jessie M. Fink, Executive Committee members Anna Laura Force and Mary McSkim- DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 547 mon; First Vice-President J. D. Williams; Third Vice-President George A. Beers , and Editor of the current Yearbook Arthur B. Gist. The subject of the Fourth Yearbook came in for discussion and suggestions were in order. The advisability of an Editorial Council for the Bulletin was presented by the Secretary and favorably considered by the Board. Itwas moved and seconded that an organization of a Department of Elementary School Principals be organized in every State association on the same basis as is organized the Department of Elementary School Principals in the National Educa- tion Association. Carried. Our Department has had a phenomenal growth. It is now nearly four thousand strong. It has been doing constant work in the matter of the status of the principal . This meeting brought out the fact that several cities of the country have solved the vexed question of supervisors. Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis, Oakland, Seattle, Duluth, and others gave evidence of their satisfaction. That the principal in these cities is unhampered in supervision and adequately recognized, is a step in the ultimate adjustment of the less favored localities. That superintendents the country over are agreeing with our point of view is a thing in itself for con- gratulation. It only goes to show that when our premises are sound and then effectively presented a way for their incorporation into a policy is immediately opened up. The Chicago Principals' Club, of which Miss Rose Pesta is president, is unique. This Club is a National inspiration. When we can so believe in a cause as to pay thirty dollars for annual membership dues in it, we may hope to stand for some of the things that does the Chicago Principals' Club. Don C. Rogers is the special secretary of this organization. His is the research and statistical work. Retained for his services he is alive to the activities of all similar organizations and keeps the Bulletin in constant touch with the field of his endeavors . This Club has principals of all departments in its membership-that is, ele- mentary, junior high, and senior high school. A pace was set us by Payson Smith and Olive M. Jones that will keep us step- ping right along for the next few months and possibly years. Every time either of them enunciated a syllable it was one of inspiration, of virility, ennobling, quickening our faith in our vocation and filling our hearts with a deep sense of gratitude for the opportunity which is ours to serve. Our own President, W. T. Longshore, provided our Department with a program unsurpassed, if ever equalled, and to him we owe a debt of appreciation. Upon every program he represented us not only in our sessions, but also in those of the various activities. At every great dinner we ( vicariously) sat at the tables of the great. Our Department is at the front line of active service. It is growing daily in importance and numbers. New avenues of endeavor are constantly opening up to us and we must be ready to respond to every call. Community singing was led by Mr. John Beattie, supervisor of music in the schools of Grand Rapids, Michigan. NOTE. Several of the addresses, given at the Chicago and Washington meetings are published in the April and October Bulletins of the Department of Elementary School Principals. 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE RIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF COÖPERATION BETWEEN THE PRINCIPAL AND SUPERVISORS -THE CHICAGO PLAN MARGARET MADDEN, PRINCIPAL, DOOLITTLE SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS It is very encouraging to have Chicago listed under a title which seems to imply that the right relationship of coöperation exists between the prin- cipal and the supervisor. It really does. At least the coöperation is as perfect as it is humanly possible to make it, for the principal is the super- visor. If I were to adhere to the subject as printed on the program- A Case Study of How It Was Worked Out and Is Working Out in Chicago-I should simply have to take one school and show you how the principal as general manager of the school gets along with himself as supervisor. It would make an interesting study, I believe, for, after all, it is the real problem of the Chicago principal. His responsibilities are so numerous and varied that as supervisor he is constantly asserting to his other self: " I will not be set aside. I am the most important person on the premises. This building, the desks, the supplies, the teachers, the engineer, the reports, you, and all of your other work put together exist for one purpose that John Smith and Mary Jones may have as nearly as possible an equal opportunity for the best and most desirable growth as citizens of this republic, and it is my business to see that they receive it." Some- times the supervisor wins out and sometimes the general manager, but for the most part a very harmonious relation exists . Mr. Longshore has indicated, however, that I am to tell how the Chicago schools are supervised. He has dignified the procedure by the name " The Chicago Plan. " It is not so much a plan, for that implies a certain amount of elaborateness, as a vital theory. The theory in our city is that the principal is in the fullest sense the responsible head of the school. The rules of the Board of Education explicitly state his position in the following words: Principals of schools are the responsible administrative heads of their respective schools, and are charged with the organization, supervision, and administration thereof. They shall establish and enforce such regulations not contrary to the Rules of the Board of Education or the regulations of the Superintendent of Schools as may, in their judgment, be needed for the successful conduct of their schools. It would be difficult to imagine a regulation giving greater freedom and at the same time demanding a more responsible accounting of stewardship than the above. It might be necessary to add that it is a living rule, not simply a paper regulation which reads well but fails to function in a specific instance. It is based on the belief that each school is a unit having special problems, which differ radically often from those of other schools in the system. The principal is deliberately invested with large powers in the expectation that in this way he will develop the initiative, judgment. and feeling of complete responsibility necessary to make of him an intelli- DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 549 gent leader of the community, a professional expert responsible for the educational aims and procedure within his school, as well as a successful manager of a large organization having not only its human, but also its business side. Of all of these phases of the principal's work the one in which we are especially interested is that having to do with the supervision of instruc- tion. For this, the principal is entirely responsible. There are, strictly speaking, no subject supervisors to relieve him of his responsibility. There are, however, special teachers of music and art, expert teachers of these subjects who go from school to school, but their function, as the name indicates, is that of special teacher rather than supervisor. They never, for example, rate the teachers. I would not have you understand that they invariably take the class while the teacher sits by and observes for the simple reason that that is not always the most helpful thing to do. Their work is coördinated throughout the city by the Supervisor of Music and Art, respectively, whose duties are largely administrative and who rarely have time to visit the schools. The special teachers are responsible to the principal while in the building and work under his direction and through him. In this connection, it may interest you to know that at the present time the Course of Study Committee of the Chicago Principals' Club is work- ing on the course of study in art, music, manual training, and household arts. The supervisors of these subjects, who have heretofore made the courses in these special branches, are working with the committee, giving their hearty coöperation to the effort of the principals to make these sub- jects, where necessary, a more harmonious part of the curriculum. Although the work of the principal is often exceedingly difficult, almost overpowering especially in some sections of the city, it does not occur to the average principal to regard his responsibility for the entire conduct of the school as an unwelcome burden. On the contrary, he guards it jealously, is restive under any arrangement which divides his authority and works hard to remove any condition which interferes with his grasp of the total situation. To mention only one instance-innumerable difficulties arose when the city playgrounds in connection with the schools were independent of the organization of the school and the supervision of the principal. Now that they are regarded as an integral part of the school these difficulties have disappeared and although their adoption has added to the responsibility of the principal he rejoices because practically the last division of authority on the school premises has passed. This feeling is not the result of any empty desire for authority, but is an outcome of his firm conviction and experience that any other arrangement is not in accord with the best in- terests of the school. It is evident that such a conception of the principalship as I have out- lined provides at the same time great possibilities for development or for deterioration. This much is certain: in either outcome the responsibility is 550 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION squarely placed. On the whole, it is probable that given a high standard in the way of qualification for appointment the balance will be on the favorable side. The very confidence placed in the principal for the suc- cessful professional leadership of his school is a challenge to him to keep informed of what is going on all over the country in the field of education- the questioning of traditions, objectives, methods and materials of instruc- tion; the latest modern developments in the teaching of reading, or spell- ing; the analysis of difficulties in arithmetic; the insistence upon the im- portance of purpose; of the attention to outcomes in the formation of habits and attitudes all of these things and much more must be part of his working knowledge if he is to lead. He must know how to enlist the interest of his teachers in these problems; must know how to lead them professionally; how to organize them to work coöperatively for the realiza- tion of worthy common objectives. If he does these things he grows and his school grows-pupils as well as teachers. If he does not, his school deteriorates, and so does he. ( You may well ask: Is there no means of making sure that this deteriora- tion may not take place ? Is it not possible that the principal, however carefully selected, may fail to measure up to the requirements of his posi- tion? How is the superintendent to know whether each school is meeting its problems effectively ? Unless these questions can be answered satis- factorily the system is surely open to the criticism of laxity, if not worse. It is obvious that in a city as large as Chicago or even half as large, the superintendent cannot come into personal touch with the schools enough to know them thoroughly. It is not necessary that he should. Whatever provision he may make for city-wide tests such as are given from time to time in this city, he knows that these indicate only one side of the school work. Although, too, the central office is in a position to make a study and draw conclusions from statistics on retardation, subject failures, etc., the one in charge of this work knows that even these read differently in the light of local conditions. Another means must be provided to enable the superintendent to know whether all is going well in the city schools for which he is responsible. To meet this necessity as well as for other obvious reasons, the city is divided into ten districts each in charge of a district superintendent selected from among the principals by the superintendent of schools. The work of the district superintendent is necessarily not so clearly defined as that of the principal. The rules of the Board of Education provide simply that "The district superintendents shall do and perform such duties as shall from time to time be assigned to them by the Superintendent of Schools." This, you see, is an extremely elastic clause which makes it possible for the superintendent to enlarge or curtail the responsibilities of the district superintendents and to alter the character of their work in accordance with his particular policies. The district superintendent is thus in one sense a deputy of the superintendent. It has been the custom for him to visit the schools in his district (25 or 30) so as to be thoroughly DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 551 informed at first hand of the conditions in each school. I have never seen his duties explicitly stated in writing, but I judge from personal observa- tion and experience that he is expected to know whether the principal is solving his problems-administrative and educational-efficiently, and to point out to him, if necessary, where a specific action is not in accordance with the general policies of the superintendent on the side of organization and administration, and in what respects the school as a whole is not up to the standard. I have stated the negative side because it may be assumed that he en- courages by his interest and commendation the good things he sees. By means of individual conferences and regular monthly meetings with the principals of the district, he endeavors to improve the educational pro- cedure in their schools. This is done sometimes by talks on the part of the district superintendent himself, but more frequently by round-table discussions of specific phases of curriculum and method or other problems of common concern. These meetings have proved distinctly and prac- tically helpful to all of us. To give a typical example: one district super- intendent has found that a powerful means of improving instruction in the various schools is the pooling of information and exchanging of ideas within the group. In accordance with this idea the principals of the dis- trict have been organized into committees to study means of improving the teaching of geography, history, English, and arithmetic. The com- mittee necessarily limited their work to some phase or grade. One group, for example, selected 4B geography because of the problem of teaching. without a textbook; another 8B history because of a distinctly new con- tent and the difficulty which the teachers found in securing material to which the pupils might have access. When the reports were presented, principals, instructors at normal schools, and grade teachers took part in the program, and the teachers of the grades concerned as well as the principals were present. The dis- cussions and the wealth of concrete material collected by the committee for the sake of illustration were very stimulating. For the most part the Chicago principals have been thrown upon their own resources, with the result that they have voluntarily taken up the study of their own problems. This, I believe, is the direct outcome of the policy of making the principal, unaided by special supervisors, re- sponsible for the supervision of instruction. You will find one group of the Principals' Club-for example, working on the course of study. You will hear heated arguments, points of view challenged and de- fended with passionate earnestness. You will see another group diligently and carefully going over supplementary reading material ; evaluating it ; rejecting some and stating their reasons, and recommending others to the superintendent for use in the schools. You will see another group doing the same for textbooks; another preparing a report for general distribu- tion on some problem of supervision. Some of you have received the first of these published reports. Another group at the present time has just 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION completed an excellent piece of work, outlining in considerable detail ways of organizing the administrative duties of the principal so as to allow him more time for supervision ; another is preparing a questionnaire, giving for the benefit of all principals concrete examples of good super- vision in the Chicago schools. Only last week if you had attended a meeting of the Education Com- mittee of the Club you would have seen at least fifty principals after school hours, earnestly participating in just such work as I have indicated, as late as six o'clock at night. Remember that all this is voluntary and describes only some of the active work done by principals in the club and in groups outside of the club for the sake of helping one another to solve common problems. It would be out of place here to describe other numerous investigations and activities going on among the principals on the side of administration, legislation, community work, school architecture, etc. I have spoken of the work on educational problems to show that the Chicago principal is alive to his professional responsibilities and that this "aliveness" has prob- ably come from the fact so much is expected of him that he must keep abreast of what is going on if he expects to hold the confidence that has been placed in him. SECRETARY'S MINUTES WASHINGTON MEETING Thursday afternoon, July 3, the business meeting of the Department of Elementary School Principals was held. It was called to order by Presi- dent W. T. Longshore, who with the consent of the members assembled. omitted the reading of the minutes of the last meeting, since they had been previously published in the October BULLETIN of 1923. The report of the treasurer, Courtland V. Davis, showed a balance on hand of $907.00. A motion was made by Mr. Williams of Birmingham, Alabama, that the report of the treasurer be adopted. Motion carried . Mr. Williams, chairman of the Resolutions Committee, presented a number of resolutions. (See special report.) Ide G. Sargeant moved the adoption of these resolutions. Carried. In the absence of Helen B. Shove, chairman of the Nominating Com- mittee, Mrs. Marsh presented the report of this committee and moved its adoption: President, Jessie M. Fink, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Secre- tary, Ide G. Sargeant, Paterson, N. J.; Treasurer, Courtland V. Davis, Norfolk, Va.; First Vice-President, Sara L. Rhodes, New York City; Second Vice-President, John Merrill, Detroit, Michigan: Third Vice- President, H. B. Norton, Birmingham, Alabama. Member of the Executive Committee, W. T. Longshore, Kansas City, Mo. Miss Ruth Pyrtle, of Nebraska, made a motion that the secretary cast the ballot for the nominees for all offices as read. Carried. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 553 The officers for 1923-24 are as follows : President; Jessie M. Fink ( Mrs. C. E.) , Grand Rapids, Michigan . First Vice-President, Sara L. Rhodes, New York City. Second Vice-President, John Merrill, Detroit, Michigan . Third Vice-President, H. B. Norton, Birmingham, Alabama. Secretary, Ide G. Sargeant, School No. 10, Paterson, New Jersey. Treasurer, Courtland V. Davis, Stewart School, Norfolk, Virginia. Executive Committee : 1925, Mary McSkimmon, Brookline, Massachusetts. 1926, Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colorado. 1927, Luise Krauss, San Francisco, California. 1928, W. T. Longshore, Kansas City, Missouri. Amotion was made that a vote of thanks be given our retiring president tor his able and efficient service. Carried . Asimilar motion was made thanking Mr. Gist, editor of the Yearbook, for his magnificent contribution to our department. Carried. Retiring President Longshore thanked the officers and editors of the Yearbook for their loyal and untiring coöperation. The newly elected President, Mrs. Fink, was then called to the chair. and spoke of her deep sense of responsibility as this year's pilot of the Department. She bespoke the coöperation of every individual member, realizing it would be required to carry to a successful issue the numerous activities devolving upon this Department for the coming year. REPORT ON EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IDE G. SARGEANT, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 10 , PATERSON NEW JERSEY Unusual activity in the educational field is reported from all parts of the Nation. The broadening conception, by the people at large, of the part education must play in their own welfare is shown by the increased outlay for new buildings, better equipment, smaller classes, and better trained teachers. And this in the face of critics who view with alarm the ever- increasing amount appropriated for the schools. Fortunately for the public good these critics belong for the most part to a class un-American in atti- tude if not so by birth. Either because they were educated in exclusive private schools or because of their vast wealth, they have drifted out of sympathy with the common man, lack confidence in his ability to rise above a certain level and wish to train their own children in an exclusive circle wherein they cannot become contaminated by association with the children of the masses. To them, taxation to train the average child beyond what is necessary to make him an efficient cog in the industrial machinery is an unwarranted use of the taxing power. The recent utterances and reports of certain prominent individuals and leaders of large accumulations of capital justify my statement. 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This is not the attitude of our people, taken collectively. They have faith in the common man and in the public school. Just as rapidly as our school forces can demonstrate clearly the need of more money it will be granted by the taxing power. The average man has the good sense to know that our National well-being and safety depend upon an ever-ascend- ing scale in the level of general intelligence and morality. Safety of the individual and of property depends upon this. The public school is the instrument by which it must be done. For this reason it must be made as efficient and complete as human ingenuity can devise. For this reason the school forces must organize, study, and clearly set forth by suitable publicity what the needs of the schools are. It is our business. We are the paid agents of our people to do this work. It is our part to lay bare the truth. Do this and we shall have the most generous support. No department of school work has shown a greater awakening to the possibilities lying before us through proper organization and coöperation than the Elementary School Principals. It may be well to review some of the information coming to our committee from the principals throughout the Nation. Chicago principals assess themselves $30 annually in dues and employ a secretary to carry on needful activities in connection with their school work. Seattle principals paid the expenses of their president to the Department of Superintendence meeting in Chicago last winter. His expenses were also paid while he was making a survey of the schools at Denver, Sioux City, Chicago, Minneapolis, and Spokane. Boston is working out a plan for citizenship training based on the following outline : I. A study of the characteristics resulting from the development of the funda- mental virtues . II. A study of the characteristics resulting from adjustment of life work to native endowment. III. A study of characteristics resulting from the developed capacity for the right use of leisure . Detroit and Kansas City report remarkable work with the platoon form of organization. Pittsburgh's most outstanding progressive accomplishment was the estab- lishment of a vocational trade school. Courses leading to a trade are now offered in shoe repairing, tailoring, auto mechanics, carpentry, printing, machinist, and electricity, with other courses in preparation. Pre-voca- tional centers were established to care for the over-age and retarded pupil. The platoon school idea has resulted in the changing of many traditional organizations into platoon schools. There has been an extension of centers for mental deviates and the Board of Education has just launched a five- million-dollar building program for junior and senior high schools. Philadelphia shows magnificent progress in educational growth along scientific lines. Beginning last year, they selected twenty-four schools to reorganize on DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 555 the basis of grouping by intelligence. Each grade was broken up into three groups, (a) composed of those pupils who, as a result of an intelli- gence test, supplemented by the opinion of the teacher and the principal, proved the ablest; (b) , the next ablest section ; and ( c) the third ablest section of the grade. Of course, this is only possible where a school is large enough to break up the grades into three groups. The result has beenhighly satisfactory to teachers, children, and parents. There has been very little criticism of the plan, and we are considering its further exten- sion. In September, Philadelphia will establish a new type of institution, in the form of a demonstration school. This will be a full- sized elementary school, fully equipped, and manned with picked teachers who will be placed on a special salary intended to attract only the best. The classes will be of normal size, the children will be the "run of the mill." The object of this school is to demonstrate through daily activities the possibilities of our course of study as developed by picked school teachers. This school is to help young teachers and others who need to observe good teaching and our course of study exemplified at its best. We hope to get a good deal of professional stimulus from this experiment. Philadelphia is one of the first of the largest cities definitely to adopt the 6-3-3 plan as a city-wide organization. We are not utilizing abandoned elementary schools for junior high schools but we are building new build- ings which cost from $800,000 to $1,000,000 each and which are especially adapted to the purpose. In addition to three elementary school-buildings which were converted into junior high schools, we have now five specially built junior high schools in operation. These accommodate about eighteen hundred pupils each and are confined strictly to the work of the seventh , eighth, and ninth years. Every convenience in the way of equipment is provided, and specially trained teachers form the faculties. This fact is recognized by the salary schedule with a maximum of $2800. In the fall we shall open four more such schools. We are completing plans for the construction of about twenty-four. A teachers' council, known as the Philadelphia Public School Council, has been successfully established and is operating very well, indeed. The purpose of this council is to facilitate the coöperation of the teachers with the administration and to assist in the solution of problems which affect the welfare of the teachers. Grand Rapids has accomplished some excellent work along Americaniza- tion lines. Her policy of registering the name, the street address, and mak- ing a personal call on every foreigner within her boundaries explains how it is done. She declares that the success of her plan depends on three fac- tors, namely: (a) A board of education who is willing to authorize sufficient classes to take care of the enrollment. (b) A well organized parent-teachers' association throughout the city. (c) A good organizer to enlist the coöperation of a community in this project, for it is a community affair. 556 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Her citizenship classes show a gain of 699 in attendance in 1923 over the number in attendance in 1922. Her work along orthopædic lines is hardly less remarkable. The Mary Free Bed Guild, cares for an average of five hundred patients a year in its clinic. This Guild has certainly set a pace for a community organiza- tion. Paterson's notable achievements in the educational field has been the replacement of her old elementary schools by new buildings, representing an outlay of several millions and the building this year of a girls' high school at the cost of a million and a half. These institutions have all that is best in school architecture and equipment. She has also established a school for the crippled and blind. Her salary schedule for teachers places her among the few leading cities of the Nation. She is one of the pioneers in appointing one of her own teachers a member of the board of education, and this teacher has been a marked success as a board member. A feature at Schenectady that deserves more than passing notice has been the establishment of six centers for intermediate or junior high schools. Although in operation less than a year her superintendent reports the following gains : The pupils now have real joy in doing school work ; better teaching has resulted from the introduction of the intermediate school ; overloading by older pupils is now very rare ; discipline is easier and better; better scholarship; pupils stay in school at least one year longer; this type of school affords greater opportunity to develop leadership; good citizenship is emphasized in the most practical way that is, by actual practice; super- vised study lessons and often the elimination of home study; and more and better training is now given in the practical arts and in the fine arts. When we consider that the cities I have mentioned are but a type of the large number in this broad land who are building for better things, we can see that the forces of education are becoming more aggressive and there is much hope for the better life. Many of our leading thinkers are discussing seriously the fact that in spiritual growth we have not kept pace with material inventions and dis- coveries and because of this fact we are suffering the distressful life men- tioned by H. G. Wells. What is more, other thinkers besides Mr. Wells see the only solution of our troubles in a new type of school, presided over by a new type of schoolmaster. One who is no longer shy. One who dares to be arrogant if the need be. One who is aggressive in the fight for the right. Professional organizations-The last five years have been a period of much activity among principals. During this time, both National and State organizations have been formed. These associations have committees work- ing on important problems the solution of which will do much to bring a more effective procedure into the field of public school work. We have only begun to spend money in education. Vaster and still vaster sums will go into this work as the intellectual horizon of our people broadens . But with these increased expenditures will come an added re DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 557 sponsibility to the head of the school to see that none of the money is wasted and that the advantages accruing to the school community are equal to any inthe land. No principal can meet these demands unless he actively supports the professional organizations of his group as well as the general associations. He must be familiar with the yearbooks, the bulletins, the monographs, the studies, the committee reports and the work of the various meetings. And there is no agency by which he can keep in touch with all this information except through his membership in his group association. School clerks-We have now reached the point where we must consider how we can free the principal from the waste of clerical routine and need- less consumption of his time, if he is to familiarize himself with educational publications, do effective work with his teachers and meet the demands of community projects. This can only be done through efficient organization which should begin at the office. In a study made last year by the Committee on Educational Progress of the Department of Elementary Principals, it was found that the schools of the country as a whole, were woefully poverty-stricken in office equipment, clerks and assistants for supervisory work. These are factors of vital impor- tance in enabling the principal to do the work which he is supposed to do and which he must do if he measures up to the demands being made upon him in our developing school system. Every mechanical appliance which will make more effective the time and efforts of the principal and teacher should be found in the office with a trained clerk to operate them. Not the mere office clerk of a commercial house but one who in addition to these requirements is able and willing to take care of ninety-five per cent of the official routine of the school without encumbering the principal or assistant principal with it. This clerk should have sufficient executive capacity to conserve the time of the principal for real professional work in the classes, and prevent needless interruptions and waste of his time. She should have her work well organized to ensure all necessary reports being made on time. Her records should be sufficiently complete to enable her to inform principal and teachers of meetings to be attended. And it should be a part of her work to inform them on the day of the meeting. It should be her work to note the absence of teachers and secure substitutes. She should watch the records of absence and tardiness of pupils and notify the principal immediately if any class is notably delinquent. She should be a person of sufficient judgment and good taste to turn out much work from the type- writer and duplicator in the way of outlines, new material, plans and helps, copy for which is furnished her by principal or teachers. She must have self-control, tact, a close mouth, and be courteous at all times. She should be a person who is able to give a long term of service andbe placed under tenure on the same basis as the teacher. Inasmuch as the sort of clerk which I have described will be of as much worth to the school as a teacher, her salary should be on the same schedule . I have outlined to you the kind of clerk which a school must have, if ie 558 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is to function on the same efficient basis as our successful industrial plants. If the principal is to be relieved of clerical routine to an extent that will enable him to give the major part of his time to true teacher training and enable him to function as a leader of community organizations, as our best thinkers now claim he should do, such a clerk is an imperative need. In the study cited we found there were schools in the country with the complete equipment, efficient clerk, and professional principal outlined in this talk, but this situation is not general. Who is to blame for this lack in working machinery ? The boards of education ? No. In the long run boards of education give us all that we have; the vision, organized sense, and industry to prove is needed. I dis- like to say it, but it is a fact that the fault is our own. The truth is, many principals do not know what constitutes a complete. workable office outfit for a school. Others having it do not know how to make the most effective use of it. Still others do not know how to secure the largest service from the school clerk . This association can do a valuable piece of work in outlining the organi- zation of the office routine and duties of the school clerk so as to secure the maximum of time for the principal to work with his classes. University schools of education would do well to note this need, and give a brief course on the equipment and organization of an efficient school office. Our study on educational progress has disclosed a number of problems which can only be dealt with by group action. As yet, we have not shown ourselves as skillful as we should be in con- ducting educational drives. Carefully organized drives have been found to be in the most effective way to bring any important proposition before our people, whether to be acted upon by official boards or the people themselves. It takes away all danger of personal friction. Supervisors-Our study reveals the fact that in the country as a whole, the province of the special supervisor is in a nebulous state. In some systems there is much friction and the special supervisors are a nuisance and a hinderance to educational progress. In some systems principals decline to show the coöperation necessary to make the supervisors' work the success it should be. In other systems supervisors, principals, and teachers are work- ing in perfect coöperation and securing splendid results. This is a trouble- some proposition. Principals and supervisors should get together, clear up the difficulties and work out a plan acceptable and helpful to all. In those systems where the special supervisor is functioning most efficiently, the supervisor acts exclusively as an expert adviser or instructor with no administrative powers. All administrative duties being the province of the principal. Assistant principal-We found the status of the assistant principal undefined. For many it is an empty title as they teach every period in the day with no free time for supervision. There is no definite agreement even among superintendents, as to how many teachers can be supervised effectivelyby one individual. This can be determined and should be deter DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 559 mined in the interests of the children. It should be taken up at once by our National department. Secretary, Board of Education-Within the last few years, there has been atendency on the part of secretaries of educational boards to organize them- selves into bureaucrats. In some systems they have actually usurped the powers of the superintendent, bully principals and teachers, belittle and misrepresent principals and teachers to members of the board of education and become insulting and petty tyrants. In some instances secretaries have been legislated out of office to get rid of them by retiring them on pensions . This is a matter that should be dealt with vigorously by our National and State associations. This is a very important position and it is vital to the welfare of the schools that it be filled by a high-grade broad-minded man. Class welfare-Then there are questions that deeply concern the comfort of the pupils. One of the most necessary is the reduction of the number of pupils per teacher ; no teacher can do justice to a class of more than thirty children and our people as a whole should know it. Modern apartment houses and business plants are equipped with awnings and electric fans for the comfort of the occupants. Yet in ninety per cent of our schools the south and east exposure of the building are without awnings, rooms without fans with teachers and children sweltering in the heat of early summer and fall. It is a mystery why some humane society has not taken up the matter of this disgraceful situation . The windows on the eastern and southern side of all school buildings should have awnings and the rooms equipped with electric fans for hot weather. Common mercy to the little fellows spending so many hours there demands it. Principals, both elementary and secondary, have it within their grasp to do a work for the Nation and for civilization never before vouchsafed to any group or profession in human history. Are we ready to accept the challenge? During the year the schools have been severely criticised by such well- known publicists as H. G. Wells, Upton Sinclair, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, and Dr. Henry Pritchett. We may feel that some of these writers have indulged in poetical license and overdrawn our faults, but all of us well informed know that they have a substantial basis for their assertions . It isuseless for us to play the ostrich and hide our faces. We are confronted by cold facts. "The Goslings," by Upton Sinclair, pictures conditions in the schools that are not only cruel, shameful, and disgraceful but extremely dangerous to the body politic if true. For us to ignore or attempt to dismiss his charges as the work of a sensation monger, shows us to be lacking both in the self-respect and the intelligence to grasp its psychological effect upon the public and the rank and file of the teaching corps. A strong committee of this department should be appointed and properly financed to go to the bottom of the matter. If Upton Sinclair has lied then his untruth should be laid bare. If he has told the truth and the "black hand" and crooked 560 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION politics have the schools by the throat, it should be blazoned from the housetops until the people arise in their wrath and drive the malefactors from the temple of childhood divorcing the schools forever from every- thing but honest administration. Because it overemphasized the growing expenditures for public educa- tion and gave utterance to a discreditable babyish wail about increased taxes therefor, the eighteenth Report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching aroused intense hostility, and greatly lessened the effectiveness of its many excellent assertions, suggestions and con- clusions. A careful reading of this report has convinced me that a com- mittee of our department could do a valuable piece of work for the schools, by giving this report a careful study, separate its vagaries from its truth, and make their own report thereon at our winter meeting. The most important single element of gain to education during the last five years has been the collapse of the idea that there should be a close analogy between the school system and the military system; with its grada- tions of rank; its feudal notion of loyalty to the chief rather than to the welfare of the community; its tradition that all information about the schools should come from the head of the system, and that any expression of views, or the exercise of initiative by a school worker below the rank of superintendent is a species of insubordination. The imperialistic idea of organization for American schools, as for American business, was an impor- tation from the old world and has been a heavy handicap to American progress. It has made of teachers the "shy and specialized class," cited by Wells. It has made possible, the wrongs suffered by teachers; their bitterness, and has created the despicable double-faced sycophants in some of the principalships pointed out by Upton Sinclair.. In many systems it endangered one's position and future for one to express an original idea, unless credit was given to the " chief. " The deflation of this imperialistic notion is giving us a superintendent of larger calibre, one really a leader by right of merit, one who resembles the expert chairman of a board of directors in a big business enterprise. Principals are getting away from the "cog-automaton" type and developing into real educational leaders. Teachers are sitting in council with principals and superintendents, writing courses of study; rules for the government of schools and becoming mem- bers of school boards. Already the democratic idea has given us more courageous and better trained teachers. It has brought a single salary schedule with equal pay for equal attainment in many systems . Teacher recruiting-The biggest task ahead is the proper organization of the school forces and creating an esprit de corps. Much as we have done in this line we are still far from being on as effective a basis as the need requires. Not only must teachers be aroused to the call of our time but the public must be thoroughly informed of the needs. America must be made to see that it is not merely schools for children for which we are pleading but public safety. The shocking case of Leopold and Loeb in Chicago, and the Cooneys in New York, are a thundering challenge to the DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 561 virility of school and community. We cannot evade our responsibility if we would. It is not education in the three R's alone but the safety of life and property for which we are working. Thousands of classes are without teachers or properly trained teachers . Children are growing up in ignorance of the verities. This summer at the military camps our Government will spend thousands in training young men for war. Is our danger of invasion by a foreign foe as great as our danger from the Loebs, the Leopolds, the Cooneys, the bandits, the con- ditions disclosed by the oil investigations and the booze hounds ? Why not establish great summer camps for teachers, similar to the military camps, where large numbers of our best young men and women can be brought together to give them training, arouse their enthusiasm and aid recruiting for teaching ? If we are going to induce the grade of ability, which we must have, to enter the work of teaching, the whole attitude of this Nation must be changed toward the work. The financial value of the position; its stand- ing in the eyes of the community as compared with other callings ; the respect which citizens generally have for teachers as being persons of sound sense and practical judgment, need to be greatly changed, if our young men and women are to enter the work with the same avidity and enthusiasm as they enter law, medicine, and business. What could do more to arouse the imagination of the Nation, to the magnitude and impor- tance of education than for the United States Government to establish great summer school camps throughout the Nation for the training of teachers as is now done for embryonic soldiers at summer military camps? Bring to these summer schools for teacher-training as instructors the best the country can offer in the way of inspiration and understanding of the Nation's problems and possibilities. For the parent it would mean a teacher of the right kind for his children. For the capitalist it would mean a teacher capable of teaching the value of property rights. For labor it would mean a teacher able to train the coming generation in a proper understanding of what constitutes justice and its absolute necessity to any permanent adjustment of the difficulties between labor and capital. THE SCHOOL LIBRARY JOY E. MORGAN , MANAGING EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL AND DIRECTOR OF THE DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS , NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To discover, to formulate, to diffuse knowledge-these are the methods ofhuman progress. To discover and formulate knowledge have come to be the task of great universities and of far-flung laboratories maintained by governments and private corporations. The discovery and formulation of knowledge have moved so much more swiftly than its diffusion that there is an appalling gap between the lives of intelligent men and their ignorant neighbors. One finds side by side lives regulated by intelligence and those 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION still groping blindly in the mire of prejudice and ignorance. To bridge this gap is the task of education. It is the biggest task that man knows. Itis the task that Wells had in mind when, referring to the present "age of confusion," he wrote that "the race is between education and catas- trophe. " Education is the first and last duty of society-not alone the education of children, but the education of all the people all the time. When we speak of education we are too inclined to think of the school and of universal compulsory education on the elementary level. Such education is necessary for the realization of Christ's vision of the brother- hood of man and the gospel of service-conceptions in which are rooted the finest things of modern society. But elementary education is only the beginning-a small beginning indeed when compared to the vast stores of intellectual and spiritual riches that the race has accumulated and is adding to, minute by minute. The elementary school at best can teach only the simplest beginnings of knowl- edge and form the habits and attitudes which will carry the youth into the richer and growing realms that lie beyond its doors. The moral obligation to be intelligent has never been greater than now. It is the task of intelligence to guard, to preserve, to increase, and to trans- mit the institutions and the ideals that have been dearly bought by the generations behind us. To build into the life of the child an appreciation of the moral obligation to be intelligent and the desire to be intelligently right is the greatest task of the elementary school. This is a matter of attitude, of inspiration, of example, of atmosphere, of the nobility of the teacher. The next task of the elementary school is to equip the child with the techniques and the tools which are necessary to the intelligent life- to teach him how to maintain a program of continued development which will carry him forward and upward. In practice these two tasks of the school are not performed separately. The child comes to value the precious obligation to be intelligent by actually living and working in an atmosphere of enlarging intelligence. It is to provide that atmosphere that the school library exists. Seen in this light the tremendous significance of its task becomes apparent. It is a task that cannot be adequately met merely by a collection of books. It is a task that requires living personality. As the teacher is the heart of the school, the librarian is the very soul of that atmosphere of intelligence of searching after inspiration and truth-without which the library is a deadly thing. Because it must deal with a limited segment of knowledge, the elemen- tary school tends naturally to become restricted, dogmatic, and narrow. The early teacher training institutions were drill schools in the things that teachers in turn were to drill into the minds of pupils. Little opportunity was there for that free play of intelligence which is the life of education- for that spontaneous adventuresome quest of knowledge which finds its highest exemplification in the true scientist. What the free pursuit of knowledge means in the life of a man is brilliantly shown in the delightful personal story of Michael Pupin in his DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 563 recent book, From Immigrant to Inventor. He is carried along in an unusually happy and fruitful life by the free pursuit of intellectual ad- venture. Let us realize that all the rudimentary things that the child needs to learn can be taught without sacrificing this free pursuit; yea, can be taught better by using it as a motive power. In olden days the rod was the symbol of the teacher and teaching was often a brutal business. Competition, ratings, grades, and degrees have largely supplanted the rod, and schoolmasters are beginning to have a vision of a brighter era when the child's natural urges will largely supplant com- petition, ratings, and other artificial incentives. The development of the school library is a step in that direction. It recognizes two fundamental principles of education which parents and teachers too often forget: ( 1 ) that all education is self-education, and ( 2) that education is the product of the child's experience during the entire twenty-four hours of the day. The library gives the child an opportunity to educate himself. It gives him fruitful self-imposed tasks for those hours of leisure, which may be the significant hours of his life. I wish it were possible to take the school library for granted and to suggest the books it should contain and the kind of organization and man- agement that would make it most useful. But we cannot take the school library for granted. Its place and importance are appreciated by very few. The trained school librarian is still a rarity, except in the larger cities. There are over 700,000 teachers in the United States. The best practice indicates that there should be one librarian for every ten teachers . That would require 70,000 trained librarians. If each librarian should serve ten years that would require an annual class of new recruits number- ing 7,000 each year. Our present library training schools can supply barely one one-hundredth of that number, taking the same standards of prepara- tion for librarianship that have been established for teaching. We are indeed in a day of beginnings. Among the next steps are these. First, let every school buy more good books for children -not only story books, but books on mechanics and science and art and biography and every phase of life's activities. Second, let every school assign to some one the task of developing the library, relieving that person of all or a part of his other duties to give him time for his library opportunities. Third, let every school that can, employ on full-time a trained librarian, even if to get a trained librarian it must select its best teacher and send her at public expense to the best library school and into the best library systems for instruction, and inspiration. And finally, let there be developed adequate institutions for the training of librarians-men and women of great heart and sound mind, with love of children, with faith in humanity, with a growing sense of the importance of intelligence in every act of daily life ; leaders who can play their part in building citizens to match the great institutions and the gigantic problems of our dav. Trained and sustained intelligence for the masses of mankind everywhere is the vision of this generation. In the realization of that vision the school library, leading out into the public library, will have a larger and larger part. 564 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION DRILL IN ARITHMETIC-ABSTRACT WILLIAM MAXSON , PRINCIPAL, WHITE PLAINS , NEW YORK Arithmetic, the science of number and the art of computation, measures quantity in terms of more or less. The number relations which determine this more or less are obtained through the four processes : addition, sub- traction, multiplication, and division. Arithmetical problems are quantities expressed in language to be inter- preted or thought out and then the necessary processes performed for secur- ing the desired results. The accuracy, rapidity, and ease with which these processes can be accomplished determine the educational and commercial value of arithmetic. Inaccuracy, slowness, and difficulty in executing the fundamental opera- tions bring to the child dislike and discouragement, to the teacher a sense of failure in arithmetic teaching, and to the school system a censure from business for turning out such weak and inefficient products. The remedy is to give to the fundamental processes the thought and time that their importance demands, to start the child right, keeping in mind the ultimate object to be obtained and never allowing a method of procedure, mental or physical, to be used that will need changing later when drill practice is forming habit. Supervise closely all formative drills to see that eye, mind and hand are coördinating, producing right habits of thought and action. Train the children to harmonize their mental and physical reactions, as the physical and mental are closely interwoven. Do not allow children to take the hand off the work, look around, or go through useless motions as these detract from attention and produce distrac- tion and slowness. Use individual examples to increase the children's power and ability to perform some particular number act independently. Have them stop, when mistake is made, and work a new example which has the possibility of accuracy in it. Never force or allow drill practice to go beyond the fatigue point, nor do drill work for the sake of being busy. Finally use a system of tests that shows the steady improvement and growth of each individual child, one in which bright children may attain and get credit to the limit of their ability, unhampered by the slower ones, and the slow children may work up to their capacity, not becoming dis- couraged in the vain attempt to go beyond their present proficiency, a con- dition which never drags bright children down but brings slow ones up. Remember one may excel another but he never grows until he can excel himself. Department of Higher Education The Department of Higher Education, formerly the Department of Higher Instruction, was created in 1870 by constitutional provision, when three different National associations-the National Teachers ' Association, the American Normal School Association, and the National Superintend- ents' Association-were merged into one all-inclusive organization, with provision for general sessions and department meetings. See Proceedings of 1870, pages 214-215. Inasmuch as this field is adequately covered by other National organizations, the Department of Higher Education was discontinued by vote of the Board of Directors, July, 1924. See Pro- ceedings of 1924, page 96. Department of Immigrant Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES Washington Meeting OFFICERS Fresident-CHARLES M. HERLIHY, State Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, Department of Education, Boston, Massachusetts. VicePresident-FLORA D. SMITH, Professor of Educational Sociology, University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas. Secretary--ROBERT C. DEMING, Director of Americanization, Department of Education, Hart- ford, Connecticut. The Department of Immigrant Education was established by vote of the Representative Assembly, July 8, 1921. The first meeting was held in 1922. See Proceedings of 1921, page 460 ; Proceedings of 1922, page 905. In 1924 the name of the department was changed to Department of Adult Education. See Proceedings of 1924, page 566. The Annual Meeting of the Department of Immigrant Education of the National Education Association was held in the Oak Room of the Raleigh Hotel, Wash- ington, D. C. , on Tuesday afternoon, July 1, 1924, with about 125 in attendance. At 2:10 o'clock, President Herlihy called the meeting to order, with the follow- ing introductory remarks.. The Department of Immigrant Education is the youngest department in the National Edu- cation Association. The first meeting was held in Boston in 1922. Subsequent meetings have beenheld in Cleveland, San Francisco, and Chicago. Reporting professionally on the work of our department since the San Francisco meeting in 1923. I am glad to be able to state that there have been two upstanding developments: ( 1 ) Official recognition of our work by the Department of Superintendence was given, this year, on the program of the Chicago conven- tion in February. (2) The membership campaign resulted in securing approximately 200 paid-up members from six or seven states in the Union. This number is a good beginning. [565] 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Next year we should be able to enroll at least 500 of the several thousand teachers engaged in Americanization work. Every member will receive a complete report of the papers pre- sented at the two meetings on July first and third. The splendid exhibit here was arranged and mounted by Miss Aiton, Mrs. Kiernan, and several Washington teachers. The exhibit will remain in place during the convention, and you are urged to bring your friends to see this complete display of Americanization material. The enrolment of adult immigrants in public school classes this year is estimated at 200,000, Wherever State education leadership has been provided, one finds a flourishing program. Twelve states have organized Americanization divisions in the State Department of Education. Obviously the imperative need of the hour is for similar action in every State having an adult population native or foreign needing school help in learning how to speak, read and write English and in preparing for citizenship. The success of the programs of immigrant education that have been conducted during the past several years, justifies the immediate expansion of such work under Federal, State, and local school departments. There is no more important need confronting the school people in Americanization than that of securing adequate educational leadership in the Federal Bureau of Education or in the reorganized Federal Department of Education. This is a task to which we must allbe committed during the coming school year. The following resolutions were then taken up in order, discussed, moved, and voted, and a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of Marguerite Burnett, of Dela- ware, Isabelle MacLean, of Lynn, Mass., and W. C. Smith, of Albany, N. Y., was appointed to consider all resolutions for transmittal to the National Education Association. Resolutions submitted to the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association. Relating to the Literacy Test ( reading and writing English understandingly) as a qualification for citizenship, and also as a qualification for voting. The U. S. Census of 1920 shows approximately 4,900,000 not literate in any language ; another 1,000,000 or more, though speaking our language, are unable to read and write English. There is no provision in the present naturalization law requiring ability to read and write English understandingly as a qualification for citizenship. Moreover most States have no such reading and writing require- ments for voting and the native born illiterate citizen, numbering 4,333,111 could, through their combined vote, swing any National election. Such a condition is inexcusable in a democracy, and causes ignorance of, and indifference to, our Government, laws, and institutions. We, therefore, urge upon the Congress and the President, the wisdom of re- quiring the ability to read and write English understandingly, as an additional qualification for citizenship, and that such a test be administeredby the Federal agencies already in existence, the Bureau of Naturalization and the Bureau of Education. We further recommend to such States as are not already provided with a literacy test for voting, that they adopt a test of reading and writing English under- standingly, to be administered by the educational authorities of the State. RESOLVED: That the name of the Department of Immigrant Education be changed to "De partment of Adult Education." It is understood that the functions of the new department shall include the activities in the field of education for those native and foreign born adults who need instruction in the fundamental elementary subjects. RESOLVED: That the National Education Association endorse the appointment of a specialist in adult education in the Federal Bureau of Education, or in the Department of Education when organized. RESOLVED. That State Departments of Education be urged to appoint school supervisors of adult education. The President then appointed the following Auditing Committee: Mary F. Potter, Susan P. Moulton, and Lillian Clark. The business meeting then adjourned . At 2:40 P.M. the departmental program began. On Thursday afternoon, July 3, 1924, the business meeting of the department was called to order at 3:45 o'clock, following the conclusion of the program. About 125 people were present. An oral report of the secretary was received, and the report of the treasurer, Miss Thorngate, was read as follows : DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 567 RECEIPTS Amount received for membership dues ....... $177.00 DISBURSEMENTS Printing programs for Superintendent's Department, N. Ε. Λ....... $14.75 Rubber stamps 2.45 Postage Stamps 2.00 Expenses of secretary's office 21.51 Total $40.71 40.71 Balance on hand.. $ 136.29 The report of the Auditing Committee was as follows and the report was ac- cepted. This is to certify that the auditing committee has today (July 2, 1924) examined the ac- counts of the treasurer, Miss Thorngate, and has found them to be correct. The Nominating Committee then reported the following officers in nomination : President-Mr. Charles M. Herlihy ; Vice- President-Miss Flora D. Smith; Secre- tary-Mr. Robert C. Deming ; Treasurer-Miss Ella Thorngate. Upon vote, the secretary was instructed to cast one ballot in favor of these officers and they were so elected and the report accepted. W. C. Smith, for the Resolutions Committee, announced the approval of the National Education Association of the change of name of the department to De- partment of Adult Education. The literature circularized by the Interpreter Magazine was then described, and it was moved and voted that the department subscribed as an organization member. The President then announced two new available textbooks . The motion was moved, recorded, and voted that an Exchange Bulletin for ex- change suggestions be financed and circularized among the members, and that a committee for this purpose be appointed by the chair. It was moved by Miss Burnett that the Committee on Research and Teaching Problems be continued for the coming year, and it was so voted. The meeting then adjourned: OUTLOOK FOR IMMIGRANT EDUCATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION JOHN J. TIGERT , UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Public education is not a matter of age, sex, or race. Ignorance is an evil, no matter where it exists, nor whence it comes. The education of immigrants who reside in this country in compliance with laws is the duty of the States of the Union for precisely the same reasons and in precisely the same manner as the education of those whose ancestors came here gen- erations ago from Europe, Asia, and Africa. The twenty-three million children of the Natión demand first considera- tion as a matter of course. Childhood is the best time for teaching, and every effort must be made to train the youth of the land for efficient and patriotic citizenship. If the full duty of the States had been done from the beginning, there would be now no problem of adult illiteracy, so far 568 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION as native citizens are concerned. But nearly three million native-born adult illiterates tell a story of wasted opportunity and of duty unperformed. That stigma upon American civilization must be removed, and that quickly. Just as the States of the Nation allowed nearly three million of their own people to enter upon full adult citizenship without education, so the Nation as a whole has permitted nearly two million adults of foreign birth to become American citizens without even the minimum of education. The problem which must be solved, therefore, is to provide education in some degree for nearly five million adults. It is immaterial for practical purposes how they happened to be here-whether they grew here or came here. The duty is the same. The mass of ignorance is with us, and it is hanging over us like a pall. It must be removed. The only difference in dealing with the parts of the problem is in the manner of procedure. To teach an adult who speaks no English differs in detail from teaching an adult who does speak it. It involves time, patience. and skill, but it is a duty that must be performed, nevertheless, difficult though it may be. Even those new citizens who have been educated in their own countries must learn our language and become imbued with our traditions and ideals. Many of them have come to us for economic oppor- tunities which were denied to them in European countries. We have no occupational castes; we desire none. Elementary education gives the tools for occupational freedom, among which the basic ones are language and number. We desire that our new citizens have access to secondary educa- tion as well, including both academic and vocational opportunities. The better education of immigrants is a cause worthy of our best efforts, and presents problems whose solution tests the mettle of American educators. The attitude of the United States Bureau of Education toward the education of immigrants differs in no particular from its attitude toward the removal of ignorance in any other form. It is prepared to go to the full extent of its abilities in rendering that aid. In accordance with its traditions, its aid must be confined to suggestion and information. In the past, a division of immigrant education was maintained, and specialists were employed to give personal assistance when it was demanded. but that service was discontinued after the close of the World War seemed to make it less necessary. To reestablish it would require Congressional action. We have, however, from time to time, published bulletins intended to help those engaged in this specialized work, and we are prepared to con- tinue to do this as appropriate manuscripts are presented to us and as funds are available for the purpose. As much more will be done as the Congress will permit us to do. It is a proper function of the Bureau to undertake this work, and we are anxious to do it. DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 569 TYPES OF IMPORTANT RACIAL INFORMATION WHICH TEACHERS OF AMERICANIZATION SHOULD POSSESS- ABSTRACT ALBERT E. JENKS , NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, WASHINGTON , D. C. Very correctly the Americanization worker has come to recognize that his task has a genuine scientific foundation. A fundamental part of this consists of objective knowledge concerning the groups of peoples with whom he works. We must avoid the too frequent errors of minimizing the importance of mental, ethnic, and national groups ; and the primitive conception that differences between human groups are sure marks of inferiority. The goal of universal likeness among groups of peoples is one impossible of attainment, and further, it is a false goal. The goal is for each group, without fail, to add its contribution to the ever richer and more varied peoples and cultures of developing humanity. The American National group has already started to perfect its con- tribution, namely, that of an ever-developing democracy guaranteed to its citizens by written legal procedure. So the Americanization worker needs to know those biological, political, economic, social, and cultural types of facts about our immigrant groups which will enable the worker to assist the immigrant most quickly and happily to add at his best level his contributions to this Nation which he came to help perfect. It must be remembered that persons from these many groups of immi- grants are not soulless pawns to be picked up at will and placed here and there. Each comes from a vital group of people which, perhaps, for thou- sands of years, has had its physical and cultural personality. Each of these old-world groups has developed its own physical type. Each has developed an economic process and a government, to provide its needed food and protection. Each has developed its philosophies, sciences, arts, and education to feed its ravenous mind. Also, each has developed its system of morals and religion in an attempt to satisfy its hungry soul. Each group has made, and is still making in its home nest, an important and necessary contribution to world civilization . The task of the Americanization worker is to assist the immigrant peoples to help America make her important and needed contribution. 570 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SOME ATTITUDES OF THE FOREIGN-BORN ON THEIR LIFE IN AMERICA -ABSTRACT DR. JULIUS DRACHSLER, COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK NEW YORK CITY Every teacher should have a sympathetic knowledge of the background of his pupils. At Columbia University, the teachers were asked to study their adult pupils from the point of view of their American background. From this group of pupils, about forty different definitions of Americaniza- tion were obtained. With respect to the European background of this group, the teachers learned definite facts concerning their cultural attainments and progress. It was shown that the immigrant experiences a process of cultural changes ; and it was possible to contrast one cultural group with another. Four kinds of contrasts were noted; i. e., with regard to the following: economic conditions ; leisure time; contact with Government officials; religious ex- periences. To secure this information, questionnaires in foreign languages were disseminated, asking the immigrant to report his experiences, but without giving his name and address. In this way, much information was obtained. showing the immigrant's preferences for some of his own customs, and, happily, pointing out the best on both sides of the Atlantic, with great benefit both to the immigrant and to the teachers. Such information and material should be taken into consideration when instructing the pupil. Shall we ignore the assimilation of our foreign-born ? Or shall we adopt a policy of compulsion ? Or shall we encourage rapid assimilation. making allowances for the cultural background which the immigrant brings with him? THE PATRIOTIC EDUCATION LEAGUE OF LYNN MASSACHUSETTS MRS . ISABELLE D. MACLEAN , CITY SUPERVISOR OF AMERICANIZATION LYNN, MASSACHUSETTS The permanence and healthy growth of the Lynn plan of Americaniza- tion are due to the fact that, from its very beginning, both native and foreign-born have coöperated. The Lynn plan originated during the World War and was one of the many Americanization committees, safety councils, and similar organizations created at that time. The few such organizations that have survived the receding wave of war-time sentiment owe their existence, I believe, to the fact that they were founded by rep- resentatives of both native and foreign-born who fully realized that the end of the war did not mean cessation of their activities, but rather that the reconstruction period brought greater responsibility and broader oppor- tunity for service to the whole community. DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 571 The Patriotic Education League of Lynn is an organization of foreign- born men and women who are outstanding leaders among their various compatriots. The League originated in 1918, and was known as the Lynn Americanization Committee. As a result of sentiment created by National Education Week, members of the committee expressed a desire to re- organize under a new name and with definite objectives. Accordingly , in January, 1922, the organization adopted the name "Patriotic Education League of Lynn" with the following aims: To promote education of both native and foreign-born; to bring about a better understanding of the con- tribution made by the foreign-born to American life; to encourage aliens to become citizens of the United States, and to advise and assist persons desiring to bring relatives to this country, realizing that only those pos- sessing a high standard of qualifications should be admitted for permanent residence in the United States. Membership is open to any foreign-born adult of greater Lynn. The by-laws especially provide that the city super- visor of Americanization shall be, ex-officio, a member of the league with full powers and privileges of membership; also that the supervisor shall act as the secretary of the league. Other officers are annually elected by ballot. All records and papers pertaining to the business of the league are on file at the office of the supervisor of Americanization and are at all times open to the inspection of the members of the league, to the school committee, and to the superintendent of schools. A sympathetic and intelligent understanding of racial groups, and espe- cially of the political, religious, and social reactions of the various foreign- language groups upon each other is essential to the formation of any or- ganization of native and foreign-born, if it is to function. I believe that it is impossible to select any one "racial leader" who can truly represent all of his people. Consequently the membership of our league includes at least three outstanding leaders of each so-called "racial group." Activities of the league include the following : Recruiting of pupils for Americanization classes through the distribution of information by means of posters and notices in the foreign press and announcements by the foreign clergy in the churches and synagogues ; assistance in arranging for public mass meetings; the dissemination of matters relating to immigration and naturalization laws; and endorsement of the policies of our public schools. Individual members have been of great assistance to the superin- tendent of schools and to the supervisor at various times in solving school problems involving pupils whose parents are unable to speak the English language. Members of the league have assisted in our teacher-training courses by giving lectures demonstrating the experiences, feelings, and viewpoints of the various racial groups. An important branch of the work has been a series of visits to the various city departments such as the police and fire departments, the public library, and the hospital. Cases needing advice upon citizenship and immigratior are brought to the attention of the supervisor by members of the league. Individuals have coöperated with the United States Department of Justice. 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION As a result of all these activities many harmful activities that existed in our city have been abolished; radical propaganda has been discouraged; the charging of fees for naturalization advice has been discontinued, and much of the indifference of native-born Americans has been overcome. Being a woman, I have found it possible to go into the homes of the foreign-born and to establish friendly relationship with the foreign-born mother who so often yearns for companionship and who readily responds when we talk about her babies and her home. Although a woman, I have also been able to go into the coffee houses and foreign clubs and to attend meetings of various foreign-language societies and lodges. As a friend of the people, I attend their christenings, weddings, and funerals. I am at their call every day and twenty-four hours of the day. No matter how well planned an organization may be; no matter how carefully its activities are mapped out; it will stand or fall upon the type of its leadership. I believe that it is better to attempt nothing by way of an Americanization program than to allow the wrong kind of person to attempt to bring into friendly touch the native and the foreign-born. The ideal director of the work is first of all a "good mixer." Additional essential qualifications include a sympathetic appreciation of the needs of the foreign-born, enthusiasm for service, a magnetic personality, knowledge ofOld World background of the races ; practical experience, special training in methods, and, most important of all, the possession of sensibilities so fine that one can exercise the tact required to bring into friendly relation- ship the divergent types that make up our foreign-born population. I frankly admit that it is only after several years devoted to a study of our local community conditions that I have been able to secure the loyal support of the many foreign-born leaders who coöperate in the work of the league. I firmly believe that only a public institution such as the public schools can formulate and direct the activities of an organization composed of so many varying personalities. When an organization numbers in its membership racial leaders speaking more than twenty languages ; when it brings together in friendly discussion for common good, both Jew and Gentile; when scholar and illiterate sit down together to plan an educational program; and when prejudice and misunderstanding are superseded by friendliness and loyalty to American ideals and institutions, then we may feel that we are reaching a solution of the great problem of Americanization. With humble pride we claim that the Patriotic Education League of Lynn has done all this. DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 573 SUBJECT MATTER MOST VITAL FOR THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE NON- ENGLISH-SPEAKING WOMAN TO AMERICAN LIFE MRS. ELIZABETH A. WOODWARD, SUPERVISOR OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION , ALBANY, NEW YORK No department of immigrant education requires greater attention in the immediate future than that which includes day classes for foreign-born women in the homes. If we are to hold the busy mothers in the classes until they gain a working knowledge of the necessary English, it behooves us to find out what are the interests and needs of this special group. What subject matter is required to help them make the many adjustments o American life ? We realize that in listing the following needs of foreign-born women, language is only one of the many means of adjust- ment; but it bears upon and in a measure underlies all other needs : America's appreciation of her achievements; adaptation to American customs, institutions; and ideals; opportunity for recreation and social life; the understanding of the people who deal with her children in health, school, and other local agencies or institutions; freedom from fear; oppor- tunity to share in community responsibiblity and community improvement ; a common language, and a desire to fulfill the formal qualifications for citizenship. Many of the adjustment needs just enumerated have to do with atti- tudes and experiences leading to a variety of adaptations. The pathetic part about the list is that many of our uneducated foreign-born people are often unconscious of a lack or unable to recognize it as a cause of difficulty. One duty of the immigrant education worker is to arouse the women to a consciousness of certain "shortages," either individual or racial. Adult pupils have very definite interests and are conscious of a number of reasons for learning English. But it is only recently that teachers have made a scientific study of individual or group interests and minimum essen- tials in regard to subject matter. The subject matter presented in our classes differs not only with the racial groups, but with the individuals in each class in respect to : extent and quality of old-world education; cultural ideals; length of time in the United States ; chronological age; mental age; mental attitudes which help or hinder in class work, i. e. , degree of self-confidence, hindering tradition and fears, particularly of women from southern Europe. The women who go out into industry have language needs that differ greatly from those of the women who stay at home. After a teacher becomes the American friend of the foreign-born women, she is in a position to select and develop material which meets the needs of each individual. In order to discover the specific needs of these women, a pamphlet en- titled "Topical English Achievement Test" was prepared. This pamphlet 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION represents the results of five years of State work with immigrant women. It is a compilation of subjects used in more than one hundred fifty classes of foreign-born women organized by the Emergency Committee which conducted intensive work, with twelve full-time specialists, in New York City. Dr. Albert Shiels became interested in the study and was instru- mental in having the pamphlet printed by Teachers College. Copies were sent to all cities and towns where it was known that work with immigrant women was being conducted. The teachers were requested to check the subjects listed and return marked copies for use in the preparation of a second study. The new development in this was the checking of topics as used outside of class and independent of the teacher. It was a simple matter for the teachers to check topics talked of, read, or written about in class, but how this class work was put into practical use in the daily life of the pupils was apparently more difficult to record. The text of the pamphlet was the statement of John Dewey: "Intelligence becomes ours in the degree in which we use it." The last page of the pamphlet contained suggestions to teachers for encouraging pupils to give more time to practicing their knowledge of English. The pamphlets were returned from five States : Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Ohio, Delaware, and New York. Of the number examined, 62 were from New York State, and 24 from cities in the other four States. In the pamphlets which were returned, the following things were noted: Inability of teachers to discover how much of their class work functioned in the daily lives of their pupils was indicated by failure to check the second column; this was probably due to one of three causes: Class in beginning stages of work; lack of time to know pupils outside of class; lack of scien- tific interest in the study of her subject matter. The same reasons doubt- less would account for the failure of most of the teachers to check the last page of the pamphlet dealing with the encouraging of pupils to practice English outside of the class . All of the general or introductory topics listed, including the reading of public signs, were universally recognized as valuable. Surprisingly few used lessons dealing with food or food materials; this is readily explained by the fact that many of the classes consist of Jewish people. One would have expected wider use of topics connected with clothing and the home-making arts. Marketing and shopping topics were uni- versally used; also a number of those connected with health and the school. The returns indicated that the textbooks used were probably responsible for the meagerness of topics under these heads. A large number of teachers used extensively the topics connected with the post office, journeys, living quarters, public institutions, and recreation. A great many teachers failed to record teaching of letters and notes with the exception of postal cards and notes to teachers about school children. In the miscellaneous list most teachers checked stories of our holidays, DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 575 and the names of famous men and women whose lives had been briefly taken up. Few gave selected stories from American history of subjects related to citizenship, government, and local city departments; this doubt- less indicates that the work is in its beginning stages in those cities. Several of the teachers listed the national airs and folk songs found to be interesting and appropriate, and teachers, for the Emergency Committee in New York City, gave a list of fifteen plays, which have been given by women in the English classes. Several reported that their groups had attended carefully selected movies and had assisted in the understanding of the story by the reading of sub-titles by preparation beforehand : "The Covered Wagon," "Abraham Lincoln," "Uncle Tom's Cabin," " My Country," and other movies were listed. The value of the pamphlet in my opinion is that it is an attempt to work from the standpoint of the pupil and her needs rather than from that of people not in direct contact with foreign-born women. As a scientific study of subject matter, it is a valuable beginning and not in any sense a conclusion. A few aspects not sufficiently emphasized in the pamphlet were the fol- lowing: A greater use of visual instruction by lantern slides, or educational pictures and texts on the screen should be emphasized. Greater attention to the use of libraries by the classes. The need for class and traveling libraries as well as lists of books in simple English for the women to use for their own pleasure or for reading to their children. Greater attention to story hours in English, to test the ability of the women to understand. Greater emphasis on the need for attendance at parents' meetings, or public discussions and lectures in neighborhood houses. Wider use of pictures in the notebooks, as well as useful illustrative material, such as: children's report cards; money order slips; deposit slips and checks for banks; change- of-address cards, and other local helps. More attention to excursions, not only to public institutions, but to health agencies, hospitals, schools of all kinds, playgrounds, museums, and parks. Lessons onall of these, "before and after taking," are of the greatest benefit to the home-bound women. Teachers in their school life frequently forget that interest in English has often been initiated by health agencies or settlement classes. Where this has been responsible for arousing interest, the lesson material is already indicated; i. e., hatmaking, dressmaking, cooking, canning, food for the baby, or first aid. More classes could be organized with these normal interests in the short- unit home-making courses if the field contained more people familiar with the foreign-born women. It certainly points to the need for employment of more teachers specializing in immigrant education. Dr. James Harvey Robinson points out: "The chief difficulty that adult education in all its forms encounters is the sad lack of really appropriate books. Adults have a strong and in the main quite justifiable dislike of textbooks. How, then, is the right kind of book to be supplied? 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Only by making those prepared to write such books, conscious of a crying need for them." Dr. Caroline Hedger, of Chicago, speaking of this handicapped group, says : " The alien adult woman is largely cut off from contact with native Americans by the circumstances under which she lives. We all feel acutely the need of common standards of civic righteousness, public health, and family life, but the immigrant woman cannot acquire these things when she has little or no knowledge of our tongue, and little or no chance of observing American life at its fullest and best." Until we lead the foreign-born woman to conscious responsibility for her place in American life, the ideals of our country are not being realized. LESSON MATERIALS IN READING AND WRITING FOR THE FOREIGN-BORN ILLITERATE —ABSTRACT HARRIET AHLERS, DIRECTOR, WOMEN'S WORK, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT The successful preparation of materials in reading and writing for the foreign-born illiterate, depends upon certain paradoxical propositions. It often happens that the better and more thorough the preparation of materials, the more quickly the illiterate is driven away. That is, the illiterate person's absolute unfamiliarity with formal education is not always entirely appreciated by the teacher. The attention of the illiterate must be caught in an informal way, at the point where he actually shows interest, not where the teacher thinks he should show interest. But does this mean that there should be no formal program for this elementary phase of the work with foreign people? Decidedly not, for the second point is that although a technical approach is essential, it must be concealed in a non-technical attitude toward the whole situation. Why do we eagerly listen to the playing of a Rachmaninoff or a Kreisler ?. Because each, a thorough master of technique, has not let technique master him. It should be so with the teacher of illiterates. How shall this technical approach be accomplished ? The illiterate wants to read, without the appreciation of what reading means. Reading English is a matter of interpreting symbols-symbols which are so familiar to us that we often cannot comprehend their unfamiliarity to others. Imagine yourself trying to read music, if you had never seen a note or had the scale explained. What laborious mental attempts you would make, if you were told that you must master a stone covered with Egyptian picture writing. To the adult foreign illiterate, reading must be taught as the process of interpreting individual symbols. Where the child accepts reading, and remembers as he accepts, the adult rejects because of his greater powers of reason and judgment. There should be a logical plan, then, of appealing to these adult powers. DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 577 Doubtless all teachers have had the experience of receiving memory echoes of an oral theme in a reading lesson, rather than actual interpreta- tion of the printed symbols. The English language contains only twenty- six symbols, but some forty-odd elementary combinations of sounds. Schools for the deaf have worked out a technique from which teachers of the foreign-born can learn a great deal, and adapt this knowledge to their own particular field. For example, the forty or more elementary sounds from the deaf school charts can be given in a series of themes which are close to the pupils' interests. Step by step, the pupil will learn the sounds and recognize their symbols as they are repeated, word after word. This mechanical scheme, secondary to the real human interests of the theme, will be found to ground the pupil in the real understanding of what reading is. The writing lesson can then be based on the reading lesson, until the formation of the symbols is also mastered. The illiterate pupil has no use for abstract ideas or disconnected knowl- edge. A woman does not simply want to read and write; she wants to read the street car signs as she goes to her work, the placards in the grocery store where she buys her food; she wants to sign her son's report card, or leave a note for the milkman. The secret of successful materials in reading and writing for the foreign-born illiterate is that they must be essentially human in their appeal, butbased upon a technical understanding of the meaning of English symbols. THE CITIZENSHIP COURSE FOR NATURALIZATION CLASSES-ABSTRACT LILLIAN P. CLARK, FEDERAL BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION WASHINGTON, D. C. In developing a practical citizenship course which will meet the needs of future citizens, the Bureau of Naturalization is endeavoring to solve some of the problems which are confronting teachers and supervisors inter- ested in immigrant education. In order that this Bureau may be of the greatest service possible to candidates for citizenship and their teachers it is required to take into consideration the various existing conditions involved in the instruction of our future citizens. First of all, the Bureau is interested in not only those men and women who are ready to petition for their final papers, but also those men and women who have declared their intention of becoming citizens. In these two groups of people there are candidates whose previous education ranges from illiteracy to university training and whose knowledge of our language, customs, and government varies equally as much. It is therefore necessary that material prepared by the Bureau be sufficiently comprehensive that all andidates may find in it what they need most. 578 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In the second place, there are candidates for citizenship living in all the 48 States, not only in cities of every different size, but also in rural com- munities, lumber camps, on ranches, and farms. They live under every kind of industrial, economic, climatic, and social condition conceivable. The Bureau's course of study must be fundamental enough to be applicable with slight adaptation to local conditions, and lessons on rural life must go along side by side with lessons on urban life. In the third place, candidates for citizenship must secure their citizen- ship training in the public-school classes in order to avail themselves of the material published by the Bureau. The public-school classes on the whole are supported by local funds and the amount of time which may be devoted to citizenship classes is determined by the amount of money avail- able. The frequency and length of session varies from one to five times a week and from one to three hours per session. In general the public schools group their pupils into three or four grades, beginners, inter- mediates, advanced, and special citizenship. It is most essential that the Bureau arrange its course of study in such a way that it will easily become part of the public-school curriculum. Furthermore, ample material must be provided to satisfy classes which meet frequently and run through the entire school year. Fourthly, in addition to the meager educational qualifications required by law many candidates for citizenship must meet additional standards set by the local judges-for example, in Washington and Baltimore a man must be able to read English (the current daily newspaper being the usual test) . In some sections a candidate must show a certificate from school showing that he has attended through a certain period of time. To enable candidates to meet these standards an acceptable course must contain the material which will be valuable to them. The citizenship course of the Bureau of Naturalization is published in the Federal Textbook on Citizenship Training. It is divided into three parts, one for each grade, and a manual for teachers accompanies each part. The manual contains a general discussion on the procedure of the specific grade and also suggestions for developing each lesson. Many candidates have not yet learned to speak, read, and write enough English to satisfy their daily needs. Before they begin to study about government it is necessary for them to learn our language as a common medium through which the teacher and pupils may study together. So the first part of the Bureau's textbook is called "Our Language." With the exception of a few lessons at the beginning, most of the lessons are written in conversational style. They deal with the most common activities of life and they give to students the words they will use in such situations. In those instances where life in small towns and rural communities would preclude the use of the original lesson there is a supplementary lesson to satisfy the need. Before the lessons of Part I were printed they were dis- tributed in tentative form and experimented with in various parts of the country, in cities and towns of various sizes, in mixed classes and special DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 579 classes for women, so that they would be practicable generally. The sug- gestions of the teachers and supervisors who tested the lessons were em- bodied in the course in order that all teachers interested in citizenship training might benefit from their experience. When students have learned the language of their daily activities they are prepared to enlarge the circle of their interests. Such content should be given them as will arouse in them a desire to take a greater part in the life of the community where they live. In view of this fact the second part of the Federal Textbook now in the press is entitled " Our Com- munity." It is for intermediate students. It contains lessons on educa- tional, social, business, and civic interests which will give students a better ⚫ idea of community life, its activities, and the citizen's responsibility to his community. There are also biographical sketches of the great Americans who have particularly contributed to the welfare of communities, such Americans as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Eli Whitney, Robert Fulton, Clara Barton, Horace Mann, etc. The lessons are written so as to present either a general or specific situation for discussion and through suggested questions to make the situation apply to the particular localities. When students either in school or in their every-day experience have learned our language and know about the community in which they live, they are interested in acquiring knowledge about their State and country. They want to know about the history, geography, economic conditions , principles, and ideals of the government of their adopted country. Ас- cordingly Part III of the Federal Textbook, which is now in the process of preparation, is entitled "Our Nation. " It is to contain several lessons on the activities of State government, as a link to join the community to the Nation. Then will follow lessons on the history of our Nation, not so much from the political point of view as the social and economic. The large periods of history to be treated are discovery, exploration, and first immigration, the Revolutionary period, the forming of the new gov- ernment, its present form, expansion and westward movement, industrial revolution, the causes and consequences of the Civil War, the age of in- dustry, the Great War and reconstruction period. As geographic condi- tions have affected growth and development of our Nation they will be discussed in the course. At the end of the book there will be printed the Constitution of the United States so that teachers and students will be able to turn to it readily when they are studying the lessons on our Government. While the lessons proceed in logical order, each lesson is a unit in itself and may be adapted to the regular and special classes according to existing local conditions. In its complete form, it is one of the few citizenship courses which systematically provides a basic book for each of the accepted grades and in so doing takes into consideration the immediate needs and increasing interests of the individual. 580 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This citizenship course is at your service and the Bureau of Naturaliza- tion stands ready to coöperate with you in every possible way within the limits placed upon it by Congress. SCORE CARDS FOR TEXTS IN ADULT IMMIGRANT CLASSES JOHN W. LEWIS, DIRECTOR OF AMERICANIZATION, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND • The past six or seven years have marked almost a complete revolution in the textbooks in use in immigrant education. From time to time, a worker, dissatisfied with texts as they were, brought forth a new text, confident that this latest child of his brain and experience is the perfect one to take away at last the burden of the English teacher. The goal in the evolution of a completely satisfactory text or texts, however, has not yet been reached. In spite of the wide divergence in the quality of texts produced, there is a fairly uniform although hazy conception of the standard by which the merit of texts should be judged. In line with the general tendency of science to adapt itself more and more to statistical methods of measure- ment, the question is asked, "Can a satisfactory score card be prepared, by which we can judge text and give a precise estimate of their comparative merit?" I confess that I do not believe it can be formulated. In making a satisfactory textbook, there are many elements, each of which must be satisfactory. In some textbooks, one element may be so weak or objec- tionable that it precludes the satisfactory use of the book, no matter how perfect the text may be in other particulars. Accordingly an exceedingly low score on any vital point or group of points may invalidate the result of a comparatively high total score. As a tentative standard for the text of an elementary textbook, I have prepared the following outline. The limitations of any attempt to assign score values to each of the points are quite apparent. SCORE CARD FOR ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK General Choice of Subject Matter Total ........ 45 1. Suited to the most immediate practical needs of adult im- migrants. (Both in general subject matter and specific 20 vocabulary.) 2. Suited to the interest of the student. 3. Material tactful arousing no antagonism ( applying also 5 to title) . 4. Does the material ( and exercises) represent the most valuable use of space ? Is there needless repetition which has no pedagogical value ? Does it contain ma- 5 terial which might better be put into a teacher's manual , etc. ? 5. Material suited to the ability of the students. 15 DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 581 Method 1. Theme method in early lessons . 2. Themes of a character easily dramatized. and abstract words omitted in early stages ) . 3. Proper sentence structure. ( Subjective •} 10 5 4. Proper length of lesson. 3 5. Systematic progression. Logical sequence of subject matter. 8 Logical sequence of sentence and language elements , without too many new elements introduced at once. 6. Does it leave the theme method at the proper point, lead- 3 ing gradually to the intermediate method of oral development ? 7. Does it provide sufficient conversation ? ( Usually in ex- ercises following the early lessons. Later, conversa- 3 tion should be woven into the lesson proper.) 8. Provision for review (including some use of previous 3 material in different form in new lessons . ) Language drill exercises, etc. 1. Grammar taught inductively-not formally. 2. Suggestive exercises for drill (in complete sentences ) . 3. Not too many new language forms, etc., introduced at once. Should be logical progression in their develop- 8 ment. 4. Conversational exercises properly varied to secure maxi- mum language drill. Illustrations 1. Profusion of necessary illustrations. 2. Omission of unnecessary illustrations. 3. Tactful, not offensive to adult immigrants . 5 4. Constructive in their suggestion. 5. Clear and not subject to confusion. General make up and printing 2 1.Strength of binding and quality of paper. 2. Type large and clear. 3 7 3. Proper page make up. (Each sentence separate in early lessons, later in para- graph form) . 2 The intermediate text must meet, in general, the same standards, with the following important changes . The content can be gradually enlarged to include needs not so immediate though none the less vital to the immigrant. As the content changes in the later intermediate work and as it shades into advanced work one other important test must begin to be applied-namely, the material must be free from any attempt at propaganda for any economic, political, or indus- trial point of view. Americanization must not be considered as solving the problems which might better belong to industry or to political science. In certain places the program of Americanization has been the handmaiden of a group who would throw bread upon the waters to have it return later in the form of toast to their economic or other advantage. Americaniza- tion must in no sense be considered as a "sitting on the lid" of things as they are. It must, however, in the more advanced work lay down the fundamental principles of Americanism broadly considered together with 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the "rules of the game" governing the methods by which any changes may be brought about. To set the ultimate goal is not the province of Ameri- canization, and textbook content must be judged accordingly. The theme method, of course, has been abandoned long before the in- termediate work is reached. The test of method in the intermediate text is the degree to which the text lends itself to the accepted method of oral development of the lesson. The need of conversational exercises as such and the need of reviews in the text become progressively less important. Silent reading of course becomes progressively more important. To the best of my knowledge there are no satisfactory texts now available for the adult foreign-born illiterate. The usual texts move along much too rapidly. The satisfactory text must move much more slowly with a great deal more repetition. Especial care in the selection of vocabulary must mark a satisfactory text for illiterates, to the end that phonic elements may be more quickly built up inductively. Time does not permit extensive comment upon the tests for texts for citizenship education. There are, however, one or two elements that should be considered. In the first place, the requirements of the naturaliza- tion examination has resulted in placing too great emphasis upon the form of government and too little emphasis upon the fundamental principles whose understanding is essential to the making of an effective citizen. To know the forces in one's community which shape public opinion in order that the citizen can exert a more critical attitude towards news and in- formation is vastly more important than knowing whether the State's electoral vote is eight or twenty-eight. To understand the fundamental application of the rights of citizenship, to understand their logical coro'lar.es in civic responsibilities, to eliminate the lockstep from voting require more than an understanding of the form of government. There will be in the citizenship education of the future a greater emphasis placed upon these other elements to the end that intelligent public opinion, fearless and uncontrolled, will in larger measure replace the blind adherence to partisan groups. Department of Kindergarten Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President -MARION B. BARBOUR, Head of Kindergarten Department, State Teachers College, Chico, Calif. Vice-President GRACE BROWN, School of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary- CATHARINE R. WATKINS, Director of Kindergartens, Washington, D. C. The Department of Kindergarten Education grew out of a meeting of the Froebel Institute of North America, which met in connection with the Association's meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1884. See Pro- ceedings of 1884, page 74. This department coöperates with the Inter- national Kindergarten Union, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Ella R. Boyce, Fulton Building, Pittsburgh, Pa.; secretary, May Murray, 1008 Investment Building, Washington, D. C. The Union publishes a monthly magazine, Childhood Education . TheDepartment of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association held two afternoon sessions in the Rose Room, Washington Hotel , as scheduled in the official program, Marion Barbour of California, president, presiding. At both meetings the Kindergarten Association of the District of Columbia furnished flowers, which gave another touch of beauty to an already attractive room. The keynote of the meetings was the scientific approach in the education of young children, and this keynote dominated all the papers and discussions. Atthe first session, July 1, there were approximately three hundred fifty persons present, and all speakers listed in the official program were present, with the ex- ception of Dr. John B. Watson. Dr. Watson was represented by Mrs. Mary Cover Jones, of the Department of Psychological Research, Teachers College, Columbia University. Mrs. Jones has been closely associated with Dr. Watson in his ex- perimental studies in child behavior, and her paper ably discussed the subject which Dr. Watson was to have presented. The paper by Gail Harrison was a fine, forceful plea for a more scientific en- vironment in the education of young children, and at its conclusion a series of slides showed the practical application of the methods suggested. The report on "A Typical Kindergarten Day," by Mary Dabney Davis, outlined the plan of the committee appointed to prepare and publish a circular on this subject, and showed the progress which had been made during the past year. Before adjournment of the session, the president, Miss Barbour, asked that a chair- man of the Committee on Resolutions be nominated from the floor. Netta Faris was nominated by Miss Vandewalker, and, after the motion was duly seconded, was unanimously elected. Miss Barbour requested that this committee, and the Committee on Nominations, be ready to report at the business meeting, Thursday. On Wednesday afternoon, at the Hotel Raleigh, a delightful luncheon was en- joyed by the kindergartners and their friends. Dr. John J. Tigert, U. S. Commis- sioner of Education, gave a most interesting and happy address and Robert L. [583] 584 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Haycock, assistant superintendent of schools of the District of Columbia, who repre- sented the superintendent, spoke of the early history of the kindergarten in Wash- ington, and of the progress which had been made during the twenty-five years in which kindergartens have been a part of the city school system. Miss Barbour spoke a few words of gracious greeting to the guests, and at the conclusion of the luncheon, all joined in giving a cordial welcome to May Murray and Mabel Osgood, who will make Washington their future home. At the second regular session, July 3, approximately two hundred were present. Two of the speakers listed on the official program were unable to be present, Mrs. Helen T. Woolley and Bess V. Cunningham. Mrs. Jones as a substitute for Mrs. Woolley, gave a continuance of her talk of Tuesday on the experimental studies of young children. There was no one to represent Miss Cunningham. Maude Reed, of Teachers College, Columbia University, spoke on "The Need of Instruments to Measure Kindergarten Education," and showed the present necessity for establishing some objective standard to measure kindergarten achieve- ment. The business meeting, which immediately followed the discussion of Miss Reed's paper, was called to order by the president. The local secretary, Miss Watkins, read the minutes of the San Francisco meeting, which were accepted as read. The report of the Nominating Committee was read by the chairman, Mary G. Waite, and the following officers were unanimously elected to serve the Department of Kindergarten Education, National Education Association, for the year 1924-25: President, Edna Dean Baker, president of the Kindergarten and Elementary College, Chicago ; vice-president, Margaret Holmes, assistant director of kindergartens, New York City ; secretary, Fannie Smith, principal of the Fannie A. Smith Training School, Bridgeport, Conn. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was read by the Chairman, Miss Netta Faris, and was unanimously accepted. It reads as follows : RESOLVED : That the Kindergarten Department of the National Education Association, meeting during its sixty-second annual convention, thanks the school officials, teachers, Govern ment officials, and citizens of Washington for their genuine and generous hospitality. For the careful arrangement of the luncheon, the artistic posters announcing it, and for the flower decorations, we thank the kindergartners of Washington and their efficient leader, Catharine Watkins . We, as a department, appreciate the illuminating exhibit of the Bureau of Education, aren the hospitality extended by the Secretary of the Interior, the Commissioner of Education, and the kindergarten specialists, and we take pride in the kindergarten project worked out by the Washington children, and reproduced with painstaking care by our representatives in the Bureau. RESOLVED : That as a body we go on record as approving the strengthening of this depart ment through publicity and whatever means will be effective in bringing kindergarteners in larger numbers to the National Education Association convention. We also recommend that kindergartners throughout the country make greater effort to acquaint the general public with the value of the kindergarten as the foundation of public edu- cation, and the necessity for this training for every child in America. RESOLVED : That we endorse the policy of the International Kindergarten Union in open ing an office in Washington, and recommend that the kindergarteners enthusiastically suppo this office and the new journal of Childhood Education . RESOLVED : That we endorse the policy of those training centers that consider the ages of from four to eight a psychological unit, and are training their teachers to deal intelligent y with this period, and we urge that, in adopting this policy, sufficient time be given for sufficient training. RESOLVED: That we thank the Executive Board for the practical and interesting program furnished, so in keeping with the scientific spirit of the times, and we urge that kindergaftners participate in this forward movement to make kindergarten education, in its finest sense, soer. tific, realizing that in doing this it need not in any way conflict with those principles or deais which have made the kindergarten so vital and important a part of education. MARGARET C. HOLMES CLARA S. BROWN NETTA FARIS, Chairman . DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 585 CONDITIONING AND RECONDITIONING -AN EXPERI- MENTAL STUDY IN CHILD BEHAVIOR MARY COVER JONES, DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY You are all familiar with the conclusions which Dr. Watson reached from his genetic study of emotions : that there are only three fundamental emotional patterns present at birth: fear, rage, and love, and that the stimuli which call out these reactions are very few and simple. You also know, from experience and casual observation, what a multitude of emo- tional responses are possible in an adult, and how varied are the stimuli which can arouse emotions. I should like to describe some experiments in which an artificial fear system has been built up, serving as an illustration of the process by which the simple emotions of the infant become the enormously complex emotions of adult life. Further, I have several experiments to describe, in which a fear system has been eliminated. But, before turning to these experiments, I ought, perhaps, to give a brief description of a method which has been recently adopted by psychology : the conditioned reflex method. An illustration of this is provided by an experiment carried out at Columbia by Dr. Hulsey Cason; the subject is seated in a dark room. A sudden bright light flashed into the eye causes a concentration of the pupil ; this reaction of the pupil is an original, infantile, and non-conditioned reflex ofthe unstriped sphincter muscle of the iris. A bell is now sounded simul- taneously with the flashing of the light; the pupil, of course, contracts as formerly. The interesting part follows: After a number of such combined trials, the bell is sounded without the flash of light, and the pupil contracts to the sound of the bell alone. The response has been transferred, or ex- tended, from a biologically adequate stimulus-the light flash-to a previ- ously indifferent auditory stimulus-the bell. The pupillary reflex may thus be said to be conditioned by a substitute stimulus-the sound of the bell. What Cason demonstrated in the case of the unstriped or involuntary muscles, Pavlow had earlier demonstrated for a duct gland, the parotid. Krasnogorski, and later Mateer, working with children, demonstrated that striped or voluntary muscles could likewise be conditioned, and Watson, by conditioning a fear response, demonstrated the method for a complicated pattern response, involving-as we understand the term, emotion-visceral, striped muscular, and glandular reactions. Dr. Watson's experiment is given in detail in his article, "Studies in Infant Psychology" (Scientific Monthly, Dec., 1921 ) . I should like to mention it briefly because it is a prelude to our work at the Hecksher Foundation, in New York City, where Dr. Watson served as advisor. The subject, Albert, eleven months old, was afraid of nothing but a loud sound made by striking a steel bar. This made him cry. By striking abar at the same time that he touched a white rat, this fear of the sound 586 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION was extended to the rat. After seven combined stimulations-rat and sound-he not only became greatly disturbed whenever he was shown the rat, but this fear had spread to a white rabbit, cotton, a fur coat, and the. experimenter's hair. It did not transfer to his wooden blocks, however, nor to other objects very dissimilar to the rat. In a recent lecture, Dr. Watson stated : "We have shown experimentally how to produce fears, and how a fear spreads in such a way that, without separate conditioning, the subject becomes afraid of many moving and furry objects. What we have not shown is how to remove fears, how to break these attachments, and give other stimuli in the environment a chance to have their effect upon shaping his constructive activities. Neither have we shown what will happen to fear of the other objects in the series, if this fear is unconditioned. Will they disappear at the same time? That is, will the unconditioning to one stimulus-say, the loss of fear to the rat-spread without further training to other stimuli-the rabbit, and the piece of cotton ? It seems to me that we stand here just on the treshold of obtaining information which will be of invaluable help in every home in the land." Dr. Watson intended to continue the study of Albert in an attempt to answer some of these problems, but Albert was removed from the hospital, and the series of observations was ended. About three years later, when work was begun at the Hecksher Founda- tion, I discovered a case in the laboratory which might have been Albert a bit older. Sidney was 2 years and 10 months of age when we first began to study him. He was afraid of a white rat, and this fear extended to a rabbit, a fur coat, a feather, cotton wool, etc., but not wooden blocks nor similar toys. In abridged form, our first laboratory notes on Sidney read as follows : Sidney was put in a crib in the playroom, and immediately became absorbed in his toys. A white rat was introduced into the crib from behind. At sight of the rat, Sidney screamed and threw himself flat on his back, in a paroxysm of fear. The stimulus was removed, and Sidney was taken out of the crib and put in a chair. Barbara was brought to the crib and the white rat introduced as before; she ex- hibited no fear but picked the rat up in her hand; Sidney sat quietly watching Barbara and the rat. A string of beads, belonging to Sidney, had been left in the crib; whenever the rat touched a part of the string he would say, "My beads," in a complaining voice, although he made no objection when Barbara touched them. Invited to get down from the chair to play, he shook his head, his fear not yet sub sided. Twenty-five minutes elapsed before he was ready to play about freely. We recognized our good fortune in having this case, for it enabled us to begin where Dr. Watson left off: first, with the problem of uncondi tioning a fear response to an animal, and, second, with the problems of determining whether unconditioning to one stimulus spreads without fur- ther training to other stimuli. We soon found that Sidney showed even more marked fear responses to a rabbit than to a white rat. We decided to use the rabbit for our uncon- DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 587 ditioning, and to proceed as follows: Each day Sidney and a group of three other children were brought into the laboratory to play. The other chil- dren were carefully selected because of their satisfactory adjustments, espe- cially their entirely fearless attitude toward the rabbit. The rabbit was always present during a part of the play period. From time to time, Sidney was brought in alone so that his reactions could be compared with those formerly observed, and progress noted. By analyzing the notes for each session, taking account of the situations which were avoided at one time and tolerated or welcomed at another, I was able to make a chart which indicates along the axis the series of experi- mental sessions, and along one axis the increase in tolerance. The degrees of tolerance, as determined from our records, are 19 in number, ranging from almost utter terror at the sight of a fear object, to a completely posi- tive response with no signs of disturbance. On this chart, A means a degree of fear in which the sight of the rabbit causes a very violent dis- turbance; B means that the sight of the rabbit 20 feet away in his cage caused crying; Q represents a stage at which he pets the rabbit frequently as it runs around the room, and S a degree of assurance with the rabbit which is not in the least upset by the presence of another child who shows marked distress. Along the other axis, 1 represents the date, December 4. when unconditioning began; 11 and 12 represent March 10 A.M. and March 10 P.M. There was a period from December 17 to March 7 when Sidney was not available, owing to quarantine conditions. The first eight periods show how Sidney progressed from great fear at the sight of the rabbit to a tranquil indifference and even a voluntary pat on the rab- bit's back when other children were setting the example. At this period, Sidney was taken to the hospital with scarlet fever. He did not return for more than two months . The sharp descent in the curve shows what happened to Sidney's fear patterns while he was away. We were at a loss to explain this, until quite casually we learned from the nurse who had brought Sidney home from the hospital that just as they were entering a taxi a large dog running past had suddenly jumped at them ; both the nurse and Sidney had been very much frightened, Sidney so much so that he lay back in the taxi pale and weak, so that his attendant debated whether or not to return him to the hospital. This seemed reason enough for his precipitate descent back to a fear level equal to that at the beginning of our observations. Seeing a large dog, when ill, in a strange place, and with an adult who also showed fear, was a greater fear situation than our training could have fortified him against. At this point in his unconditioning we began a different method. Sidney was seated in a high chair and given food which he liked. The experi- menter brought the rabbit in a wire cage as close as she could without arousing a response which would interfere with his eating. Gradually, through the presence of the pleasant stimulus, "food," when- ever the rabbit was shown, the fear was eliminated in favor of a positive reaction. Occasionally also other children with positive reactions to the 588 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION rabbit were brought in to play as before. These facts are of interest in following the charted progress. The first decided rise was due to the pres- ence of another child who influenced Sidney's reaction. The notes for this day read: Lawrence and Sidney, sitting near together in their high chairs, eating candy. Rabbit in cage put down, 12 feet away. Sidney began to cry. Lawrence said, "Oh, rabbit," clambered down, ran over and looked in the cage at him. Sidney followed, stood close, and watched. The next two decided rises occurred on the days when a student assist- ant, Dr. Silberberg, was present. Sidney was very fond of Dr. Silber- berg, whom he insisted was his "papa." Although Dr. Silberberg did not directly influence Sidney by any overt suggestion, it may be that having him there contributed to Sidney's general feeling of well-being, and thus indirectly affected his reactions. The fourth rise was like the first, due to the influence of another child. At the twenty-first session we have in our notes : Sidney with candy, in high chair. Experimenter brought rabbit, and sat in front of the tray with it. Sidney cried out, "I don't want him," and withdrew. Rabbit was given to Edward, another child who was sitting near. His holding the ani- mal served as a powerful suggestion; Sidney wanted the rabbit on his lap, and held it for an instant. The decided drop at 42 was caused by a slight scratch when Sidney was helping to carry the rabbit. The rapid ascent following shows how quickly he regained lost ground. We are still in touch with Sidney, who has gone home to a difficult environment, but shows still in our last interview, as on the later por- tions of the chart, a genuine fondness for the rabbit. And what happened to the fear of the other objects which had been observed ? The fear of cotton, fur coats, feathers was completely absent at our last observation. The reaction to the rats, frogs, and the fur rug with a stuffed head was greatly modified and improved. While he did not show the same positive fondness for these that he did for the rabbit, he had made a fair adjust- ment. What would Sidney do when next confronted with a strange animal ? At our last observation, we presented a mouse, and later a tangled mass of angleworms . At first sight, Sidney showed a slight distress reaction and moved away, but before the period was over he was carrying the worms about and watching the mouse with undisturbed interest. By uncondi- tioning Sidney to the rabbit, we have apparently helped him to get rid of many other superfluous fears some completely, some to a less degree. We also, apparently, have increased his tolerance and decreased his resistance to strange animals and unfamiliar situations . However, this study of conditioning and unconditioning is still incom- plete. Sidney's fear of the animals which we showed him was certainly not a directly conditioned fear. Where the fear originated we do not DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 589 know, nor do we know what Sidney would do if he were again confronted with the original fear situation. All of the fears which we unconditioned were transferred fears, and we have not yet learned whether the primary fear can be eliminated by training the transfers. But Sidney is no longer available for our laboratory, and a third child will have to furnish the material for this further study. Then, of course, we shall need to multiply these reports of one case until we have a large enough number of examples to form a unit which can be statistically treated. Dr. Watson has drawn up plans for an infant foundation, where psy- chologists, with a qualified staff, can bring up children under controlled conditions. I shall not go into the details of his plans for securing these children, and rearing them, but some of the results which he hopes would be accomplished by such a laboratory may interest you. I quote from Dr. Watson as follows : One reason why behavioristic psychology has not made more speedy progress in its attempts to make a science of behavior is due to the fact that most of its basal laws and concepts must be worked out along genetic human lines. This work is difficult and expensive, but it will yield quick and lasting returns . Difficulties-The difficulty of studying genetic psychology in any large and adequate way, comes from the fact that in order scientifically to study the increas- ing complexity of human development the observations must begin at birth and continue through a number of years, possibly through adolescence. Minute daily and almost hourly observations must be maintained on each child-not only mere observation, but controlled observation. Our previous work has shown that every- thing that happens to a child is of importance in its future development ; trivial things like the slamming of a door, the sudden thunder shower, one angry temper display of a parent, playing one child against another. So important are these things, both for developing a personality and the under- standing of a personality, that almost hourly biographical history must be written about each child. Naturally this can never be done for all children of all time. But it must be done upon a sufficiently large number of developing human beings, and for a sufficiently great length of time, for the laws of human development to be worked out. Number of children needed-This work should be started with a group of not more than twenty or twenty-five children; not that a larger number is not needed, especially if racial differences are ever to be studied, but that seems to be the economical scientific group to start on. The number is sufficiently large to yield one unit of a great scientific undertaking. A larger number could not be wisely handled by one scientific group of workers . We suggest starting with this group, with human material as homogeneous as possible, beginning at birth or as soon thereafter as possible, the whole group to be ofAnglo- Saxon stocks, of native-born parentage. The results obtained from this group would serve as a standard or basis of comparison for a similar study with groups of Jewish, Chinese, Italian, or French, and negro stock. Broad general results-( 1) A new and scientific psychology would write itself ; we would throw away the things we now call psychology. This psychology would grow out of facts, unprejudiced by the past, untrammeled by history, philosophy, or religion. ( 2) The relative effects of environment and heredity could be ac- curately weighed and evaluated for the fir 3) In the complete form of the experiment the intercomparison of r. int would become possible for the first time-Anglo-Saxon, Jew Nor would intercom- 590 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION parison be so long delayed. If the experiment even started out successfully on the Anglo- Saxon group, other such undertakings would immediately follow. (4) Practical rules for guidance in rearing and educating children would follow almost immediately. Society has little but tradition to guide it along these lines. Mothers themselves feel today the responsibility of rearing children as never before. The nursery school is looking as never before for facts to guide it. They, too, have to depend all too much upon theory to guide them. Physicians and even pediatricians know nothing of the laws of behavior. For years we have needed an institution for training in motherhood. In con- nection with a study of this kind, provision will be made for training for mother- hood, not only by giving lectures illustrated by scientific results , but also by giving opportunity for developing a technique for rearing children through actually handling them with their own hands . More detailed psychological results-A complete, thorough, and convincing story of the development of man's emotional life, both experimental and observational Man at birth is endowed with certain emotional forms of response: love, fear, rage. What other forms, if any, develop as age increases ? What of jealousy , embarrassment, grief, shame, shyness ? No one knows because no group has ever been scientifically studied. The behaviorist believes that the development of the emotional life of the human will be an open book to him, if such opportunity for study is ever at hand. THE PRESENT STATE OF PROGRESS OF THE COMMITTEE DETERMINING “A TYPICAL KINDERGARTEN DAY." AN INDEX OF KINDERGARTEN WORK MARY DABNEY DAVIS, CHAIRMAN, DARIEN , CONNECTICUT There are two questions stimulating the beginning of our committee work: "What is going on in the kindergartens throughout the United States, and what educational principles are demonstrated in this kinder- garten work ?" and "Who will profit by knowing the answers to th question ?" It is well known that there is, in kindergarten practice, a variety of ways of conducting language studies, dramatic and industrial arts, and science and studies of home life. This may be due to the training of the teacher, or of the supervisors, or principals; to administrative emergencies or to the many experiments now being carried on throughout the country in the education of little children. Would not superintendents who or ganize kindergartens and engage the teachers be helped by knowing the different possibilities of kindergarten work? Would this not be true, too, of supervisors, training teachers, primary teachers, and parents? Granting that as true, the committee then considered whether kindergarten teachers would not find it helpful to know how these superintendents, supervisors, and teachers evaluate the various kindergarten procedures. The committee has outlined two plans for gathering the material which may meet the questions listed. The first plan is to gather stenographe reports of kindergarten work in every State of the Union. The State are zoned with a committee member in charge of each zone. Directions DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 591 for stenographers have been prepared to aid the uninitiated and to provide acertain amount of necessary uniformity in the form of the reports. The teacher reported upon is to have the opportunity to explain any irregulari- ties in the day's work. These reports will be studied by the committee, and a group of representative reports will be sent to the superintendents, supervisors, training and primary teachers, and parents for study and evaluation. All personality will be eliminated from the report by having code numbers replace the names and locations. The results of these evaluations will determine the problems for the next work of the committee. The second plan of the committee is a multiple response questionnaire which will give each kindergarten a voice in the "Typical Kindergarten Day." This questionnaire will deal with kindergarten curricula, admin- istrators, teacher training, and the sources of immediate help available to the teacher. The success of determining what constitutes "A Typical Day" rests with those actively engaged in the work. Your active coöperation is warmly solicited. If you can provide a stenographic report, or can send the addresses of those who will earnestly aid our study, your help will be greatly appreciated. THE NEED OF INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION MARY MAUDE REED , KINDERGARTEN - FIRST GRADE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The need of objective measures to determine the efficiency of kindergarten instruction and means of instruction was forcibly brought to the attention of our kindergarten department when asked to participate in city surveys several years ago. The surveys were class problems in which many students were to participate and in which all students were to be instructed in the technique of conducting a survey. It became necessary then to devise a measure which would give a rating of the entire kindergarten situation and to make the rating as objective as the rating of any score card can bemade. In a study of the methods of work for the analysis of administrative problems in surveys, it was found that standards were established and rating cards made to cover almost everything in that department from the minute book that the board of education used to the most extensive and complicated school building that can be erected. This department is con- tinuing to make these instruments of measure so that every detail of administrative work may be brought to the light and judged by the stand- ards that have been set up. It was found that the students and instructors who surveyed the in- structions in the elementary and high school had objective group tests of intelligence and achievement. These to a certain extent could be used 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in comparing the work of the school system surveyed with other systems. Objective measures of any type were not available for kindergarten instruc- tion. Important as the need is for instruments to measure kindergartens in surveys, we are faced with even more pressing demands for objective measures. The recent article of Dr. Snedden in the Supervisory and Administrative Magazine, would indicate a need to enlighten our critics rather definitely on what kindergarten standards are. We find one type of critic who thinks the kindergarten can be abolished because this same type of work can be done at home. The facts that so comparatively few homes would be equipped to do kindergarten work, and that so few parents are trained, or could or would take the time to give children the experiences they are able to get in school, are facts that are not reckoned with in their projected new theory on the education of children of kindergarten age. The other group of critics who feel that children do not really learn anything should be met with the facts that result from objective measure- ments. Many of these critics are not opposed to kindergartens, but feel there is no real program of kindergarten education, that it is a hit and miss type of instruction which may do no harm, but certainly does not add to the child's efficiency. These are not the comments of the ignorant, but of those ignorant of what kindergarten instruction really does . There is great need also to assist administrators who generally do not know how to evaluate kindergarten instruction. There is a group, owing to their ignorance of kindergarten standards, who think everything kinder- gartners do is all right. In a recent rating of teachers in a large city system, by an assistant superintendent, most of the kindergartners received a rating of A, and the rest received B. The teachers of the elementary and high-school departments were rated in a much more normal distribution of A, B, C, D, and E. That this rating would be justifiable, no kinder- gartner would agree. Can we afford to let it continue? It is as irritating to be overvalued as undervalued. What help can be given these adminis- trators in the form of an objective measure which will give them the help they need to judge a kindergarten adequately ? Assistance to administrators is needed also in determining the unit costs ofkindergarten instruction on the basis of an acceptable day's work. The costs should be worked out in terms of supplies, equipment instruction, and supervision, and on the basis of standards that are conducive to the best type of kindergarten instruction. There is a rather critical issue before us now which was brought out in a very recent survey. The kindergarten supplies and equipment seemed quite adequate in this school system. In other words, the habit of providing supplies and equipment to the kinder- garten had become fixed. The first grade, however, was given the most meager help in supplies and equipment, which limited teachers in their endeavor to establish a more informal organization, and do a more progres- sive type of work. The question immediately becomes one of having the kindergarten share with the first grade, or allowing the first grade to have supplies and equipment necessary to carry on the type of work that the DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 593 new organization demands. Unless kindergartners can produce the facts that show the necessity for the supplies and equipment that they are now using, there is danger of reducing the amount. Unit costs based on an acceptable day's work should bring help also to those schools where the allowances in supplies and equipment are too meager to give efficient kindergarten instruction. In a city recently sur- veyed, one teacher was responsible for 125 children in a foreign district, with a young untrained high-school graduate to assist her. This presents the problem of the number of children one teacher should have in order to do an acceptable day's work. The unit cost of kindergarten instruction will be very seriously influenced by the decision of kindergartners on this point. The report of the Educational Finance Inquiry Commission of New York State shows a wide range in the current expenses of kindergarten education. The expenditure in villages per pupil ranged from $21 to $141 in 1920, and from $18 to $372 in 1921. In cities, the range in 1920 was from $33 to $151, and in 1921 from $21 to $ 113. The figures sug- gest the desirability of inquiring into the size of classes, the number of sessions, and the length of the kindergarten day. We question whether any of these figures are justifiable. How can extravagance of material as well as inadequacy be eliminated ? Knowing this wide range of kinder- garten costs, our next problem obviously would be to determine whether the difference in accomplishments are sufficient to justify the difference in costs. We need standards and instruments to measure progress in order to guide teachers in service. The eagerness with which kindergartners are utilizing material that is now being worked out is somewhat indicative of the help for which they are eagerly waiting. Students in training must also be helped to get a scientific attitude in the methods of work they are accepting. The indoctrination of a method, a point of view or a philosophy of education is the surest way to kill progress. To give students the best methods of work that we know, with a questioning attitude and a desire to experiment and measure results, will, I believe, produce the type of kindergartner that will carry on in the future the fine work that has been done and is being done at present. An earnest effort is being made to give students this type of training in many institutions. In the past year in our own college, students were given more opportunity than ever before to do scientific observation, construct instruments to measure, and use these and the standardized tests in real situations to meet real problems. Students in practice defined the problem presented by the group assigned to them, tentatively determined the method of work they felt could probably be best utilized to accomplish their goals, and then devised a measuring instrument to see what had been accom- plished. These measures were crude, but we believe gave them in practice the importance of stating objectives in terms of the needs of children and the courage to look at their accomplishments and criticize their own methods 594 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION objectively. The supervisor gave her criticism as usual, always ultimately checking with the results that the students' objective measure showed. I do not wish to imply that kindergartners have not been active in set- ting standards and working toward ways of measuring instruction. In the past two years, there have been contributions. I regret that lack of time made it impossible to make a complete survey of these contributions for this meeting. I shall refer largely to those from Professor Hill's depart- ment at Teachers College : 1. The Bintner-Cunningham group tests of intelligence have been found valuable in our school problems in making classifications, and in giving us valuable assistance for the making of a course of study. 2. The tests of Dr. Cunningham for reading readiness and number for young children are in the process of being made. They were used this spring, with others, in a survey made to determine the functioning of the Cliffside curriculum. 3. A test to measure the phonic readiness of young children, by Frances Kern-Raymond and Hubbard, I believe will prove a valuable contribution. 4. The dissertation of Dr. Ruth Andrus, which is now in press, con- tributes a habit inventory of children from two to four, and presents her method of scientific observation from which her data were compiled. 5. The habit inventory of Dr. Rogers and Professor Hill for five- and six-year-old children has set up definite goals, and was, I feel, the great inspiration to the Horace Mann Teachers in the writing of the present Conduct Curriculum. 6. The dissertation of Lois Hayden Meek, which is soon to go to press, is a contribution on the ability of young children of kindergarten age to learn and remember, together with her conclusions on the right distribution of practice. She also gives a record of the cues that her experimental group employed in getting and remembering words. Edith Barnum made a similar study, this past year, with a group of foreign children in the first grade. The problem was to construct a test that would show the progress of the class as a whole, also the individuals in the class, and locate some of the difficulties of the child who was slow in learning to read. Tests in matching, recall, and recognition were devised by Miss Barnum. The study extended over the entire term, with a group of 25 children. The results of the tests showed the relative amount of children's progress in the work they were doing, and, in a limitedway, thev located some of the difficulties of children who were slow in learning to read. The study also presented many interesting problems from the point of view of the teacher's method. This study will probably be continued another year before the detailed findings will be published. It has certainly stimulated much thinking on the right distribution of practice, and demands a keener observation and check of this phase of the teacher's instruction in reading. 7. A test to measure children's ability and growth in fine and industrial DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 595 art is in the process of being made by Margaret Mathias. This is an instrument of measure that Professor Hill has wanted for many years . 8. Rating cards to determine the mental, physical, social, and emotional maturity of young children have been in use by the students in scientific observation under the guidance of Drs. Andrus, Taylor, and Cunningham. 9. A score card to which groups of students in Professor Hill's practicum for two years have made valuable contributions to measure the many aspects of kindergarten instruction, will soon be available. We hope this instrument will give a basis for measuring kindergarten work, helpful par- ticularly for administrative use in making surveys. This kindergarten score card can probably never be an exact measure of kindergarten education, but it can make it necessary for the person who is using it to judge all of the aspects of the kindergarten situation. "It gives the kindergartners an opportunity to get all of their goods to market," namely, instruction, curriculum, children achievements, supplies, equipment , and room conditions. It will give as accurate a judgment on kindergarten work as possible on a situation which cannot be measured at present by standardized objective tests. It will not give the person judging the insight he does not possess, but opinion in score card has a better chance of being opinion up to the limit of insight than unanalyzed opinion. This instrument can never measure with any more accuracy than the person judging has insight in kindergarten work, but we believe it will keep even administrators from thinking that all kindergarten teachers are perfection and consequently do not need the inspiration of leadership to keep them moving, and it should show standards and needs for supplies, equipment, and room conditions. We hope the score card will clarify objectives for teachers. The ob- jectives that we set up need not be accepted by the kindergarten world at large. They are the ones that a group of about 125 kindergartners have determined as essential. We hope these may soon be replaced by better ones . The objectives we have set up are, at present, the best we know. We hope that the score card will help teachers to estimate their own growth in the light of these standards. Compare their ratings with their supervisors, and account for their failure in securing a satisfactory score or their success in securing one. The objectivity of this rating card is at present very hopeful from the results of scores obtained by the students in the practicum class. It was arranged to have eight students go to a kindergarten for the same session and give independent ratings. The objectivity that the scores showed was encouraging. It is our purpose to test the rating card by having adminis- trators, teachers in service, and students in practice, use it. Two ratings for the same teacher will be given by the same person at sufficiently long intervals. The rating of kindergarten supervisors will be compared and correlated with superintendents' rating. The road to making an objective measure is long and many times discour 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION aging. Dr. Strayer told me that the Strayer-Engelhardt score card for school buildings was seven years in the making, and the recent score card on secondary schools by Dr. Engelhardt was five years in the making. Since the kindergarten score card is but three years old, we have no reason to be discouraged. A great improvement was made this year, and I feel that our plan of using it next year will work out its weakest spots. Three years ago on my return to Teachers College to do further study, I was a member of a class where all the progressive movements in educa- tion were being reviewed. Being the only kindergartner in the class, and hearing no one else refer to the kindergarten advancements, I made bold to tell of the progressive steps kindergartners had taken. "Have you any quantitative results to show us ?" was asked. Silence ! I made a solemn vow that if it were necessary to convince people outside of the kindergarten field that we were not marking time, I would work for this cause, though I had little appreciation or feeling for it at that time. Quantitative results may not be necessary to convince kindergartners of the progress they are making, but if it is necessary to have them in order to make our co-workers understand what we are doing, I feel that part of our time must be devoted to this cause. I hope that we may avoid the blunders that the early workers in other departments have made. The best way to eliminate these errors is for kindergartners to become masters of the technique, and work in close coöperation with the specialists. The ideals for which kindergartners stand must not be sacrificed by this new movement. It must be so managed that, instead of sacrificing ideals, the means will be a surer way of gaining them. The education of children of kindergarten and nursery age is recognized with renewed emphasis by educational leaders as the most important period in a child's life. Kindergartners are thus faced with a great responsibility Let the good work progress then with all of the help that scientific procedure can contribute. A little four-year-old at Horace Mann School, was given a vocabulary test. "What is a hen?" asked Dr. Taylor. "A hen?" said the child: "I'll tell you about a hen. If you put a hen on a nest of eggs and let her stay there a long time she will hatch out a lot of little chicks, and the hen is the mother. " "What is a stone?" asked Dr. Taylor. "A stone?" ( a moment's hesitation) . Well, if you take a great big stone and put some stones under it, and let it stay a long time it will hatch out a lot of little stones. " Dr. Taylor proceeded to write down these words of wisdom. He looked at her rather doubtfully, and said: "You don't need to write that last part down-about the stone, but it is the truth about the hen." Now, I, too, believe that we can't write down everything on the findings of objective measures, but it is the truth that we need them and should work to perfect them. One of its biggest helps was to set up a method of investigation, and an attitude of inquiry for the group of teachers in that school. Department of Music Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-MRS. ELIZABETH CARMICHAEL, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools , Fort Dodge, Iowa. Secretary-LAURA BRYANT, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Ithaca, New York. LocalCommittee-CLARA BURROUGHS, MRS . CARRIE L. BYRAM, and EDITH B. ATHEY. The Department of Music Education was created by the Board of Directors at the Madison, Wis., meeting in 1884. See Proceedings of 1884, page 23. This department coöperates with the Music Supervisors' National Conference, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, W. Otto Miessner, 110 Reed Street, Milwaukee, Wis.; secretary, Winifred C. Smith, Cicero, Ill., and with the Music Teachers' National Association, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Charles N. Boyd, 131 Bellefield Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa.; secretary, D. M. Swarthout, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. The Department of Music Education of the N. E. A., held its annual meeting, Tuesday afternoon, July 1 at 2:00 o'clock in the Music Room of Central High School. At each meeting the attendance was more than three hundred. A number of Washington children assisted in the various demonstrations . Tuesday Afternoon, July 1, 2 o'clock Music Room, Central High School WASHINGTON TEACHERS' CHORAL CLUB, conducted by George H. Gartlan, Director of Music, Public Schools, New York City. "A Midsummer Night" . Bliss "The Landing of the Pilgrims" Coerene ADDRESS- Thomas E. Finegan, Director, Education Division, National Transportation Institute, Washington, D. C. THE ORGANIZATION AND CONDUCT OF A SCHOOL ORCHESTRA James F. Price, Associate Director of Music, Public Schools, Hartford, Conn. DEMONSTRATION OF THE KINSCELLA METHOD IN PIANO CLASS LESSONS ( "Lincoln Way ") By sixty children from the rural schools of Buffalo County, Nebraska, and from the public schools of North Carolina and Freeport, Ohio. Mrs. Sawyer, Kearney, Nebr., presiding. THE TEACHING OF MUSIC APPRECIATION AS A PHASE OF MODERN EDUCATION Louis L. Mohler, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Following this there was an informal reception. [597] 598 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thursday Afternoon, July 3, 2 o'clock Music Room, Central High School SPECIAL MUSIC NUMBERS, conducted by George H. Gartlan, Director of Music, Public Schools, New York City. Choruses from "King Sol in Flowerland"-Pageant, by pupils of Washington schools . PRACTICAL ADVICE TO THE GRADE TEACHER George H. Gartlan, Director of Music, Public Schools, New York City. SCHOOL MUSIC IN 1836, 1886, 1911, 1936 Mrs. Frances Clark, Head of Education Department, Victor Talking Machine Co., Camden, N. J. DEMONSTRATION OF THE TEACHING OF MUSIC APPRECIATION BY TWENTY CHILDREN OF THE WASHINGTON SCHOOLS Louis L. Mohler, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. THE TEACHING OF MUSIC APPRECIATION AS A PHASE OF MODERN EDUCATION LOUIS L. MOHLER, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY A number of decades have passed since first there was a movement started to introduce music into our schools as a part of our general scheme of education. The subject has met with approval throughout the country, but the practice of it is incomplete. A reason for this is that music as subject matter has sufficient scope to allow its presentation to take on a number of different phases. If a certain need arises, and some phase of music other than that which is being presented will meet this need, the educator and the public will approve; the phase then becomes evident, but its real character will remain to be established. It has been admitted that to be able to "sight-read" or to " note-read" is of value, since it gives pupils the means with which to become acquainted with the literature of song. This particular phase of music teaching has become known throughout the country. There are comparatively few schools that have not practiced it. To be able to read music by the aid of symbols may be a part of the educative value of the subject, but it is a small part. The end attained through its acquirement offers a very narrow outlook upon the art. It has also been admitted that to develop a technique for playing upon an instrument, or upon several instruments, has value. This phase of music teaching has not been so generally practiced as the other, for pupils have been allowed to choose whether or not they will develop their ability along this line. The accomplishment has value in so far as it permits the pupil to become acquainted with some of the music which has been created for the instrument used; but the broad field of instrumental music does not come within his horizon through this means , DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 599 These two phases of music teaching have remained rather constant through all these years of trial, and in both phases the stress has been placed on trying to reach some certain definite result as an end. The scheme of education is continually shifting and this fact affects the presentation of music as well as of any other subject in the curriculum. One objection to the two phases of music teaching previously mentioned is the fact that subject matter has been exalted at the expense of the child. So here and there we may now find a situation where the teacher of music follows the lead of the pupils. In such situations the teacher retains the right to suggest possibilities and to direct the leads advanced by the chil- dren. If children are allowed to express preferences and if their opinions are considered, even though not always accepted, they will be interested. Such freedom permits the development of a natural, normal growth. In some school systems where the process of learning to "note-read" had been made the main issue-and this has become almost universal-we may today find an occasional group that is allowed to decide for itself whether or not it will devote the period to learning to read music by the use of symbols; while another group, given the same freedom, decides that they care more for singing the good standard song melodies for the pleasure of becoming acquainted with them, and for the pure joy of doing them well. Other situations have been observed in a more recent investigation, which reveal the fact that in case a child had shown very little interest in his music, he is not encouraged to remain in classes above the fourth grade where the doing of music is stressed. Modifications in the presentation of certain phases of a subject, as has been observed in music, are common to all the subjects that make up the modern curriculum. Social conditions change and the viewpoint of the educator shifts to adjust itself to the change. As we consider the present status of music in education, we find that there is a growing sentiment which favors the idea that technique should be taught only when there is a need felt for it; that playing and singing singly are a very small part of a music education; that if social needs are to be met, pupils must be prepared to enjoy concerts and recitals which they will hear, as well as the music of the home; that it is of greater importance to stress the making of intelligent, creative, appreciative listeners than to attempt to make performers, for it is as listeners rather than as performers that we enlist the interest of the largest part of a social group; that the use of the player piano and the phonograph with their rolls and records are means for establishing the basis of musical understanding through which will develop an ever increasing ability to enjoy the world of good music literature. This brings our consideration of music in education into the immediate present. The one particular phase of the subject which the educator today considers worth while discussing more than any other, is the one which he terms Appreciation. He is first interested in having children to know about music before they are asked to do music. For, "Men are not in fluenced by things but by their thoughts Want things." 600 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The present attitude toward the teaching of music in our public schools is no doubt due to the fact that after many years of trial in which the acquiring of technique was the first consideration, the attempt to have chil- dren do music without any knowledge of why they were doing it has resulted in little use being made of this acquired technique. Moreover, the masses seem to prefer to hear a low type of music. The educator does not base his judgment on the attainments of a few, but he bases it upon what is being done in large groups or in society as a whole. Since we know that the great amount of best types of music material, as expressed by orchestras and solo instruments, is now almost as easily avail- able as the literature of prose and poetry, we may next consider some ways for presenting this material so that it will become a part of the pupils' experience. It requires greater skill and a broader culture to present suc- cessfully a lesson in Appreciation than it does to teach the technique of reading music, or to teach the technique of playing upon an instrument. However, we will admit that in teaching technique it requires a certain ability to do rather than to know why. The unit of presentation in teaching a technique for singing or playing is small, while in teaching appreciation of music in any of its phases, the scope is broad. The materials used represent the experience of the human race, very much in the way that literature does. Hence, the teacher must have a broad experience, not perhaps in technique as for a performer, but in the technique of teaching which must be supported by a knowledge of the life of the race as it is represented in science, in history, in literature, and in art. Amisfortune in all lines of education is that those who elect to teach are generally what has been termed a scholar. They are grave, intense, and self-centered, rather than lively, broadly practical, and wholly sympathetic. Music teachers usually step from the ranks of performers. This type of teacher, candidly speaking, esteems knowledge, not for attaining other values but as a value in itself. They are apt to stress the formal, to train the fingers and the eye, rather than the imagination, the temperament, and the heart. They lack the flexible, playful fun element in their make-up, and so cannot successfully teach a lesson in music appreciation, or in the appreciation of any other art. First of all, art is a play expression. The chief interest of the child is play. The artist and the child are akin in what they achieve; but the child must be properly introduced to the material which the artist has created. The teachers are the mediators. They must not only know their subject, but they must know children as well. They need to be practical persons who can make use of the present in developing the experiences of those who are intrusted to their care . But no matter with how great discernment they choose their subject matter, or how adept they are as performers, or how versed in the laws of esthetics, or how great a knowledge they may have of emotional standards, the lesson in Appreciation will be a failure if they do not beget enjoyment DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 601 through it a failure if they do not build up habits of enjoyment which will find their continuing objectives in the preferment of the best . Our present authorities on methods of teaching do not advocate the use ofdefinitely worked out, formal lesson plans for the presentation of such subjects as history, reading, or mathematics. Surely they would not agree that definite plans should be laid out for the teaching of so comprehensive and varied a subject as the types of music literature, or the different types of any other art. It seems justifiable to say that in teaching Appreciation, as in teaching other subjects, the teacher would want to be in accord with the principles and practices of modern education. This being so, they will begin their preparation for a lesson by considering the experience and needs of the group they are to teach. They will choose material that has some quali- ties that are with the group, or are within the experience of the group. If the case demands, they are allowed to create such an experience for the group. Then by aiming at conditions that are back of these qualities in the music-the conditions that caused them to be and connecting these with some feature of the children's present experience, they will have made the introduction. This makes the procedure of teaching each selection depend upon the group to which it is to be presented. Children have a natural tendency to like a thing that is beautiful; they want to possess it. This may be an object, a story, or a selection of music. But a picture or a musical selection is not merely beautiful. It is beautiful and worth while because of some certain quality or qualities that it pos- sesses. It is through these qualities, as has been shown, that the successful teachers make their appeal. It is through these qualities that interest is enlisted and enjoyment created. Through a continuous repeated similar procedure with the best creations of the artist and the composer, the teacher may hope to establish habits of preferring the best and most worth while. Such a procedure is analogous to, or is a type of, learning process. Through it the teacher does not aim so much at certain definite results as ends, but rather initiates a process of learning and becoming. The tendency in modern education is to stress the synthetic before teach- ing analysis. Music should not be analyzed before it is enjoyed. Like religion, it comes to us as an experience. If an experience appeals to us as being worth while, we may become eager to analyze it. This is a psycho- logical process and its principles dominate the successful Appreciation lesson. In music, the first step is to have the children hear the selection; its mood is the basis of appeal. After they have enjoyed it, and have expressed the desire to possess it which they will manifest by asking to hear it again and again, they will want to know about the composer, and how the music came to be. They are now seeking to know the conditions back of the music that compelled the qualities that made it appeal to them. This is a natural development, an inquiry to know about structure and torm, which, through its own volition, will lead into an increasing desire 602 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to acquire the rudiments of technique by which they may express the thing they enjoy. Such an approach to music, and such a procedure, invites discernment and discrimination, and analysis follows. It follows because we give the strongest incentive to study, when we make children want to study. The person who has not enjoyed music is surely not interested in the his- tory of it, nor in how it is constructed, so why should he care to make it? On the other hand, the pupils' acquaintance with music may begin through a course of dissection. This can be done, but the acquaintanceship may become irksome, and a distaste for the subject may be developed. We may easily convince ourselves of the danger of such procedure by experimenting with a poem. If, the first time we take up the poem, we begin to study out the rhyme scheme, the meter, the form, and the phrasing, we will want to say that the poem has no charm, and if all poetry is to be read in this way, we will have none of it. Our better judgment leads us to prefer the other way. The psycho- logical procedure is the natural, happy way, and through it music becomes a beautiful experience-something everyone in a group can enjoy, and something in which every one in a group can participate. Through this type of procedure, music becomes a keen pleasure and creates a desire to hear more and more. It is only through accustoming young children to know what is good in music that we can hope to accomplish real musical progress. If children ask to hear MacDowell's, To a Water Lily, Greig's, To Spring, or even a part of Schubert's well-known Symphony, as they would ask for a flower, then they are progressing musically. They are indeed progressing faster than those children who are rigidly held to the sight- reading exercise, to the incipient rote song, or to the mastering of the key- board. We cannot make children musical, or influence them to prefer good music, by decrying the evils of poor music, but by conscientiously electing to give them every opportunity to form an acquaintance with the best in the great scope of music literature. Music is an art expression and has its origin in an ideal. Such being the case, it becomes one of the most poignant means for establishing high ideals. The composer of music is not a direct teacher, but what he has created and what his creations reveal, are interpretations of the best as life should be. Through his suggestions he disciplines the imagination and ennobles our sympathy. He offers enjoyment that is within the reach of every one. It is a type of enjoyment that lasts, and controls through this life-and beyond. DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 603 THE ORGANIZATION AND CONDUCT OF A SCHOOL ORCHESTRA-ABSTRACT JAMES F. PRICE, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT Definite steps to stimulate orchestral interest are not only worth while, they are manifestly important. They may take any or better all of several approaches: by means of the phonograph ; by frequent reference ; by brief concerts; by local or outside organizations; by the coöperation of private teachers. Experience urges that individual trials, no matter how large or how small the list of candidates, are not only helpful; they are necessary. The trial should involve a prepared piece, without accompaniment, and some sight work with or without accompaniment. Organize the orchestra with the symphony orchestra as a model. Students are without but nevertheless should have the most expert advice on the choice of instrument. Many instrumental misfits would therefore be avoided. Concertmaster should be chosen not only for his playing ability; he should be dependable; he should stand well in school ; and, if possible, his playing should have an element of spontaneity which is con- tagious. All important positions should be filled by the most careful selec- tion. Let dependability and initiative count for more than finger facility. Assign responsibility and see that students who are given positions of trust measure up to their opportunities. •The successful director should have, or should acquire, a reasonable knowledge of the generalities of each instrument of the symphony orchestra with particular knowledge of at least one. He should develop a decisive beat and should be ready at all times to give all the extra work necessary to obtain results. He should be familiar with the historical background of the composition studied, and should give some time at rehearsals to appreciation. The year's study should focus in a public performance, either inde- pendently, if the orchestra is large enough, or jointly with glee club or chorus. It is part of the educational scheme. All education is a public performance, to a greater or lesser degree. Furthermore, if parents will not come to the schools we must take school activities to the parents. SCHOOL MUSIC IN 1836, 1886, 1911 , AND 1936 MRS . FRANCES CLARK, HEAD OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, VICTOR TALKING MACHINE COMPANY, CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY We are living in a strange time, a world epoch which no man has as yet been able to explain. We have drifted from our ancient moorings socially, politically, religiously, and morally. 60+ NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION To the puzzled mind of one remembering the dawning of the twentieth century, the dazed, beaten, and baffled Puritan conception of things in the upheaval of the war periods, even the present attitude of the plunging, reck- less, unfettered multitude of our conglomerate people is fraught with deep misgivings and grave forebodings. From many angles, we would seem to be headed toward complete disruption and destruction. Out of the chaos. however, there still shines the steady purpose of our foundation-freedom and liberty within law, progress with order. Education has felt the pressure of these changing currents of general thought no less than politics and religion and social usages; but education has been steadied in the stream by the guiding fact that it deals with the minds of little children and must therefore be held doubly responsible. It has been inevitable that the newer psychology should have brought about many changes in schoolroom practices, in text matter, group activi- ties, individualized recitation, socialized projects, motivating the effort re- quired, etc. , thus lifting the whole process from routine, time-honored drill into specialized development of the individual within the social group. Music as a branch of education has undergone the same metamorphosis as has other subjects. With the Greeks, music was a fundamental in edu- cation, centuries before any of the so-called three R's were developed, but it was the music of the individual and social activity, used to express emo- tions of love, hate, rapture, devotion, and worship. Music was a part of life in all its relations, and the evanescent, ethereal, intangible breathing out of the music spirit, bridged as it were, the uncharted heavens to a real or imaginary Olympus, where dwelt the gods of myth, or the great Spirit. the unknown God. Miriam and her maidens cared little for scale or mode, but poured out their voices with rhythmic dances of rejoicing. The muses danced gaily their hymns to Apollo, recking not of note, bar, or chord. The struggles of the early church to break away from the rhythm of the dance song, led to the development of the "plain song," the hymns, masses, and chants of Saints Ambrose, Gregory, and others. The other great tap-root of music, the folk song, was tabooed entirely because of the unsavory reputation of its dance song ancestor. From the church, then, came the development of the science and tech- nique of music, the staff scales and notation, the science of polyphony and counterpoint and harmony, but from the daily life and expression of the folk in their rhythmic dances and songs, came the development of pattern and form. With the breaking of the shackles of churchly domination at Worms, and the inventing of the printing press in the fifteenth century, and the flowering of the Renaissance, modern music was born, sired by the stern formality and intellectuality of the church, but mothered by the plebian but humanly heart-throbbing, life-giving folk song and folk dance. If we can but remember that Jamestown and Plymouth Rock were con- temporary with the very beginning of modern music, that the first feeble attempts at opera and oratorio with a scant accompaniment of lutes, guitars, DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 605 therabo, etc. , were coincident with Jamestown and Puritan New England, andwere only just accomplished when the Pilgrims left England for Hol- land; if we can but remember that our century of colonization was the very same century that saw in Europe the work of Monteverde, Caccini, Scarlatti, Couperin, and the rest, struggling for a new form of expression, new in- struments, new combinations, new forms of writing music; if we can but remember that Haydn, who first grouped the instruments into families and developed the modern orchestra, was born the same year as our great Washington, perhaps we may realize how modern, after all, music is. Coming away from the old world protesting at the mis-use of music as it was practiced, a strong body of people, firmly convinced that music was a thing of evil, with infrequent communication with the other side, little opportunity to know and understand what was going on in the development ofmusic in the more advanced countries over there, it is not much to be wondered at that the first century went by with but little change from the narrow limitations of psalm singing, or that the next century rolled on into oblivion with only a meager development of concerts, hymn writing, choral societies, and a beginning of light opera in three or four cities. The Revolution had come and gone, bringing our alliance with France, and after 1814, our lasting peace with the Mother Country. The soldiers of these wars, English, German, and French, brought us into contact with the progress being made in those countries. Many remained here and became teachers and performers in the ever-increasing concerts of that day. The early years of the nineteenth century saw a great awakening of our quiescent love for music, increased efforts to make music, to use music, and to broaden the opportunity of our people in their newly aroused desire to understand music. From such root sprang the singing school, which flourished as widely as a social institution, as a very remarkable outburst of desire to know music and to acquire the power to read the mystic symbols, leading to expression ofthe simple hymn tunes in vogue. To these were soon added glees, pieces, anthems, and choruses, though all of the simplest sort. We come then to the year 1836, with the old world revelling in the work ofHandel, Haydn, Gluck, Mozart, and Purcell, enjoying orchestras, operas , oratorios, and many fine concerts in all the large cities! The new world was much behind, but our people were still much absorbed by their stupen- dous task of conquering a continent and evolving a nation. The same year saw our invention of the telegraph and the steamboat, but music was in its swaddling clothes. It is clear that the opportunity was ripe for a new step. Lowell Mason, returning from study in Germany, saw his beloved Puri- tan New England lagging behind, and sought an opening to achieve reform for later generations by reaching the children. He found that children could be easily taught to read simple music, and made the plea that such knowledge would augment the number of recruits to the church choirs. The movement began in 1836 by a petition to the school committee from 606 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the Boston Conservatory, in which Mason was a teacher. To prove the point, Mason began the experiment, without salary, in the Hawes School of Boston, in 1837. So excellently did the plan work that in 1838 he suc- ceeded in having his plans adopted by the school committee and public- school music started on its career as a part of school work. From Boston the idea spread and was taken up quite generally in the principal cities throughout the country. Mason and his followers used a wise pedagogy by founding this work upon the already established American idea of using music as a home, church, and community asset, rather than upon the foreign thought of individual preferment and cultivation of individual geniuses. There arose quite early two widely divergent processes of teaching-the one by the leading of voice, violin, or piano, aiding the pupils to sing a larger repertoire of songs than could be mastered by actual reading; and the other by insisting on actually reading by note every song sung, both methods prefaced by much scale singing and endless drill on exercises for sight reading. Fifty years swept by, and the Civil War period passed into history with school music almost exactly the same as when it first began. Then came the epoch-marking period of 1886, when Luther Whiting Mason published the first of the long list of graded courses of special material for the schools . The earlier material used had been largely singing school texts, hymn books, etc. In order to prepare teachers to become supervisors and to use the new material intelligently, summer schools were established at Boston and Detroit, in 1886 and 1887. The National School in Detroit drew ambitious prospective supervisors from all over the middle west. I well remember my first session, that of 1891. Luther Whiting Mason himself was the dean. The business de- tails were ably managed by a young stripling, Clarence C. Birchard. Chil- dren's songs were presented by Mrs. Cox, now Mrs. Heath, of Chicago. Professor Lott, of Columbus, Ohio, taught voice, Professor Veazie, of Boston, and others made up a brilliant and earnest faculty. J. M. Thomson, of Joliet, Illinois, and his friend, Churchill, now deceased, were stalwart, handsome young men with voices of concert timber. Osborne McConathy was there as the young protégé of Mr. Mason, and Peter Dykema as a boy observer. Very soon the Silver, Burdett Company and the American Book Com- pany published courses of school music, and organized summer schools to prepare supervisors to present them. Full honor and praise must be given to these companies for their splendid pioneer work. There were no schools in the country anywhere then offering courses in public-school music, and, without these summer schools, the work would have been retarded, if indeed it had ever begun . Swiftly now the whole subject forged ahead with astonishing speed. Four or five different courses of study were published, supervisors began to DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 607 enlarge their borders, reaching out to choral performance on public occa- sions and concerts of notable pretension. At the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893 was brought out the great possibilities in the child voice through the teaching of William Tomlins. He was the first to present the spiritual power of pure tone production and the need of safeguarding the miniature voices of children. He was an apostle of using real classic song material and inspiring the children to give them exquisitely. The battle between rote singing and note singing was waged in this decade with increased acerbity. Robert Foresman was an early worker for more and better songs, and, with Eleanor Smith, made a notable contribution to the available song material. Samuel Cole, the present dean of supervisors, and Walter Aiken, Russell, Jepson, Stewart, Butler, Croxton, were pioneer workers. Music in high schools became an alluring possibility. Much splendid material was brought out, notably the Laurel Song Book by Tomlins and the Students' Song Book by McConathy, both published by Birchard. As the scope of choral singing began to be evidenced both in high school and the grades, it came to be felt that something more than piano accom- paniment was needed; also the fact was realized that the great world of instrumental music was as a sealed book to the children of this country . We had taught singing and sight-reading, and then more singing, but never had the children heard music which was beyond their own ability to pro- duce. A very few high schools began to organize orchestras, the one most outstanding being that of Richmond, Indiana, under Will Earhart, which still holds foremost place. Statistics are difficult to obtain, but it is safe tosay that one could count on the fingers such orchestras of full symphonic arrangement in the entire country, and, so far as known, there were no grade orchestras of symphonic organizations. In 1907, a group of some sixty-five supervisors met in Keokuk, Iowa, to observe some rhythm work being developed by Mr. Hayden. The gathering together seemed so promising for mutual exchange of thought, opinion, and method, that it was decided to form a permanent organization, and the Supervisors' National Conference was the result. The oppor- tunity for observation of others' work, the interchange of best thought, the spirit of emulation, the dissemination of new ideas and advanced methods have brought the membership from the original sixty-five to nearly three thousand. Inthe twenty-five years from 1886 to 1911, there had been phenomenal growth in interest in school music, but near the close of that period a new element entered; namely, the perfection of the science of reproducing sound and its development into the reproducing of high-class music. At first a toy, the talking machine, had been brought forward into the realm of musical instruments and began scientific and satisfying reproduc- tions of the great artists in 1906. By 1910, it was seen that a miracle hadbeen wrought in the possibility of taking the great music of the world into the schoolroom by means of these recordings. Not only the folk music 608 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of all lands, and art songs, choruses, arias, etc., beyond the pupil's capacity to produce, but practically the entire repertoire of instrumental music was thus brought within the reach of children everywhere. In 1911, the first organized work was begun to sift and sort the riches of this storehouse and adapt to school conditions and to the stages of de- velopment of the child mind, such music as seemed helpful and desirable, and to add special recordings to round out and complete a real course in the art of listening to music itself. Modesty forbids any detailed statement as to what this miracle of dis- covery and application has meant to school music, but the results are patent to all. Doubtless partially because of this new possibility of hearing the lighter classics played by orchestra, trio, quartet, and solo instruments, the spread of organizing grade and high-school orchestras has been astonishing. Literally thousands of cities now have both in not only one but many of their schools and the ensemble of these groups on occasions is a marvel of accomplishment. These orchestras led at once to the need of teaching of the violin and other instruments in classes. One hundred pupils in a trombone choir was a feature recently in exposition of such teaching. Two hundred violin pupils all bowing exactly together was another inspiring sight. The piano lesson, long a solitary thing, has been brought into communal relation and the discovery made that emulation, the spirit of doing as well as another, and the joy of companionship, have banished the bogy of the clock and made class lessons more effective, more rapidly progressive than the individual lesson. Miss Kinscella, the leading exponent of piano class teaching, builds her system on the principle that pupils shall not be admitted to the class earlier than third grade or nine years of age, wisely insisting that the first and second grades be given over to much hearing of good music, a preparation in the language of music before attempting its technique. Great emphasis is laid on the conscious development of the rhythmic sense during the preparatory period. With a repertoire of rhythmic melodies acquired, the keyboard work proceeds with remarkable celerity. All these class lessons lead inevitably to astonishingly fine amateur orchestras in grades and high school, and these in turn to the civic and community orchestras. Several of the large symphony orchestras are now undertaking to encour- age these embryonic future feeders by arranging to have their best players teach the school orchestras. Such a prodigious amount of teaching of the orchestral instruments is going on, that a great section has been formed in the M. S. N. C. for discussion of methods. In 1911 there were only a scant half dozen ; in 1924 there were hundreds of them all over the country. Ever since the perfecting of the talking machine, and later the player piano, there has been growing another new phase of school music which has brought about a decided change in the entire situation. DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION 609 The opportunity in the schools, to study music itself, rather than about it, has changed the whole plan of study. Music appreciation has now become the most fascinating, the most vital phase of school music. To hear the real music accurately and adequately reproduced, to learn to listen discriminatingly, to compare, to judge, to love beautiful music with or without reason, to analyze, to pick to pieces for motive, phrase, form, construction, to feel the pulsing of the rhythm, to float, to swim or sink or battle with the waves of emotion-this is to make music a part of life, to live in music, and to permit music to live in the inner consciousness. What shall we do with this great opportunity for giving the children real music with which to work ? Shall we insist on remaining no farther ad- vanced than we were in the period of the eighties, when note naming was the only work attempted, or shall we stand still as if in the early years of the century when better song singing had contributed its joyousness to the deadly, dull drill of the earlier decade-and do nothing more ? The so-called regular work in school music, meaning generally merely the grinding away at note reading, is fast giving way before the realization that, after all, the music itself is of more importance than any amount of talk about music, that the study of music is more vital than plodding through uninteresting, meaningless exercises constructed to present some problem in tonality or meter or note lengths. The thinking supervisor is looking straight at the situation with eyes of this year of 1924, and is beginning to realize that this is one place where one may eat the cake and have it, too, for it is being proved that, given the proper amount of discriminating hearing of just the right music, suitable to the age and grade, together with purposeful rhythmic activity expressed bodily, then felt mentally, the required sight reading may be completed in a modicum of the time formerly squandered upon it. Children must be taught to read music, must be sent out into life with the power of acquiring the message of the printed score, must hear what they see and see what they hear, but the hearing must come first to prepare the way for the visual work of later grades. The rise of the music memory contest has been illuminating. It has caught the attention and focused the thoughtful minds of hundreds on the great joy in the process and the resultant amount of real musical knowledge, but far more the lasting interest of the participants. There is now a very general movement to expand the idea, to begin in the early part of the year and proceed more leisurely to the goal, which is precisely the start needed to inaugurate a real course in music appreciation . Music appreciation, as it is coming to be taught, is more music under- standing or, better still, music relationships. In these newer aspects of real teaching with the real music, the question arises what is the place of music appreciation in the general scheme of music work? It has formerly seemed enough if one lesson out of five might be devoted to this special phase, but the results shown are driving the program makers into a corner where this question must be answered. Why not place the study of music itself in the 610 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION center of the scheme and let it serve all the others? Let it prepare the way for the piano classes, the violin classes, and the other instrument classes. Let the study of real music develop in advance the bothersome time or meter or rhythm troubles. Let the singing of many songs from safe patterns serve as a short-end process of increasing the song repertoire. Why not use a modified Euryth- mic plan to bring to every child a conscious coördination of mind, pulse, and bodily expression of the rhythmic flow or the measure of meter? Why not know and whistle, sing, or play a hundred beautiful melodies, as given out by the varied rich tone coloring of the orchestral instruments ? Can any sentient being doubt that if the twin fundamentals-rhythm and melody-may thus be used as the foundation of the music work, that the mastery of the visual recognition of the symbols of the language will not be learned in a fraction of the time now squandered on it, because of the very lack of this preliminary period of ear training? Why not use simple classics as models of phrasing, tone production, cadence, form, style, and finish, with the children in lower grades, before they take up orchestral instruments in solo or ensemble work ? Why not prepare the way for junior high-school music analysis and form by teach- ing in the grades, characteristic rhythms, theme recognition, simple form? If the junior high school may have the analysis of the classic and modern suite, the overture, the sonata, etc., the high-school analysis of symphony and opera is half done. Is it too much to expect that, within the remaining twelve years of this first century of school music, we shall see all the children in our schools everywhere understanding music as only the specially trained adults now do ? When the primary grades universally begin at the beginning a logical course in ear training with music, secure the bodily coördination with mind and pulse, and acquire a repertoire of beautiful melody, is it too difficult to vision that the later elementary grades will easily master sight-reading? When they add to their store of melodies, definite study of rhythm, theme recognition, instruments, etc., the junior high-school work in nationality, folk song, simple form, and analysis will make it possible for the high schools to send young people out real musicians and able to play on at least one instrument, with a knowledge of the development of music, familiar with the best works of the greatest masters, and able to judge dis- criminatingly between the good and the cheap and banal. Wemay confidently expect, by 1936, a great expansion in choral contests and band and orchestra contests. The memory contest will have become a test of the year's work in music appreciation, instead of a short spasmodic effort, participated in by all the children. The subject of music interpre- tation with the expression of the suggested mood in free dance rhythms . the study of program music, and the dramatization of hundreds of music stories, must inevitably lead to the opera form of expression. Community and civic opera is beginning to burgeon, and the high schools DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 611 will furnish well-trained dramatists as well as singers for the choruses and minor rôles. Two American operas have been recently given, and there is no reason why hundreds of high schools should not give simple opera with their own chorus and principals, and their own orchestras, when, in a few years more, there shall have been written American operas with suitable texts and worthy music. A prophet may see school music in 1936, " a thing of beauty and a joy forever," having kept pace with the advances that will have been made in other subjects and in the social world as well. We shall then have a Bureau of Music in the Department of Education, with a fully equipped organization to render aid to the rural districts everywhere. The National Conservatory will offer opportunity for advance study, to the graduates from the long list of splendid schools and colleges, which will be offering fine, complete courses in music with full degree. In the matter of literature, some one will have arisen to write of " the psychology of the child mind in relation to music;" "the effect of nationality and racial types of mind on composition ;" "the use of the folk song and dance forms by great composers," etc. , etc. Our Supervisors' Journal will have developed into a real music maga- zine and the National Conference itself into a professional congress or con- vention, such as the superintendents' section of this body with State super- visors, county supervisors, instrumental supervisors, big city and little city groups, and general convocations addressed by the greatest educators and musicians in the country. Is it not thrilling to see around the corner to what school music can do in the next twelve years, rounding out a century marked by the devotion and consecration of many of the pioneers and the rapid progress now pos- sible because of the infinitely better support than was formerly known and the vastly increased opportunities for preparation ? Six States now have State supervisors, and by 1936 there will be many more. If Lowell Mason could drop into the schools of some of our cities now, he would be lost in amazement, and in 1936 utterly dazed. As the progress . in the twenty-five years from 1886 to 1911 was greater than in the first fifty years, and the first twelve of this last period of twenty-five years is incomparably greater than in the preceding twenty-five years, so the next twelve years must bring expansions of which we do not now even dream . With the possibility of teaching by radio, with the astonishing reproduc- tions of talking machines and player pianos, we may truly aspire to making school music not only the most important phase of music teaching, but one of the most vital subjects in education. Department of Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-MANFRED J. HOLMES, Illinois State Normal University ... Normal, Illinois Vice-President-ROY L. SMITH, State Normal School ......... North Adams, Massachusetts Secretary-NED H. DEARBORN, State Normal and Training School. Oswego, New York The Department of Normal Schools was formed at the Cleveland meeting, Au- gust 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the American Normal School Association which had been organized in 1858. See Proceedings of 1870, page 176 ; Proceedings of 1906, page 524. In 1924, it was voted to appoint a committee to discuss the possi- bility of combining with the American Association of Teachers' Colleges . The appointment of the committee was deferred. See Proceedings of 1924, page 614. The Department of Normal Schools coöperates with the American Association of Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Guy E. Maxwell, Winona, Minn.; Secretary- treasurer, H. C. Minnich, Oxford, Ohio, and with the National Society of College Teachers of Education, whose offi- cers for 1924-25 are : President, Allen S. Whitney, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Secretary, Arthur Jones, Room 108, College Hall, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 1, 1924 The meeting was held in the auditorium at Wilson Normal School, Washington, D. C., Tuesday, July 1, 1924. In the absence of the president, M. J. Holmes, of the Illinois State Normal University, and of the vice-president, Roy L. Smith, of the State Normal School, North Adams, Massachusetts, the secretary called the meet- ing to order at 2 P.M. George V. Frasier, president of the Colorado State Teach- ers College, Greeley, Colorado, was unanimously elected chairman of the meeting. The program was carried out as printed in the official bulletin. Lively discussion followed the reading of the papers . The attendance was 120. Anominating committee was appointed, consisting of George H. Black, president of the State Normal School, Ellensburg, Washington; W. P. Morgan, president of the State Teachers College of Macomb, Illinois ; and Guy E. Maxwell, president of the State Teachers College, Winona, Minnesota. The meeting was adjourned at 4:45 P.M. until Thursday, July 3, at 2 P.M [613] 614 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SECOND SESSION- THURSDAY AFTERNOON , JULY 3, 1924 Wilson Normal School The temporary chairman was introduced by the secretary and matters of busi- ness were taken up for discussion. It was moved that the president appoint a committee to confer with a committee from the American Association of Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools to discuss the possibilities of amalgamation of the two organizations. The motion was seconded and carried. The appointment of the committee was deferred . The following officers were elected : President-George V. Frasier, president State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.; vice- president-Theda Gildemeister, Department of Education, State Teachers College, Winona, Minn.; secretary-Ned H. Dearborn, formerly director of the Training School, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. The program as contained in the official bulletin was carried out in detail. The attendance was 185 . Expressions from the floor and informal comment indicated the satisfaction with which the group in attendance viewed the quality of the program. Many thanks are due to the staff of the National Education Association headquarters, especially to Agnes Winn, director of the Division of Classroom Service. Without her splendid coöperation it is doubtful if the attendance would have approached the creditable proportions it did. Again, due to her coöperation, the Wilson Normal School auditorium was made available for the meetings. The room was spacious and conveniently located to the central meeting point of the Association. To the authorities of the Wilson Normal School we are indebted for their many courtesies and fine hospitality. The meeting adjourned at 4:30 p. m. NED H. DEARBORN, Secretary, Department of Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools. WORKING CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO HIGHEST EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY GUY E. MAXWELL, STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, WINONA, MINNESOTA I ask permission to present some aspects of the problem of standardizing our teacher training. I venture to do this, notwithstanding the somewhat justified antipathy that is aroused by the word itself, and in spite of the active opposition that the effort to standardize teacher training may pos- sibly awaken. However, if we agree that "the way to resume is to re- sume, " it seems to me that the threefold way to get suitable and effective working conditions even in teachers' colleges is not only to talk about con- ditions a thing we have done for fifty years but also to agree upon standards and to conform to them. That this whole matter of arriving at and using higher norms is slowly evolving and exceedingly significant, I wish now to show, for I am con- vinced that the growth and service of all our teacher preparing institutions center in adequate and fully applied standards . Diversity-Few institutions are so diversified as our teachres' colleges and normal schools. The causes of this diversity are quite apparent. These DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 615 institutions, the adaptation of a German idea, tagged with a French name, and developed in a new continent under theretofore unknown social and political conditions, are even now scarcely out of the experimental stage. They were established quite spontaneously in new States to serve newly devised systems of public schools and to meet immediate and pressing de- mands for teachers. These demands, however, carried wage returns of not more than twenty or thirty dollars a month, making impossible an ex- tended and adequate preparation. Again, there was no source of trained workers in the field and no institution which through outstanding leader- ship was accepted as typical for the group. There was little in the practice of the time, or in the writings of the leaders of educational thought, that could serve as a guide. Organization, courses, and procedure were de- pendent upon local circumstances and the special needs of the community to be served. Regarding these diversities, an investigator, as late as 1897, declared : "I do not see how these variations could be either more marked or more definite if the plan was to put forth as many theories and experiments as the human mind could invent. There is no typical State normal school yet developed. It remains for the future to develop it. There is scarcely any reciprocity between schools of this class, and very little faith in one another's work. There is no disposition to get together and formulate any plan that will unify their professional efforts, but a constant disposition to show peculiarities and specialties, and oppose others in their notions just as peculiar and provincial. Until there is a change in their policy and purpose, the normal school will remain an indefinite and unsolved problem." (H. H. Seerley, N. E. A. Proceedings of 1897, p. 713.) Beginning of unity-This very department which brings us together today was the first of the unifying factors within these institutions. The American Normal School Association was organized in 1858 and continued as such until 1866, when it became, by reorganization, the Department of Normal Schools of the National Teachers Association, and finally the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association. Thus for sixty-five years the normal schools have had an effective national organization , and the topics and papers of this department cover a very wide range of professional study. The Chicago report-The first formal inquiry looking toward the standardizing of certain aspects of normal school work was authorized by this department in 1885 when a committee was appointed, " to prepare a report on the curricula and methods of teaching in the different normal schools," and to discover what concerted action the normal schools of the United States should take in order to raise the standard and increase the efficiency of their work. Data were gathered upon thirty-five topics covering organization, courses of study, and methods of instruction, from fifty representative schools in thirty States. The inquiry brought together a mass of well-analyzed de 616 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tail, and afforded effective information for students of the normal school problem. This report was presented at the Chicago session of 1886. Many of these recommendations of forty years ago sound strangely familiar today. While the authors of the report hesitated to recommend any standards, declaring that "much remains to be done before sufficient data are at hand for any extended generalizations," nevertheless the influence of the report was far reaching and helpful. The Los Angeles report-For several years progress in standards was slow. But a notable forward movement was inaugurated in 1895, when the following resolution was adopted : Whereas, we deem it necessary for the development and the efficiency of the Normal Department, RESOLVED, that a committee of five be appointed by the president to meet during the year and formulate a report, to be presented at the next meeting, upon such educational topics as directly concern the department. This committee divided the problem into ten sub-problems, and secured the appointment of subcommittees for special study of each of the ten separate inquiries. In 1897, preliminary reports were submitted, succinct and promising. The committee did not deem it to be its province to interpret or evaluate its findings, but declared significantly regarding certain variations that "it would seem that some sort of standard should be established, that the normal schools might command more respect as a factor in public educa- tion and thereby accomplish more good". The discussion of the report brought further appeals for recognized standards, for definitions, for minimum essentials in professional study, for diplomas that would pass from State to State, for common ground to stand on. "I would urge that this body proceed to define," said one. "The minimum of necessity, the maximum of opportunity," was a happy adjust- ment proposed by another. That there were doubts, however, as to the feasibility of applied standards is indicated in this quotation: "Suppose this committee goes on and does this work, what will it effect ? Whom are you going to affect; what are you going to reach ? It seems to me, gentlemen, you are simply wasting time. To say that this shall be the work which would allow a school to call itself a normal school, is absurd. When you have got it done, you will print it, and we will go on doing just the same work as before." It was in 1899, four years after its creation, that the committee pre- sented its final report to the Department of Normal Schools, at Los Angeles. The report of sixty-seven pages is a most elaborate paper and covers " almost all the questions that have interested the normal school men of the country. " To have secured an agreement among the eight members of the committee, and to have submitted a report so much better than any similar effort before or since, deserves high praise. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 617 These two reports are the principal formal contributions of the Depart- ment of Normal Schools during fifty-seven years in developing a favorable attitude toward standards. The work consisted primarily in making avail- able the information regarding what the schools were really doing; assum- ing, perhaps wisely, that what was most commonly done was best done because it had the majority backing of earnest workers under varying con- ditions throughout the country, and was therefore verified and justified under the law of survival. The scientific group-The influence of the Los Angeles report of 1899 was far reaching, and apparently served to meet the demand for standards for a dozen years, or until about 1910, when at least three new influences affecting normal school standards began to be felt. One of these was and is the educational measurement movement sponsored by the increasing group of scientific students of education. In this group should be noted the work represented by Judd and Parker, and by well known surveys of normal schools, such as those of Missouri, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and such State surveys as those of Indiana and Kansas, which include studies of the normal schools. The North Central Council Committee-The second influence affecting the further development of normal school standards is an organization, initiated in 1902 by a group of normal school presidents, and first known as the North Central Council of State Normal School Presidents, and now known as the American Association of Teachers' Colleges. This body, in 1916, created a committee on Standards and Surveys which has from time to time submitted to its parent body studies and recommendations dealing withmany aspects of teacher training, such as the faculty member load, the student load, form and content of catalog material, scholastic and pro- fessional preparation for faculty members, unit costs of operation, require- ments for admission of students, salary schedules, standards for training departments, approved syllabi, inside surveys, and others. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, in 1918, adopted standards for accrediting teacher training institutions whereb to determine the standing of applicants for place in the accredited lists of that body. With the standards set by the North Central Associa- tion as a pattern and point of departure, the committee on Standards and Surveys submitted a proposed statement of standards and principles for adoption by the council, and at the Cleveland meeting of the American Association of Teachers' Colleges, in February, 1923, secured the first adoption by the council, and at the Cleveland meeting of the American ment of standards and principles for teacher training institutions. The first set of normal school standards was, therefore, finally adopted by an authoritative body of teacher training workers just sixteen days before the one hundredth anniversary day of the opening by Samuel Read Hall, at Concord Corner, Vermont, on March 11, 1823, of the first teacher train- ing institution in America. 618 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STANDARDS FOR ACCREDITING TEACHERS' COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Adopted at Cleveland, Ohio, February, 1923, by American Association of Teachers' Colleges The Standard American Teachers' College or Normal School is a school with two-year, three-year, and four-year curricula designed to afford such general and professional education as will best fit students for specific teaching in elementary and secondary schools . The following constitute the minimum standards for accrediting teach- ers colleges and normal schools. (1.) Such schools should require for admission the satisfactory com- pletion of four years of work in a secondary school approved by a recog- nized accrediting agency, or equivalent of such course. (2.) Each curriculum leading to a diploma or degree should be duly unified, recognized separately, and only if the following conditions are met : (a) The two-year curricula leading to diplomas should together have a minimum enrollment of 80 students fully matriculated according to the provisions of Standard 1 above . (b) The four-year curricula leading to baccalaureate degrees should together have a minimum enrollment of 60 students fully matriculated according to the provisions of Standard 1 above, with not less than 25 in the junior and senior years. (3.) Such school should require for a diploma not less than 60 semester hours or equivalent, and the requirement for graduation with the baccalau- reate degree should be not less than 120 semester hours or the equivalent. (4.) The minimum scholastic requirement of all teachers in such schools (except assistants in the training school) should be equivalent to that required for a standard bachelor's degree, supplemented by special training or experience, or both, of at least three years . The minimum scholastic requirement of the head of a department should be equivalent to that required by a master's degree. (5.) The average teaching program of a teacher in such schools should not exceed 16 hours of 50 to 60 minutes each, herein called "class hours," a week, in actual teaching or the equivalent in art, music, laboratory, shop, or supervisory instruction, or in physical education. The class unit for instruction should not exceed 30 students. (6.) Such teachers' colleges and normal schools should provide adequate facilities for observation and practice teaching, making this work the integrating and controlling factor of the curriculum. (a) The number of pupils annually enrolled in the training depart- ment ( including children in public schools used for practice) should not be less than four times the annual number of graduates from the institution. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 619 (b) The teachers in the training department (including the director and assistants) should number not less than one-third the entire junior college faculty of the institution, and (excepting assist- ants) should possess the same degree of preparation as other members of the junior college faculty. (c) Each student candidate for the diploma (60 semester hours of credit) should be required to pursue the equivalent of one school year of observation-practice of not less than one daily class hour or a total of 180 hours . (7.) Such schools should be provided with library and laboratory equip- ment sufficient to develop adequately and to illustrate each course announced. The library should contain not less than 8,000 live, well-distributed, pro- fessionally administered volumes, and should be maintained by an annual appropriation for the purchase of books of not less than $1,000. (8.) The location and construction of buildings, the lighting, heating and ventilation of rooms, the nature of laboratories, corridors, closets, school furniture, water supply, apparatus, and methods of cleaning, should be such as to insure hygienic conditions for students and teachers. (9.) Such schools should receive an annual income for maintenance and operation of not less than $50,000, of which not less than $25,000 should bederived from stable sources other than students' fees. Increase in faculty, student body, and scope of instruction above the minimum set in the fore- going paragraphs, should be accompanied by increase in operating income. The teacher's load-Turning now to one of the more specific aspects of the topic announced, we note that these standards quite definitely set the limits of the teacher's load when they limit the class hours to 16 a week and the number of students to 30 to a class. In terms of student- hours for each teacher the maximum load is 480. But with the exigencies of program organization and the irregularities of classification, the practical average for the teachers in any institution, even under these standards, will fall materially, perhaps to 300 student-hours. Now these maxima are set for such general classroom subjects as mathematics and history. They should be modified for English composition to 12 hours a week with 25 students to a class, or 300 student-hours ; for shop and laboratory work, to 20 hours a week, with 20 students to a class, or 400 student-hours; for physical education to 18 hours a week with 30 students to a class, or 540 student-hours. While teachers' colleges and normal schools have within recent years made progress in the reduction and better adjustment of the faculty load, it is a fact that the load is much heavier than the load carried by faculty members in the standard academic colleges of the country. When Presi- dent H. A. Brown, of Oshkosh, compared figures secured from 75 teachers' colleges, with those secured from 50 academic colleges, he found the foll ing contrasts : The average size of classes in classroom subjects in colleges was 34 students to a class, against 24 students in ac 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION classes; the teaching load in hours a week in classroom subjects in teachers colleges was 18 hours against 14 hours in academic colleges. If we com- bine the average number of classes a week with the average number of students to a class, and thus get the student-hour load a week for each of the two kinds of colleges we find that the average student-hour load in classroom in teachers' colleges was 612 against 336 for academic colleges. Of the standards .noted above, the one which is designed to limit the load of the critic teacher reads as follows : "The teachers in the training department, including the director and assistants, should number not less than one-third of the entire junior college faculty of the institution." Under the forms of group instruction used in the college or normal department, as opposed to the individual observation, instruction, and criticism by the critic teacher in the training school, the academic instructor can, on the average, care for at least twice as many students as the critic teacher. If we permit half as many teachers in the training department (according to our standard) as in the college department, they can care for one fourth as many students. The figures that the standards suggest as permissible maxima at the present time for the average instructor in the college department, are from 25 to 30 students. For the critic the number will then become six to eight students. Where there is one training teacher for each grade of thirty children, the number of student teachers assigned to such teacher should not exceed eight. This limit is fixed by a consideration of the interests of the child ren themselves, by the capacity and strength of the training teachers, and by the welfare of the student teachers, each student receiving such individual oversight and instruction as will be noted in naming the qualifications for this position. President Brown found in his inquiry among 75 teachers' colleges that the average number of student-teachers to each critic teacher was from 9.5 to 14.5, depending upon whether the critic supervised both general and special subjects or whether he had only general subjects, being relieved from the supervision of special subjects. If we take the lower of these two averages, 9.5 students to each critic, we find that the average is 58 per cent greater than our standards would permit, while the average classroom teacher of such subjects as mathematics and history, with his average load of 34 students, was only 13 per cent overloaded when com- pared with our permissible maximum. The training department of the normal school is the most important phase of teacher preparation. Whatever the laboratory is to the young chemist, or the hospital to the beginning surgeon, that the practice school is to the teacher in training. It is the culminating and most significant aspect of his professional preparation. The best interests of the children of any training school demand that at least one third of the actual instruction of the children be given by skilled teachers, either supervisors, paid assistants, teachers of special sub- jects, or department heads. Under this condition the education afforded DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 621 the children in the training department will be definitely superior to the average instruction in the public schools of the same community. On the basis of two thirds of his time, no critic teacher should be expected to carry a supervisory load heavier than the one suggested. The training teachers in the normal school should be possessed of the same general and professional preparation, experience, skill, and general worth as other members of the normal school faculty, and should, there- fore, be remunerated upon the same salary schedule as their colleagues . They should have an equal part in faculty meetings, in service upon com- mittees, and an equal part in establishing the policies of the institution. While training teachers should be selected primarily upon the basis of their craftsmanship, it is nevertheless necessary, if the student teacher is to be more than a mere apprentice, to demand such breadth and richness of professional study and experience as will enable the training teacher to develop a student's skill on the basis of principles with increasing insight into the specific problems involved in teaching. The training teacher is responsible for situations definitely more complex and difficult than the teachers of so-called academic subjects, or of theory subjects in the normal or college department. The training teacher must have effective command of the subject-matter of the elementary school curriculum, of the principles of organization and instruction, and of the nature and nurture of children. Besides this very extensive knowledge and insight, this teacher must be an adept in the application of these prin- ciples to specific cases; she must be able quickly to analyze any unfavorable situation arising in her own instruction or in that of her student teacher. Such analysis must be set forth in such manner as to make the student conscious of the principles involved, as we before said, and to assist the student to find a practical solution on the basis of such principles. In addition to all this, the training teacher must be able to meet parents, to win the good will of the children and of student teachers, and withal she should be healthy, hopeful, and wholesome. Again the clock hour cost per student instruction in practice teaching, running as high as $2.00 an hour in some schools, is by far the highest of any form of teaching within the normal school. Such high-priced service should be protected and directed by the best skill within the in- stitution. Normal school authorities are as yet not magnifying sufficiently the work of their training teachers, nor so adjusting salary schedules as to secure the standards of training teacher personnel which are here recom- mended . The critic teacher is by all odds the member of the teachers' college faculty who needs relief. If the presidents of these institutions do not realize this grave situation and remedy it forthwith, they will no longer be able to secure adequately trained and competent teachers for this work. Entire faculty-In order to fulfill the conditions established by these standards a teachers' college will have to have in its college departme P a ratio of students to faculty not to exceed fifteen to one. 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brown found that, in teachers' colleges, there was one faculty member in the college department for 23 students while in the academic college there was one faculty member for every 13 students. The general assembly of teachers' colleges has always been a delightful and profitable exercise in each day's program, especially when it is employed as an instrument of instruction, a means for the development of personality. and a source of new ambitions, inspiration, and ideals. It should not be merely a daily gathering for announcements. The presence of the faculty at chapel insures a dignity and worth-while- ness that cannot be secured when teachers are absent. The fully attended and enthusiastic chapel exercise is evidence that class instruction is not the only significant influence in the school. Indeed, each teacher on the plat- form is so fully the "observed of all observers" that his influence at the chapel hour may be no less far-reaching than at any other hour of the day. That a teacher believes he can, or even demonstrates that he can, for himself, better employ his time during the assembly period by being elsewhere, ought not to excuse him from the responsibility of sympathetic, cheerful, and coöperative attendance upon the daily exhibition of the unified, organic, and living character of the school. If a teacher cannot find any better justification for attendance at chapel than the mercenary one of re- ceiving pay for such attendance, then let that thought cheer his drab and lagging spirit. Teachers are paid in cash for chapel attendance, but they actually earn what they receive when, as I have noted, they join in the exercise of the hour in a sympathetic, cheerful, and coöperative way. For any faculty member to sit as if greatly bored, to comment unkindly upon what is done, to shudder perceptibly at a grammatical error, to whisper surreptitiously, is to make himself an unworthy holder of a responsible and respected place in the membership of a teacher training institution. A proposal-This Normal School Department in days gone by has rendered wonderful service to teacher preparing institutions. It has co- ordinated and refined their organization. More than any other influence it has prepared the way for effective standards of organization, curricula, instruction, and service. Shall it not now carry on in the immensely im- portant work which is still to be done? This department, through an agent or committee, should actively collaborate in this movement to secure a desirable standardizing of our institutions and thus help to redeem the lost time of years gone by. Our department should help to prevent the scattered and noncumulative character of the studies heretofore made, or now being made, making such material available so long as it is effective. This department should help furnish prompt, dependable, and relevant information of the activities in teacher preparation throughout the country ; the significant acts of boards of directors ; the changes in certification laws involving professional training ; additions or other changes in the curricula of teacher training institutions ; the modifications in procedure or standards within the high school training departments or county training schools of the country ; and other worth-while information . DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 623 Now time to move forward-What has now been accomplished in the way of standardizing the work of normal schools and teachers' colleges is a beginning only and should be continuously extended and refined. There must be adopted a usable nomenclature, the recognition of the applied science of education; a capitalizing of experience and research ; a conscious and unified purpose; substitution of specific aims and policies for general- ities; a coördination of educative factors within each institution ; and a discovery and use of the best ways of developing teachers. Teachers' col- leges have yet thus to win their rightful place in the main current of American education, and to do so in terms of the needs of the public school, for which they are maintained and for which they are professionally responsible. The long continued failure of normal school workers of days gone by to reach definite norms, a failure which the conditions of the time per- haps made unavoidable, we must not in our day continue or repeat. Our predecessors constantly sought to generalize upon what was being done, to find an average, to discover what ought to be done by what the sup- posedly best schools were doing. We must now set up norms for teacher training which are based upon the new science of education, and in ac- cordance with the increasing needs of public education and the welfare of democracy. We must spread far and wide the knowledge of the standards thus set up. We must centralize the influence of the majority of the better teacher training institutions in the country in just such organizations as this department and as the American Association of Teachers Colleges, and through the influence of these bodies, help the understandardized schools to press forward to the place which they ought to occupy. We now have a fund of acceptable and accepted knowledge of teacher training procedure, gathered in hundreds of conferences, papers, and com- mittee reports. We have taken a century for preparation. We must now establish and administer reasonable standards, and not wait either to be goaded into respectability by some outside authority, or to die in our neglect . It is now high time to agree upon, establish, and measure up to the norms which will place teacher training upon the high level justified by its indispensable character in preserving and vitalizing our democracy. In closing, permit a comment upon the happy condition in which, as teachers' college workers, we now find ourselves. In our associates we enjoy the influence of a refined, loyal, intellectually alert and magnanimous group of teachers. We are thrown into happy and sympathetic contact with a selected group of young people, the best product of our schools. Each of these students has chosen to follow our own calling, largely, no doubt, through the unconscious influence of some former teacher. The sympathy that grew up between this guide and the student is itself proof and promise of the student's scholarly attitude and of his high ideal of service. The salary for teachers is not yet so high nor their work so easy as to attract to the teachers' college the shallow and ease-loving type of young person. Many students whom we help to become teachers will, in 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the not distant future, render for the field of education service more signif- icant than our own. While fifty years ago the normal school was a modest effort to prepare young students to teach the simple tools of reading, writ- ing, and numbers, the teachers' college is now a complex and extensive in- stitution with new problems and constructive undertakings, maintained in a social situation where our mechanical ingenuity has outstripped our moral and civic insight and practice. In our common task of preparing teachers for the public schools we are engaged in the most fundamental and in- dispensable enterprise to which the State gives itself in its effort to maintain itself and to perpetuate our civilization. Surely, each of us has a man's job, accompanied I trust by all we require for contentment, growth, ad- venture, and high achievement. THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS ENTERING INTO THE CUR- RICULA OF TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS FRANK E. BAKER, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE WISCONSIN I have chosen to discuss this subject because it seems to me that the greatest weakness of the teacher-training institution, the correction of which lies within our own hands, is in the curricula. The choice of materials entering into the program of studies of teacher training institutions is in utter confusion. This is shown by two considera- tions ; namely, the entire lack of any central or fundamental principles running through the criticisms of the curricula of normal schools and teachers colleges, and the constant changing of the curricula in those institu- tions that are progressive and that are trying to keep their schools up to the best thought of the day. I have before me criticisms of the curricula of teacher training schools by twenty-three presidents and deans of State normal schools and State teachers' colleges. They are as diverse in character as the men who made them. Furthermore, many of the criticisms are of the type that sound good but mean little ; such, for instance, as, "Too much hash and too little beefsteak." Many of us have had experience with attempts to change the curricula of teacher training schools. Those who have had this ex- perience probably remember the general unsatisfactoriness of the results, and the desire on the part of everyone to have another revision at the end of the first year, and another at the end of the second year, and so on. We need, above everything else, a scientific study of curriculum making in teacher training institutions. Such a study should first collect the facts in regard to the curricula of the leading teacher training institutions of the whole country. Such studies as those made by Professor Bagley and his staff have rendered great service, but we have never had nation-wide study of the curricula of these schools on a scientific plan. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 625 Heretofore, we have depended entirely on questionnaires. But ques- tionnaires, admirable as they are, do not get facts. A fact is usually de- fined as something that can be seen or experienced independently by two or more reputable people. When I answer a questionnaire, I put things down as I see them, from my viewpoint and background, and I may, and doubtless often do, see things that cannot be seen or experienced by another reputable person. With the facts all in, the study should next proceed to formulate, in the light of these facts, and on the basis of a sound philosophy of education, some fundamental principles to guide us in the selection of materials for the curricula of teacher training schools. I am going to venture, this afternoon, to law down a few such prin- ciples. Some of them are not mine and are generally accepted; others, that are mine, probably are not fundamental and will most certainly be vigorously criticized. The first principle, that the curricula of teacher training schools must be completely professionalized, has come to be generally accepted. The only trouble with it is that few seem to know exactly what is meant by a professionalized curriculum. We will recognize that a course of study in American history, given in a State normal school or a teachers' college, should differ greatly from a course in the same subject given in a liberal arts college, but few teachers of history can tell clearly and definitely wherein the differences lie. Professor Bagley has pointed out that, from the standpoint of curricula, there have been three classes of State normal schools. First, there have been the review normal schools, in which the large part of the curricula was devoted to a review of the materials to be taught in the elementary schools. The Pennsylvania normal schools of ten years ago were of this type. Of another type, were those schools that accepted the principles that the materials to be taught in the elementary schools had been sufficiently taught in the high schcools, and devoted their main energies to giving courses in methodology. The New York State normal schools of ten years ago were examples of this type, and the county normals of Wisconsin are present-day exemplars. Of the third type, were those schools that accepted the principle that the materials to be taught in the elementary grades had been sufficiently taught in the high schools and devoted themselves to liberalizing courses of college grade, followed by a few methods courses and a short period of practice. The normal schools of the middle west were the best examples of this type. Those who have made a study of the problems of teacher training have come to feel that none of these three types do or ever will meet the situation and that the solution of the problem lies in the development of schools offering professionalized courses of college grade. They believe that State normal schools and teachers' colleges should offer no courses that do not 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION have a definite professional bent, and that do not require much intellectual exercise as the average course offered in the liberal arts college. The second principle that I should like to lay down to guide us in the selection of materials entering into the curricula of teacher training schools should not be necessary, but unfortunately it is. Stated rather baldly, the principle is that the curricula of State normal schools must be made and kept intellectually respectable. Applying these two principles to the three classes of normal schools mentioned above, we shall arrive at the following conclusions: The first type, the so-called review normals, were neither professional nor intel- lectually respectable ; the method, or device, or panacea normals may have been professional but were not intellectually respectable; the third type came nearest to intellectual respectability but they were not professional. The second principle will bar out of our curricula certain courses that have been offered in all State normal schools. The so-called method courses have been largely mere notebook courses in which the instructor has dictated devices and panaceas to be taken down in notebooks by the students. Such courses have no intellectual standing and must be ruled out of the curricula. Many of the normal schools have offered courses in library reference. giving one or two points credit and requiring fifteen or thirty class hours of work. My observation of these courses has led me to believe that they have been almost exclusively the notebook kind. The work, as I have seen it, has required little intellectual effort. If we must teach normal school students how to use a library, it can be done by a member of the library staff in four or five lectures, as a part of one of the regular English courses, the students being required to carry on during the time of these lectures enough regular work to give the course intellectual standing. This brings me to a third principle which should not perhaps be dig- nified by the term principle, but should be considered only as a statement of policy. No normal school curriculum, whether of two, three, or four years' duration, should attempt to teach everything that a teacher needs to know. The attempt to do this has been the bane of normal school cur- riculum making. There are many things a teacher should know that can best be learned as a by-product of experience. In fact there are some things that can be learned from an actual situation only. An illuminating example of this demand that a normal school curriculum must include everything a teacher needs to know, was given by a normal school president who demanded that all two-year curricula in a certain system of schools should include a course in presiding. I was reminded at the time of an institute lecturer who traveled over a certain State ad- vocating that every boy and girl should be taught to graft trees; and ot the more extreme case of an educational crank who maintained that every pupil should be taught to write with his left hand to prepare him for the possible emergency of the loss of his right hand. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 627 I think that a study of the facts of curriculum making in teacher training schools will lead to a fourth principle; namely, that there must not be too much differentiation and that we have already gone too far in this direction . This tendency to differentiate has resulted in or at least has encouraged- over-departmentalization. I know some normal schools that are depart- mentalized to an extravagant degree, a tendency which has been fostered by the demand for differentiation . When a scientific study of curriculum making in teacher training schools is made, it will include a careful formulation of the ideals of teacher train- ing and a scientific analysis of the work of the classroom teacher. In closing, I wish to say again that our greatest opportunity for the im- provement of those working conditions that favor efficient teaching in the State normal schools lies along the line of a better selection of the ma- terials that make up the curricula of these institutions. A CRITIQUE OF EDUCATIONAL METHOD T. J. MC CORMACK, LA SALLE- PERU TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL LA SALLE, ILLINOIS Itwould be an interesting and illuminating task for the statistical depart- ment of some teachers' college to collect from contemporary and historical literature all the definitions of education that had ever been given, and to classify and collate them according to their generic affinities. After the pedagogic broom had collected these definitional scraps of the centuries into the sacred academic dustpan, then, by the proper shaking a trick known only to adepts and through the mysterious alchemy of self-fertilization or logical parthenogenesis, the true and satisfactory definition would emerge, and research would have reached its goal. Such appears to me the present fashionable mode of inquiry. I am going to try another method of ap- proach, which may be termed the critical or analytic approach. Education is a very general concept, embracing many diverse points of view and approach, vast and various bodies of subject matter, widely differ- ent objectives, and numerous methods of procedure. It is a fluid concept with quicksilver content. As the logicians say, its "extension" is immense, its "intension" very narrow. Like all very general concepts, from its very nature, it teems with contradictions and paradoxes. In our discus- sions we focus always only a small part of the field, but the rest always persists in intruding itself. The lowering hinterland, the giant associational shadows always haunt us, and darkness or contradiction results. Consequently, education is not an autonomous science with its own characteristic methods of procedure, with its own characteristic concepts and categories like physics, chemistry, or biology. It is a composite tech- nique; and this, its composite character, has created much of the confusion 028 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that has arisen in educational thinking. It has given rise to confusion of methods of procedure, of criteria and tests both of subject-matter and objectives, and to shiftings and substitutions which resemble the operations of the manipulator of walnut shells at a country fair, more than of a scientist clear as to his methods and goals. The researches and procedures of education range from statistical science, which is a branch of mathematics, through biology, psychology, logic, ethics, and esthetics, down to economics, sociology, and the technique of learning and teaching. Education employs the results reached by all these sciences and uses them for different purposes and needs, such as administration, construction of curricula, the formulation of the learning process, and the teaching procedure, the classification of human material, the statement of objectives, and the rules for reaching these objectives. Education in this respect resembles agriculture and applied sociology, which are concerned with the applications of tributary sciences rather than with the elaboration of results peculiarly their own through methods characteristically their own. The sciences which so contribute to education differ widely in nature. Some are, at least in method, natural sciences, like psychology, which aims at the establishment of general laws of mental procedure and which is concerned with generic types and abstractions as distinguished from indi- viduals. Some of them are historical or genetic sciences, which deal with L origins and developments, which are concerned with events or individuals that have a history and that occur only once in time. Some of them are 1 combinations of the physical and genetic procedures, as various branches of both psychology and biology may at times be. Again, others of the sciences concerned are sciences of norms and standards, of objectives and goals, the normative sciences, like logic, ethics, and esthetics which tell us not what is, but what ought to be, not what the laws of events actually occurring are, but what the ideals and ends that ought to be realized gen- erally in persons and events. In many of our procedures, two or more of these sciences are combined, with the result that sometimes there is confusion. For example, the learn- ing process is a formulation resulting from the fusion of two independent scientific quests : ( 1 ) A psychological quest, which determines the abstract or type mental processes by which the fictitious average child learns, and (2) a logical quest, or rather stipulation, that the procedure in question shall be the right or the correct procedure. Psychology as a natural science explains bad learning and bad reasoning as lucidly and as non- chalantly as it explains good learning and good reasoning. Bad learn- ing is as much a psychological process and just as much subject to natu- ral law as good learning. In fact, we, as teachers are more concerned and more troubled with bad learning than with good learning; just as the theologian is more concerned about sin than about virtue. As teachers, error is just as important to us as truth. The truth or the right process of learning is only one process, or a small group of DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 629 processes, out of an infinite number of possible wrong processes. It is the one white ball taken from an urn that contains a myriad black balls.¹ In other words, when we select out of the thousand and one wrong learning processes that the child actually uses, that particular learning process which is correct, we mingle logic, which is a science of norms and standards, and science that tells us what ought to be, with psychology, a science that tells us simply what is. And my contention here is that the "logical" selection, while admirable and desirable, is yet the result of a complicated theoretical process which will give the practical teacher little clue to the obstacles which he will encounter when dealing with that bundle of errors, prejudices, emotions, historical and social accidents, which is the child. Our greatest problem, our great obstacle as teachers, is the fallacious mental process, which is legion, rather than the correct mental process, which is the single logical ideal. The natural organic logic, the emotional logic, the pathologi- cal logic of the individual child placed in the classroom is our bridge of sorrows, and not the translucent celestial categories of the auto-anthropos of Aristotle. We are dealing with the living human person, a concrete, singular event, which occurs only once in history, which has never occurred before, and which will never occur again, in just his particular idiosyncracy. Here lies the crux of the teaching problem. The physical, the natural sciences, like psychology and biology, in some of their aspects, seek out the resemblances, construct abstract mental types of man, which are fig- ments, establish general laws that apply only to abstractions, deal with averages that have only intellectual reality, are concerned only with uni- versals, the solace of metaphysicians. The sciences like logic and ethics, which are normative and which set goals, are concerned with the limiting ideals of absolutely correct thinking and absolutely right conduct, which few human beings ever realize. Between these two extremes of human ideal thought and human ideal action, between the metaphysician and the saint, between Aristotle and Christ, the human child oscillates in a perfect intellectual and ethical vacuum. As theorists, in the past, we have given almost exclusive attention to the white ball in the urn: I am now pleading for attention to the thousand black balls. What is the remedy, so far as the teaching process is concerned ? The remedy lies in the shifting of the point of view, the point of attack, from the sciences which may be called natural sciences, so far as method is con- cerned, and from the purely normative sciences like logic, to the points of view or levels of outlook which have recently been constructed by a con- sideration of the methods used in history. The historical sciences aim to 1 give a full and exhaustive account of events that happen only once, like the individual child which the teacher treats. The object of these sciences is to understand, interpret, construct, or reconstruct some human thing which exists or has existed only once, which is unique and which will never happen again. We must seek our clue in the sciences of"events" and not See W. Windelband, Præludien, Tuebingen, 1907. 630 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in the sciences of "laws. " The reality which we teachers envisage is the reality that is now undergoing development in concrete children toward definite personal and social ends. To the physical inquirer, qua physical in- quirer, the individual has no scientific value ; to the teacher nothing but the individual has value; for him all values reside in the individual child and not in the types and generic concepts of a child which either psychology or logic constructs. The child is a being that has a history. His personality is the summation of that history. If we do not know the threads that bind him to his particular environment and to his social past, we are lost. A knowledge of his individual social and mental history is as necessary to his welfare and happiness-to his education or reconstruction as a knowl- edge of the laws of psychology and biology that explain him as a type human being. It is not the resemblances of the individual child to other children that constitute the problem of the teacher; it is his differences from other children. His entire value and significance consists in his uniqueness, in his never having been before, and in his never occurring again. "There are no diseases," said a great physician, "there are only diseased persons." The problem of the teacher, like that of the physician, lies in the indi- vidual person that thinks, wills, feels, and acts, and not in the abstract homunculi of psychology and logic. Teaching, in this aspect, is a genetic, an historical technique. Where it finds resemblances, and needs objectives, it may, like history, incidentally employ the results and the methods of the natural sciences such as psychology and biology, or of the normative sciences like logic and ethics. But its aim is essentially the construction or the re- construction of this or that human personality in its social or ethical, in its intellectual, its esthetic and its vocational aspects.. Our personality is in part a growth and in part a fabrication. It is a genetic or historical product; it is also an artifact, or something that is made. It is a joint product of heredity and environment, of nature and nurture, and of the infinitely complicated actions and reactions, adjustments and readjustments between these two conflicting or coöperating factors. For this task we need all the help that psychology, biology, logic, ethics, soci- ology, and the rest can supply. But we must remember in all our teaching and in all our technique that aims at the construction of personality, that the child we are teaching is a being that never was before and never will be again. This fact, so far as method and approach are concerned, is decisive. A similar critique is applicable to many other inquiries that usurp the place that teaching ought to occupy in education, and that are apt to divert our attention and energies from this cardinal function. For example, curriculum-making, which we must have, is a purely "scientific" and not an individual procedure; it groups and classifies both subject-matter and persons ; it determines objectives and selects the appropriate material for realizing these objectives in type persons. It is ethics, logic, and psychology, all combined. It is the real paradise of the pedagogic metaphysician; and 1 See Rickert. Die Grenzen der Natures. Begriffsbildung, Tuebingen, 1902. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 631 no joys are comparable to the ecstasies of its devotees. But it is not teach- ing. Teaching is the insertion of the curriculum dynamically under the skin of the individual child. I say " dynamically," which means that the curriculum has to be trans- lated into permanent behavior or conduct. The translators are the teachers. They are the priests that officiate at the incarnation. We are here in the presence of a sacrament-the transubstantiation of the divine curriculum into the flesh and blood of the child. And, as we all know, we are here in the presence of a mystery. And why ? Because in this transubstantiation we have to deal with the non-logical factors of mentality, such as imagina- tion, memory, and emotion ; and these non-logical factors of mentality re- fuse to be cast in the molds and patterns of natural science, with its steel- cased concepts, categories, and laws. They are the fluid, jelly-like offspring of spiritual time, with all its freedom, all its eccentricity and individuality, and not the mechanical puppets of intellectual space. It might seem as if I were arguing for an abandonment of the scientific procedure. Not so. I am arguing for an extension of the scientific pro- cedure to meet all the facts, and against the old and narrow restriction of "science" to mean exclusively physical or natural science, which left out of account the historical or genetic sciences that aim to explain individuality, or in our particular field-personality. Personality is our main object of attack as teachers-the understanding of persons, which are historical indi- vidual products, with a view to their proper construction or reconstruction. And here we must again rescue the ancient conception, or perhaps vise to a futurist conception, that the mental organism of man is a unity. Prac- tically and for conduct, man thinks with his entire organism. This is why in all the attempts made to measure intelligence, no satisfactory definition of intelligence has yet been given. We have been presented simply with translations into modern jargon of the old "faculties." Intelligence, or mind, is a unity compact of intellect, will, emotions, instinct, perception, memory and the rest. The old intellectualistic error of the Greeks that conduct is the offspring of reason, has been shattered. It is now admitted that the intellect, in a great majority of human beings, is the devil's advo- cate of the emotions. The rôle which the emotions play in the shaping of conduct and of thought was pointed out as long ago as 1884 and 1885 by James and Lange; was popularized in the 90's by Ribot, but has only in recent years been utilized for the deliberate reconstruction of human personalities and for the formulation of methods and techniques for the re- creation of concrete human individuals. "Society itself is largely main- tained, not by knowledge, but by controlling and directing emotional re- sponses between individuals. The great desideratum today is the emotional education of human beings-the articulation and the coördination of the emotions." To evaluate the emotional coefficient of mentality or personality is our main problem as practical teachers. What is this but the 1Adapted from J. B. Baillie, " Studies in Human Nature," London, G. Bell & Sons , p I 632 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION old problem of "interest," the engaging of the imagination of the pupil in his subject, the stimulating of his emotions on the side of the objects which it is desirable for him to apprehend? Intellects differ qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The emotional penumbra, the emotional fringe surround- ing and penetrating, energizing or paralyzing thought, is our vale of dark- ness; and into this dark vale only the historical method as applied to the individual personality can throw light and bring release. To summarize : Most of our troubles are not due to lack of intelligence, or even to physical defects; they are due to emotional instabilities, to nerv- ousness, to "moods," to habitual states of depression and pessimism, or to the opposite states of undue optimism and exaltation; they are due to maladjustments, to prejudices and prepossessions, to fixed ideas and affecta- tions, to infantile habits and reactions, such as day-dreaming and mooning, carried over into adolescent or adult life, to refusals to recognize reality and to conform to what reality demands. And the great majority of these troubles are not God-made, but are man-made, made by the people who surround us, by our families, by the groups in which we live, and by our- selves . Just as we once believed that tuberculosis was hereditary but now know that its origin is from some infection, so we formerly thought that mental and nervous troubles were inherited, but now know that most of them are social in their origin, having been acquired through social contacts, or through failures in adjustment, or are the results of unsolved mental con- flicts, bad mental habits, and imitations of wrong mental patterns. This knowledge is one of the great saving discoveries of modern research, and is pregnant with more genuine hope for humanity than almost anything that the triumphs of industry have offered. It is a hope for everyday salva- tion. Human mental happiness, like human physical happiness, is in large measure possible. Be it noted, too, that as a result of this knowledge, our notions of mental heredity will have to be revised. The hereditarians, so far as "mind" is concerned, are in retreat. The concept of mental heredity is shrinking- shrinking into what it originally was: the empty, formal concept of biologi- cal casualty, which means just what it means, and nothing more. This new art, which seeks to discover the knowledge and the methods which will bring stability to human life and to society, has been slowly in the making for 2,500 years. Every science and all the techniques of philosophy, religion, and literature have contributed to it. It is still in its infancy. Its day has just come. It is simply the organized common-sense of humanity, dealing with the nature of the human personality as a social and individual historical growth. It has been called by various names : directive psychology, psychiatry, mental hygiene, and the rest. Its object is to lift the lid gently off the individual soul, and to seek glimpses into its bottomless abysses ; to find the combinations of the psychic chains that fetter our lives; to remove the obstacles and hindrances to the free life of DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 633 the spirit; to give balance to the soul and the personality; and to lift the individual to the level of the "new freedom," which is possible through our increasing knowledge of human nature. Surely some knowledge of the immense progress which mental hygiene has made should be brought to the attention of even the elementary teacher . Some idea of its point of view, of its method of procedure, of the results of its analysis of human personality, should be presented. This could be done in a few lectures. The vast amount of literature which the Mental Hygiene Society, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City, and the Society for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency, 50 East Forty-second Street, New York City, have published, is cheap, easily read, and within the reach of every one. Invaluable indications for the treatment of problems of disci- pline from sane, human, and genetic points of view, and for the correction of bad mental habits carried over from infancy and from troublous family and social environments, may be obtained from these sources. The most perplexing problem of all teaching, that is, why pupils with high I. Q.'s do not learn, and why they do not behave well, finds tremendous illumina- tion from this quarter. We know what the human logical machine is and does, we know in general what the volitional machinery of mental life is and does; let us learn from mental hygiene what the entire human organ- ism is and does; remembering that conduct is an expression of the organism as a whole, and not of the intellect or of the will, or of the affective faculties separately. The behaviorists watch simply the hands of the clock: they are the disciples of Kirchoff, Mach, and Einstein. The old psychologists studied simply the three wheels that run the three hands-the intellect, the will, and the feelings, where the feelings were the "seconds" hand : they are the descendants of Descartes, Newton, and the great simplicists. But the mental hygienists dismount the entire hidden mechanism, and usually find that the trouble is due to a defect or maladjustment in some microscopic spring, or in some tiny link, or in some neglected and concealed lever : they are the descendants of Lord Kelvin, Faraday, Pascal, St. Augustine, and Christ. Time prevents me from developing these analogies. The names of the great inquirers above given are not cited for rhetorical ornament, but as examples of the way in which educational investigators unconsciously mimic the methods of the physical sciences which are inapplicable to their domain. In aping physics, we unconsciously but deliberately depersonalize things that are personal and dehumanize things that are human. This error was pointed out three hundred years ago by one of the great creative geniuses of physics, Blaise Pascal. But the most noteworthy refutation of it may be found in the teachings of Christ-the prince of pedagogues. Let those of you who are addicted to the reading of Scripture glance through the New Testament, on your return home. Rarely will you find instances of the teaching of groups as groups, or references to the problems of organi- zation, of state and society, but always the solution of individual problems. 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It is Peter, Zacchaeus, or Mary Magdalen. Always the individual attack ; always the historical, the personal, the individual method.¹ Let us who boast ourselves scientists not forget that "science" also is a very comprehensive concept, embracing many different techniques and methods, widely varying subject matters, dissimilar objectives, and many diverse levels and qualities of reality; that "science" is not exclusively physics, biology, psychology, but is also history, sociology, and psychiatry in a constructive sense; and that it is the business of science not only to discover types and universals, but also to explain the unrepeated individual and to construct the unique, the unrecurring person, of which no replicas exist in the repertoire of Nature. For us, God breaks the mold of every child He makes. Adonis and the Hunchback of Notre Dame, Newton and the gibbering idiot, St. Francis and Nathan Leopold alike await our ministrations . The Bureau of Educational Counsel, established in September, 1923, in the La Salle-Peru Township High School, at La Salle, Illinois , em- bodies the practical application of the ideas above developed. Vocational guidance, now so widely accepted and applied in the schools, is only a specific and narrow form of educational guidance. And educational guid- ance is primarily and necessarily ethical guidance. Ethics is concerned with conduct in all its aspects, and making a living is only one part, although the largest and fundamental part, of the great, general field of human be- havior. The object of life is something more than making a living ; the essentially human goal is living well. And living well involves many factors and features which economics does not cover. The science which is here determinative is ethics, and ethics has as its object the humanizing of life, in addition to the commercializing and industrializing of life. Happiness, physical and spiritual adjustment, intellectual and esthetic under- standing, the acquisition of poise and personality are also the objects of existence. Thus, all education, being essentially in its broadest sense ethical edu- cation, the great central problem of behavior is the problem of personality -to discover it, to expose it to the heritage of the ages, to stimulate and to develop it. In the construction or development of the human personality, properly conceived by enlightened educational analysis, the vocational, the civic, the social, the spiritual and the esthetic factor will each assume its proper perspective and function. In volume, life is probably nine-tenths vocational; but in human value, intensity, and desirability the remaining one-tenth bulks far larger. And for those of us who are really human beings the latter may be said to constitute the real goal of existence. The study of personality, therefore, constitutes the center from which all educational procedure and guidance should radiate. This study is the object of the La Salle-Peru Bureau of Educational Counsel. The approach to the problem is made from the normal side. This is the natural, the con 1 See Hiblert Journal, G. Norwood, "Organization, " April, 1924 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS COLLEGES 635 ciliatory approach. The bureau is not a psychiatric bureau; it is not a psychopathic institution; it is an educational bureau. Its object is not to discover disease, after disease is established, but to prevent disease or elimi- nate it at its incipiency. But when disease is discovered and it is inci- dentally discovered in far greater measure than people commonly believe- it is referred for treatment to the competent experts. However, disease- inthis case the dissolution or dissociation of personality-is Nature's mode of laboratory analysis of the phenomena, and consequently the assistance of the psychiatrist, or curer of mental troubles, must be frequently sought. The bureau is in charge of a trained social psychiatric worker, who has had experience as a high school teacher. A stenographer and full modern office equipment are supplied. Every student in the school is interviewed and given ethical advice. Not only problem children but the normal and the superior children are referred to the bureau. In difficult cases, the interviews are repeated and the homes are visited. A psychiatrist and a psy- chologist from Chicago hold clinics when a sufficient number of cases re- quiring their attention have accumulated. The faculty of the high school cooperates by supplying school data and the educational history of the child to the bureau. The bureau is supported by private donations. A detailed account of its activities, methods, cost, and results will be published in a special report to be issued in the autumn of 1924. This report may be obtained by applica- tion to the La Salle-Peru Township High School, La Salle, Illinois . .. Department of Physical and Health Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-J. B. Nash, Supervisor of Physical Education of the Public Schools ... Oakland, California Vice-President -William Burdick, M. D. , State Supervisor of Physical Edu- cation. Baltimore, Maryland Secretary Charles H. Keene, M. D. , Director, Bureau of Health Education, State Department of Public Instruction. ........ Harrisburg, Pennsylvania The Department of Physical Education was organized in Denver, July 9, 1895, in response to a petition to the Board of Directors. See Pro- ceedings of 1895, page 944. In 1923, the department changed its name. to Department of Physical and Health Education. See Proceedings of 1923, page 744. In 1924, this department, together with the Depart- ment of Child Hygiene, became the Department of School Hygiene and Physical Education. See Proceedings of 1924, Minutes of Representative Assembly, page 52. This department coöperates with the American Physical Education Asso- ciation, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Carl Schrader, Depart- ment of Education, Boston, Mass .; secretary, J. H. McCurdy, Box G, Highland Station, Springfield, Mass. It coöperates also with the American Child Health Association, whose officers for 1924-25 are : General executive, Courtenay Dinwiddie, 532 Seventeenth street, Washington, D. C.; secretary, Philip van Ingen, M. D., 532 Seventeenth St., Washington, D. C. It also coöperates with the Playground and Recreation Association of America, whose officers for 1924-25 are : President, Joseph Lee, 101 Tre- mont Street, Boston, Mass.; secretary, H. S. Braucher, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York City. The American Physical Education Association publishes a magazine, The American Physical Education Review , J. H. McCurdy, editor, Box 123, Highland Station, Springfield, Mass. The American Child Health Association publishes a monthly, Child Health Magazine, Ellen C. Babbitt, editor, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City. The Playground and Recreation Association of America publishes Playground, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York City. Tuesday Afternoon, July 1 , 1924 RURAL SCHOOL ATHLETICS Nicholas Orem, Superintendent of Prince Georges County Schools, Upper Marlboro, Md. [637] 638 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ATHLETICS AND THEIR VALUE FOR CITIZENSHIP William Miles Maloy, Public Service Commission.. Baltimore, Md. GIRLS' ATHLETICS Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association . New York City INFLUENCE OF ATHLETICS IN HIGH SCHOOLS Samuel M. North, State Supervisor of High Schools .. Baltimore, Md. Thursday Afternoon, July 3 JOINT MEETING WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Minutes of the Combined Meeting of the Department of Physical and Health Edu- cation and the Department of Child Hygiene of the N. E. A. held in the Board Room of the District Building, Washington, D. C., July 3, 1924. After a very interesting paper on "Physical Education in High Schools " by Dr. Walter F. Cobb, Baltimore, Maryland, the sections went into a combined business session. Dr. Charles Keene, secretary of both departments, presided. The special com- bined committee on consolidation of these two departments recommended that the Department of Physical and Health Education of the N. E. A. and the De- partment of Child Hygiene of the N. E. A. consolidate and combine into one department-this new department to be known as the Department of School Health and Physical Education of the N. E. Α. The resolutions follow: Whereas, it is most desirable to consolidate and to strengthen the Departments of Physical and Health Education and of Child Hygiene of the National Education Association: Therefore, be it resolved; that the Department of Child Hygiene consolidate with the Department of Physical and Health Education provided the latter agrees and: Be it therefore resolved, that the President of the Department of Child Hygiene be di rected to appoint a committee of three to confer with a similar committee of the Department of Physical and Health Education for the purpose of bringing about this consolidation. That this combined committee draw up a constitution and by-laws for the new department, the same to be presented to the joint session of the two departments on Thursday afternoon next, for the action of that committee: Be it further resolved, that the acceptance by the joint session of the plans and constitu tion proposed shall be held to substitute the new department in the National Education As sociation for the two departments concerned. This consolidation committee submitted constitution and by-laws which were read and on motion, accepted and approved by the number present. ( See page 647.) The next item of business was the election of officers for the new department. Dr. Burdick nominated Dr. Charles H. Keene, director of health education, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., as president for the ensuing year. ( Moved and seconded that the nomination be closed.) On motion of Dr. Rapeer, seconded by Dr. Howe, the secretary was instructed to cast a ballot for the office of president. Motion unanimously carried. On motion, a unanimous vote of thanks was extended to the retiring presi- dents, Dr. William Burdick, president of the Department of Physical and Health Education, and Dr. William Howe, president of the Department of Child Hy- giene. Mr. Melville Stewart, State supervisor of physical education, Charleston, W. Va., was nominated as vice-president. On motion, nominations for vice-president were closed. Dr. Katharine H. K. Wolfe, director of school health, Lincoln, Nebraska, was nominated as secretary-treasurer. On motion, nominations for this office were closed. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION 639 Onmotion, the secretary was instructed to cast ballots for offices of vice-president and secretary-treasurer. Mr. Melville Stewart and Dr. Katharine H. K. Wolfe were elected respectively as vice-president and secretary-treasurer. On motion a committee, consisting of Drs. Burdick, Rapeer, and Keene, was ap- pointed to submit at the closing of the meeting nominations for executive com- mittee. The report of the committee was as follows : Nominations for Executive Committee: To serve 4 years-Miss Ethel Perrin. To serve 3 years-Dr. Walter F. Cobb. To serve 2 years- Dr. F. N. Maxfield. To serve 1 year-Dr. William A. Howe. On motion, the report of the committee was accepted and the above named persons elected to serve as the Executive Committee of the Department. On motion, the meeting was adjourned. J. F. LANDIS, Acting Secretary. RURAL SCHOOL ATHLETICS —ABSTRACT NICHOLAS OREM, SUPERINTENDENT OF PRINCE GEORGES COUNTY SCHOOLS UPPER MARLBOROUGH, MARYLAND Inthe topic assigned, one senses the implication that there is an essential difference worthy of discussion in aim, need, opportunity, or method to be pursued between rural and graded or high school athletics. This difference cannot be one of aim, for may we not assume that the present-day accepted aims of public school athletics are no longer debatable ; that the major purpose of athletic contests and competitions among adoles- cent and pre-adolescent children is agreed upon with sufficient unanimity forus to say that the major benefit to be derived from school athletics is the development of character-individual character and since the group takes its ideals from the character of the individuals within the group, the promo- tion of a social consciousness and civic righteousness will make the next generation a bigger and a better one . No other phase of our school program presents so favorable an oppor- tunity as group athletics for attaining the greatest of all aims of educa- tion-character ; no other school exercise permits more effective use of instinctive desires to win, to excel, to secure the approbation of others, to contribute to group success, in developing habits of leadership, loyalty, forbearance, courtesy, fair play, coöperation, dependence on others and a desire to contribute to the welfare of the group as a substitute for the anti-social traits of backwardness, sullenness, revenge, overbearing con- duct, disregard for the spirit of fair play, and for the rights of others. The properly conducted and supervised playground is the classroom of the social virtues. Here children unconsciously learn how to get on with their neighbors. They learn patience and self-restraint, to await their turn, to be fair and honest, to lose with good grace. They learn that 640 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION results are best attained by combined effort, by "team play." They learn to obey, to follow a leader, to subordinate their individual to the team good. Here they prepare for the serious responsibilities of life. Conduct is dependent.not upon what we think or know, but upon what we do. We acquire habits not by mental processes, but by physical activity. The ultimate and major aim, then, of athletics is correct social conduct- behavior. In this respect, in the matter of aim, even in the by-products listed above. there is no essential difference between athletics in the rural and in the town school . There is, however, a difference in the degree of need and in the oppor- tunity for organized systematic athletics. The rural child, because of his relative isolation and lack of intercourse with others, tends to acquire the non-social, though perhaps not anti-social, habits characterized by backwardness, taciturnity, lack of leadership and coöperation . The rural teacher who excused the low score made by her pupils in a standard test by saying that her pupils were afraid of the stranger who gave the tests may have been stating a fact, but one the harmful effect of which might, in a measure, have been reduced by the aid of inter- school physical contests. More than anything else, the rural school needs the socializing influence of group athletics to promote the ideals of coöperation, good fellowship . and leadership; to develop habits of courtesy and affability, grace and alert- ness, that have a positive social value. As a socializing influence, the rural school needs organized inter- and intra-school athletics and competitive games even more than does the town school. The rural school children who journeyed five miles over bad roads for a contest and were courteously and warmheartedly received and enter tained, went home more impressed by their reception than by the victory they had won. They had a different outlook on the world. Through the vision of Robert Garrett, of Olympic fame, and of William M. Maloy, former State senator, a man of wide civic interests, and under the able leadership of William Burdick, director of the Playground Athletic League, Maryland, athletics of this sort have been fostered for a decade. with the hope of influencing behavior rather than of promoting athletic excellence. Under the Maryland plan, the year's athletics in each county culminate in a county-wide series of games and athletic tournament open to all schools and all pupils. From this the winners are sent to a State- wide Olympic in Baltimore. In this way the boy or girl learns an im- portant lesson in citizenship by first representing the school and later the county. He develops, through experience, loyalty to a cause and to his own people, and strives to advance the interests of the whole county group instead of his own personal success. One of the important features of the State-wide meet is the fact that the country boys are entertained in the homes of the local school boys, thus promoting social traits of the highest DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION 641 type and a healthy, harmonious relationship among the coming men and women of the State. Physical education for us means education for behavior, for character, through the physical being. ATHLETICS AND THEIR VALUE FOR CITIZENSHIP— ABSTRACT WILLIAM MILES MALOY, PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Looking back over a career of twenty-five years' participation in politics and public affairs, I can recall the part I was permitted to take in formu- lating such needed reforms as the Constitutional Amendment, establishing our State executive budget system, the consolidation of our State-aided colleges, professional and agricultural schools, city and country home rule statutes, and mining and other laws. All of these memories awaken pleas- urable emotions, yet in this quick retrospect of nearly a quarter of a century of a full public life, there is nothing that I have had any part in doing which affords me so much genuine pleasure in recalling, as the fact that I helped start what is now our State-wide athletic work in Maryland. As I have said, the idea may have been mine, but I can claim no credit for its great growth, except the lending of encouragement to the movement. From long experience with the legislature, dating from my boyhood experiences when my father was chaplain of that body, and from my own experience as a member of the House and Senate, I was sadly aware of the antagonism between members from the counties and members from Balti- more, the one large city of the State. Knowing the men from each section, I found that it was due to a lack of understanding, intimacy, and associa- tion. When the members knew each other the differences disappeared. Maryland, separated by the Chesapeake Bay, divided into tidewater and mountain lands, settled by Anglo-Saxon in one section, pure German in another, and a large city peopled by descendants of immigrants who came from many lands, was more in need of integrating influences and agencies than any other State. That the next generation might be more closely knit together and even the present people through their children be more closely tied, I conceived the plan of having State-wide athletic meets with the visiting children housed by the parents of the Baltimore participants. I interviewed Mr. Garrett and Mr. Burdick, who were the officers of - the public Athletic League of Baltimore. They gave me every encourage- ment. The next plan was to get the appropriation. I was one of those who made up the appropriation bill. I had named a reasonable sum to start the work. The bill was introduced, but due to the fact that the floor leader of the House and his associates failed to appreciate the need and 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION usefulness of athletic contests, the appropriation was three times stricken out of the bill and each time I had the Senate put it back. It threatened to defeat the whole appropriation bill and the session was fast coming to a close. The House floor leader was adamant and I was immovable. Friends intervened, and to save the day the House floor leader finally agreed to a small annual appropriation of $4000 for the work. The floor leader and his supporters who held athletics for country boys as foolishness, have all since died, but I am happy to say that such was. Mr. Burdick's success, that long before their deaths those who opposed the plan were among its most ardent advocates and supporters. The ends and aims that I had in mind have been promoted far beyond what I had hoped and the money has been well spent. Ten years have passed and the results are marked. It is true that improved roads and automobiles have been contributing causes, but I am sure that anyone who has watched the growth of the work and has studied the results, will agree that the State-wide meets following the country games and the housing of the county athletes in the homes of the city boys have been a powerful influence in knitting together through a more intimate acquaintance the widely separated and differing sections of our State. Participation in contests where good sportsmanship is demanded, where a good loser and magnanimous victor are counted worthy, is a great help in elevating the standard of citizenship, but the end and aim which I had in mind aside from the good to the individual boy, was to promote a feeling of loyalty and to remove as largely as possible from the next generation of Marylanders the antagonism between the country and city which I have frequently seen manifested. While this antagonism is not entirely gone and, of course, never will be absolutely eradicated, ten years have made wonderful changes. Today road and county school bills are freely supported by the city members, although the money comes largely from city taxpayers and goes mostly to rural sections. The country members likewise vote from the State treasury large sums to be expended for improvements in the city. To this result I believe the idea which was conceived in 1914, and which Mr. Burdick has made more than a reality, has contributed much. Citizenship in Maryland is better and broader, civic patriotism purer and loftier, the relations between the people of the various sections of our State closer, the opinions and viewpoint of country and city more general and public-spirited, and Maryland is more nearly a political unit with homogeneous citizenry, looking at problems from a State-wide viewpoint and a general welfare angle than ever before in its history. A worthy end and to a nearer approach to the attainment of this social and political ideal, our modest athletic project inaugurated in 1914, administered wisely and wellby Mr. Burdick, has contributed much. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION 643 GIRLS' ATHLETICS—ABSTRACT ETHEL PERRIN, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, AMERICAN CHILD HEALTH ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY Until a few years ago, programs of athletics for girls were confined to the universities and colleges and private schools of the country. They alone had the wherewithal to furnish the expensive facilities required. - Since their girl students received the same educational privileges as boys, they demanded also the same recreational advantages. Accordingly, the | most highly educated and best fitted women were engaged by these insti- - tutions of learning. These physical education teachers carefully guided the athletic aspirations of this selected group of women students in the conservative way in which they should go. Next to the women's colleges, public school systems of the large cities offered the most adequate physical education programs for girls. Here again opportunities and salaries are attractive enough so that physical educators with high ideals and vision naturally fall into these positions . The happy result is that, on the whole, the physical training of girl stu- dents in large cities is well provided for. In the public education system the girls' high school basketball gives rise to great criticism of the practice of inter-school competition in athletics. Vast amounts of time and money are spent on the development of girls' teams. Long distance trips sometimes keep the girls moving from town to town, unchaperoned, for periods of a week at a time. And, what is even harder to understand, some authorities are permitting their girls' teams to be coached and managed by men. The fact that the salaries of the men coaches are paid because of other services to the school, and the success of the men coaches as college or high school basketball players, are | arguments which are too feeble to justify the employment of the men coaches for the girls' teams . The influence of the men coaches often extends beyond the basketball teams. If the schools engaging men coaches have any track and field work for girls, the men are again called upon for service. It is more economical financially to have them do double duty than to have properly qualified women. The issue of competitive and commercialized athletics assumed an inter- national scope when a private organization of women and girls was sent to represent American women in the Olympic games at Paris. Not long after this , as you all know, Mrs. Hoover called a meeting here in Wash- ington, which resulted in the organization of the Woman's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation, with Lillian Schoedler as its executive secretary. In its first year of existence the woman's division received assurance from all parts of the country of a need for such guiding policies as it might formulate. It has been an intense satisfaction to Miss Schoedler and her executive committee that all of their plans have been received in a spirit 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of coöperation. It was this cordial assurance and backing that gave the committee courage to call a first annual meeting in Chicago, last April. The organization meeting in Washington was largely inspirational; but the Chicago meeting was solid business. It afforded an opportunity to every member present to express an opinion. Every viewpoint received consideration. There were many interesting debates. The old conserva- tives and the young radicals all had a chance to influence the majority vote on knotty problems . There are two facts of special significance in the field of women's ath- letics. The first is the vote against awards of intrinsic value and against inter-collegiate competition in any form, which was taken at the last annual meeting of the athletic council of American College Women. This is an organization composed of the undergraduate athletic association of women's colleges and universities throughout the United States. An important indicator of the trend of opinion concerning athletics for women is the large percentage of college and university directors of women's activities who either continue to disapprove of inter-collegiate competition or have changed from an attitude of approval to one of con- demnation. ATHLETICS IN HIGH SCHOOL SAMUEL M. NORTH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF HIGH SCHOOLS BALTIMORE, MARYLAND The speaker is not responsible for the subject assigned him, nor does he know why an early convert to the addition of properly administered ath- letics to the high school curriculum should have been dug out of his sar- cophagous to discuss points of doctrine which have long since become ancient history. It is, as we all know, rather difficult to discuss an axiom: and it is certainly axiomatic that a proper high school not only does take over, but, from the nature of the young human animal, must take over the athletic and other extra-class activities of its students. With its implica- tions, this constitutes a large order ; however, the American high school is not only the only institution of its kind the world has ever known, but it is now filling the largest order in the educational world as well. All new subjects are Cinderellas until the tax-paying Prince comes a-questing with L the magic slipper-manual training, domestic science, music, art. Butthe case was easier for them than for athletics, for each of them was seen to have some educative or training value, whereas athletics was mere plav. diversion, sport, and neither produced anything the pupil could sell when he left school nor afforded any mental training. The psychology of the emotions was, of course, entirely neglected. So athletics came into the high school, except in wise communities, solely because it was running wild, and the school had either to dominate it or be dominated by it; it received an arctic greeting and a grudging welcome. Even when in, it had DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION 645 no status; it could not produce grades, as its outcomes were not tangible ; it afforded no towel-racks or angel-food cakes or commencement music or exhibition drawings. It was exactly like the mischievous orphans of our blood relatives whom we must adopt and support. No subject mishandled in the schools has so many and so patent capacities for evil; none, wisely and prayerfully administered, has done more for the school, the pupil, and the community. If time permitted, we might again profitably retrace the sanctions of his athletics in the light of adolescent psychology and physiology-but that would be gratuitous in this group. We might dwell, with my friend Mr. Burdick, upon his favorite behavioristic outcomes. We might show the increasing necessity for athletics and I mean here by "athletics" the activ- ities group growing out of a well-considered and competently directed scheme for physical and health education-caused by the perfectly normal competitive instincts of the young human. The field is, even yet, so new and so big that we could run it out, with good results in several directions ; but it seems to me, as a school man, that the beneficial influences of ath- letics that may be expected and are being daily achieved through careful organization and sensible, professional administration, may be ranged under three value-groups, every one of the three essential to the best promise of a useful life to be lived in America during the next half century : Physical, social, moral. On the physical side-Athletics assures the completion of normal physical development in both boys and girls. Both overstrain and non-exertion are eliminated, and the rationale of the procedure is made clear to the pupil. It is no controversion of this statement to say that every hamlet in America has always had its baseball nine, every Scotch farm-town ins soccer team, every English village its cricket club. These are all, so to speak, seasonal activities; but we are talking about adolescents who enjoy the inestimable privilege of attending a reputable American secondary school whose duty and pleasure it is to train every pupil, throughout the year through a reasoned variety of exercises and game so to use his body as to get control of it, as well as so to use his mind as to get the optimum service from the body. In our congested cities and towns this program is obligatory; in the open country it is, perhaps, even more mandatory, in view of the fact that rural children know how to play but few team games, and that their life involves work and chores, bringing into play only and re- peatedly certain specific limited portions of their whole musculature. In a very real sense athletics strive for the classic "harmonious development of the whole man ;" for, so we shall see, there can be no proper training in physical development apart from a corresponding training in volitional , emotional, moral, and social development-in short, athletics is at bottom a behavioristic training. Besides the physical development usufruct, there are two other worth- while by-products. Athletics teaches the pupil to keep well; and teaches . him not only why he must keep well under the stimulus of doing his best 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for himself and his team in the activities, but why he must keep well throughout life. The laws of learning function here as well as every- where else the laws of use and effect and set up habit based on under- standing and practice. We thus secure a strong presumption of a founda- tion equipment for the pupil of normal health and consequent resistance to disease. On the social side-But the physical justification, adequate alone, is but the necessary means to a far more important end-the social values. Ath- letics, from this aspect, both teaches manners and protects morals. It teaches manners by burning into the very soul of the adolescent the rules, the courtesies, the folkways, the moves of the games; and it protects morals by long-circuiting untimely sex impulses. Every form of athletics, as of every other human activity, has its rules- one must "play the game;" one must give as well as take; one must lose as well as win; and one must do this with self-control, with absolute fair- ness, with no devious underplay; and, to retain the respect of one's fellows, one must win without vindicative exultation and lose without querulous sullenness . Any other conduct means for the individual the reprehension of his social group; and nothing is more cruelly just than the swift infliction of deserved punishment by adolescents. Nor is anything more vital to an adolescent than the respect of his fellows. No judgment of an adult group in his later life can surpass, in power to blast or stimulate him, the sen- tence of his adolescent fellows. He must learn manners in athletics; and. so far as the athletic situation carries over into life, the athletic attitude of manners will be set in his social group behavior. The point is that, in athletics, there can be nothing hidden-no whispering, no prompting, no cheating, no cribbing, no favoritism; the contender performs in the open, and all eyes are upon him. In the natural world we know that energy is transformable from light to heat, to motion, to electricity, to sound-to what else we do not yet know. And it is not a speculation, but a sound physico-psychological fact that the adolescent sex-impulse ( energy) can be transformed into other timely and suitable forms of energy and activity, and that one of the most efficient means as yet known of effecting this transformation is normal participation in sane athletics, through which sex-impulses are long-circuited into physical or intellectual activity. The phenomenon is a commonplace of psychology and, accordingly, justifies the high social value of athletics as a social stabilizer and producer of individual poise and balance. On the moral side-Athletics is continuously teaching character and test- ing it. Every group game bears out this statement. The individual is subordinated to the group-he must play with the group, for the group under the rigid rules (folkways) of the game. Personal pique, individual eccentricities, bodily or mental idiosyncrasies must be subordinated; every- thing must be focused upon the group's success. Orders must be obeved; self must be effaced; victory must be met with restrained elation and defeat with ready acknowledgment of its causes. This is an extremely rigorous DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION 647 discipline; but that it produces character, because it is continuously teach- ingand testing character, is true because it is motivated from within. It is a dogma among secondary school people that the purpose of the high school is so to train boys and girls that they will do better the desirable things they are going to do anyhow. Not only the most desirable, but the most necessary thing for adolescents, as for us all, is to live coöperatively, socially with our group. I submit, then, that among the most important beneficent influences of sane and proper athletics in the high school are the physical, social, and moral values, their beneficent influences on the body, on the spirit, and on the human environment of the pupil. CONSTITUTION AND RULES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION ADOPTED, 1924 Preamble-For several years of the most formative period of their lives, most children in the United States spend a large part of their time in the public and private schools. Various provisions affecting the vital efficiency and physical development of these children have from time to time become a part of the school program, notably since 1900. These provisions include the sanitation of the school plant, physical education, health supervision, the hygiene of instruction and mental hygiene, health supervision and training of teachers, and the health in- struction and training of the children. In order that those engaged in the various phases of this broad service of educational hygiene may better bring about a unity of purpose and correlation of effort to meet their grave responsibilities ; that they may better enlist the aid of all educational and community forces throughout the nation; and that they may unitedly study, discuss, and organize these forces into an integral whole for improved school health and physical education-the De- partment of School Health and Physical Education is hereby formed and the fol- lowing constitution adopted : CONSTITUTION Article I Name-The name of this organization shall be the Department of School Health and Physical Education of the National Education Association. Article II Membership-Membership in the Department of School Health and Physical Education shall be defined to include members of the National Education Associa- tion who are professionally engaged in any phase of school health and physical education activities . Article III Officers-Election-Duties - Section 1. The officers of this Department shall be a president, a vice-president, and a secretary-treasurer, and all such officers shall be elected by a majority vote by ballot of the members present at the annual meeting of the department. The officers shall serve for a term of one year from the date of their election and until their successors are elected, and shall perform the usual duties pertaining to the respective offices which they hold and such other duties as may be imposed upon them by this Constitution and the By-laws of the department. 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 2. The president of the department shall prepare a program for the annual meeting of the department by and with the advice and consent of the executive committee and advisory council. The president shall preside at all meetings of the department and of the executive committee, appoint all committees not other- wise provided for, call meetings of the executive committee at his pleasure or upon written request of three of its members, sign all orders on the treasurer and perform such other duties as may from time to time devolve upon him. He shall be ex-officio member of all standing committees . Sec. 3. The vice-president, in the absence of the president of the department, shall perform all the duties of that office. Sec. 4. The secretary-treasurer as secretary shall keep in the minute book of the department a careful record of the proceedings of the department and of all its committees ; and he shall be responsible for their preservation. He shall be custodian of the seal of the department. He shall be the secretary of the executive committee. Within thirty days after any meeting of the department, and within ten days after any meeting of the executive committee, the secretary shall furnish a copy of the minutes of such meeting to each member of the executive committee. His compensation shall be such as the department may direct before assuming the office. As treasurer, he shall give bond, approved by the executive committee, in amount fixed by such committee, the expense of such bond to be paid from the funds of the department. He shall collect and have the custody of all the funds of the de- partment which shall be deposited in the name of the department in an institution approved by the executive committee. He shall pay out of such funds only on orders signed by the president and vice-president. He shall be ex-officio member of the enrolment committee and shall give his receipt, countersigned by a member of such committee, to each member of the department for payment of dues. He shall keep the accounts of the department and his accounts shall be audited by the committee on audits before the annual meeting of the Association, and at such meeting he shall make an itemized report in writing of all receipts and expenditures. He shall perform such other duties as may, from time to time, devolve upon him. His compensation shall be such as the department shall direct. Article IV Executive Committee-Election-Duties-Section 1. The president, the vice-presi- dent, the secretary-treasurer, and four members of the department who shall be representative of the various fields covered by the Department, to be elected in the manner hereinafter provided, shall constitute the executive committee. Elections to the executive committee shall be made by ballot by the department at the meet- ing at which this Constitution is adopted. The candidate receiving the highest number of votes shall serve on the executive committee for a term of four years ; the candidate receiving the next highest number of votes shall serve on the execu- tive committee for a term of three years; the candidate receiving the next highest number of votes shall serve on the executive committee for a term of two years ; and the candidate receiving the next highest number of votes shall serve on the executive committee for a term of one year. Annually thereafter, the depart- ment shall elect one member of the executive committee in place of the member whose term expires, and the members of the executive committee so chosen shall thereafter serve for a term of four years. Sec. 2. The executive committee shall be regarded as the administrative body of the department subject to the call of the president, except as otherwise pro- vided for in the Constitution. To supplement and assist him in the conduct of his office, the executive committee shall, by a majority vote of all its members, fill all vacancies, except that of president which is provided for in the Constitution. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION 649 The executive committee shall assist the president in preparing the annual pro- grams and shall perform such other duties as may be imposed upon it by the de- partment. The executive committee shall have power to employ an assistant secretary and such other employees as it may deem necessary to carry on the work of the department, and, subject to the ratification of the department, to fix the terms for which such employees shall be employed and the salaries to be paid to such employees and to prescribe the duties of such employees, in addition to the duties imposed upon such employees by this Constitution and any by-laws adopted by the department. The executive committee shall conduct the business of the department in the interim between the annual meetings of the department. The executive committee shall be authorized to fill all vacancies in its own member- ship. All such interim appointments shall be filled by election at the next annual election. Sec. 3. On or before the first day of June in each year, the executive committee (of this department) shall prepare and submit to the executive committee, the board of directors, and the representative assembly of the National Education Association, through the secretary of the Association, a budget setting forth the proposed expenditures to be made by this department during the ensuing year and the purposes for which such proposed expenditures are to be made. Such budget shall set forth a statement of the estimated receipts of this department during the ensuing year from membership dues levied under the provisions of Section 9 of Article V of the By-laws of the National Education Association', and a statement of the amount of money estimated to be necessary to be appropriated from the funds of the Association for this department for the ensuing year. It shall be the further duty of the executive committee to see that the funds so set aside and so appropriated shall be disbursed for the purpose of this department in the manner provided for in the budget. Article V Amendments- ( a) An amendment to the Constitution or By-laws may be pro- posed by the executive committee or by a petition of at least ten regular members of the department. (b) The proposed amendment shall be read in regular session at least twenty- four hours before a vote is taken upon it. ( c) A two thirds vote of the members present in a regular session shall be necessary to make the proposed amendment a part of the Constitution. Section 9, Article V, By-laws of the N. E. A. reads as follows: "Any department, by a two-thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the secretary of the department who shall transmit them monthly to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the department's allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. Department of Rural Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES CHICAGO MEETING OFFICERS President-JOHN M. FOOTE, State Rural Supervisor . Baton Rouge, La, Vice-President- N. R. BAKER, Superintendent of Jefferson County Schools .Birmingham, Alabama Secretary-MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York City Treasurer-MRS. A. F. BEVERLY, Farm Life School .... Whitmell , Virginia In 1907 the creation of a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education was authorized by the Board of Directors. See Proceedings of 1907, pages 44-45. At the Chicago meeting in 1919, the department was reorganized with the three organized rural groups then existing the National Association of State Super- visors and Inspectors of Rural Schools, the County Superintendents' Section of the National Education Association, and the National Association of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers under the name of the Department of Rural Education. See Proceedings of 1920, page 279 . TUESDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 26, 1924 The One- Teacher School MADE-TO-MEASURE ORGANIZATION INSTEAD OF MADE- OVER SECOND HANDS- Fannie W. Dunn, Professor Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. (a) THE POSSIBILITIES OF INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION- Carleton W. Wash- burne, Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka, Illinois. (b) THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION IN THE ONE- TEACHER SCHOOL-U. J. Hoffman, Assistant State Superintendent, Springfield, Illinois. SUPERVISING THE ONE-TEACHER SCHOOL-E. W. Ireland, Regional Supervisor, Dan- bury, Connecticut. IMPROVING THE ONE-TEACHER SCHOOL IN WISCONSIN-Annie Reynolds, Division of Rural Schools, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. GENERAL DISCUSSION . BUSINESS MEETING. TUESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 26 Research in Rural Education VALUE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH IN RURAL EDUCATION-E. J. Ashbaugh, Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. OBJECTIVE STUDIES IN RURAL SCHOOLS-Fred Cram, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. [651] 652 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RECENT STUDY OF INSTRUCTION IN CONSOLIDATED AND ONE- TEACHER SCHOOLS- ( a) F. P. O'Brien, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas . (b) L. M. Favrot, Field Agent of the General Education Board, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CONSTRUCTIVE STUDIES-Norman Frost, Professor of Rural Education, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn. THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 28, 1924 Community Relations of the Rural School THE COMMUNITY FUNCTION OF THE RURAL SCHOOL-O. G. Brim, Professor of Elementary Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. DISCUSSION-Led by Adelaide M. Ayer, formerly State Rural Supervisor, Helena, Montana . EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL-Oscar M. Fogle, Superintendent Schools , Talbot County, Easton, Maryland. THE PORTER SCHOOL, A NEW VISION OF THE RURAL SCHOOL IN COUNTRY LIFE- Mrs. Marie Turner Harvey, Porter Rural School, Kirksville, Missouri. BUSINESS MEETING. SECTION MEETINGS Section I-State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 27, 1924 Chairman , N. SEARLE LIGHT, Department of Education, Hartford, Conn. Vice- Chairman, W. J. HOLLOWAY, Department of Education, Baltimore, Md. Secretary, CASSIE R. SPENCER, Department of Education, Montgomery, Ala. Topic: Problems of Divisions of Rural Education in State Departments of Education WHAT FUNCTIONS OF A STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS ARE MOST WORTH WHILE ?-Jewell Simpson, State Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Balti- more, Maryland. HOW TO GET THE MOST OUT OF A COUNTY INSTITUTE-Helen M. Hughes, Super- intendent of Schools, La Grange County, Indiana. HOW TO GET THE MOST OUT OF A SHORT COURSE FOR COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS- May Trumper, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena, Montana. PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF STATE AID FOR TRANSPORTATION- George Howard, Director of School Organization, Raleigh, North Carolina. THE ONE- TEACHER SCHOOL AND THE ENJOYMENT OF LIFE-Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Schools, Augusta, Maine. BUSINESS MEETING. Section II-County Superintendents and Rural School Supervisors WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 27, 1924 Chairman, A. G. YAWBERG, Superintendent of Schools, Cuyahoga County, Cleve- land, Ohio Vice- Chairman, MRS. M. L. HALL, Superintendent of Schools, Shelby County, Shelby- ville, Kentucky Secretary, AGNES SAMUELSON, Assistant in Rural Education Extension, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Topic: How to Raise the Standards of County Supervision THROUGH TEACHERS' MEETINGS-Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Maryland. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 653 THROUGH A RESEARCH DEPARTMENT Joseph A. Baer, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Cuyahoga County, Cleveland, Ohio. IHROUGH THE County Unit FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES-W. B. Prescott, Superintendent St. Landry Parish, Opelousas, Louisiana. THROUGH SUPERVISORY HELPS AND DEVICES-Earna Hildebrand, County Super- visor Rural Schools, La Grange, Indiana. THROUGH DEMONSTRATION TEACHING- H. C. Moeller, County Superintendent, Waterloo, Iowa. BUSINESS MEETING Section III-Rural Normal Directors Chairman, RosAMOND ROOT, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Vice- Chairman, C. J. BIERY, Normal School, Bowling Green, Ohio Secretary, ELLA A. SMITH, Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan This Section Will Not Meet This Year Section IV-Vocational and Rural Extension Workers WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 27, 1924 Chairman, C. H. LANE, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. С. Vice-Chairman, CHARLES E. MYER, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pennsylvania Secretary, BETTY ECKHARDT, County Club Leader, Union, W. Va. Topic: How to Raise the Standards of County Supervision NATURE STUDY-O. G. Brim, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. JUNIOR PROJECT WORK IN AGRICULTURE- H. E. Gayman, State Department of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. BOYS AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK-Z. M. Smith, State Director of Vocational Educa- tion, Indianapolis, Indiana. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE THROUGH THE GRADES-E. H. Shinn, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. BUSINESS MEETING. Section V-Village and Consolidated School Principals WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON , FEBRUARY 27, 1924 Chairman, THOMAS J. SMART, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas Vice-Chairman, B. O. NORBY, Consolidated School, Eyota, Minn. Secretary, DORAH M. HERRINGTON , Consoidated School, Richland, Michigan Topic: The Form of Organization A COMPARISON OF SMALL AND LARGE HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION- Dr. Joseph Roemer, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. THE RELATION OF SIZE TO COST OF OPERATION IN CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS OF IOWA-T. C. Holy, Iowa City, Iowa. THE PLAN AND COST OF OPERATING THE SCHOOLS OF PRINCE GEORGE COUNTY, VA– R. K. Hoke, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Hopewell, Virginia. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL REORGANIZATION IN SMALLER COMMUNITIES-Dr. L. V. Koos, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis , Minn. BUSINESS MEETING. 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BUSINESS MEETING The business session of the Department of Rural Education on Thursday morn- ing was admirably conducted by President Foote, who had disposed of all the irritating causes of delay by having them ironed out previously at the executive committee meeting. Especially significant on this occasion was the report of the committee on Constructive Studies as made by Mr. Frost, of Peabody. This report recommended that the department should make application to have a special investigator in the field of rural education appointed as a member of the Research Division of the National Education Association. It also advised cooperation with the National Society for the Study of Education, looking to the possibility of having this organization devote one of its forthcoming yearbooks to some rural school topic. In addition to this, Mr. Frost and his committee offered a list of topics for investigation by the department, and advised that the president be authorized immediately to appoint a special committee on Principles and Platform of Rural Education, with O. G. Brim as chairman. In this connection it was further agreed that all constructive committee work of the department should be under the general guidance of Mr. Frost's committee and that his committee should coöperate very closely with the Committee of One Hundred on Rural Education appointed by Olive M. Jones, of the National Educational Association proper, and directed by H. W. Foght, of South Dakota. A plan of coöperation of this kind was later worked out between the two commit- tees under which it was agreed that the Constructive Studies Committee of the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association should devote itself to matters of scientific research in rural education, while Mr. Foght's committee should deal with questions of publicity and financial support. An important change in the constitution was next approved, enlarging the execu- tive committee to fifteen members elected from the department at large. This passed without dissension and the fifteen persons named below were chosen for this committee. The president was also authorized to appoint a special commit- tee on the revision of the constitution and by-laws, with the understanding that this committee should report next February. Upon recommendation of Ernest Burnham, chairman of the board of directors for the Journal of Rural Education, it was voted unanimously that membership in the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association be combined with the subscription to the Journal of Rural Education and both offered for a total of three dollars, with the further understanding that fifty cents of each subscription should go to the department, and two dollars and fifty cents to the Journal. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was then accepted and officers wer: elected as follows: President, Macy Campell, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa ; Vice-President, N. Searle Light, Department of Education, Hartford, Conn.; Secretary, Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Treasurer, Mary E. Howe, Detroit Teachers College, Detroit, Mich. Executive Committee : M. S. Pittman, Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Julian E. Butterworth, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Norman Frost, Peabody Col- lege, Nashville, Tenn.; May Trumper, State Superintendent of Education, Helena, Mont.; C. G. Sargent, College of Agriculture, Ft. Collins, Colo.; Chloe Baldridge Superintendent, Nance County Schools, Fullerton, Nebr.; John M. Foote, Depart- ment of Education, Baton Rouge, La.; Cora Pearson, County Supervisor of Elementary Schools , Montgomery, Ala .; J. S. Hoffman, Superintendent, Hunterdon County Schools , Flemington, N. J .; Richard J. Libby, Department of Educa- tion, Augusta, Maine ; Ernest Burnham, Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.; Charl O. Williams, Field Secretary, N. E. A., Washington, D. C.; Lee L. Driver, Department of Education, Harrisburg, Pa.; Katherine M. Cook, Bureau of Educa DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 655 tion, Washington, D. C.; J. L. McBrien, Department of Rural Education, Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE We, the members of the Department of Rural Education, hereby, again pledgę our loyalty and devotion to the cause of rural education. We view with encouragement the public's growing interest in the general problem of rural education. We appreciate the efforts and success of the Federal Bureau of Education and the many other commendable agencies in consistently keeping the public informed of the importance of better educational opportunities for rural children . We believe in equality of educational opportunity for all the children of this country and in the equalization of the cost of education. We believe that this can be accomplished best through the participation of state and nation in the support of education. We, therefore, favor legislation which will make such participation by state and nation possible. We reaffirm our belief in the county as an efficient unit of support, admin- istration, and supervision of schools in those states in which the county is an important civil unit. We again emphasize our endorsement of the appointive method as the best way of selecting the county superintendent of schools . We recognize two definite trends in the attempts to improve rural educational conditions: the one, through the establishment of consolidated or centralized chools; the other, through the improvement of the one-teacher school. We be- lieve that these trends are harmonious . We recommend the establishment of con- solidated or centralized schools in those communities in which the conditions make them practicable. We especially endorse the type of consolidated school in which secondary, as well as elementary instruction, may be offered. Where con- solidated schools are not feasible, we urge that the one-teacher schools be im- proved to their maximum efficiency through better administration, organization, supervision, instruction, and through increased support. We appreciate the splendid contributions that thousands of conscientious teachers, supervisors, and administrators are making to our country through their daily service. We hope that the communities in which they labor will have the vision to evaluate their work properly and to compensate them adequately. We believe in equality of training for rural and urban teachers, supervisors , and administrators. We recommend those teacher training institutions which recognize the necessity for special preparation for rural education and definitely provide for this need. We recognize the value and need for research in education. We recommend those who are devoting their time and attention to this important phase of work. We believe that this department should continue to carry on definite programs of study through its committees and divisions that will ultimately result in real contributions to rural education. We appreciate the interest in rural education shown by the president of the National Education Association, through the appointment of the Committee of One Hundred on Rural Teachers Problems . We pledge the coöperative assistance of this department to the members of that committee. We hereby express our confidence in the management of the Journal of Rural Education . We commend the excellence of its content and urge that the members ofthis department aid in extending its range of influence in every legitimate way possible. We extend our sincere thanks to all who have contributed to the success of the present meeting; to the officers of this department, to the people who have so 656 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ably taken part on the program, to the superintendent of Cook County for his kindly assistance, and to the officers of the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence. Committee on Resolutions : GEORGE A. SEIKE, Chairman MACY CAMPBELL. C. G. SARGENT. W. J. AVERY. MARY ENSFIELD . VALUE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH IN RURAL EDUCATION E. J. ASHBAUGH , BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Some time ago, upon walking into the office of the dean of the College of Education in one of our great universities, I was attracted by a motto on the wall near his desk. It said this: "Without research no progress has been made, no great truth discovered." The words seemed to me to be especially fitted for the place, because leaders in education should recog- nize the value of research . I am not concerned with an academic dis- cussion of the truth of the statement. It may be that some progress has been made and that some truths have been discovered purely by accident; but I am sure that it speaks a proper attitude in this age of science and scientific method. Since the days of Bacon, scientific method, the method of research, has been applied in an ever-widening field. Modern science, whether biological or non-biological, has made its strides through research. Modern indus- trial life has been made possible only because of research. The con- veniences that you and I enjoy, to many of which we have become so accustomed that we consider them necessities, are ours because of research. The applications of steam and electricity, the utilization of light waves, the rapidity of transportation and of transmission of knowledge all bear testimony to the value and significance of research in the world about us. Practically within the last half century, the scientific method, the method of research, has been applied in the field of psychology. The most care- fully controlled experiments and delicate instruments have been devised in order to ascertain accurately the way in which men think. The older concepts set up by a priori reasoning have been tested by experimental methods, and often found wanting. Progress has been made, however, and great truths discovered by means of the research activities in the psycho- logical laboratories both here and abroad. Having for some time investigated by sound research methods different types of mental activity in the laboratory, in more recent days the truths discovered and the theories which were verified have been transferred to the classroom. Here, under the conditions which must be met in the school, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 657 the laws and theories which were established through research in the laboratory have been subjected to the acid test of classroom practice. It is true that much has been done which does not merit the name research . Much testing and modification of method, and many administrative changes have been undertaken without the formulation of a definite hypothesis, the establishment of controlled conditions, the initial and final check on results, and the verification of the results which were secured, all of which are so essential to true experimentation. Much of the research has been the mere collection of heterogeneous data without clear-cut purpose, and without use after its collection. Many of our teachers have failed to see the value of research, because after the classroom procedure has been in- terrupted and their own time taken, perhaps, in securing data, they have never learned that any use has ever been made of the information secured. This is no condemnation of research, but it does reflect upon those who initiated the research, and the responsibility for the antagonistic attitude which has developed in many places must rest upon those who have failed to carry research through to the place where it functions. Perhaps rural education has felt the influence of research less than that of any other phase of our whole educational institution. There are well-defined reasons why this should be true. The rural schools in many of our States have long been, and in some States continue to be, little autonomous units with almost no contacts with the educational currents which have been sweeping through the larger places. The small number of pupils, the isolation of the school, the limited training of the teachers, the lack of supervision, the proverbial conservatism of the rural com- munity, the lack of means of communication, have all contributed to this condition. The local schools have been administered by one man, or by a group of laymen whose vision of their problems and responsibility ex- tended no further than the provision of some one to teach, and a building of some sort in which teaching might take place. Knowledge of what the foremost thinkers in the field of education were thinking, and the truths which research workers were discovering did not reach these individuals who administered the local school. Only to the extent that the textbooks brought newer educational ideas, and an occasional teacher, on his own initiative, secured some training, did the newer conceptions reach the com- munity. Gradually, however, the situation has been changing. The ex- tension of the powers and functions of the State departments of education, the legal provisions affecting attendance, length of term, training of teachers, adoption of textbooks, equipment of school buildings, have brought somewhat better conditions even to isolated rural schools. The develop- ment of county supervision in some States has materially added to the efficiency of the local teacher. The provision for consolidation of dis- tricts by which larger groups of children could be brought together, better equipped buildings provided, and more highly organized administration and teaching secured, has made another major step in the solution of the rural educational problem. 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It is to be regretted, however, that all of these movements have not always been based upon elaborate, careful research. We Have done a number of things on the basis of a priori reasoning and close logic without full investigation of the facts. We have assumed that certain things must naturally follow, and sometimes found afterwards that the assump- tion was false. We have been so busy keeping the educational machine going, and following the changes which our neighbors were instituting that frequently we have failed to demand the evidence which would justify the changes made. It seems to me, however, that the time is now ripe for a complete, thor- ough, searching investigation of our whole situation. Enough tentative studies have been made by sound research methods to point out the way. While another on the program is charged with the responsibility of bring- ing in a research program for this department to follow, I want to spend some time in sketching with bold strokes and in large outline, the fields of investigation which, as I see it, must be attacked and upon which definite information must be secured, before rural education can take the place it ought to have in this country. I shall discuss these fields under the fol- lowing heads : the children; the teacher; the curriculum; building and equipment; and finance. The children-In spite of the fact that almost every State in the Union requires a school census to be taken, we are still in a state of deplorable ignorance regarding the group which we have to educate. While in isolated cases the situation may not be true in detail, when we consider the country as a whole, the evidence seems clear that we do not know definitely even the most primary facts which should be ascertained by a complete census . In a large number of cases where the school census has been checked against the Federal census, sufficient discrepancies have been dis- covered to warrant the statement that we do not know accurately even how many children there are. Here and there a county superintendent or district supervisor has cross checked the school enrollment and the information gained by the teachers after school has opened, with the school census and gotten highly reliable data on this point. In far more cases this has not been done, and I submit to you the question: How can we hope to provide adequately for a group in which we know not even the number ? The number, however, is probably of least importance, since with very little adjustment a few more may be taken care of without difficulty. But if teachers are to teach children effectively, they need to have available far more information than that which will be secured by a simple list of names. Physical condition, especially as pertaining to health and remedial defects, needs to be ascertained with great exactitude. In a few of our States, provision is made through the health departments for physical examinations of school children and supervision through visiting nurses. This is well. But that situation does not cover the country as a whole by any means ; and even where there is some legal provision for DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 659 such inspection and supervision, the quantity provided is frequently wholly inadequate. Only to the extent that by careful research methods we ascer- tain the magnitude of the problem and its significance as a factor in the educational process shall we have the data upon which to secure efficient action by our people. We need to know the progress which children are making in school ; not simply in terms of age-grade tables with the percentages of over-age, normal-age, and under-age pupils, nor in terms of the percentage of chil- dren one, two, three, and more years retarded, but we need to know this progress in terms of health, mental endowment, and the other factors of teachers, equipment, etc. In other words, we must, through research, ascertain not only the status, but causal relationships. For a physician to examine me and discover that I have three degrees of fever is of little value, unless he goes further and discovers why I have fever, and is able thereby to prescribe remedies . We need to know the aptitudes and interests of our boys and girls with relation to their environment, to each of the other factors already men- tioned, and to those which will be mentioned hereafter. We need to know the extent to which these interests persist, and the influence which the school may have upon these interests and aptitudes. We need to have the basis upon which we may apply certain well-known principles of educa- tion, such as the redirection of instinctive tendencies, the success of teach- ing in accordance with natural abilities and interests instead of in opposi- tion to them, etc. Wise teachers have discovered with individual pupils some of these facts, but only thorough-going research will reveal the tundamental principles involved, and clear the way for the new teachers to secure quickly the information needed in local situations, and make the necessary adjustments for efficient education. In brief, our research should reveal all the factors which can be revealed that are of value and signifi- cance in the education of our children. These researches should reveal causal relationships and should make possible educational prognosis in a degree that is little dreamed of at the present time. The teacher-We know roughly at the present time the number of teachers employed, their age, their lack of training, and the amount of inexperience which is prevalent. In the last few years, we have been having a number of careful investigations of the factors which make for teaching success. More or less regularly for two decades, we have been rating teaching on score cards of varying length and complexity, made up usually of items which the consensus of opinion of superintendents and supervisors have judged important. Subjective judgments of men of ex- perience, based on long and careful observation, are of value; but they should be utilized in the formulation of an hypothesis which may then be subjected to experimental evidence for its verification, rather than in the formulation of a statement which we shall call truth or law. This is the method of science and of modern scientific research. But as workers in the field of rural education where the teaching situation is admittedly on 660 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a very low plane-perhaps the lowest-it is important that we should know even more than this. We should, through scientific research, isolate those characteristics which make for teaching success, and determine the value of each in relation to the whole. We should know the effect of native endowment and professional training. We should know the sig- nificance of one year, two years, or more years of experience in terms of en- dowment and training. We should know not only what the professional experience of these teachers has been, but their world experience also. As indicative of the thing I mean, I will refer only to two bits of evi- dence that have recently come to my attention. In making a very brief survey of the rural school situation in one county in my State, I found that in the one-teacher schools, fifty per cent of the teachers were new to the district; fifty per cent had had less than two years of experience; thirty-five per cent of them were too young to vote; that a large percentage had received all their experience in this same county, and that a con- siderable number had never been one hundred miles from home. Their reading was of the most limited variety, involving little that was either professional or highly informational. Yet we expect these teachers to assist these children by means of textbooks, many of which were written twenty to thirty years ago, to unlock the gates of knowledge, and develop a world-wide vision and interest, and become intelligent citizens. The other illustration was from a simple test involving current events, all of National importance and many of them of international importance, which I gave to a group of students in teacher training. The median score was thirty-six per cent, and the range from seven to sixty-eight. Even if a third of the questions were not of major importance, it would still mean that approximately half of these young men and women who are preparing to teach, were so little informed on questions of National and international importance that they could not answer half of them. Perhaps it is not important; and yet it seems to me that we should know in some manner, possible only through scientific research, the value of world experience, either direct or through the medium of our best news- papers and magazines, in the equipment of a successful teacher. Curriculum-What should we teach is an old problem, and the solu- tion is not yet. But we are not worthy of the task entrusted to us if we are not conscientiously and vigorously attacking the problem. Because a thing has come down to us from the past does not make it either good or bad. We do not even know that it was a satisfactory instrument for the earlier age; and even if it were, that would not guarantee that it would be satisfactory for the present. A number of ideals have been increasing in importance during the last decade. A large group is certain that the curriculum must be determined by an analysis of modern social needs . Another group is quite as firmly convinced that the curriculum must be determined by the answer to the philosophical question, "What is the purpose of life ?" or "What is worth while?" Neither group, however, will adequately determine the curriculum for us except to the extent that DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 661 they interpret their goals in terms of children and the environment in which they live. A curriculum involves not merely materials for study, but a graded selection determined by two things : its adaptability to the progressive development of the child, and its efficiency in terms of securing successful steps in the progress toward the ultimate ideal. Each unit of the cur- riculum must be weighed in terms of those two factors, and discussions about the curriculum in terms of ultimate goals only are of very little service to the school administrator, the teacher, or the child. It will require real research at every stage of the procedure to determine what materials will make up a satisfactory curriculum in each of its numerous gradations. This research must be carried on by those who know, appre- ciate, and are devoted to the cause of rural education. Not that the curriculum developed should be narrow in its rural viewpoint or vision, but rather that it should be so closely associated at every step of the way with the rural child's experience and environment that it would utilize this fundamental basis for education in the development of a world-wide vision which is so important. Building and equipment-We have long passed the time when our con- ception of school buildings was that a room large enough to house a number of children was all that was needed. Yet careful scientific research is needed to determine the most economical type of building which will adequately care for the educational program; which shall be an efficient aid in the carrying out of that program; and the equipment which will function effectively under more or less variable conditions. The surveys that have been made of the one-room rural buildings, whether in north or south, east or west, have tended to find the same con- ditions in large measure : inadequate lighting from two, three, or even four directions with inevitable results of cross lighting and eye strain ; heating conditions no better than our parents knew when they went to school , and the ventilation even worse; toilets undescribable because of their filth and violations of commonly accepted standards. The New York State Survey Report revealed fifty per cent having a light ratio of one seventh or less, with eighty-six per cent of the buildings having opaque shades, making the situation even worse. Alabama reports eighty per cent having lighting conditions injurious to the pupils' eyes. I found in Ohio a median glass area of one ninth, light coming from two sides in fifty-six per cent of the buildings, and from three sides in forty- two per cent more, and with opaque shades in the vast majority of cases. New York reports eighty-five per cent of unjacketed stoves, Alabama nearly one hundred per cent such, and Ohio with forty-four per cent unsatisfactory from a heating standpoint, and sixty-nine per cent without provision for ventilation. Surely these data and they could be multiplied almost indefinitely- indicate that, in general, rural people do not appreciate the inadequacy and the unsanitary condition of large numbers of their rural buildings. 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Even a cursory examination of the facts available will convince one that new buildings are being built in large numbers without the fundamental research which would have shown ways in which more adequate facilities could have been provided at less actual cost; the relationship between equipment and efficient instruction has not been sufficiently well ascer- tained; and our teachers in training have not been given effective instruc- tion concerning school sanitation, and the things which even the one- room rural teacher may do with whatever situation she finds . Finance-In all communities taxes are high. They may not be more than one third or one half as high as in other communities of like wealth, but they are high just the same. We need the most widely extended and intensive research of the whole problem of wealth, taxation, and relation of local and State support of rural education. Such studies as have been made have been mostly with urban conditions, but those dealing with the rural conditions portray startling variations. The New York report is perhaps the best that has been made, and the evidence there is over- whelming. When the amount expended per pupil in various districts ranges from less than twenty-five dollars to more than one hundred eighty- five dollars per pupil; when the tax rate, equalized for differences in assessed valuation, ranges from less than one mill to more than thirty- three mills ; when the true taxable wealth behind each school ranges from less than ten thousand dollars to more than nine hundred thousand dollars, it is evident that all children cannot have equal educational opportunities. These data from New York rural conditions are doubtless typical of situa- tions which might be revealed in other States. Only as we assemble such incontrovertible facts and make them known to our people will it be possible for State and Nation to solve this problem in behalf of the children. I have suggested lines of investigation in five major fields which seem to me to need immediate, concentrated, and Nation-wide attack. The value of these researches may be summarized as follows : First, it would make us intelligent about the magnitude and importance of our task. Comparatively few of us can really claim to be that at the present time. Certainly large numbers of our teachers and administrators of rural education have not caught the vision of the task beyond their own community, if they have seen it in its entirety there. The first step in the solution of any problem is a clear, concise statement of it. Second, when such researches as I have suggested have been carried through, education will be truly adjusted to the needs of both children and society. It may fairly be questioned as to whether it is adjusted to either at the present time. Have we not blundered along long enough, out of step with both groups that we are supposed to serve ? Third, it will make possible adequate training of our teachers. Some of these researches are absolutely fundamental to the formulation of ans complete teacher-training program. The problem of teacher-training inst tutions can never be solved until many of the factors already enunciated have been differentiated and their significance in the educative process clearly defined, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 663 Fourth, it will give us a firm basis for legislative action which will remove certain restrictions and limitations under which we are now work- ing, and will make possible the realization of a new vision of rural educa- tion. I submit to you: Are not these values sufficiently worth while to challenge our utmost endeavor to make real the researches needed ? As has been stated, beginnings have been made along most of these lines. The thing needed is that they be pushed through to completion. This program at the Department of Superintendence in 1924, to me is signifi- cant because of the large place given to the idea of research in its every session. To me this signifies, that the last barrier to the emancipation of childhood is crumbling; that rural education-perhaps the last field to be influenced by the spirit of scientific research-is becoming thoroughly awake to the movement . I cannot conceive of this group taking a step backward. Having discovered an instrument by which knowledge so important and so useful may be ascertained, I am sure that the work will be carried through to completeness. I feel that the words of the great teacher may be appropriately used in this connection : "Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." OBJECTIVE STUDIES IN RURAL SCHOOLS FRED D. CRAM , IOWA STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE , IOWA CITY, IOWA This title has been interpreted to indicate a desire for a discussion of the testing and measuring of rural schools in Iowa by the so-called standardized test. In Iowa, there are three types of schools which are wholly or partly rural : (1 ) One-teacher schools ; and when reference is made to rural schools, this is the type that is usually in mind. (2) Consolidated schools ; consolidation, in Iowa, having a slightlydif- ferent meaning from that obtaining in some other states . Here, it means the reorganization of several independent or subdistricts into a new cor- poration, with a centrally located building, which may be in the open country, but is usually in a town. When such consolidation is formed the old units of administration cease to exist, and a board of five members, elected at large, controls the new unit. (3) Village and town schools which extend their district boundaries to include several farms ; or extend the privileges of attendance to outsiders, the district paying tuition if no school is provided locally, the parents paying tuition otherwise, excepting in high school, where the district always pays the tuition. The work of measuring the rural one-room schools is almost entirely in the hands of the county superintendent. It is the exceptional teacher- possibly not to exceed an average of five or six to a county-who does any testing with standardized tests on her own account. The rural one- room school has a teacher whose preparation is too short in time to permit giving 664 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION her an understanding of standard tests. She has too many classes to give time to the service if she knows how. She usually lacks the inspirational power which is characteristic of those who function in this field. She has no funds with which to secure the material. And too frequently she has no help from higher up. The work of measuring the consolidated and town schools is usually left to the superintendent of the school, though many county superintendents assume as much responsibility in this connection as they do in the case of the one-teacher type of school. Most of the superintendents and principals in these small graded schools are college graduates, and many of them have had thorough courses in the theory and practice of measurements. Frequently those abundantly able to do the work find no time to do much of it, or cannot get the board to supply the material. In those schools where considerable measuring is being done, it is almost always the superintendent or principal who is doing it. The classroom teacher is seldom held responsible for this type of work. The time has arrived, in my opinion, when tests and measurements need no longer be considered an administrative experiment. The problem solved by testing is partly one of administration, but it is more one of instruction. Our greatest difficulty is to get the superintendents to see the necessity of train- ing their teachers in the interpretation of test results through the study of the individual paper. How do those in authority get this work done? There are various types of campaign carried on in Iowa, among which five may be mentioned as practically covering the field: the county institute; the study center; the survey; the consultative service ; and the extension credit class. This does not include, of course, regular courses in tests and measurements in colleges and normal schools. The county institute-The county superintendent brings a specialist for two days' work, to which meeting the teachers are required by law to come, and for which they are paid their regular salary. The specialist is usually allowed to handle the work as he may prefer, few county super- intendents indicating to him what particular line they should like to have followed up. It goes without saying that about all that comes of the service in institutes is a speaking acquaintance with the subject. It simply gives teachers who are willing to listen a chance to know a little about the history, the theory, and the administration of tests. They become slightly acquainted with the field covered, and are fortunate if their instructor puts them through a test themselves. Seldom does the teacher feel, at the end of the two days, that she is at all qualified to do the work in her school. A few, without doubt, try it, and continue to use it. becoming more or less expert through practice and study. A few try it who ought not to. The study center-The study center is a Saturday meeting under the direction of the county superintendent, with instructors furnished at the expense of the State Teachers' College, through its extension service. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 4665 Unless a series of meetings is provided for, to which the same instructor goes again and again, it is obvious that the time is too short to do more than introduce the subject. It has been found that this work practically talls flat in study centers, unless there is the actual administration of a test. If one of the more simple ones is used to demonstrate with, live teachers will occasionally secure copies and undertake to see what they can do in administering them. A few county superintendents have had their teachers secure a book on the subject of tests, and have had a series of meetings, in which the subject is studied under the direction of a spe- cialist. With such treatment, the average teacher ought to be able to do some testing with fairly accurate results. The survey-The survey of a school may be one of many different types. Both the State University and the Teachers' College do this type of work. But the survey in which all the work is done by a specialist, who in due time makes a report as to his findings, with recommendations, is, in its pure form, limited to the University, in Iowa. The Teachers' College is not supposed to make a survey, unless the teachers get training in service. When this plan is fully carried out, we refer to the campaign as consulta- tive service, rather than as survey. Consultative service-This is the type of work which is coming to be the outstanding feature for teacher help in Iowa. It will, of course, be understood that this type of service, in one way or another, at one time or another, covers practically all phases of help in classroom instruction, and, to some extent, classroom supervision. Here, we are limiting our dis- cussion to the type of consultative service which has to do with standardized testing. Carried out in its best form, so far as we now know, the program is as follows: Testing by a specialist; meeting of teachers to score papers ; meeting of teachers to tabulate results; graphing by specialist to show results; instruction in study of the individual papers; recommendations by the specialist or a follow-up worker ; practice by the teachers on the work recommended ; re-test, preferably by the teachers ; conclusions drawn. Itwill be at once apparent that this campaign may be varied in many ways at many points. Local conditions, the purpose the superintendent has in mind in putting on the program, the amount of assistance needed by the teachers and superintendent, the availability of the specialist, the funds at the disposal of the authorities, etc., will affect the campaign and its results. Credit extension classes-Instructors are sent from the campus at Cedar Falls to points within the State to hold regular classes. As much time is devoted to the work as is theoretically necessary to complete the same course at Cedar Falls. A large percentage of these so-called credit extension courses are in tests and measurements. Regular college credit is given, and a percentage of credits toward graduation may be made in this wav. Teachers who have taken this course should be able to conduct all types oftesting and measuring in their own or other teachers' rooms . 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Examples of a county-wide survey-In the fall of 1922, the county superintendent of Calhoun County, Iowa, Helen Wilson, invited me to start a testing program with the Illinois examination. We visited enough schools to acquaint her with the way of going at the work, and I intro- duced the subject of tests and measurements in the institute. The test was administered to the teachers, who were cautioned not to do any drill work in their schools, before the testing program was over. There is no indication that any of the teachers made any attempt to "plug" for the survey. Miss Wilson then tested every one-room school in the county excepting one. The papers were scored and tabulations made. The mate- rial was then turned over to me . We decided to attack Silent Reading, as it was below standard. Nothing, of course, could be done for native intelligence, and in the fundamentals of arithmetic the pupils were up to norm, or nearly so. The situation was graphed. A series of eight meet- ings were held, so placed over the county as to require no teacher to go more than five miles to be present. The graphs were presented to the teachers, after which remedial measures in silent reading were developed. About two and a half to three hours were given each group. These meetings were held in mid-winter. Late in the spring, the county super- intendent re-tested the silent reading performance of the pupils. Her report is that there was not so good a gain as she had looked for. A similar campaign, covering a wider range of subjects, was carried on in the schools of Black Hawk County, a year earlier. The modus operandi in this county was to test about half the county, have a meeting of the teachers, administer the test to them, and have the teachers finish the task. On the whole, results show higher scores in the teacher-tested schools than in the ones tested by the specialist, but the difference is not striking. This campaign was put on under the auspices of the State Teachers' College and the county superintendent, H. C. Moeller, of Waterloo, and reported to the Rural Education Committee of the National Council of Education. The report was later published as a bulletin of the college, and can be secured under the title, "Surveying Rural Schools." The campaign is referred to here, to call attention to the fact that our campaign in Black Hawk County brought better results than the one just referred to in Cal- houn County. There is no essential difference between the two counties, so far as we know, to explain the difference in results. Both have teachers L above average, with leaders of scientific attitude and broad outlook. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 667 DISCUSSION OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF INSTRUCTION IN CON- SOLIDATED AND ONE- TEACHER SCHOOLS L. M. FAVROT, FIELD AGENT OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA There is no question that the report under discussion is a valuable study in the field of comparative instruction. The subject is one about which there is need for investigation and discussion. In Mr. Abel's study on consolidation and transportation (Bulletin No. 41, U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation), he states that "the past thirty years has been a period of awakened interest in rural schools, a period of rapid enactment and betterment of consolidation and transportation laws, and a period of more united effort in bringing about consolidation." State and county school authorities in great numbers have lost faith in the one-teacher school. Many regard it as an undesirable relic of by-gone days, incapable of accomplishing any good, an antiquated piece of school machinery that must be annihilated as quickly as possible. Yet notwithstanding all the efforts of the past thirty years, we still had in 1920 in America, 45 per cent of the rural teaching corps working in 187,951 one-teacher schools. The one-teacher rural school is still enough in evidence to impress a distinguished English historian, or writer of fiction, and cause him to tell the world that we are still a Na- tion of "little red schoolhouses." Whatever we may think of the small rural school, there are still enough of them left for us to take some notice of them and work to make them better. It is, therefore, time indeed that a com- parative study of instruction in the two types of rural schools be under- taken, and the Department of Rural Education owes a debt of gratitude to the chairman and members of this committee, and to the 158 State di- rectors and local coöperators who assisted in gathering and compiling the data. 1 The committee laid its plans with the utmost care, and proceeded to do its work with a degree of thoroughness which makes the finished product a real contribution to the scientific study of an educational problem. There is a prodigious amount of work involved in the testing of 15,652 pupils, in scoring approximately 80,000 test papers, in analyzing, grouping, re- grouping, and compiling facts and scores, and in figuring medians and per . cents in the preparation for the eight tables from which are derived the findings of the study. I agree with Mr. O'Brien, in his review of the study in the September, 1923, Journal of Rural Education , that the method and technique em- ployed in the study are well selected and the applications carefully con- trolled. The calculations and general findings of the report I am accept- ing without question as published, except for the revision of Table 5 which the chairman of the committee himself placed in my hands, and which in- creases the median of the several grade medians showing the difference in 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION achievement of the two types of schools, from 27.5 per cent to 33 per cent. I agree furthermore with the editorial appearing in the April number of the Journal of Rural Educatiton that the report is unsettling, and that we need a more extended study for the purpose of trying to answer some of the questions that this study has raised, for, after all, when we attempt to consider this report in its entirety, it does appear to leave us with these two outstanding questions before us: Is the consolidated rural school as good as we thought it was ? Is the one-teacher rural school as bad as we thought it was ? The summary of the report brings out such differences as are found to exist in results of instruction in the two types of schools and also such differences as might have bearing on instruction. Several of these differ- ences are regarded as insignificant. Others are significant. The report considers the relative value of instruction in the consolidated and one-teacher rural schools based on standardized tests given in the very fundamental subjects of reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, and language. The results of these tests and of a comparison of administrative differences are here summarized under the following general findings : Both grade-achievement and age-achievement differences are in favor of the consolidated school, the general median difference in both cases being 33 per cent of a year's work. In other words, the consolidated school child in grades three to eight is approximately 57 days ahead of the one- teacher school child in the five subjects in which these children have been tested. The age-achievement differences increase with advancing ages, and the grade-achievement differences increase from grade to grade. Whereas the third and fourth grade children in the consolidated school are only one- fourth of a session ahead of those in the one-teacher school, the eighth grade children in the consolidated school are very nearly one-half of a session ahead of those in the one-teacher school. More than half (56 per cent) of the elementary teachers in consolidated schools have training two years or more above high school, while only a little more than one-fourth of the teachers (28 per cent) in the one-teacher schools have equivalent advanced schooling. The committee has felt warranted in concluding its report with six sig- nificant questions. These questions literally take one's breath away. After being in the rare atmosphere of a scholarly and scientific treatise, one feels something of a jolt at being brought face to face with questions that are so fundamental, so practical, so far-reaching, so challenging, and, one might almost say, so revolutionary. Clearly the committee has been disap- pointed in the results of the tests given in the consolidated school, and agree- ably surprised at the results of those given in the one-teacher school. Be- cause of this, they have felt warranted in asking questions which have a tend- ency to make us wonder whether we have for many years been magnifying the value of the consolidated rural school and minimizing the possibilities of DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 669 the one-teacher school. Since these last six significant questions strike at the very foundations of current administrative American policy in rural education, one is compelled to pause and consider their significance. The first question asks : "Why is there such a small difference in the results of instruction between the two types of schools ?" One's first re- action to the question is, is the difference so very small-a difference of more than two months in the ability of the pupils in the lower elementary grades, and of more than four months in the ability of pupils in the higher elementary grades ? Who can tell us what difference we might have a right to expect ? True, the results disprove, in so far as these subjects are concerned, the extravagant claim sometimes made that instruction in the consolidated school is 100 per cent better than in the one-teacher school. But in no subject or grade in which pupils are tested are results in the one-teacher school superior to results in the consolidated school. Is not this fact significant in showing the superiority of the consolidated school? Again, are the data on which the findings are based, of such a nature as to enable us to reach the conclusions reached by the committee as to re- sults of instruction in the two types of schools ? Note that the com- mittee has measured the value of instruction in these two types of schools in terms of efficiency in the three R's, and thrown in the Trabue language test, which is in the nature of an intelligence test. Isn't it a fact that the untrained teacher most frequently found in the one-teacher school doesn't know that school teaching consists of anything more than hammering away at the fundamental arts of reading, spelling, writing, and numbers ? Her methods may not be modern or pedagogic, but backed by her constituency, she conceives her job to be to teach books and the fundamental school arts . With attention largely centered on this task, ought not the results to be satisfactory? In the consolidated school we find the trained teacher seek- ing to interest her pupils in the beauties of nature and the elementary sciences, in the rich content of geography, history, and civics, in music and art, in the arts of home-making and agriculture, and in a curriculum that is broad and rich and in close touch with humanity and all of its interests. Have we really measured the differences in results of instruction when we have measured only instruction in the fundamental school arts? The next question asks : "To what extent does the difference in teacher qualifications account for the instructional differences in favoring the con- solidated school ?" The data do not show clearly the difference in qualifica- tions in the two types of schools. Table 8 shows that a larger propor- tion of elementary teachers in consolidated schools have training two years or more above high school than in one-teacher schools. The record does not show whether these two years above high school were spent in a teacher- training institution or in college. If spent in a college, it might be diffi- cult to show that these teachers can teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling any better than the teachers who had less than two years' training above high school. If spent in a teacher-training institution, we would have 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a right to expect greater ability in teaching the fundamental arts. What assurance have we, however, that even the teacher-training institutions, with the emphasis that many of them place on general psychology, general prin- ciples of method, school management, and history of education are prepar- ing the teachers adequately for the practical work of teaching the funda- mental arts, and of doing their work so thoroughly as to assure satisfactory scores in standardized tests ? Until we have more information as to the nature and extent of the professional training of the teachers in the two types of schools, it will be difficult to attempt to answer the question as to how far teacher qualifications may account for the instructional differences favoring the consolidated school. The third question is: "Is the consolidated school realizing on its oppor- tunities ?" Just what are the opportunities of the consolidated school ? The advocates of consolidation find in it a more effective unit of school organiza- tion, administration, and supervision; an opportunity for a more just dis- tribution of taxation and handling of school finances ; a means of community and social betterment ; of wider play activities and a wider use of the school plant; of promoting public health, and a better school attendance. As already noted, the opportunity of the consolidated school lies in presenting a broader, richer curriculum, in appealing more largely to the interests of children, and in developing their social and civic welfare. To attempt to answer the question, then, it would be necessary to have many facts not found in the data considered. Limiting the scope of the question to include instruction only, the opportunities for superior instruction in consolidated schools lie either in employing better trained teachers or in closer super- vision, or in both. If the consolidated schools have employed trained teachers, and the instructional differences between the two types of schools are not what they should be, the blame may not yet necessarily be on the consolidated school, and the question may take the form: "Is the normal school realizing on its opportunities ?" If instruction in the consolidated school is not properly supervised and effective supervision in rural school is still in its infancy-the consolidated school is probably not realizing on its opportunities in this field, and the committee has done well to direct atten tion to the possibilities in supervision. The fourth question is : "Have we not erected costly buildings, installed elaborate equipment, and set up extensive organizations, and assumed that they would produce superior classroom results ?" This question does not appear to be warranted by the findings of the study. We may infer from the question that the committee had in mind, through it, to call our atten- tion to the time, effort, and money spent on these external things, to the neglect of that which is fundamental, the training of the child. Of course, no thoughtful person would assume that buildings, equipment, and organi- zation of themselves produce superior classroom results . Question number five asks : "Does not the study create a higher regard for what the one-teacher school is accomplishing ?" Perhaps it does create a higher regard for what the one-teacher school accomplishes in teaching the DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 671 fundamental school arts, if we accept the committee's judgment that the dif- ference in the results of instruction between the two types of schools is small . But does that necessarily create a higher regard for what the one-teacher school is accomplishing in the way of providing an education for the rural child? It has been said that the one-teacher school of the past, developed self- reliance and self-help among pupils of a certain type of mind, and that this was probably worth more to the pupils than the finest schemes of instruction yet devised. To prove the truth of this, our attention has been called to the products of the one-teacher school who have achieved distinction in various walks of life. The otiose tendency about which former Superin- tendent Joyner, of North Carolina, delivered an address, as president of the National Education Association, several years ago, is more likely to find expression in the graded school where help is ever present in time of trouble, than in the one-teacher school where the ambitious boy knows that if he expects to succeed, he must shift for himself. Some of us school men some- times say that we would be willing to have our children taught in one- teacher schools. When we do so, however, do we not think of the one- teacher school of the past with an experienced and well-educated teacher in charge? Do we not think of sending our child from our own home in which he has the social and cultural environment that we wish him to have ? Do we not think perhaps of our own ability to help the child occasionally over some of the difficult places ? Do we not thus in many ways limit our expectations of what a school should accomplish ? We are to-day, however, engaged in the tremendous task of educating everybody for American citizenship in its broadest sense, and it will take a strong argument to con- vince school administrators that the one-teacher school, even at its best, is equal to the task. Question number six asks whether it would not be wise, in the light of the report, to recommend some modification of a consolidation program which contemplates the abandonment of the one-teacher school and the transportation of all the pupils to a central school. Various systems of partial consolidation and grade limitation have already been tried out suc- cessfully in several States. The plan of transporting all pupils to a central school has already been modified in many different ways. Administrators of rural schools have been quick to try out great numbers of plans that would avoid the complete abandonment of all one-teacher schools, and save the expense of transporting all pupils to a central school. This par- ticular significant question, therefore, is being answered by experiments going on in different parts of the country. The study has not advanced a legitimate argument against consolidation or in favor of the one-teacher school. Perhaps the consolidated school is not realizing on its opportunites. Perhaps the teachers have not been trained in all respects as they should be trained. Perhaps supervision has not yet set up for the different grades and classes distinct goals, and pro- vided the inspiration and the machinery needed to attain its goals. Perhaps itwould be unwise to close the one-teacher school which is able to retain 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the teacher whose personality and consecration have done so much for the pupils of successive school generations, provided this teacher is enjoying the comforts and common decencies of life in a satisfactory boarding place. It is not intended in this discussion to deny the implication of some of the significant questions. It would be interesting and profitable to know the distinguishing features of both types of schools, the one-teacher and the consolidated, that are actually getting satisfactory results. This study bears out studies that have been made in connection with State surveys. In the Indiana State survey, for example, the average achievement of fifth, seventh, and eighth grade pupils in schools of six or more teachers in the subjects of reading, spelling, and arithmetic is .4 of a year greater than in one-teacher schools. The average achievement of pupils in the city schools in the same State, grades, and subjects, is practically a year better than in one-teacher schools. Apparently, then, from this and other surveys that have been made, the closer the organization, administration, and supervision approach the standard of the city school, and the farther removed from the one teacher school, the more likely the school is to be efficient even in teach- ing the fundamentals . In conclusion, the report of the committee offers superintendents and supervisors of rural schools, as well as trainers of teachers for rural schools, much food for thought. In making this study the committee has carefully done an arduous task. Perhaps it has over-reached itself in making some of its significant questions at the close, so broad and all-inclusive. However, if in asking these questions, the committee in- intended merely to stimulate discussion which would result in improve- ment of instruction in rural schools, the questions have been so selected as to strike at some of the fundamental problems in rural education. If, on the other hand, some of these questions are designed to reflect upon the value of consolidation, to stay the progress of this movement, and to upset a policy that has received general acceptance in this country, then it must be said that there is nothing in the findings and conclusions of the study to justify such action. The study will have served a useful purpose if it becomes the starting point for a more extended study of the value of the two types of schools, and if it stimulates improvement of instruction in all rural schools . REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CONSTRUCTIVE STUDIES NORMAN FROST , PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION , PEABODY COLLEGE NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE This committee originated two years ago at the Chicago meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association. At that meeting of the committee it was recommended that three studies be undertaken by the Department of Rural Education, and chairmen were DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 673 designated who were asked to make up their own committees with the advice of the president of the department and the secretary. The three subjects selected at that time were as follows : (1) Comparative instruction in one-teacher and consolidated rural schools. John Foote was chairman of this committee, and the study has beencompleted, reported to the department, and the committee discharged. (2) A study on rural school attendance. Adelaide Ayer is chairman of this committee and the study is being prosecuted. It is recommended that the committee be continued . (3) A study on the rural school curriculum and junior extension work. 0. G. Brim is chairman of this committee, and he has found the study impracticable at this time. It is recommended that the study be temporarily abandoned. At this time it is recommended that the department undertake a study on the fundamental principles and background of rural education ; that 0. G. Brim be made the chairman of this committee; and that he be requested to select the members of this committee with the advice of the secretary and president of this department. Some question has been raised as to the feasibility of carrying on studies inthis manner. Most people who are members of this department do not have time for extensive work outside of their regular duties, and we have no material funds available for assistance in prosecuting such studies. For this reason it is recommended that in addition to an attempt to con- tinue the studies above suggested, the Department of Rural Education should recommend to the National Education Association that a special investigator in the field of rural education should be appointed as a member of its Research Department. It is recommended that a special com- mittee should be appointed to take up this matter with the officials of the Association. It is further recommended that the members of the Department of Rural Education individually should take up with the directors of the National Society for the Study of Education the possibility of including in some of their studies investigations of particular interest to rural educa- tion. Such work by the National Society for the Study of Education might take the form either of a special yearbook on rural education, or of the inclusion of chapters on the rural aspects of general investigations which the society is undertaking. For the convenience of members a list of the directors of the National Society is here appended, and members of this organization are urged to write them. It is further recommended that the following lists of topics for possible studies be submitted to the department, and be published in the Journal of Rural Education, with the request that members of the department and others interested in rural education, indicate to the Committee on Construc- tive Studies the topics in which they are interested and upon which they are willing to work. This committee asks authority to recommend to the president of this department, from time to time, that specific topics be 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION investigated, and to recommend chairmen of committees to undertake such investigations. The following topics are submitted in connection with the above recom- mendation : The curriculum of the rural school; financing of rural educa- tion; the equipment and plant of the modern rural school; the principles involved in the location of rural schools; the organization of county depart- ments for the administration of rural schools ; instructional differences between schools of the country and schools of the city; a system of records for rural schools; the curricula of rural education divisions in teacher train- ing institutions; grade limitation for small rural schools instead of complete consolidation; age-progress of pupils in rural schools; the functions of principals of small town and consolidated schools; community functions and relationships of rural schools ; certification of rural teachers; the organi- zation of the one-teacher school; state legislation in regard to rural educa- tion; a continuation of the study on the results of instruction in one-teacher and consolidated schools; classification of children in rural schools, and the intelligence of country people. THE PORTER SCHOOL : A NEW VISION OF THE RURAL SCHOOL IN COUNTRY LIFE MARIE TURNER HARVEY, THE PORTER SCHOOL KIRKSVILLE, MISSOURI It is obvious from the arrangement of the program that this topic was chosen to present the practical and practicable service of the rural school in its community. It is further obvious that at best eleven years of history compressed into a twenty minutes' report can be only suggestive, and I know of no better way to present it than in narrative form under the following heads : 1. Original purpose in initiating the experiment. 2. Original conditions and special difficulties. 3. First steps . 4. Snap shots running through the period since 1912, suggesting that: (a) Legitimate classroom procedure aroused latent creative forces in the community, and gave them direction for the perma- nent good of all concerned ; (b) Extreme individualism and the narrow selfish attitude of child and parent gradually evolved into a coöperative and gener- ous neighborliness ; (c) Old and young alike grew in self respect and ceased to gauge their social worth by the customary "city yard stick;" (d) Social and intellectual standards were raised as shown by the fact that the occasional undesirable school entertainment and melodramatic "revival meeting" in surrounding districts ceased to interest the young people ; (e) A surprising degree of culture was developed in one decade. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 675 Two years' work in the Department of Rural Education in a Missouri State Normal School forced me to see that Missouri's outstanding educa- tion problem was the improvement of her rural elementary schools. While public sentiment was being created in favor of consolidated schools, I saw clearly that for many reasons, consolidation must proceed slowly for a decade or two, and the fact that more than 5,000,000 rural children of varying ages were receiving their only preparation for citizenship in these one- room schools impressed me deeply. I reasoned somewhat like this : "Approximately one- fourth of this num- ber, or more than a million children, will be leaving these schools annually. They will be men and women in an incredibly short time. They will be establishing homes, participating in the public business of the district, the county and the State. Often, they will exert the determining influence on public policies, conscientiously, but alas! many times to the detriment of the cause they would serve, and for self-evident reasons. Therefore, in view of these and other related facts, these 200,000 one-room schools should make the closest approach to educational efficiency in the shortest possible time; and to do this, the logical "next step" would be the placing of a qualified mature teacher in this one-room school. My confident and enthusiastic advocacy of this theory, supported by successful demonstration in the rural demonstration school on the campus, elicited approval from the student teachers, who always qualified it, how- ever, with the challenge: "But Mrs. Harvey, this could not be done in the typical school situation. You do not know conditions in the country." So I came to see the need of an experimental study of the possibilities of this type of school being made, and I finally won my own consent to under- takeit. The decision was made partly because my experiences as teacher and principal of a St. Louis suburban school for a decade, and later in a normal school, qualified me for such study; partly because I could not then doubt that such demonstration would do, something towards winning the active support of the farming people of Missouri on the one hand, and on the other hand would encourage the making of a more flexible course of study, a new type of daily program, and ultimately the abandonment of the present universal so-called graded system with its corollary, the "eighth grade graduation," which I have long known was worse than ineffective, and to which I am unalterably opposed. The initial steps included finding a district with a school suffering from all the characteristic ills, and having also a vacant house available for the teacher's home. Porter school met every required test. A four-room shack was rented by the teacher, who had agreed to "teach" the school for eight months at $50.00 a month with the sub rosa understanding with the school board that if she could prove satisfactory to the patrons, and if they would cooperate in her reasonable demands, which did not contem- plate a high tax, she would remain three years. :٠٠ 1 1 Thanks to the county sup ntof ols, a man of vision and courage, I was free to wo urriculum, daily pro- 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION gram, etc. , and proceed at all times according to my best judgment. Briefly, the school was to be a real " laboratory." Since a fair appraisal of values calls for a knowledge of original condi- tions, the following outstanding items of assets and liabilities are given: On October 14, 1912, the opening day of school, there were twenty-three average children ranging in age from five to seventeen years; a teacher devoted to the problem of rural life and its improvement through the medium of the school; one family, the father a board member, of which both parents were persons of liberal education and culture and the finest ideals of community service; $200.00 in the incidental fund and $400.00 in the teacher's fund. First among the outstanding liabilities, I would place the determined opposition to progress by the major number of taxpayers whose children had long since left the school and the neighborhood, and whose activity was prompted by mixed motives of economy-for progress to such as these always means insupportable tax-and petty personal revenge against certain citizens now needing a school. There was an absolute lack of coöperation, initiative and, worst of all. lack of faith in the possibilities of bringing about a permanent régime of progress through education on the part of the major number of those send- ing children to school. There were three illiterates (through no fault of their own) among the well-to-do taxpayers, and saving two or three families, all others had such education as was afforded by the old Porter school . Nowhere could be found a more striking example of extreme individualism and social, spirit- ual, and intellectual starvation than existed in this school district of nine square miles of excellent farm land, contiguous with Kirksville, a town of 8,000 population and the seat of the oldest normal school in the State. The measure of the community can be taken by viewing the schoolhouse. a shack built by a jack carpenter at a cost of $600.00 some twenty years preceding, a house that was everything but what it should have been hospitable to the tramping fraternity, but allowing its children to freeze hands and feet in the severe winter. It was necessary to call a mass mect- ing to secure the favorable sentiment of the community before the board would agree to let the teacher lock windows and door effectively against the tramps lest they react on the farmers by burning haystacks and barns. Previous to 1912, these creatures burned window shutters, toilet doors and many bushels of coal unmolested. In 1912, night riders circulated a petition to find sufficient money to carry the case to the Supreme Court if necessary, rather than allow that $200.00 to be applied to the purchase of a furnace for the basement room, dug and concreted by voluntary labor donated by the faithful few. That the records showed at the close of the year the almost perfect attendance of the enrolment, due in part to the improved physical conditions ; and that the furnace consumed exactly the same number of bushels of coal as was used the preceding school year for an irregular attendance of the DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 677 ten pupils enrolled, softened their attitude not one iota. Their supreme indifference to the needs of a good school, their neglect of their most obvi- ous duties as citizens, were directly traceable to their own lack of educa- tion. They were descendants of homesteaders here, the majority of whom had moved westward from Pennsylvania, and lived always under pioneer conditions quite independent of "schooling." In the main, they repre- sented the work of the old Porter school and all similar schools. In such unfriendly atmosphere, and amid most sordid surroundings was the school begun. I regret time does not allow a detailed account of pro- cedure the first day and during the early weeks, but I must content myself with assertions and leave it to you to link these into an intelligible whole. Children are reasonable beings, and in this case they readily agreed to the trial of a new plan which it was explained would bring them long recitations and study periods and other large benefits. The plan included the classification into four groups largely on a basis of age and ability to read, a flexible daily program of never more than sixteen formal recitations, and the elimination of the report card, the quarterly examination, the copy book, the spelling book, and such texts as the primary physiology and lan- guage book, and also every nerve-racking, envy-creating artificial stimulus. The "A" group included five boys and two girls from fourteen to seven- teen years, intelligent, hopeful young folks, only two of whom could read as well as an average sixth grade pupil. Very soon, they were named the "Senior Group," thus removing the stigma of an eighth grade classification inname and limitation of studies. The "D" group enrolled six little folks from five to seven years. Through the latter, it was possible to win gen- eral confidence, not only because of the ease and rapidity with which they read, wrote, dramatized, etc., but also because it afforded other pupils opportunity to strengthen weak places in their own educational structures ; whereas the senior group, with mature minds and awakened ambitions , quickly became valuable aids in interpreting the purpose and procedure of the school to the community. Here, too, was the first social unit, organized within ten weeks as a parliamentary body, self-styled " The Shakespeare Reading Circle." Among other things, the general program contemplated teaching chil- dren how to read and what to read ; giving them power to think, to study, and to speak and write good English; developing in them a respect for all kinds of labor well performed ; convincing them that farming is a funda- mental occupation and that it is as respectable to be a good farmer-citizen as to be a good merchant; giving them a vision of a realizable country home, and ambition to own one, and be a worthy inmate of such home. There was never any thought of "vocationalizing" the school or condemn- ing all children to the farm regardless of capacity for another life. Realizing that the welfare of the children demanded a mutual interest and understanding between parent and teacher, ways were discovered that first year to secure the presence of parents at irregular intervals at Thanks- giving, Christmas, and Washington's Birthday. Invitations motivated 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the English and hand work. The programs, always built from the regular school work, soon had the desired effect on the pupils as well as on the parents, who found literature, history, and music through the medium of their children interesting and instructive. The teacher always gave an informal talk, though even she did not then realize the possible results from these simple beginnings . In the spring of 1914, shortly before the annual school election, when the school's fate hung in the balance, a group of little ones appeared before the community gathering in a patriotic exercise. When little Mary said in ringing tones in response to roll call, "Davy Crockett said 'Be sure you are right and then go ahead, " there was a visible stir in the audience; when six-year-old Jamie responded, "John Quincy Adams said, 'No man's vote is lost that is cast for the right, " the men began to nod to each other; and when Johnny responded : "Benjamin Franklin said, 'We must all hang together or assuredly we must all hang separately, " loud heartening applause filled the room. Sentiment became a settled conviction on hear- ing an older pupil quote feelingly, "O strong hearts and true! not one went back in the Mayflower ! No, not one looked back, who had set his hand to this ploughing." Their school was saved by one vote that year, and the time came when no opposition vote was cast. Every meeting of this kind stimulated the parents with new understand- ing, new hope, and determination to realize such hope, and left the com- munity on a higher plane of thinking. Never was it necessary to resort to the antiquated "pie supper" or "box supper" or senseless plays so gen- erally used in the rural situation. Never was Shakespeare more thoroughly enjoyed than by this community when they saw their sons and daughters in a very creditable interpretation of "The Merchant of Venice," the play being preceded by a sketch of the author and the story of the play; and it can readily be seen that because of the dramatization of such literature as "Miles Standish, " " The First Christmas Tree," the "Christmas Carol. " etc., the younger children early learned to enjoy Longfellow, Van Dyke, and Dickens, and began to build their personal libraries. At times, I am inclined to say it was music that harmonized, socialized. and stabilized the community and proved the most valuable aid in advanc- ing the school's interests. Good music-vocal, piano, and band-is at all times at the command of the community today. Another phase of the school's work is suggested by the following excerpts from themes read at the Class Day exercises, 1919. Ruby, secretary of L the poultry club, writes on "Four Years of Poultry Club Work," in which she says, "Mr. Kempster scored our chickens, but no prizes were given. We consider knowledge gained our prize. One boy made enough money from chickens to pay for his lessons in the junior band. A girl paid for a $40 cornet. Two sisters are paying for their piano. One girl bought a Liberty bond." John, president of the junior band, reports its first year's history saying, "It is the purpose of the junior band to keep music alive in the community," then tells that the total cost to date is $421 , and DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 679 closes with the challenge, "In the long run will it be a good investment ? We will leave the answer to you." And Mary, secretary of the pig club, explains in her report of two years' work, "Through the pig club, we are trying to raise pigs profitably so that we can get a college education, for no member of our class will be satisfied without a higher education." On the ninth anniversary of the new Porter school, by this time a tradi- tional date in the community, the high school group gave an original play entitled, " The Dwelling Place of Progress," involving both the school's history and prophecy. Note the titles of the scenes: A New Order of Things; Three Months Later; Signs of Local Leadership and Initiative; The Mustard Seed. It was admirably written and presented, and made a profound impres- sion on old and young. It is significant in this connection, that John, with no educational background, whose father in 1913 warned me, " My boys like you awful well, but I hear you're trying to start a high school and I wantyou to know right now that I'm agin high school"-named this play, and practically wrote the last scene. Furthermore, John, graduated from high school with honor, is this year successfully teaching a rural school of forty pupils six miles from Porter, at $80 a month, and will have his college degree before ceasing school work. Statistics are dull, but these should be offered : On the opening day, 1912, the Senior Group averaged 15 years ; on the closing day, seven years later, the out-going eighth grade averaged 14 years; the ninth grade, 15 years; and the tenth grade, 17 years . One hundred per cent of the pupils seek a high school education, some more. The "Beginners of 1912 " completed the elementary work and three years of high school offered at Porter in ten years of eight months' terms. All were honor senior high school students in Kirksville. In conclusion, I would show you three pictures which are self-explana- tory: 1. Time, eight P.M., Saturday, April 19, 1921. Place, main floor of the Porter school, presenting the appearance of an attractive living room. Twenty-five young people from ten to twenty-three years of age are in their places for the regular Saturday night band practice of two hours. Forty other persons, parents and neighbors, are here, too. Glen is home from the College of Engineering. Glen slips into his old place, for he is in practice, being a member of the university band, one of twenty fresh- men chosen on examination. The fathers slip off and bring seven gallons of ice cream. The concert is done. The mothers serve all with generous dishes of cream, and a social hour follows. Innocent, wholesome pleasures , these, and they tie the young people to home, school, and community. 2. Time, December 28, 1923. The hour, seven P.M. Place, the base- ment room. The occasion, a dinner party, four former students acting as hosts to the graduates of the school. The improvised dining room, the table attractively arranged, the decorations simple and artistic, pay tribute to the ingenuity of the hosts. Note the large red candle in a nest of holly 680 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in the center of the table, symbolical of Porter lighting the way for country children. This is emphasized in the souvenir booklet, including program, clever songs, and the roster of graduates, for the cover shows a single candle with the quotation, "How far that little candle throws its beams." As I look at the sophisticated young people about that table, I recall the comment of a banker's wife who, on visiting the school in the early days, said, "Why, these children look as though they had their regular baths. They do not look like country children." About this table sit four en- gaged in farming, six teachers, three of whom are young men, three col- lege students, and three high school students. This picture includes a unique program of speech and song, the organization of an alumni "to strengthen the ties of friendship and actively support the upbuilding of a school that will serve the children of the future as it has served us," and their decision to begin by buying an acre of land to add to the school ground. 3. February 20, 1924. Schoolroom, 12:30. Luncheon is finished. We hear the bugle call. The fourteen-year-old cornetist is calling her orchestra together, and promptly ten children from eight to fifteen years disappear below. Practice is over and instruments in place by one o'clock. Upstairs, several girls are numbering the new individual towels with a pretty outline stitch. Alice, thirteen years old, is at the piano practicing the new song for the Longfellow Reading Circle to include in their pro- gram Friday afternoon. There is a group of "beginners" playing a bird game at one of the tables. Max chooses to build a castle with the blocks. There is a group of little girls playing rook. Outdoor play is not prac- ticable today. Although the postman could not make his route all week and distances are great, twenty-eight children have managed to be at school regularly and punctually. Only one six-year-old had to be absent. Thus, in a decade, a community described by the county superintendent of schools as "hopeless," and which had no standing in the county, has assumed a prominent place in the public eve in spite of most discouraging economic problems, and is a community of happy homes. Summed up briefly, this story makes it clear that there are unsuspected possibilities in this type of school, and that the present outstanding need of rural children all over this country is the mature qualified teacher with ideals of service to the individual and the group. WHAT FUNCTIONS OF A STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS ARE MOST WORTH-WHILE? I. JEWELL SIMPSON, STATE SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BALTIMORE, MARYLAND The school system of Maryland is the exemplification of the school law, which contemplates and provides for equal educational opportunities for all children who attend the public schools. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 681 This equality of opportunity is provided for by certain financial, adminis- trative, supervisory, and teacher grading standards. The financial standard in Maryland provides that in each county there shall be collected a direct tax of 67 cents; and to each county, in addition to this there is distributed by the State enough funds to enable the minimum standard educational program to be maintained. The administrative standards are maintained by the 23 county super- intendents, two-thirds of whose salaries are paid by the State. The super- intendents must measure up to certain requirements of preparation, experi- ence, and achievement ; and although appointed by the county boards of education, their appointment must be approved by the State superintendent. Thus administrative equality, as far as it is possible to secure it, is assured throughout the State. Supervisory oversight of classroom teaching and methods is provided for, bythe appointment of a supervising or helping teacher for every 50 teachers employed. These supervisors, also, have to be properly qualified, and their appointments approved by the State superintendent ; and as is the case with superintendents, two-thirds of the supervisor's salary is paid by the State. You will now see that by these provisions, administration and supervision of standard quality are secured throughout the State, and reach directly to every school. The sole function of the supervisory staff is to strengthen and to give assistance to the methods of classroom instruction. Therefore, it is valuable tojust the extent that supervision renders the school experience of children more profitable. The function of the State supervisor is to secure general coördination of effort and direction among the county supervisors ; and it is to the most worth-while measrues that have been of service in securing this coördinated State-wide effort that I will refer. The functions of a State supervisor which, in my opinion, are most worth- while for the professional development of rural schools, do not differ materially from those which are most worth-while for the professional development of town or city schools . This statement is made in full recognition of the differences which exist between a large city graded school and, let us say, a one-teacher rural school. The city school has its school assembly, its gymnasium, its domestic science and manual training departments, its organized play, its cafeteria, its homogeneous classroom groups, and its faculty groups mutually help- ful. In the one-teacher school, the organization of a day's work for the teacher of seven or eight grades differs in as many respects from the graded school organization as the old top buggy differs from the modern automobile. The equipment in the one-teacher schools is meager by comparison with that of the large graded buildings ; immature teachers serve their apprentice- ship in the rural schools, also there are more frequent changes in the teach- ingpersonnel. These differences, however, pertain to the school's organization and 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION equipment, but they are not matters with which either the county supervisor or the State supervisor is primarily concerned. The chief function of supervision is to improve the quality of teaching, whether it be in the one- room rural school, the consolidated rural or town school, or in the splen- didly equipped urban school. The supervisor must take existing conditions and make the most of them. She must assist Miss Smith to do better teaching; she must show Miss Brown how to use her few textbooks to better advantage; she must help Miss Jones to use all of the material at her command in such a way as to keep her brightest pupils profitably employed. In short, the measure of a county supervisor's value to the system is the extent to which her expert knowledge, working through and with the teachers, renders the school experience of pupils more profitable than it would otherwise be . The State supervisor in coöperation with the county supervisors will formulate definite objectives for the year, and will hold up high standards of achievement; he will also give practical assistance to county supervisors and teachers in reaching those standards, so that good results from instruc- tion may be secured throughout the State. These are his most important functions, because through them he is enabled directly to influence the work and progress of school children . Let me restate these functions. The State supervisor must set up State- wide objectives in coöperation with the county superintendents and super- visors; hold up high standards of achievement; and help the county super- visors to reach these standards . The measure of the value of State supervision is the degree in which this assistance by working through and with the county supervisors succeeds in improving the quality of classroom teaching throughout the State. In Maryland, a September conference was attended by every one of the county superintendents and supervisors, at which time the following main objectives for the year 1923-24 were agreed upon: To achieve standard results in silent reading and reasoning in arithmetic this school year ; also the improvement in handwriting to the point of legibility in all written work of every child in every grade. The gradual elimination of the excessive number of over-age pupils in each county, each county setting up a definite goal for the year. Teachers' meetings throughout the State to be conducted on a higher professional plane in accordance with the principles laid down in the September, 1923, bulletin, entitled "Worth-while Teachers' Meetings". At this three-day conference in September, one day was given over by the supervisors to a discussion of standards by which the quality of teaching and of supervision might be evaluated. In succession these criteria received consideration. To what extent do the survey tests really evaluate results in these fields? To what extent may results be evaluated by the types of questions asked by teachers and pupils ? Are McMurry's elementary school standards adequate for evaluating teaching and supervision ? DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 683 How far may the efforts of teachers and supervisors to improve themselves professionally, be a measure ? The questionnaire method of checking up results. Teachers' meetings as a. measure of the efficiency of supervision. What good, if any, can come from teacher rating by the supervisor ? By the teacher herself? The keynote was sounded at the opening of the discussion in the state- ment that since "the children are the center of gravity or sun of the educa- tional system," the work of teachers and supervisors should be evaluated by determining, as far as it is possible to do so, the extent to which desirable changes have been made in pupils thereby measuring teaching rather than teachers. By means of this conference, high standards of achievement were set up for the year's work. The State supervisor has endeavored, through various activities, to be of practical assistance to the counties in attaining the objectives and standards . One way has been by directing a State-wide testing program in silent reading and arithmetic reasoning, so that every child in grades 2 to 7 inclusive was given standardized tests in October, and will be given them again in May. The State Department paid for the tests and furnished all blanks and tabulation sheets. The State supervisor trained the county superintendents and supervisors in the technique of giving and scoring the tests and tabulat- ing the results. Detailed directions for handling every phase of the test procedure were sent out by the State department. Testing was begun in every county on October 14, and was finished by October 28, the State supervisor visiting 17 of the 23 counties during the two weeks of testing, and spending at least half a day in each of those counties. Every effort was made to have the procedure uniform throughout the State. In each county the tests were given by a small group of trained people ; they were scored and checked by groups of teachers in centers under careful direction. The State supervisor supplied the county officials with suggestive plans for analysis of errors, interpretation of results, and remedial work to supplement the two bulletins on corrective work in silent reading and arithmetic which were published by the State department last year, and given to every elementary teacher in the State. The teachers throughout the State, under the direction of the county supervisors, analyzed the errors of their pupils and emphasized corrective teaching. Twenty large charts containing sample exercises for seatwork in silent reading are being loaned by the State supervisor to each county supervisor for two weeks. In Garrett County, the parents of the school children were so interested in these samples of seatwork material which were displayed and explained at a parent-teacher meeting, that they offered to come together several evenings for the purpose of assisting the supervisors and teachers in making this attractive and educative material for their children to use in school. The ages of pupils in connection with their performance on the standard 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ized tests, were also emphasized by the State department, and carefully taken into account by the county supervisors and teachers. In many in- stances pupils were promoted to a higher grade largely on the basis of scores made on the paragraph meaning, word meaning, and arithmetic reasoning tests, thereby reducing the excessive number of over-age pupils which was one of the State-wide objectives. A second way in which the State supervisor has given practical assistance in reaching the standards held up at the beginning of the school year, is by editing and contributing to a series of bulletins dealing with important prob- lems in supervision and teaching. These bulletins are published by the State department and distributed to every superintendent, supervisor, and teacher in the State. Five have appeared since September : Worth-While Teachers' Meetings , a ninety-page bulletin to which several county supervisors contributed valuable chapters. A Year's Work in Rural Supervision, a thirty-page bulletin comprising the report of the work of Miss Jessop, rural supervisor in Baltimore County, to the State superintendent. School Publicity, A Professional Opportunity and Obligation, a ninety-five-page bulletin to which several county supervisors made valuable contributions. Is Teacher Rating by the Supervisor Profitable ?, a fifteen-page bulletin com- prising the discussion of the subject by Miss Wiedefeld, Anne Arundel County supervisor, at the September conference of supervisors . Silent Reading, Suggestions for Testing and for Corrective Work, a ninety- page bulletin to which many supervisors and teachers contributed. A third way in which the State supervisor endeavors to give practical assistance is by visiting schools with the county supervisor and conferring with her upon the teaching procedure and the supervisory procedure, together analyzing the lessons observed. A fourth way is by attending teachers' meetings conducted by the county supervisor ; sometimes participating in these meetings by leading in the dis- cussion of a lesson taught by the county supervisor, and sometimes by talk- ing to the teachers on some phase of professional work, as for example, "What Reading Abilities Should be Developed in Each Grade?" or "Prob- lem-Solving in Arithmetic", or "What the State Expects of its Trained Teachers" . There is a danger that the county superintendent of schools with his mani- fold duties may become so engrossed in developing his school system-its policies, its financial support, its school buildings and grounds, its statistical records as to lose sight, at times, of the only purpose for which this system exists, namely that children may be well taught. Likewise there is a danger that the county supervisor, who sees the multitudinous needs of the rural school and ofthe rural community, will spend too much time develop- ing playground activities, revising standards in art, furthering Junior Red Cross activities, initiating hot lunches, planning school entertainments to make money, telling interesting stories to the children in school, playing the victrola for pupils. All of these things are worth-while. But the supervisor is not employed to do these things; at least, not in Maryland. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 685 She may encourage and support some of these activities, but in Maryland, the work for which she is held responsible, is the improvement of classroom teaching. That there might be no mistake on this point, and also in order that whatever assistance the State supervisor is able to give may be given to the best advantage, a typewritten sheet signed by the State supervisor and approved by the State superintendent, was sent to each county superin- tendent and supervisor. It will serve as a summary of what I have been trying to say, in answer to the question assigned me for discussion-What Functions of the State Supervisor of Rural Schools are Most Worth- While? It reads : ACTIVITIES IN COUNTY SUPERVISION UPON WHICH THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PLACES SPECIAL EMPHASIS (The Supervisor of Elementary Schools will be interested on the occasion of her next visit to the counties in any of these activities.) 1. An hour's conference in the office for the discussion of the county supervisory program for the year. (This will include main objectives, plan for achieving these objectives, program for teachers' meetings, and all mimeographed material distributed to teachers during the year.) The county superintendent should be present at this conference, if possible. 2. A visit to two or more schools for observation of teaching, followed by the county supervisor's discussion with each teacher of the lessons observed. (After leaving the school the county supervisor and the State supervisor will together discuss the teaching procedure and the supervisory procedure .) 3. A group meeting of teachers conducted by the county supervisor. (After the meeting the county supervisor and the State supervisor will together critically evaluate the meeting according to standards indicated on pages eleven and twelve of the September bulletin, entitled "Worth-While Teachers' Meetings.") 4. A visit to one or more schools for the purpose of observing a particular unit a of project work, the progress of worth-while educational experiment, the development of a particular scheme of discipline or classification, or for the pur- pose of considering the difficulties involved in some special problem in connec- tion with school work. 5. A visit to a classroom upon the occasion of a "Parents' Hour," when parents and patrons are visiting the school for the purpose of observing the regular work of the teacher, thereby becoming acquainted with the methods and accomplishments of the modern school. HOW TO GET THE MOST OUT OF A SHORT COURSE FOR COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS MAY TRUMPER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION HELENA, ΜΟΝΤΑΝΑ This paper will necessarily be based upon a local experiment which at its recent seventh trial seemed increasingly more worth while. Before inaugurating the plan for a two weeks' annual conference of county superintendents in Montana, it was necessary to secure legal 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION authority for calling these officers together, and provision for meeting their traveling and other expenses incurred in connection with attending the meeting. It was also necessary to have some professional and financial backing in carrying out plans for the conference. Fortunately, the presidents of the several institutions of the University of Montana, under the direction of the chancellor, have responded most sympathetically, and have included annually in their budgets provision for meeting moderate expenses necessitated by bringing in outside instructors. In a certain measure, the aid of a few members of local faculties who were best prepared to give the specific help needed, has been utilized without cost. It took a little time, about one conference at each institution, to estab- lish there an understanding of the aims of the conference, and a knowledge that we were not holding a social gathering for the purpose of having a good time and knowing each other better, but were actually pursuing definite courses. There has been from the beginning a positive aim that the work should be specific and should definitely meet the needs of the county superintendents. Only two or three lines of work have been stressed through the two weeks, and each day's work has been made an outgrowth of the work of the previous day. There have been no hit-and-miss lectures, or filling in the program with certain speakers merely for complimentary reasons. Every lecture has been definitely a part of a complete program covering two weeks. Assignments have been given and definite reading requirements have been insisted upon in connection with certain courses. Itis some- times difficult to control this point of not permitting a wide variety of topics to be discussed, but firmness for a session or two establishes one's position. The recitation periods have usually taken the form of round-table dis- cussions. As far as possible, every county superintendent has been drawn into the work and definite contributions have been required from certain individuals best prepared to make suggestions regarding their own experi- ence along a certain line. In a group of fifty-five county superintendents, there are always several with qualities of leadership, and sometimes with superior skill, who are capable of acting as directors of certain groups. Their services have been used in certain courses to take charge of a definite group with whom coöperation is secured throughout the session. Very naturally, those county superintendents who make contributions become much more actively interested, not only in their own local problems, but in the larger significance of the topics discussed. The use of working groups was tried most successfully at the last session where, without question, the more timid county superintendents were greatly assisted through the efforts of a leader among their own number. In the scoring of standard tests, and, in diagnosing certain cases, six or eight superintendents worked to- gether and appointed a spokesman to announce conclusions. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 687 It has been the practice that mimeographed outlines of each lecture should be presented to the county superintendents, and definite references provided so as to save time from note taking, which it was found at first was being done-often in a very dilatory fashion and sometimes with little understanding of the relative importance of points. The subjects covered have been largely confined to two types of prob- lems, supervisory and administrative. Under the former, we have always secured one or more instructors who, for the two weeks would discuss problems of classroom supervision. A study of the recitation, assignments, questioning, primary methods in particular, means of helping teachers, and an analysis of various classroom practices have been covered in a systematic and progressive way so as to result in the suggestion of a definite program of classroom supervision for the county superintendents. Children have been secured for demonstration purposes, and careful analysis of the work of the recitations has been made. A study of standard tests, embracing various related problems such as individual differences, classification, grad- ing and promotion of students has been pursued for the two weeks. Tests have been given to children and to the county superintendents themselves and papers scored. In many instances, the county superintendents have had little or no professional training. Such a course, to be sure, is most super- ficial and can give but a glimpse of the work, yet it has been found that definite lines of study have been started with certain energetic county superintendents who have secured a very much broadened outlook on such problems, and have mapped out for themselves a definite course of procedure inwork along these lines with teachers. A third subject studied in super- vision has been definite and positive ways of helping teachers to improve in service. Most county superintendents are now working out rather definite plans for group teachers' meetings not only those meetings under the direction of the county superintendent and the State rural school supervisor, but also more frequent meetings under a leader of their own group. Plans for supervision by county superintendents through the circular letter, read- ing circle, and summer school work are outlined and discussed . Administrative problems studied have been school support, the selection of teachers, responsibilities toward trustees, value of accurate reports and surveys, and how to make them, definite programs of visitation for the assistance of teachers and trustees. Three or four factors of prime importance in any plans for such a con- ference have been determined upon. Some of them may seem trivial, but each one of them has vitally affected the working out of the program. The onewhich engages much time and attention and would be recognized as of prime importance is the selection of the principal instructor or instructors . When so much effort is to be concentrated in so short a period of time, it seems best to insure first class work by bringing in talent of the highest order. Though it may mean calling an expert across the continent, never has the cost seemed excessive when results were measured . 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION By so doing, much more cosmopolitan viewpoints are assured, there is not the danger of emphasizing various practices which may be somewhat inbred in a State system, and instructors are not liable to the charge by the county superintendents of being personal or prejudiced. Their work can be fearless and straightforward. Other assistants among local talent may be secured with but little expense to the State. As far as possible, the session should be executive. This may seem selfish, but the course is given primarily for county superintendents, so why dilute it for the sake of visitors from college classes, or with local teachers? Almost invariably the presence of others alters the work of an instructor, but of still greater importance, the response from county superintendents is seriously checked by the presence of strangers. The admission of visitors at certain hours may sometimes be advisable, but the intimate class relation- ship of instructor and student cannot be established with a shifting of the personnel of the class. It may seem that, inasmuch as the course is necessarily superficial, one week would accomplish enough to justify the expense and that a longer time should not be taken. One week does justify the expense, but the second week more than justifies it. A longer time would be desirable if county superintendents could remain longer away from their offices. How- ever, in a two weeks' course there is the possibility of clinching much that would readily vanish without the longer and more detailed analysis made possible in two weeks, and there is not the danger of an overcrowded and poorly organized daily program when two weeks are allowed. The best dates so far found for the meeting have been in alternate years, very soon after the session of the legislature, when changes of school laws should be immediately known by county superintendents and after new county superintendents have been in office a few months. In intervening years, the conference has been held the very first of January, sometimes starting during the Christmas holidays when the work of the county super- intendents is particularly light. Without question members of the State Department of Education should plan the courses, and should be in charge of the sessions. Even though the generosity of a State institution may make the sessions possible, the problems to be worked upon and the policies to be outlined are most vitally connected with the work of the State Department of Education, and the course should. be a definite part of the year's work of the State department. Members of the State department office force most naturally should have definite matters connected with their work to bring before county superintendents. High school supervisors, rural school supervisors, the certification clerk, and the superintendent all have problems and policies upon which greater unity of action may be secured through round-table discussions at such a conference. The results have been phenomenal with the great majority of the county superintendents, and particularly with those who have stayed in office for four, six, or eight years. It is not unusual to have county superintendents DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 689 express amazement at their enlarged vision of responsibilities, and at their increased knowledge of educational problems previously unthought of. Practically everyone leaves with at least a few suggestions which will be put in operation. Not the least of the results of the session is gained from acquaintance with fellow county superintendents. Coöperation in the employment of teachers and in working out local problems becomes very close between many county superintendents. There is also a better under- standing of the aims and purposes of the State Department of Education, and greatly strengthened coöperation with that office. Very naturally, the standards of certain counties are raised much more rapidly than those of other counties. The type of citizenship in certain counties permits more rapid progress. Some county superintendents con- stantly review the work of the conference and set into operation many ideas carried home in the outlines, if not fully comprehended at the time of the conference. Those who are students do not cease to grow when once they have had an insight into the largeness of the work to be done in every county. It would be a real sacrifice to the county superintendents of Mon- tana to be deprived of the privileges of the courses they have enjoyed for the past seven years. They look forward to the conference not only as a time for meeting their fellow- workers, but also as a time for their own professional growth. Much of their year is filled with routine duties with little or no opportunity for personal improvement. The working out of definite purposes with the county superintendents so as to unify efforts, has resulted in a better understanding of our course of study, a larger knowledge of the purposes of the school, a greater willing- ness to assist in concerted efforts for improved legislation, and a definite progressive program for our work in education. PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF STATE AID FOR TRANSPORTATION GEORGE HOWARD, JR. , DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION RALEIGH , NORTH CAROLINA The returns from a questionnaire sent to all of the chief State school officials showed a remarkable interest in the problem of State aid for trans- portation. Returns were received from all save three States, and data for these were supplied from an examination of their school codes. These questionnaires reveal the fact that twenty-four States are providing aid for transportation and twenty-four furnish no aid at all. The results are set forth briefly : INITIAL COST OF VEHICLE : Delaware-State pays entire purchase price of truck. New Jersey-State pays 75 per cent of initial purchase price. Aid spread over life of truck. 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Maine-State pays 50 per cent of initial purchase price. May do so each year. Indiana State includes 8 per cent of initial price each year in opera- tion fund as depreciation. OPERATION OF TRANSPORTATION : State Aids by Definite Amount : Virginia-$100 annually to each truck or wagon. Michigan-$400 per vehicle per year. Maine-Definite amount determined each year. State aids by per cent of operating cost : Delaware-State bears 100 per cent of actual cost. New Jersey-75 per cent of cost. Indiana-100 per cent is possible with 8 per cent of initial cost for depreciation. Texas-50 per cent not exceeding $500. Connecticut-For high school pupils only. 50 per cent not ex- ceeding $35 per pupil. Pennsylvania-State pays 50 per cent of transportation for two classes of schools : 1. Those classes having average daily attendance of 10 or less -limit $1 per day per pupil. 2. Approved consolidated or joint county school-limit $3,000 per district. State aid in other ways : Ohio-Gives $80 per year per high school pupil living more than four miles from high school. Thirty dollars per year per pupil for all other transportation . Wisconsin-State gives ten cents per day per pupil. Vermont-State appropriation of $90,000 used as aid for trans- portation and boarding pupils who reside more than 11½ miles from school. Minnesota State aid given on per-child-mile-day-basis. At present 8 cents . In no case shall aid exceed actual cost. Maximum $ 4000 to any district. Mississippi, New Hampshire, Washington, and West Virginia- place transportation under operating expenses, and thus draw State aid as other operating expenses. Maryland and North Carolina-Aid only counties participating in equalizing fund. Maryland on basis of one-half amount expended in 1922-23. North Carolina sum of $30,000 appro- priated on average of ton-mileage, distance and number of pupils transported. " Massachusetts-Aids small towns in transportation of high school pupils only. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 691 Rhode Island, Iowa, and New York-Granted a bonus as special aid to consolidated schools to be used for teachers' salaries or transportation, etc. Wyoming-Aids from Government royalty fund and county general school fund. Last year each vehicle transporting at least eight pupils, a distance of at least eight miles for at least eight months received $431.00 from royalty fund and $300 from county fund. Twenty-four States give no aid at all for transportation. Transportation is a legitimate expense of the school, and as such should be aided by the State if any aid is given for expenses other than instruc- tional service. It would be unfair and unjust to the community that employs transportation as a means of offering better educational oppor- tunities, to burden it with the entire expense of transportation while the State aids in other current expense items. Transportation is often necessary to provide broader and richer educational opportunities for the children. In such a capacity its expense is not only justifiable but often cssential. In either case it becomes a just expenditure, and should be included in any State aid for current expense other than instructional service. In- structional service is excluded because it is believed that the State would be fully justified in aiding this factor without extending financial assistance to the other items of current expense . Aid for transportation should not be apportioned on any single basis, such as number of pupils, distance, total cost, or definite amount. This is simply applying a recognized general principle to the specific problem of transportation. There can be no equality in apportioning aid from the State or any single basis. The fairest basis for apportioning State aid for transportation would be on a combination of truck tonnage, distance, and type of road. Any fair basis of apportioning State aid for transportation must take into consideration the major items that influence the cost of transporta- tion. These items should also be as objective as possible. Truck tonnage is taken to mean the capacity of the truck as given by the manufacturer. Truck tonnage is used rather than the number of pupils transported, because it requires practically the same amount to run the same capacity truck the same distance over the same road with twenty children as it would twenty-five, twenty-six, or twenty-seven pupils. Distance would mean the actual mileage traveled by the truck. Type of road. It would be possible to distinguish at least three types of roads-hard surface roads; top-soil, sand clay, and gravel roads, and unim- proved roads. Each one of these items figure largely in the cost of transportation and would furnish a fair basis for the apportionment of State funds. The lack of scientific or accurate data makes it impossible to suggest the value of each item in determining the apportionment. Investigations should be car 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ried on, and accurate cost accounting made so that each item can be given its proper consideration. The amount of State aid on any fair basis would be conditioned on the size of the taxable unit responsible for the burden of transportation. The smaller the unit of support, the greater should be the aid. If the county is the unit, State aid would be comparatively small, and fundamentally for encouragement of consolidation. If the township is the unit, State aid would be increased and should not only be for encouragement but should bear part of expense. If the school district is the unit, State aid would be substantially increased and would be a substantial proportion of the expense of transportation. If as large a unit as a county becomes the basis of support, the need of State aid for transportation as such would be comparatively small. As the size of the unit, however, decreases the need for State aid in the matter of transportation would relatively increase. This is assuming, of course, that there is no intermediate equalizing unit between the district or town- ship and the State. This, as does almost every other item of administra- tion, presents a very strong argument for the county as the unit of taxation and administration . State aid should be the minimum with which consolidation wouldbe practical and efficient, and the educational advantages through it possible. Additional amount spent on transportation does not mean necessarily better transportation. The economy of administration of the funds would be in inverse ratio to the distance from the source. The difficulties involved in the matter of State apportionment for trans- portation make it seem necessary to say that State aid should be a minimum with which consolidation would be practical and efficient and the educa- tional advantages through it possible. There are two chief reasons for this besides the difficulty in apportioning. First, additional amount spent on transportation does not mean neces sarily better transportation. If a county is getting satisfactory transporta- tion for an average cost of fifty dollars a month per vehicle, it would not mean that the county would have better transportation if they increased this to an average of sixty dollars per month. Second, the economy of administration of the funds would be in inverse ratio to the distance from the source. When an item is financed by the State, the primary object of the local administration is not economy but. as a general rule, to secure just as much of the fund as they can get for use in their system. If the source of funds is the local district or adminis tration unit, the matter of economy gains in importance. It is much easier to be extravagant with State funds than it is with local funds. In addition to the two reasons stated above, it is important to note that we have never as yet proved the greater efficiency of the consolidated school as compared with the one-room rural school. No matter what ma be our opinion in regard to the matter, it is, nevertheless, true that such results as have been definitely measured have not been overwhelmingly DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 693 satisfactory. Is it not possible that this is another reason that any State subvention for transportation should be a minimum ? The State should require definite educational standards of school to which aid is given for transportation. If the State offers financial assistance for the transportation of pupils, it is essential that the State set definite educational requirements or standards for the school to which aid is given. It is suggested here that as a minimum the State aid in transportation only when standard elementary education can be guaranteed, or when standard high school opportunity can be assured. HOW TO RAISE THE STANDARDS OF COUNTY SUPER- VISION THROUGH A RESEARCH DEPARTMENT JOSEPH A. BAER, ASSISTANT COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT CUYAHOGA COUNTY, CLEVELAND, OHIO Before beginning the main discussion, it is advisable to make two as- sumptions that seem to be wholly'valid and readily defensible. The first assumption is that county school supervision includes much more than the mere supervision of instruction. Among the other phases included, will be matters of finance, re-districting, building construction, and so on. The county superintendent needs all the information and assistance that he can get in these various fields. The second assumption is that a department of research must be such intruth as well as in name . This means that the activities of the depart- ment will not be confined merely to giving and tabulating standard tests. Onthe other hand, the department will not be a "catch all" for the odds and ends that do not naturally fall in some other department. In many cities the department of research is expected to do "anything that any- body else wants done," to quote from a recent bulletin of the Bureau of Education. Such a department should, however, always assist in or make studies in any field where the findings will contribute to greater efficiency in the school system. Some of the studies which have a direct bearing on the work of the county superintendent in his general supervision of the schools are finan- cial studies, comparisons of different types of organizations, re-districting and locating buildings, and curriculum building. In addition to the above studies the research department should serve to integrate and unify the system and through a testing program, should make an appraisal of the general efficiency of the system. The financial studies should be of a comparative nature, and should show sources of revenues, comparative costs, the need for equalization of the tax burden, and such other facts as are needed in the economical ad- ministration of the schools. The economical unit of administration should be studied with a view to developing recommendations, particularly with 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION regard to further consolidation. There is scarcely any doubt that the small high schools of fifty to one hundred pupils are decidedly uneconomical from the standpoint of financial outlay. On the other hand, of course, are the advantages of convenience for the pupils and community pride in a local building. In these days of automobile transportation, the tendency is all toward larger units of administration. Greater and greater consolidation is recognized as the modern trend in rural education. A number of studies showing comparative efficiency of the one-room school and the consolidated school have been made, and in every case which has been reported the consolidated school shows better results in the tests on the fundamental subjects. In Cuyahoga County (Ohio) such a study was made in 1916-1917, and the results were over- whelmingly in favor of the consolidated school with one teacher for each grade. Where consolidation is contemplated or is in progress, such a study should furnish valuable ammunition to those who favor consolida- tion. Studies showing comparisons between other types of organization should be made as conditions require them. In States where the full county, or community unit, does not prevail, or where an extensive building program is being carried on, the department should make studies looking toward a proper districting of the territory through a combination of old districts and the creation of new ones. Where, as in Ohio, the law favors the establishment of small villages and municipalities, the county board of education must be willing to take the bull by the horns and re-district the county on an equitable basis. A sec- tion of a community or civil district should not be allowed to separate itse't from the rest of the district when it controls an undue proportion of the property value. Yet this is being done constantly and consistently. If the community unit is favored, as recommended for New York State in a recent survey, then the research department must assist in determining community lines through social studies of the residents of the section. Such studies properly executed require very careful organization and painstaking study, particularly where a neutral zone is found. In such cases the problem could not be solved even with a plebiscite, but the chances are much more favorable to a fair decision if the facts which should be available are made so through careful study and analysis . A very serious problem in any school system is that of getting the people in it to feel as though they are an integral and vital part of a larger group. Often, as is the case in many Ohio counties, the local teachers and local districts do not feel that they are really an active part of a living organiza- tion. Through the activities of a research department, the work of one teacher is compared with the work of others in the same grade, school is compared with school, and all are compared with the county medians and averages. A feeling of unity and togetherness is really essential in any "system" of schools if it is worthy to be designated a system. An appraisal of the general efficiency of the system is a natural outcome of a testing program, and serves to justify expenditures already made or DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 695 contemplated, and furnishes objective results which can be used in an intel- ligent discussion of what is actually being accomplished in the schools. There are a number of other studies which will contribute to a better understanding of educational problems. A very good example of such investigations is the vocational study which is made to find to what voca- tions the students are looking forward. Many of our high-school courses have become too academic and should be modified and made more vital . Aproper knowledge of what students expect to do when they quit school is necessary if the courses are to contribute as much as they should to the future welfare of the students . Recreational and educational interests of students, social surveys of com- munities and other studies of an allied nature should be fostered and stimu- lated by the research department even though they are not carried on directly by the department. In more direct relation to the supervision of instruction the measure- ment section of the department offers opportunities in classification, and grade placement of pupils, both group and individual, points out the weak- ness or strength of various subjects, stimulates effort through a comparison ofgrade with grade and school with school, estimates roughly the efficiency of the teachers, furnishes facts necessary to explain difference in perform- ance among like grade groups, compares the relative effectiveness of teach- ing methods, and furnishes facts which lead to modifications of the course of study and of the materials included in the course of study. It is manifestly impossible to discuss these activities at any length in a paper of this kind. The matter of grade placement and classification alone would require a book to do it justice. Only suggestions can be made with regard to the various problems presented above, even though each of them opens up many questions for discussion. Standardized tests, and more particularly the intelligence tests, have furnished a vast amount of material that is valuable in classification and grade placement. When a range in ability, of nine years, is found in a single sixth-grade class of forty pupils, it is immediately evident that some- thing drastic needs to be done. Where grades are large enough to be divided into groups, the division may well be made on the basis of test results, subject tests as well as intelligence tests being taken into con- sideration. Social factors and teachers' judgment must also be considered in any extensive scheme of reclassification. In ungraded schools, the test results will give a basis for grading or 'grouping. In other rural schools, combinations for instructional purposes may well be made on the results of tests. Where one or more individuals are seriously misplaced, the test facts are the best objective guide for the supervisor in placing the pupil where it is best for him. This placing may be demotion or promotion.. the extent of skipping grades where it is warranted. When a program of tests is well conducted it will strength and weakness of the various subjects, and th 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION visory force to concentrate its effort where most needed. If the tests show that the system as a whole is up to or above the accepted standards in one subject, but is quite low in another subject, then the first subject should receive no greater attention, and the efforts should be concentrated upon those subjects which are low. In Cuyahoga County (Ohio) when this department was organized three years ago, the first series of tests showed that the schools of the county were very low in silent reading. The super- visors immediately began looking for ways and means to improve the reading results. More attention was given to silent reading, readers which are especially adapted to teach silent reading were adopted in some schools, teachers worked out drill devices, and the results have been very gratifying. This year spelling is receiving attention in the same way, and next year the emphasis will probably be put on language and grammar, since the tests this year show this to be the weakest of the school subjects. Incidentally, the strength or weakness of a subject may be partially due to the textbooks used, or the curriculum, or method of teaching. In this way further research problems are opened up for investigation and scien- tific study. A very stimulative activity of the department is the comparison of grade with grade, and school with school in standard test results. If one can show teachers, pupils, boards of education, and patrons that their school stands relatively high, local pride is aroused and the determination to keep the high standing becomes fixed. If, on the other hand, a district is low, then, given normal conditions and fair teachers, the fighting spirit is aroused and the pupils set out to redeem themselves in the eyes of their fellows. It is assumed that teachers and pupils know what it is all about. Causes for certain conditions must be sought, and suggestions must be given for improving the work. This offers abundant opportunity for the supervisory staff to coöperate, and coördinate their work so that instruction may be improved. Teachers find new devices and methods and put them into practice. Supervisors observe these and pass the good work along. A supervisory staff is and should be a clearing-house for any information, devices, or methods that offer promise of increased accomplishment. There are those advocates of a testing program who would reduce the measurement of a teacher's efficiency to a mathematical formula. This is dangerous and may readily defeat the very purpose of the tests, namely. whole-hearted coöperation and participation on the part of the teachers . If a teacher is to be rated by formula on the basis of test results, she has a perfect right to question the validity of the results and will probably look with suspicion and distrust upon the testing program. Moreover, where tests must be given and scored by the teachers themselves, as thev of necessity must in most county systems, there is added occasion for errors in timing the tests, or for giving assistance to pupils after the proper directions have been given, or for making errors in the record sheets. It seems fair to say that teacher efficiency may be gauged by the progress which classes make, as shown by test results, always taking into considera DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 697 tion the abilities of the groups taught. No one would expect the teacher of a slow group of third graders to show anything like the results that the teacher of the faster section can show. The teacher of the slow section must be patient, painstaking, and satisfied with small results as shown in standard tests. If the pupils show progress, that is about all that can be expected. The faster group will show more progress than the slow group in spite of the teacher. Even the achievement quotient does not give a fair basis for judging the efficiency of a teacher. The time may come when it will be possible to determine teacher efficiency by mathematical formulæ, but it can come only when it is possible to deal with more variables in an equation than integral calculus.admits of at the present time. Classes in the same grade often show wide variations in performance ability. Standard tests frequently serve to explain these differences. In some schools, the standards of promotion are much higher than in others . This results in an increase in the median age of the grade group, and their performance should be correspondingly high. It would be fairer in many cases to compare these older groups with the next higher grade be- cause they are as old, on the average, as the next higher grade. Unless these facts are known, however, there is grave danger that injustice will be done to both teachers and pupils. When the research department is organized and is functioning properly, it will undertake experiments to estimate the effectiveness of different methods of teaching. Tests are of very great value in appraising the effectiveness of any particular method. One teacher working alone is too greatly handicapped to undertake extensive experiments in method. The forward looking supervisor can organize and stimulate experimenta- tion, and the tests department should render every assistance in such work . One of the most productive fields of investigation, and one which will naturally come with a definite testing program, is the field of the cur- riculum. Modifications of courses and materials can hardly fail to follow when the results of the standard tests are made available. An illustration from Cuyahoga County (Ohio) will serve to illustrate the point. In 1920 when the first tests were given, the results showed that the schools in the county were very low in spelling. Words from the Ayres list were used for the tests, and the comparisons showed much to be desired. One or two districts had consistently high records in all grades. Their methods were studied and recommended to other schools in the county . The next series of tests showed very slight improvement. Attention was then directed to the textbooks and most schools were found to be using an old edition of a text, in spite of the fact that the revised edition had been recommended three years before. In neither the old nor the new editions of this speller were the common words listed. An exhaustive study was not made in this matter, but random pages showed an extremely poor selection of words on the part of the authors, at least in the light of recent spelling investigations. 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Supplementary word lists have been used, but these word lists are poorly graded and very poorly arranged for the use of the classroom teachers. During the past summer, a different mode of attack was planned. The one thousand most common words as given in the Thorndike "Teachers Word Book" were made the basis for the study. The first five hundred were pronounced to grades three and four, and the complete thousand words were pronounced to grades five, six, seven, and eight. The results were tabulated and are to be used as the basis for future tests. The words are also being used for drill, inasmuch as they are the common words. Incidentally, seventy-five out of Jones' one hundred "demons" are found in this list of one thousand words . An extensive study of spelling lists, previous grade placement of words, and other factors relating to spelling is being carried on. Because of in- sufficient clerical help, this study is going very slowly, but will be completed in the course of time. When it is done, it will be possible to construct word lists for the various grades in a way that has not been possible to date. Nothing seems to arouse keener interest or enthusiasm on the part of teachers than such a study as the above, planned and carried out as a definite contribution in the field under study. Many teachers develop drill devices, others try out different methods of instruction, and all become more conscientious in presenting their work . The most unsatisfactory feature of it all is that the director of research is unable to visit the teachers and establish the personal contact which is so valuable. There are many difficulties in the way of establishing a department of measurement and research in many counties, partly because of local con- ditions. These difficulties can be overcome in time. In the meantime, the educational authorities now in existence can undertake studies and inves- tigations which will make a beginning, and then work onward and upward to the establishment of a full-fledged department. The advantages to be gained, as indicated in the text of this paper, far outweigh the difficulties, and the stimulus to educational advancement exerted by such a department cannot be measured in ordinary terms. To the schools of the future a well-organized measurement and research bureau will be as essential as supervision is now recognized to be. RAISING THE STANDARDS OF COUNTY SUPERVISION THROUGH DEMONSTRATION TEACHING H. C. MOELLER , SUPERINTENDENT OF BLACK HAWK COUNTY SCHOOLS WATERLOO, IOWA We have in Iowa a law which provides that the county superintendent shall visit each school at least once a year. We have another which pro- vides that he shall teach the school for a quarter of a day when he visits it. I am wondering if the makers of this program selected an Iowa super- intendent for this discussion because they knew of those laws. If they did, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 699 I fear they will be disappointed. What I have to say will not deal with demonstration teaching that I have personally done. The laws I have mentioned are observed and enforced about as well as is the one that pro- vides for a penalty if a person drives across a bridge at a rate of speed faster than a man can walk. The nature of the topics on this afternoon's program suggests to me that the committee must have felt that the greatest problem of county superin- tendents is everywhere the same. It is the problem of how one individual can most effectively do the work for which several workers should be em- ployed. I know that the county superintendents in Iowa can say without any feeling of sacrilege, "The harvest truly is plenteous but the laborers are few." May I draw a comparison of the supervisory work between one of the city systems of my county and the one-room rural schools for whose super- vision I alone am responsible? This city system has just twice as many pupils in the elementary grades as we have in our rural schools. The city system has as supervisory officials the following workers : First, a superintendent who can devote a much greater part of his time to supervision than can a county superintendent. I do not know how it may be in other States, but in the land where the tall corn grows the legis- lative assemblies, for a number of years back, have deemed it an especial privilege to add to the duties of the county superintendents without making provision for additional help. Second, this city superintendent has, to assist him in supervision, eight ward principals who devote at least half of their time to supervision. Third, he has a group of specialists, in primary, music, drawing, pen- manship, domestic science, and manual training, who devote practically all of their time to supervision. For the rural schools, behold, I am the composite being who combines, or is supposed to combine, all of these special administrative qualities. But I must go one step farther with the comparison. The children in the city system are to be found in eight buildings all within three miles of the superintendent's office. Mine are in eighty-three buildings, none more than twenty-five miles from the office. In the city system, all of the eight buildings can be reached by traveling on paved streets or on electric car lines. Of my eighty-three, a very few are on paved roads. A few are on gravelled highways, but most of them on roads that are made of that black stuff which annually brings about an overproduction of corn in Iowa. Every new county superintendent in Iowa has visions of how he or she will, through the use of a trusty Ford, raise the standard of efficiency in the rural schools by personal visitation and supervision . All, however, reach the same inevitable conclusion, namely, that the most effective work of a county superintendent under present conditions can be done by or- ganization rather than by personal visitation. Results must be obtained by working with groups rather than with individuals. Among the several ways that a county superintendent may so work, demonstration teaching should occupy a prominent place. We shall discuss the subject from two 1 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION standpoints, first, its place in the preparation of teachers; second, the im- provement of the teachers in service. In both cases I shall limit myself in this discussion to what has actually been done in our State along this line. In the preparation of teachers, demonstration teaching plays a prominent part both at the Iowa State Teachers' College and in our normal training high schools. We believe that one hour spent in observing the work of a skilled teacher is worth many hours of theoretical discussion in the college classroom. We have a law requiring twelve weeks of normal training before a prospective teacher can secure a teachers' certificate. This law brings to the Teachers' College every summer several hundred young people who have just graduated from high school. They take courses in rural school management or rural school methods. A rural school is maintained on the campus for these students. Children are brought in from the country, and a skilled rural teacher is in charge of the school. The students in the courses just mentioned are required to observe the work of this school for at least one hour each week. The teacher shifts her daily program each week so that the students in the several courses have opportunity to observe all of the phases of the work in a rural school. During the school year, the students taking these courses visit several of our best rural schools, near the college, for observation purposes . In the normal training high schools, observation of actual work in some good rural school is required. The boards of some of our normal training high schools arrange with a rural school board for the employment of a strong teacher in that school with the understanding that the students may observe there, as well as do practice teaching. For the improvement of the teachers while in service, several lines of activity have been pursued. The day for visiting is an old idea, practiced even when I taught in the country schools, but it still has its merits. Especially is this true when the county superintendent can direct the visiting according to the needs of the teacher. Another method of demonstration teaching is that of working with small groups of teachers in a centrally located rural school. We have tried this in two ways. One is, by getting the board of a school township to employ one superior teacher, a part of whose duty it will be to hold regular meetings with the teachers at her school for the purpose of demonstration teaching and discussions. This method has proved successful so far as the demonstration teaching is concerned, but has not made any progress in Iowa for other reasons, which I cannot take time to discuss here. During the past few years, through the aid of the extension division of the Iowa State Teachers' College, a number of county superintendents have carried on some very successful work with teachers in group meetings. The county superintendent arranges for a half day or a day session for a limited number of teachers at some central rural school. A specialist from the extension division then accompanies the superintendent, and, with the children of the school where they meet, demonstrates special phases of work. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 701 I come now to what I consider our most effective way of reaching all of our teachers through a special kind of demonstration teaching. I have reference to our county-wide teachers' meetings. In Iowa we have at present two kinds of such meetings. By law we are required to hold annually a two-day teachers' institute. While the purpose of this insti- tute is largely to furnish inspiration, there is nevertheless an opportunity for good work in demonstration teaching. The general plan for con- ducting these institutes now is to have an inspirational address on some general educational topic at the beginning of the half-day session, after which the teachers are divided into groups according to their particular interests. In these group meetings, the instructor can effectively present the lesson of the hour by some actual demonstration teaching. The second type of general meetings that now prevails in Iowa, is what we call our study center. These, also, are made possible through the aid of the extension division of the Iowa State Teachers' College. Members of the faculty are sent out for Saturday meetings with the teachers . I shall explain briefly some of the work which we have been doing at these study centers, because we have made use there of the principle of demonstra- tion teaching. In most of our work, the teachers are the pupils, and the instructor demonstrates her lesson by teaching them as a class of students. The last General Assembly of Iowa passed a law making the teaching of physical education compulsory in all Iowa schools after September 1, 1924. To prepare for this work, we are this year conducting four study centers at which an instructor from the physical training department of the Iowa State Teachers' College is teaching our rural teachers how to teach the children the competitive games, folk dances, and athletic tests which are recommended in the course on physical education in the rural schools. At these same study centers we have an instructor from the department of manual arts who is presenting at each meeting a new project in hand- work. At our first meeting, the project was boxmaking. Each teacher actually made a box to take home with her. At the second meeting it was booklet making, and at present they are working on health posters. The results in these projects have been very gratifying, and we attribute this largely to the fact that the projects have been first so thoroughly taught to the teacher. Attendance at these meetings is voluntary, but we have an average attendance of from 85 to 90 per cent of all of the rural teachers ofthe county. We consider this very good, because some of them have to come as far as twenty-five miles. The biggest project which we have conducted through the study centers, and which involves much demonstration work, was the county-wide survey of the rural school by the use of standard tests. This work covered a period of two years: The demonstration work was done both in the schools and at the study centers. Either Professor Cram, of Teachers' College, or myself gave these tests in every school of the county, so that the teacher could observe the method used. Later, in the study centers , other tests were administrated to the teachers so that they in turn might be able to give them to the pupils. The results were very pleasing and 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION demonstrated conclusively that the teachers in our rural schools are entirely competent to administer standard tests after they have had the work demonstrated to them. In conclusion, we stated in the beginning that we would discuss this topic from two standpoints, first, that of preparation of teachers, and second, for the improvement of teachers in service. We are now con- vinced that, from the standpoint of a county superintendent, it is prac- tically all a matter of preparing teachers for some one else. Last spring we had eighty-two one-room teachers in our county; the following Septem- ber when the schools opened we found but forty of the eighty-two in the county. In other words, only half of the children in Black Hawk County are this year getting the benefit of the efforts put forth last year to improve the teachers that we then had. That is the most discouraging phase of rural school supervision in Iowa. The little country school is still the stepping stone in the teaching profession; in fact, it is becoming so more than ever before. The number of graded school teachers needed is much greater than it was a few years ago because of consolidation and the growth of the cities, and the number of one-room rural schools is less. As a result, the superintendent of the graded school takes away from us the capable young teacher in the rural schools more rapidly than ever before. A COMPARISON OF SMALL AND LARGE HIGH SCHOOLS JOSEPH ROEMER, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA , GAINESVILLE, FLORIDA One of the biggest problems confronting American secondary education is the organization and administration of the small high school. During the past decade volumes have been written and numerous experiments have been tried, dealing with some phase of the large high school, until we have it pretty well in hand; but so far, we have paid little attention to the small high school, and as a result it has shown but slight improvement. The hugeness and seriousness of the problem is felt when we realize that, according to the report of the Commissioner of Education for the year ending June 30, 1918, more than 50 per cent of the public high schools of the country had 50 or less pupils enrolled, and 75 per cent had 100 or less enrolled. And that of all the high schools in the country 84 per cent were classed as rural, of which practically all had enrollments of less than 125 pupils. The State surveys of Kentucky, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Alabama, and others, verify the above statement. In the recent survey of New York, a study of 609 rural high schools showed that 552 of them were situated in centers of 2.500 population or less, and that 332 or 54.5 per cent had enrollments of less than 50 pupils. As in the early days of American education we created great numbers of one-teacher rural schools, so under the impetus of the modern high school movement there has sprung up over the whole Nation thousands of small, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 703 inferior, inefficient high schools making the two problems very similar, in fact merely enlarging and complicating the old rural school problem. As stated above, judging from the studies, experiments, and writings, in the field of secondary education, one would conclude that there is no small high school problem, since these have all had to do with the larger high school. But the above facts show very clearly that there is a real and vital problem close to the life of the American people. It is the purpose of this paper to point out some of the outstanding weaknesses of the small high school and, if possible, make suggestions for its improvement. TEACHING FORCE The small high school means : 1. Excessive teaching load. For example, the regulations in one State permit a teacher in a first class high school to teach 6 periods per day as a maximum, a second class 7 periods, and a third class 10 periods. 2. Lower standards of teacher qualifications. For example, in one State teachers in four-year high schools must hold degrees from standard four-year colleges, while teachers in one, two, and three-year high schools have to have only two years of college training. 3. Poor distribution of teacher assignment. In one- and two-teacher high schools there can be little specializa- tion, since certain subjects must be taught whether or no. 4. Inferior teachers. It is a recognized fact that the larger high schools draw most of the best trained teachers. It is no criticism of the teachers that they seek larger schools where better work conditions can be had. The criticism is of the system, not the teachers. CURRICULA The small high school means : 1. Limited curricula; 2. Poorly arranged and ill-balanced curricula; 3. Unjustifiable subject requirements of pupils ; 4. Practically no vocational offerings. These four statements can best be discussed together. The New York survey says: "The study of the curriculum content of the rural high schools shows that it is designed primarily to prepares pils for college. Its pro- gram of studies, in the main, contains only te older, more traditional , college preparatory subjects and only in a sma degree the newer college preparatory subjects." The report of the Commissioner of Education referred to above gives 56 as the percentage of city high school pupils pursuing academic curricula in 1917-18, as compared with 91 per cent of the ural high school pupils. Ferriss, in the School Review for April, 923, says : "An analysis of 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION curricula suggested by several States for small high schools and of reports of the curricula of rural high schools in recent State school surveys indicates that the work of the majority of such schools is still limited largely to cur- ricula designed primarily as preparation for college. The emphasis in most of them is on languages and mathematics. Increased attention is being given to social and natural sciences. Ancient and medieval history are, however, the social science subjects most commonly offered in the first two years. Modern English history, American history, and other social science subjects that may be closely related to American life, are generally available only in the last two years of the rural high school-a stage reached by less than one-half of the pupils. With few exceptions, the work in the natural sciences is a "pocket edition" of college science. The work of the first two years in the rural high school is largely required of all pupils, and the re- quirements are in subjects preparatory in nature of deferred values. Elec- tive subjects appear usually in the third or fourth years only, and find their places as a result of the application of no well-defined principles of selection. In the smaller schools, if electives are offered, they are likely to consist mainly of additional units of the same subjects required in the first two years, namely, foreign languages and mathematics. Statistics for the country as a whole indicate that approximately one-halt of the pupils who enter rural high schools never reach the third year, and that more than three- fifths of those who enter never get as far as the fourth year. Of those who are graduated, less than one-half continue in higher educational institutions. Less than 6 out of 10 of those continuing their education enter colleges and universities ." With conditions such as these prevailing, it is readily seen that very little is done in the way of training the pupils in these small high schools for par- ticipation in active life. To understand better the significance of this de- plorable condition, we have only to compare it with the programs of studies of the larger city high schools with their rich curricula offerings. EQUIPMENT The small high school means : 1. Practically no working library ; 2. Very poor science equipment, if any ; 3. Usually no playground equipment ; 4. Almost always no gymnasium nor auditorium. This condition is to be expected in the small high schools where there is not enough money to pay decent salaries much less equip the school in a suitable manner. 1 1 INSTRUCTION The small high school ineans : 1. Poor quality of instruction. When one or two teachers have to handle all the subjects of the curriculum, with practically no equipment, and are required to DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 705 teach seven or eight classes a day, poor teaching is inevitable. Quite frequently, too, they are compelled to teach subjects for which they are not properly prepared. 2. Reduced opportunity for supervision. It is well agreed that the poorly trained and inexperienced teacher usually has to begin work in the small high school, with the hope ofmaking good and later being promoted to a larger school. The very time in her experience she needs help most she gets it least. In discussing this point Bulletin Number 12, 1923, U. S. Bureau of Education, says : "The rural school survey of New York re- vealed the fact that the median principal in schools with a high school enrollment under 50 gave only 10 minutes a day to super- vision of high school instruction, and that 78 principals in schools of this class gave no time to high school class supervision. In the schools with a high school enrollment of 50 and more, the median principal gave 11 to 20 minutes to supervision of instruc- tion in the high school." STUDENT ACTIVITIES The small high school means limited possibilities for student activities. There aren't enough pupils to foster activities in: 1. Inter-scholastics ; 2. Intra-scholastics ; 3. Public speaking ; 4. Debating teams ; 5. School dramatics ; 6. School paper ; 7. Music clubs, orchestra, glee clubs, etc.; 8. Special clubs, radio clubs, kodak clubs, science clubs, etc. Many of our best authorities in secondary education feel that the training received in these extra-curricula activities is just as important as that re- ceived from textbooks, and that we should organize our schools so as to give it. When we consider the small high school in the light of the above, and try to devise a plan of improvement, we realize how baffli ag the problem is. In the final analysis, most of these evils are due to either a real or an imaginary financial problem. Better teachers, lighter teaching load, more supervision, wider curricula offerings, better equipment, etc., all mean more money. The crux of the whole matter is that nowhere in the economy of our educa- tional thinking can we justify the financial outlay necessary to the bringing of these conditions up to standard under our present organization. By eliminating a great number of these useless high schools through consolida- tion, or through the inauguration of some such scheme as the Illinois com- munity high school plan, or by establishment of more junior high schools to feed centrally located and well-organized senior high schools, can this 706 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION problem be solved. Just as we have eliminated great numbers of the one- teacher rural schools in our progress, so must we eliminate by one of the three methods mentioned above a large number of our small high schools. Progress will come in no other way. In the South where the county unit of administration is found, improvement is more simple. Each county should maintain in any section of it where there is sufficient high school population and sufficient funds a senior high school for all the pupils of that section of the county and as many junior high schools as student population and finances will permit. All the graduates of these junior high schools should be transported to the central senior high school to finish their train- ing. By thus providing a well-organized system of junior-senior high schools many of the poorly organized and poorly equipped four-year high schools could be eliminated to the advantage of all. RELATION OF SIZE TO COST OF OPERATION IN CERTAIN SCHOOLS OF IOWA T. C. HOLY, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY , IOWA The topic as originally given dealt only with the effect which increase in area has upon the cost of operation in consolidated schools, as defined in the statutes of the State of Iowa. Later it was thought advisable to make certain cost comparisons between consolidated schools and a group of independent school corporations surrounded by an agricultural com- munity. Since the State of Iowa is predominately agricultural, this second group includes practically every school district in the State. The chief topic for discussion of the meeting, as emphasized by the committee in charge, is to bring to our attention the pertinent facts bearing on the effect which size of high school has upon its cost and comparative efficiency. With this thought in mind, then, it seemed to be most advantageous in the realization of this main theme, to select a specific group of independent school districts, somewhat larger in size than the consolidated districts, and yet whose contiguous territory was largely agricultural as is the situation in consolidated districts. The group selected was second-class cities, 92 in number, whose population ranges from 2000 to 15,000, with the mode falling around 5000. The discussion in this paper then falls under two distinct headings, namely, the effect of size on cost of operation in consolidated schools as defined by statute, and second, a comparison of consolidated schools as a group with 92 second-class cities whose population ranges from 2000 to 15,000. THE EFFECT OF SIZE ON COST OF OPERATION ON CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS IN IOWA Due to the wide diference in the manner in which consolidation is effected, the size of district, type of organization, etc., in the various States, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 707 it seems advisable to outline briefly the legal status of this form of school organization in the State of Iowa. In the outset, the law requires that a district or group of districts must contain at least 16 government sections before they can be organized as a consolidated district. This territory must be contiguous but may be located in different counties. As a matter of fact, there are several consolidated districts now in operation, parts of which are in as many as three counties. The details of the organization are irrelevant to this discussion, so will be omitted. The law further states that the board shall provide transportation for all children residing within the district but outside the corporation limits of the village, town, or city, although the vehicles are not required to leave the public highways to receive or discharge occupants. Boards may re- quire that children living an unreasonable distance from school be trans- ported by parent or guardian not exceeding two miles to connect with the bus, or may arrange to have them transported to an adjoining district. For the support of this type of school, the board of a district maintain- ing an approved high school, may levy for the general fund an amount which, including the semi-annual apportionment, must not exceed eighty dollars per person of school age. In districts not supporting an approved school, the maximum amount per person of school age is sixty- five dollars. It might be interesting in this connection to note the very rapid growth of consolidation in the State of Iowa. The first district to perfect con- solidation was Buffalo Center in 1897. Since that time the number has grown by leaps and bounds, until today nearly 25 per cent of the total public school enrolment is found in this type of school. The number of schools in operation in Iowa for the period of 1920 to 1921, inclusive, was as follows : 1910-11, 7 ; 1915-16, 77 ; 1920-21 , 430. With this brief résumé of the legal aspect of consolidation, I shall now turn to the facts on which the comparisons of size and cost of operation are based. These data were available from two sources, namely, my own master's thesis and the Iowa Division of the Educational Finance Inquiry, of which the writer was assistant director. From the material obtained from the first source, the districts were classified on the basis of size, beginning at sixteen sections, the minimum as prescribed by the statutes, and grouping them by steps of four sections. For example, the first group includes those containing from sixteen to nineteen sections, inclusive ; second, twenty to twenty-three, etc., up to forty-eight. Since there are few larger than forty-eight sections the last group includes all containing forty-eight or more sections. There are in Iowa more than four hundred organized con- solidated schools, but for this discussion the number was limited to those maintaining a four-year high school approved by the State Department of Public Instruction for tuition purposes . With this limitation, data on size were available for 221 schools on which the consolidated comparisons are 1"Some Factors Affecting the Cost of Operation and Relative Efficiency of Consolidated Schools in Iowa" : Library, State University of Iowa. 708 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION based. Material was also obtained from this source on the actual property valuation per child in districts of various sizes. From the second source. the Iowa Division of the Educational Finance Inquiry, which is not yet published, data were obtained on high school enrolment, the percentage of the total current expenditures going to the support of the high schools, and the cost per pupil in average daily attendance for both grades and high school for each of these individual districts. Although the Inquir covered the school years of 1910-11, 1915-16, 1920-21, and 1921-22, this information is presented for only the last year. To those of you who are familiar with school accounting in the State of Iowa, and probably other States as well, a question rises in mind as to how the total current expenditures of an Iowa public school system could be divided between grade and high schools, when the law provides for only a single fund-the general fund out of which all items of current ex- penses are met. This division was made by the use of the salary-ratio- formula devised in "The Financing of Education in the State of New York," and is as follows : Elementary Teachers' Salaries Total Current Expenditures X Total Teachers' Salaries Total Current Expenditures for Elementary Schools. To determine the cost of the high school, obviously it was only neces- sary to subtract this amount from the total current expenditures. In the validation of this formula, thirty-seven cities whose accounting system permitted of the segregation of costs by divisions of the school sus- tem were used. The correlation between the real and the salary ratio on calculated costs gives a Pearson "r" of plus .988, while the algebraic sum of the differences between the real costs per pupil and that computed by means of this salary-ratio- formula in these thirty-seven systems amounted to $2.03 or one ninth of one per cent of the average cost per pupil. This method, then, is a highly accurate means of dividing the costs between grades and high-school costs. In view of the fact that practically all cost accounting in the public schools has gone over to the per-pupil-in-average-daily-attendance basis as over against the total enrolment or enumeration, it does not seem necessary to attempt to justify the use of that as a basis . The total enrolment for these 221 consolidated schools for the vear 1921-22 amounted to 53,730, while that of the high, schools was 13,251. or approximately 25 per cent of the total. r : DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 709 The following table gives the facts on the items enumerated above : DATA ON CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL COSTS FOR 1921-22 Average, Per Cent Average Average Number of Size of H. S. ofTotal Cost, Cost, Cases District Enrolment Pupils Attending Grades H. S. 42 16-19 Sect. 49.1 51.3 $75 $212 46 20-23 51.5 48.1 82 241 45 24-27 58 49 74 227 32 28-31 61 51 81 279 66 25 32-35 68 48.7 75 231 14 36-39 70 51.1 76 302 ،، 8 40-43 86 48.0 100 243 + 44-47 81 50 78 276 5 48-above 114 46.6 80 236 221 Average 60 49.3 $78 $241 As one would expect, the high-school enrolment shows a gradual in- crease with increase in size: in the proportion of current costs going to high-school support there is no definite tendency, neither is there any definite direction in the per pupil cost in grades and high school. However, inthe last three groups, the cases are so few that little reliability can be attached to those averages. No others were available, so these are pre- sented, fully aware of their lack of any particular significance. In this con- nection, it is interesting to note another faet found in the thesis referred to earlier, and that is, that the number of pupils transported does not increase in proportion as the size of the district increases. This might then tend to increase per pupil costs in the larger districts. School burden is determined primarily by the property value within a district. In order to determine the effect which size of district has on the property factor, the following table giving the actual (not assessed) property valuation per child of school age is presented : ACTUAL PROPERTY VALUATION PER CHILD OF SCHOOL AGE¹ Size of District Number of Cases Mean Valuation 16-25 Sections 63 $8082 26-35 Sections 41 8495 36-above Sections 21 8097 Obviously, here the size of district has little effect on the per child actual property valuation. If one were to draw a single general conclusion it would be that size of district has little or no influence on either per pupil costs or the proportion of the total current expenditures going to the support of the high school. These data were not available for all the 221 schools. 710 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION COMPARISON OF CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS WITH A GROUP OF INDEPENDENT DISTRICTS As indicated earlier, the group of independent districts selected consists of the second-class cities, ninety-two in number (there are ninety-three in the State, but one does not have a high school, so it was omitted) and ranging from 2000 to 15,000 in population. From the Iowa Division of the Educational Finance Inquiry the same data were collected as for the consolidated group, namely, total enrolment. high-school enrolment, proportion of total current expense going to the high schools, and cost per pupil in average daily attendance for both grades and high school. The total enrolment of these 92 cities for the year 1921-22 was 88,388 , while that of the high schools was 24,953 or about 28 per cent of the total . The following table gives the comparison between the consolidated schools taken as a group with these 92 cities on the items enumerated above : COMPARISON OF CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS AND SECOND-CLASS CITIES IN STATE OF IOWA FOR 1921-22 Per Cent Average ofTotal H. S. Attending Average Cost Average Cost Enrolment H. S. Grades IL . S. Consolidated Schools-- 60 49.3 $78 $241 Second- Class Cities 271 46.0 63 125 Here the differences are very significant, particularly in the high-school costs. With a high-school enrolment of more than four times that of the consolidated group, the high-school costs in the second-class cities are only a trifle more than one half that of the first group. Also in the grade cost, the second group is approximately 20 per cent less than the second. This means that if the grade pupils who were in these second-class cities had attended these consolidated schools instead, it would have cost a million dollars additional for approximately the same instruction. These figures merely serve to reëmphasize a fact that has long been known, namely, that within certain limits, the larger the school the more economically it can be run. Judging, however, from the large number of school systems whose high-school enrolment is fifty or less, now in operation. that fact has either not been feasible or has been disregarded. After a very careful analysis of the situation in Iowa, I would make the following recommendations : (1) That the boundaries of future consolidated districts be fixed bs county or State authorities who would outline a program by counties. I favor a plan similar to that in use in Minnesota. (2) That, even in counties where consolidation is complete, there be not more than four or five high schools, depending on the size and topographi of the county, other consolidated schools running only through the eighth DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 711 grade. In one county in Iowa there are 15 consolidated schools, all run- ning four-year high schools, and all except two having a high-school enrol- ment of 50 or less . (3) A county plan of organization in which the present county super- intendent would be the actual school head, and under whom would be a district superintendent, who, in addition to being principal of one of the larger schools of a section, would be in charge of two or three others . Under this scheme, I favor county buying, which will save, on an average, about 30 per cent on all school supplies, and county transportation let to a single individual on basis of competitive bids . Summarizing them, it seems quite obvious, that with the inevitable com- ing of better roads, the future success of consolidation, both from the point of view of economy and efficiency, demands much larger units for ad- ministration and supervisory purposes. THE PLAN AND COST OF OPERATING THE SCHOOLS OF PRINCE GEORGE COUNTY, VIRGINIA -ABSTRACT R. K. HOKE , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOPEWELL , VIRGINIA From thirty to eleven white schools since 1920, is the record of consoli- dation of Prince George County, Virginia. As a result of this program, every white child in the county can sleep at home, attend high school each day, and get back home at night without having to walk more than two miles to school, or more than one mile to some means of transportation. Our percentage of attendance has increased from 70 per cent in 1920 to 91 per cent in 1923. The high school enrolment has increased threefold, and educational opportunities have been made equal for all the children. The development of the school system of Prince George County has been characterized by a State-wide change in the county unit plan of opera- tion, and by a series of carefully planned consolidation. By a division, we mean in Virginia a unit of school administration com- posedof a county, a city, a county and a city, or two or more counties. By adistrict, we mean a political unit composing a part of the county. It corresponds to the township in many States. Under the county unit law, which became effective September 1, 1922, one member of the school board is appointed for each district, and these district members so appointed form the county board of education. The schooldivision of Prince George County and the city of Hopewell, covering an area of 294 square miles, with a school population of 5,000, with aproperty assessment of $10,000,000, and with an annual source of revenue of approximately $210,000 for school purposes, have attempted to provide a system of schools which will give every white child in the division the advantages of standard elementary and high school education. Before 1920, there was no such thing in the division as equalization of 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION educational opportunities. There were three accredited high schools, acces- sible to less than 50 per cent of the school population, and 27 small ele- mentary schools, most of which were one and two room schools, with meager equipment, poorly trained teachers, and with short terms. Two of the five districts had no provision whatsoever for high school instruction, and only one district was attempting to offer high school instruction to all its children. One teacher had an average daily attendance of 8.6 pupils, and another teacher had 39.8. Some children were walking six miles in order to get to school, while others were being transported at the expense of the county. A careful study of conditions soon convinced our school officials that consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils were essential to the equalization of educational opportunities. The school district was made the unit. During the following year consolidations were made and each district had one central school in which high school instruction was offered. School trucks began bringing in pupils to these schools from all parts of the districts. Because of bad roads and peculiar local conditions, three small schools are still operated, but pupils in the upper grades are trans- ported from these schools to the larger central schools. At present, all of our children have the opportunity of attending high schools. The number of white schools has been reduced from 30 to 11 . The increased costs incident to this change were very small indeed, especially so when compared with the advantages offered. In 1920 the average salary paid all white teachers was $780.70. In 1923 this average was $886.20, an increase of 13 per cent. During this period of time, the average increase in teachers' salaries in the United States as a whole was 21 per cent; so, in our division, there certainly has been no increased cost of instruction chargeable directly to our program of consolidation. When we consider that the average annual salary paid all teachers in the United States in 1923 was $ 1,020.00, according to Dr. Evenden's study, we see that our cost of instruction has not increased so much as it should have. The per capita cost of instruction in the elementary grades, based on average daily attendance, was $22.59 in 1920, and $29.66 in 1923, an in- crease of 31.3 per cent. Here again we are somewhat below the National average. In high school, the per capita cost of instruction has increased from $50.00 in 1920 to $58.70 in 1923, or an increase of 17 per cent. The annual cost per pupil transported to school is $26.00. The cost per pupil housed in new buildings erected during our period of consolidation was $96.15. These buildings are the "C" type as defined by the American Institute of Architects. The per capita cost of general control is $1.45 ; of operating expenses $5.93 ; and of maintenance $1.50. The average total tax rate for school purposes has increased from 88 cents per hundred dollars, worth of property to $ 1.00 or 13.6 per cent. This increased rate provides for interest and sinking fund for bonds issued for capital outlay, as well as for other expenses. Our record in pupil accounting is somewhat encouraging. The percentage of attendance has increased from 70 per cent in 1920 to DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 713 91 per cent in 1923. Our consolidated schools seem to hold stronger attractions for our pupils than did the smaller schools. The percentage of all pupils in high schools has increased from 5 per cent in 1920 to 14 per cent in 1923. In this respect we are somewhat above the National average. The percentage of elimination in grades one to four in 1920 was 17 per cent and this was the same in 1923. In grades five to seven, the per- centage of elimination has decreased from 21 per cent to 15 per cent. In the high school, elimination has decreased from 12 per cent to 10 per cent. Our schools are holding pupils longer than they formerly did, especially in the higher grades. Also there seems to be a better adjustment of pupils to course of study, and perhaps a more intelligent and sympathetic classification of pupils ; for, the percentage of failures has decreased. In 1920 in grades one to four, 25 per cent of the pupils in average daily attendance failed of promotion, as against 16 per cent in 1923. In grades five to seven, 11 per cent failed in 1920, and nine and three-tenths per cent in 1923. In high school, 9 per cent in 1920 as against 4 per cent in 1923, failed to advance their classifi- cation. By failures we mean pupils who failed in more than one subject. The average number of pupils per teacher based on average daily attend- ance was 19.1 in 1920 and 26 in 1923. If we subscribe to the theory that a teacher can teach 26 pupils successfully then our program of consolidation has effected an economic saving of 36 per cent without any perceptible loss in instruction. All accredited high schools in Virginia must have an annual term of 180 days. Consequently, when high-school opportunities were provided for all parts of our division, the average length of term was increased from 174 days to 180 days per year. Two hundred of our pupils are transported on an electric car line at a per capita annual cost of $6.75. Five hundred others are transported on motor trucks, practically all of which are Ford one-ton trucks, at an average annual per capita cost of $26. In every case except one, bids were re- ceived and contracts were made with individuals who furnish their own trucks, at an average annual cost of $29 per pupil transported. As an experiment, one truck was purchased last year by the school board and a large schoolboy was employed to operate it. This truck has been operated at an average annual cost of $21 per pupil. This estimate fixes the life of the truck at three years. School-owned trucks are probably 40 per cent more economical for us than are privately owned trucks, which fact will very likely cause our school board to purchase more trucks next year. From the standpoint of administration, our division is composed of two distinct units, one for the city of Hopewell and the other for Prince George County. This arrangement is fixed by State law which provides for a system of schools in each city and county. These two units are about equal in school population. There is a separate school board for each unit of the division, but the central offices are the same for both. The superintendent, clerk of the county school board, stenographer, home NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION demonstration agent for the county, visiting teacher, and attendance officer tor the city all occupy the central offices. Two separate systems of records are kept. The superintendent is the executive officer for both systems, and all records, financial and otherwise, are kept under his general super- visen. Bothschool boards meet regularly once a month, on different days, for the purpose of approving bills, deciding on general policies, and attend- ing to other routine and new business. In this connection it is interesting to note that the county unit system has made possible the simplification and directness of business procedure, and equalization of educational oppor- tarities ; it has made possible more economic buying, and has attracted men er wider vision, influence, and interest to positions on the school board. The superintendent is the chief supervisory officer. Except in the cred schools, there is no special supervisor of instruction. The prin- cgal of each large school is a supervising principal and devotes all of his time to supervision and administration. In the smaller schools the prin- epals must spend at least eighty minutes per day in supervision. Principais meetings are held monthly in the superintendent's office. These meetings are held in addition to the regular teachers' meetings, and are solely for the purpose ofdiscussing problems of supervision and admin- Stration. Methods are discussed, comparative studies are made, and uni- form procedure is decidedupon. These are real cabinet meetings in which policies are evolved. This is our most effective means of planning and organizing for action, as well as for checking results. Our last project in these meetings was the making of a series of uniform objective tests. based on the standards of our State elementary course of study. The re- its of these tests have diagnosedur weaknesses and have fixed goals be reached during the spring term by each school, class, teacher. and Another interesting and valutble project worked out in these meetings was a uniform objective grading sistem now used in all of our shes . The group method is used as a basis, the median corresponding razhyn St per cent, for it wasit and in our division that 80 per cent was the median grade given by all teachers and covering a period of twe By the use of these tests and with the use of this grading system the marking of parls, their classification, acceleration, and retardation have been made unitum and obectie Comparisons can be made among the same as seto's and weaknesses can be detected and remedied. Secretary's Minutes WASHINGTON MEETING The official program, prepared by President John M. Foote for the July meeting of the Department of Rural Education, was as follows : TUESDAY AFTERNOON , JULY 1, 1924 Rural Education-A Field of Service for the Women of America THE PROFESSIONAL WOMAN EDUCATOR IN RURAL SCHOOL SERVICE-Florence M. Hale, State Department of Education, Augusta, Maine. THE LAY-WOMAN EDUCATOR IN RURAL SCHOOL SERVICE-Mrs . John F. Sippel, Presi- dent of Federation of Women's Clubs, 2730 North Charles Street, Baltimore , Maryland. THE PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIATIONS IN RURAL SCHOOLS-Mrs . John B. Cleaver, Chairman, Country Life, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Middle- town, Delaware. A BRIGHTER FUTURE FOR THE RURAL CHILD-Mrs . Katherine M. Cook, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1924 Contributions of Rural Education to the National Life THE COUNTRY- THE ECONOMIC BASIS OF NATIONAL LIFE-C. J. Galpin, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OF COUNTY LIFE-Julian E. Butterworth, Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, New York. AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR THE RURAL SCHOOLS OF THE NATION-Mrs . F. C. Beverley, Principal, Farm Life School, Whitmell, Virginia. Notwithstanding these changes the program was of high order and proved one of the best presented by the department in recent years. Especially valuable and much appreciated by all present was the splendid exhibit prepared by the Bureau of Education under the auspices of Mrs. Katherine M. Cook. Days and weeks of hard labor went into the making of this exhibit, and the association is under lasting obligation both to Mrs. Cook and to all others who assisted in its preparation. A special feature of the closing session, greatly enjoyed by all, was the ex- temporaneous participation of a group of one hundred students from the summer session of the University of Delaware. These girls, who made the trip to Wash- ington by motor bus and attended the meeting en masse, were loud in the praises of their instructor, Mrs. F. C. Beverley, of Virginia, and contributed greatly to the enthusiasm and spirit of the entire conference. The meeting closed with a vote of thanks for the officers and speakers, and the unanimous approval of a motion authorizing a telegram of congratulation and best wishes to Lee L. Driver, of Pennsylvania, for his safe recovery from a pro- longed and dangerous illness. [715] 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION demonstration agent for the county, visiting teacher, and attendance officer for the city all occupy the central offices. Two separate systems of records are kept. The superintendent is the executive officer for both systems, and all records, financial and otherwise, are kept under his general super- vision. Both school boards meet regularly once a month, on different days, for the purpose of approving bills, deciding on general policies, and attend- ing to other routine and new business. In this connection it is interesting to note that the county unit system has made possible the simplification and directness of business procedure, and equalization of educational oppor- tunities; it has made possible more economic buying, and has attracted men of wider vision, influence, and interest to positions on the school board. The superintendent is the chief supervisory officer. Except in the colored schools, there is no special supervisor of instruction. The prin- cipal of each large school is a supervising principal and devotes all of his time to supervision and administration. In the smaller schools the prin- cipals must spend at least eighty minutes per day in supervision. Principals' meetings are held monthly in the superintendent's office. These meetings are held in addition to the regular teachers' meetings, and are solely for the purpose of discussing problems of supervision and admin istration. Methods are discussed, comparative studies are made, and uni- formprocedure is decided upon. These are real cabinet meetings in which policies are evolved. This is our most effective means of planning and organizing for action, as well as for checking results. Our last project in these meetings was the making of a series of uniform objective tests based on the standards of our State elementary course of study. The re- sults of these tests have diagnosed our weaknesses and have fixed goals to be reached during the spring term by each school, class, teacher, and pupil. Another interesting and valuable project worked out in these meetings was a uniform objective grading system now used in all of our schools. The group method is used as a basis, the median corresponding roughly to 80 per cent, for it was found in our division that 80 per cent was the median grade given by all teachers and covering a period of two years. By the use of these tests and with the use of this grading system the marking of pupils, their classification, acceleration, and retardation have been made uniform and objective. Comparisons can be made among the various schools and weaknesses can be detected and remedied. OF RURAL EDUCATION 717 ch will provide the assistance ped. Personally, I firmly be- intry people in this work, unless are in a position to carry on for to overcome failure than to start once tried to create an association to start, on a second attempt, a suc- re the most independent people in the ion, but they do welcome suggestions In the country school is, of necessity, a 1 a Mothers' Club in the city. In most attered along lonely roads. The mother e father takes her, or, unless the children ogram advocated for rural associations must young and old, men and women. Ifa defi- adapted to their needs is furnished, experience respond to it. Country folk need entertain- are entitled to feel, after the effort that is put difficulties of bad roads and weather, that they more than this from attending the meeting. We in these meetings opportunity for the acquiring of Lion for new effort. We must make it possible for ✓ standards for family life and community progress. : meeting frequently reaches people who do not read. agazines and who do not understand modern methods e must give them at least a glimmer of these things at r meetings. But the road is a long and tedious one. e to accomplish such an ambitious program in a moment . cts the social appeal is the only one that can be counted eginning. To bring people together, to make them better and to let the differences, originating in misunderstanding, they become better acquainted with one another, is a splendid in any district. Time and time again, I have been told in dis- which it was difficult to find leaders, that the hesitation of the vas due solely to the fact that they were not acquainted with one After they have gotten together a few times they discover what Jave been missing through lack of contact. Gradually they acquire power of self-expression, and reach the stage where a discussion on structive subjects is possible. The result is a crystallization of public pinion that will completely change the community life. I have already referred to the Parent-Teacher Association as an agency 'for broadcasting information. The possibilities in this field, I feel, make the growth of the movement of positive moment to the Nation. A con- crete instance from my own State might serve to illustrate my point. Within the past seven years Delaware has legislated a new school law. 716 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE PARENT- TEACHER ASSOCIATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS MRS . JOHN B. CLEAVER, CHAIRMAN OF COUNTRY LIFE, NATIONAL CON- GRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS , MIDDLETOWN, DELAWARE A Parent-Teacher Association anywhere is essentially a partnership project. It must represent a fifty-fifty effort on the part of community and teacher. A successful association in which the work is carried by the teacher alone is as impossible as a school in which there are teachers only and no children. The great function of the association is to bring together two different viewpoints, to enable the school to supplement more effi- ciently the work of the home, and the home to supplement more efficiently the work of the school ; to create an organized group of citizens, to back, in a sympathetic and intelligent way, the work of the trustee and the teacher. The inestimable possibilities in an association of this type, multi- plied until it is Nation-wide, are simply staggering to the imagination. The growing recognition of the value of the idea was forcefully illus- trated at the last National convention held in St. Paul, Minnesota, in May, of this year, when the name of the National body was changed from "The National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations" to "The National Congress of Parents and Teachers," upon the insistence of men from all parts of the country, who wished to throw their force into the development of the movement. The Parent-Teacher Association is necessary wherever the education of children is being carried forward. It seems to me it is particularly a neces- sity in the rural school district. First, country people as a rule are more conservative than people living in groups. Their isolation and detachment oftentimes mean that they miss the spectacle of another fellow's experi- ment, and only become convinced of the value of a new thing after it has become probably an old idea to city people. Certainly, such an agency for the distribution of information, the opportunity for sharing each other's experiences that the Parent-Teacher Association affords, are doubly valuable in the country districts. But the work of creating a Parent-Teacher Association in the open country is a difficult proposition. It is seriously handicapped by the inertia of country people that has characterized the last generation. The old singing schools and debating societies disappeared with the stovepipe hat, hoop skirts, and Civil War days.. The lyceum ceased to exist. The rural free delivery closed the village post office and eliminated the intimate group discussions of winter evenings around the old wood stove, a custom which produced more than one leader a generation ago. Today, because we failed to furnish a modern equivalent for all of these things, to find rural leadership is extremely difficult. Consequently, an association in a rural school, organized and left to itself, from the start, is, in the majority of cases, hopeless. Every plan to organize Parent-Teacher Associations in the rural districts, if it is to result in anything truly constructive, must, there DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 717 fore, include a definite follow-up plan, which will provide the assistance needed until local leadership can be developed. Personally, I firmly be- lieve it is better not to attempt to start country people in this work, unless we can be prepared to stand by until they are in a position to carry on for themselves. It is much more difficult to overcome failure than to start with a clean slate. A district that has once tried to create an association and failed, is the hardest one in which to start, on a second attempt, a suc- cessful association. Country people are the most independent people in the world. They will not accept dictation, but they do welcome suggestions and personal assistance. A Parent-Teacher Association in the country school is, of necessity, a different type of association from a Mothers' Club in the city. In most rural districts, the homes are scattered along lonely roads. The mother very often cannot go unless the father takes her, or, unless the children go along. Accordingly, the program advocated for rural associations must be flexible enough to interest young and old, men and women. Ifa defi- nite, constructive program, adapted to their needs is furnished, experience has shown that people will respond to it. Country folk need entertain- ment, it is true; but they are entitled to feel, after the effort that is put forth in overcoming the difficulties of bad roads and weather, that they really gain something more than this from attending the meeting. We must provide for them in these meetings opportunity for the acquiring of new ideas and inspiration for new effort. We must make it possible for them to discover new standards for family life and community progress. The Parent-Teacher meeting frequently reaches people who do not read, newspapers and magazines and who do not understand modern methods of education. We must give them at least a glimmer of these things at the parent-teacher meetings. But the road is a long and tedious one. We cannot hope to accomplish such an ambitious program in a moment. In many districts the social appeal is the only one that can be counted upon in the beginning. To bring people together, to make them better acquainted, and to let the differences, originating in misunderstanding. disappear as they become better acquainted with one another, is a splendid beginning in any district. Time and time again, I have been told in dis- tricts in which it was difficult to find leaders, that the hesitation of the people was due solely to the fact that they were not acquainted with one another. After they have gotten together a few times they discover what they have been missing through lack of contact. Gradually they acquire the power of self-expression, and reach the stage where a discussion on constructive subjects is possible. The result is a crystallization of public opinion that will completely change the community life. I have already referred to the Parent-Teacher Association as an agency for broadcasting information. The possibilities in this field, I feel, make the growth of the movement of positive moment to the Nation. A con- crete instance from my own State might serve to illustrate my point. Within the past seven years Delaware has legislated a new school law. 718 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This has meant that the complete school system changed overnight from one of the most backward to one of the most progressive in the entire United States. The change was too sudden for the people. Public opinion was not ready for it; the people refused to accept the new conditions. Politicians capitalized on the situation, and the result was misunderstand- ing and a gross misstatement of facts. Many, including some of the State's finest people, came to believe that the school program that the people were being asked to finance was desirable, it is true, but far too expensive for ordinary people. The Delaware Parent-Teacher Association recognized the emergency, and accepted as its special opportunity for service, the obligation to broad- cast unbiased information about the school needs of this generation. A State program committee was formed and a series of leaflets presenting facts for discussion month by month in each Parent-Teacher Association meeting, was prepared for publication. An appeal was made to each local president to have the facts so provided presented by someone of the district to the people of the community, at the Parent-Teacher Association meet- ing, after a demonstration of some modern method of teaching (outlined by rural supervisors of the State Department of Education) had been given by the children and teacher. The Delaware Association has held steadfastly to this method. The first year, 124 associations had the facts printed in the leaflets discussed in their meetings; the second year, 146 associations, and this year, although the final figures are not yet in, we know for a certainty that many more associations have used the plan than in any previous like period. To be more specific, the leaflets prepared this year have been on the general subject, "The School as a Community Center." Delaware people have not been preached at; they have not been told in so many words what they ought to do. But they have heard at their Parent-Teacher meetings , from month to month, about the action of the people in Eyota, Minnesota, when they voted to close seven one- room schools and build a fine consoli- dated school ; of the service which this school has rendered to every family in the community, and of the universal opinion among the tax payers that they are getting a far greater return on their investment than they ever had in the past. They have heard of the splendid Country Life School that the people of Whitmell, Virginia, have developed. They have learned about the consolidated schools of Randolph County, Indiana, and others. They have seen pictures of all of these schools. They are drawing their own conclusions. We firmly believe that, within the next few years, the people of Delaware will refuse to tolerate for their own children, schools that fall short of the standard which they are gradually acquiring through the Parent-Teacher meetings. And so the Parent-Teacher Association functions to create the spirit which will undoubtedly manifest itself in works. I wish that I had the power to paint for you two word pictures which would illustrate the value of the Parent-Teacher Association in the rural district. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 719 Just imagine a little frame school building, painted a one-time hideous green, which stands in the midst of a lonely pine thicket. A trustee, to whom paint is paint, regardless of color, has had the schoolhouse put in readiness for the opening session. The new teacher arrives. The chil- dren come, many of them for the first impression of school and school life. There is not a picture on the wall; there are no shades at the windows ; there is no place for the children to wash dirty hands and faces; there is an utter absence of material with which to work other than the bare text- books. For the playground there is nothing even as modest as a ball, with which to introduce any sort of coöperative play, from the absence of which country children so seriously suffer. There is no privacy around the out- houses. The place is bare, hopelessly dingy, genuinely unattractive, indeed little more than a shelter from the weather. It is needless to say the people of the community have no educational ideals, or they are genuinely in- different. But behold the scene begins to shift with the coming of September and the energetic little teacher. After a first hopeless glance she sits down to plan and then goes to work. There is a conference with her trustees . "Has a Parent-Teacher Association ever been tried in this district ? Do you not think it would be a good thing to try one ?" and so on. Then an invitation to every taxpayer and parent in the district to come to the schoolhouse on a definite evening; an explanation of the purpose, and an organization effected. The meetings continue regularly; they are the means by which the people of the community discover the poverty-stricken condition of their children's school environment. The teacher is ready with a response when she is asked how they can help. As a result of the initiative of the people themselves, the school, at the end of the school year, presents another picture. There are shades at the windows with soft muslin inside curtains to contribute to the "homey" atmosphere of the building. The ugliness of the interior has been relieved by a neutral tone coat of paint. There are bright geranium flower boxes in a window or two, and interest- ing exhibits of the children's work on the wall, for the whole community to praise when they come to the parent-teacher meeting. Some new maps (which the school board could not buy for lack of funds) are in evi- dence in one corner. Another has been converted, by the use of a screen, into something resembling a wash room, with sanitary towels and liquid soap. Quick growing shrubbery has been planted around the outhouses . The children's rating in the county-wide tests shows a rise. The same teacher returns . At the end of the second year a school library becomes the objective; the equipment arrives for hot food at noon, and simple play- ground apparatus appears, to smooth away many problems in discipline, and to add immeasurably to the children's health and joy in life. The chil- dren are getting many times as much out of their school as they did two years ago. The people learn more and more of school needs. How well they meet these needs depends upon the standard which the Parent-Teacher Association provides for them. Everyone of you has seen these pictures. 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION If you were told that it had happened but once in the United States you would doubtless believe the story had been handed on from your State. Notice, however, please, the instance I have described, that the teacher plays the part of a social engineer. She is the one person with superior knowl- edge who knows what should be done, but she is far too wise to attempt to do it herself. She is undoubtedly the driving power, but she puts the people of her community to work and gets them to do the thing themselves. I hope.you will gather from what I have said that the material gain to a school which results from a Parent-Teacher Association in the district is valuable, in the main, only as it indicates the fulfilment of a spirit which we are working to create an interest in a special school, contrasted to in- difference; an enthusiasm for the public school as the most indispensable institution, after the church itself, in all of our American life, and a dedication to its finest possible development for the benefit of our children and our Nation's future. But nothing can be more important than a clear comprehension at all times of the sphere of the Parent-Teacher Association. If it sinks to the plane of a mere money-making agency to buy school equipment, it is indeed negligible. If it works to create a sentiment which will make such a procedure unnecessary, it is a vital part of those forces in the country which are working for things that are really constructive and of permanent worth. In Delaware, although we have insisted at all times that money-making festivals must never become the objective of the association, we have ap- preciated the wholesome effect of getting folks to working together for some common project. Accordingly, our State executive committee adopted a resolution three years ago, urging the rural schools to try to buy books for the school library. "Thirty books a year for ten years," was urged as a slogan. As a result 13,000 books have been put within the reach of country children, who, before this, had access to very little reading mate- rial, and picture collections have been started in many schools. At the end of the ten-year period, we feel that Parent-Teacher Association activity in this one respect, will not be altogether negligible. The Parent-Teacher Association, as I believe in it in the open country. is as democratic as the school itself. It is the people, the supreme body before which all things rise or fall in a republic. Plans that originate in such a group must succeed, for they spring from the wishes of the people. The P. T. A., I believe, provides the machinery through which these people can first discover standards by which to measure their own affairs, and later, the ways and means of bringing themselves eventually up to these standards. I hope that it will soon be recognized as an indispensable part of every school that makes any pretense to meeting the needs of this generation. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 721 A BRIGHTER FUTURE FOR THE RURAL CHILD MRS. KATHERINE M. COOK, RURAL EDUCATION DIVISION , U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. My topic this afternoon permits me to dwell not on the inefficiency of rural schools, except incidentally to point out remedies or avenues of approach, but rather upon conditions in that future for rural children in which we have a right to have faith, and toward which we have a right to look with confident expectation to the extent and only to the extent that we now lay a stable foundation for it. I wish to stress this point: Good school systems do not spring up over night out of the nothing into the here. As we do our duty, fully or temporizingly, this foundation will be laid withunderstanding, intelligence, and foresight ; or superficially and without vision of the meaning of education in a democracy. Before adequate progress can be made in rural education, we must know-especially farm people must know and understand fully-the sig- nificance of school conditions as they now are in the majority of rural communities. To know the truth, and to face it uncompromisingly, seem to me, the first steps toward a brighter future. However, knowledge of the situation, essential in all respects, does not and should not connote reconciliation or resignation, or even patience, with unsatisfactory and remediable conditions. There should be no acceptance of wrong conditions, nothing bordering on the "inferiority complex" atti- tude on the part of the farm people. There has been a tendency in the past, not wholly obliterated, to accept conditions as they are, in a spirit of resignation. The farm home is isolated, therefore certain conveniences, privileges, and facilities (school facilities included) seem, in the nature of the case, beyond reach. Nothing much need be done about it. Just as the farm family resigns itself to dispense with, let us say, grand opera and other luxuries ordinarily associated with city life, so it resigns itself also, some- times with very little effort, to inadequate school facilities. Forces not necessary to enumerate here are dissipating gradually many of the causes which made such resignation necessary. Certain it is that schools are not luxuries, and limitations in school facilities should be the first, not the last, to be eliminated. The justness of extending adequate and equal educa- tional opportunities to all children, regardless of their location, cannot be questioned. Greater effort must be made to provide improved and at- tractive buildings with abundance of modern equipment, a sufficient number of adequately prepared teachers, and similar essentials for the rural child. Schools having these requisites have long been considered the birthright of city children. Shall country children be satisfied with less ? Certainly not, if we are to face the future with faith and confidence. As responsible citizens we must attack the question fundamentally. First, it seems to me that we must provide for rural communities real school systems, sufficiently centralized, organized, and financed to insure to all 722 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION rural schools adequate financial support and professional administration. Without such systems universally provided for, we shall continue to make progress in spots only. That the accomplishment of this presupposes in the majority of our States fundamental reorganization of present State systems should be no deterrent. Let us face this problem squarely. Compromise measures, however good in themselves, will not wholly solve the problem. Money alone will not solve it. Money without intelligent thought given to organization and administration is like faith without good works. We must be sure the money is intelligently spent and the schools professionally managed. Education is a State function. Therefore this suggested reorganization demands : That the State provide for the kind of organization that will permit the establishment and maintenance of school systems at least as efficient as those for city schools now are. The State must provide ade- quate educational leadership. This presupposes enlarged State departments of education with an adequate and professional staff. It includes the set- ting up of standards which prescribe a minimum to which all schools must attain, and which at the same time encourage local initiative to go as far beyond the minimum as local ability and ambition determine. Financial responsibility must be assumed by the State and shared by State resources to an extent which will enable the poorest system to reach the minimum standard without excessive taxation, and with no more than the established or median effort set for the State as a whole, expressed in terms of taxation rate and valuation. In other words, in the future we must see to it that, as we believe no child should be deprived of the opportunity to get an edu- cation because of poverty, no community should be penalized because of poverty or isolation, either to the extent of being denied educational advan- tages to its children, or to the extent of facing undue hardship in school taxation. Is this impossible ? By no means. Already a number of States approximate this condition. The fact must be accepted that, for some years at least, if not always, in all human probability, schools will cost more in the country than in cities. Concentration of population in cities, whatever ills come in its train, tends to economy from a financial standpoint. Transportation alone, even if conducted on the most economical basis possible, adds greatly to the cost of school maintenance, often from 25 to 50 per cent of the total expendi- ture. One-teacher schools are even now expensive, as facts revealed in the New York and other State surveys prove. If those which must remain are made efficient, they will continue to be expensive. Conditions inherent in rural living, such as relative isolation necessitating travel over long dis- tances for supervisors and teachers as well as children, added expense of buildings and equipment under open-country conditions, salary bonus neces- sary to secure and retain qualified teachers in the country, all mean that increased cost is unavoidable. Only the State itself can devise and properly finance equitable support and educational facilities for its rural districts. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 723 Next in importance to providing for potentially efficient systems, comes the necessity of making potentialities realities. No vision of the future will satisfy unless we see therein all rural schools under professional administra- tive control; unless the rural people come to have at least as full a realiza- tionof the necessity of this as city people now have. The splendid achieve- ments now being made by systems so managed, justify us in looking forward hopefully to the time when the one consideration in the selection of county or other rural superintendents will be to manage schools and not as now, in many instances, to get votes; when the county superintendency is no longer the football of party politics, but a professional service that appeals to the best qualified, trained, and experienced educators; when rural school board members, selected because of interest in education and good citizen ship, give to the selection of the superintendent the same thought and attention that is now given to the selection of college presidents, city superintendents, and presidents of large corporations. If we continue to leave to fate, or what is the same thing, three trustees selected frequently because no other voters happened to appear at the school election; the re- sponsibility for the education of our children, including such important features as the selection of teachers, textbooks, courses of study, and the like, only by some fortuitous accident or some superhuman agency can our rural children be educated. Particularly will the rural school systems of the future insist on a pre- pared and experienced supervisory and teaching staff. At present it seems very probable that farmers pay more for education and receive less than citizens of any other class. As proof of this, one need only examine into the number of administrative and supervisory officers, as well as teachers trained in our colleges and normal schools who go, after gradua- tion from these institutions, to service in city systems and remain there. Data on this subject indicate that only a negligible number of teacher- preparing institutions in the United States send as many as half their graduates into one- and two-teacher schools. From many, only a fraction of one per cent go into such schools. Few if any of our State universities assume a just share of their responsibilities toward education, especially as concerned with the efficiency and training of rural superintendents and supervisors. In 34 of our States, 50 per cent or more of the population is rural. In many of them the farming population is the backbone of economic stability. Yet in a large majority of these States experience and observation show that the normal schools and teachers' colleges render comparatively little service to country schools and country communities. It may be reasonably expected that systematic professional management and supervision will insure the other modern requisites of efficient school systems. Most of them we may take for granted. I shall mention here but a few. Among these are school buildings and equipment. I hesi- tate even to mention one or two or even three things which one can assert that country children need most. Time was when it seemed safe to 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION advocate some favorite prescription as offering the best remedy for condi- tions existing in rural schools. If, however, I were permitted to ask for one thing and one only-if, as I believed in my childhood, a fairy god- mother might appear and offer to grant one wish-I should be greatly tempted to make that wish that more joy and beauty and lightheartedness might somehow be added to the education endowment of country children; that schools should better contrive to assure to them their share of "sweet- ness and light." Some of the spiritual influences which come from beau- tiful surroundings should be contributed by attractiveness in school build- ings. Certainly the rural school of the future will give full consideration to the increased knowledge we now have of the effects which the selection of a good school site, sanitation, ventilation, heating, and the general hygiene of school buildings have on the health and progress of school children. It must also give full consideration to the effect that beautiful surroundings have on the moral and spiritual life, the formation of char- acter and ideals. Time and experience have proved that good buildings are not a question of money alone. Thought and care, some knowledge of architecture, and an appreciation of the place that art has in education are essential. Generally an appropriate and beautiful building costs no more, may even cost less, than an inappropriate and unattractive one. The rural school of the future must be a place of beauty, exemplifying the best we know in school architecture, and providing, from an hygienic point of view, for the best interests of the children housed within it. Within and without, equipment must be abundant and modern in char- acter, at least as good as our best rural schools now have. An auditorium, ample laboratory facilities, playground for games and athletics, where chil- dren learn to love and use the great out-of-doors are accepted essentials of modern schools. We have outlived the day when the belief was prevalent that because the country is a healthful place in which to live and rear children, therefore all country children are essentially healthy, and no special attention to health is necessary. This delusion was dispelled by the draft data, and every other investigation that has been made of the health of country children. Even in this brief survey of the future, one cannot overlook considering what the rural school curriculum must offer to country children. We have passed through, and I hope, safely emerged from, the period when it was held to be part of the schools' responsibility to insure the replenishment of our farm population by educating rural children solely for vocational efficiency in agricultural pursuits and farm home-making. Fortunately we now know that the future of farm as well as of general industrial and economic conditions depends on keeping wide open the roads leading to all vocations and all professions to the farm youth as well as to the city youth. Academic learning and vocational effectiveness are important, but they are not all the achievements to be expected of the rural schools of the future. Otto Kahn, in a recent address before the American Federation of Arts DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 725 said, " It seems to me that, when speaking of the arts, we must not overlook the art of living." The rural school especially must not overlook either the arts or the art of living. Academic work, the social inheritance, will of course not be replaced, but will be freely supplemented with music and the other arts ; with intel- ligent guidance, not alone vocational, but educational as well. Ability to participate in the social life of the community, the development of the social graces, the ability and desire to play, in childhood, in youth, and in maturity, these will all receive special attention in the rural school of the future. All work and no play is not the only thing that makes Jack a dull boy. So do lack of companionship, isolation, boredom, lack of diversity of interests, and "inspirational opportunity." To accomplish all this, it is our duty to work intelligently along the lines indicated. To hasten the better future for country children, it is our privilege to work unceasingly toward spreading a wider knowledge among all people, country people especially, of school conditions as they now exist. That rural people do not get from the State system or State educational institutions the same service that cities get; that they are deprived of the advantages of public institutions of higher learning because of the poor resources of the lower schools; that they do not participate in the general benefits in proportion to the amount they pay for school support ; and that the farmer often pays more and receives less in education returns than his urban fellow citizen-these are comparatively new ideas to farm people. Better understanding is needed of the fact that not smallness of investment but returns on the investment is the measure of economy. Only larger investments in rural schools insure adequate educational returns to boys and girls, and a better world to live in, in the future, than we have known. Finally, there must be a wider dissemination of the facts that good schools are possible in the country, and that they can be made accessible to all chil- dren. Means of getting them present problems worthy of our best in- telligence. The demand for good schools must come from the farmer himself. He cannot depend on others to secure from State resources, legislatures, educa- tional institutions, and school systems, efficient educational facilities. The economic and social welfare of the farmer is attracting the sympathetic interest and attention of the Nation, from farm organizations, and agricul- tural blocs, and even in political party platforms. Can we not help to extend this interest and attention to include the educational welfare of farm children? After all, improved living and economic conditions can be se- cured and permanently assured only through improved educational facilities. 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE COUNTRY— THE ECONOMIC BASIS OF NATIONAL LIFE C. J. GALPIN , UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WASHINGTON , D. C. Is the farmer's family worth educating ? Or is it perhaps time wasted- taking pains with this family; getting acquainted with its environment and its psychology; adjusting the mechanics of modern education to its peculiar circumstances of life and occupation ? Does the farm family, farm community, and farming class as a whole mean enough to national life to warrant putting forth the extraordinary effort to make possible to them as complete an education as other families, other communities, and other classes already possess-groups which put up to educators a far less diffi- cult social, if not technical, problem than does the farm group ? Passing by the humanistic argument for providing complete education to the farmer, it seems to be my duty here today, to look squarely in the face this more mercenary and worldly-wise question, whether it will pay to edu- cate the farmer. Not, does he deserve education as a human being in our midst; but, is he of importance enough in the Nation to demand education? Or, perhaps, better still-for he may never come to the point of demanding, so slow has he been so far in voicing his educational rights-would it be money in the pockets of the Nation to see that the farmer class gets as good an education as any other group? Let us, therefore, briefly, in bare outline indeed, see what the farmer means to the Nation in a purely economic sense . First of all, let us pass in review and look at the parade of a few phrases, such as "agriculture our basic industry;" "the farmer the backbone of the nation;" "the agricultural class the conservative element in society." I confess there is a somewhat hackneyed ring in the steps of these phrases as they pass along. One can not help remembering who and what oc- casions are back of these phrases. And doubtless many a hard-thinking man or woman has sensed a subtle insincerity in the use of these phrases, while at the same time he has been unable to detect any lack of truthfulness in the statements themselves or in the ideas implied. Before making an analysis of the insincere utilization of the truth in this matter, let us look at some of the broad economic facts about agriculture as an industry. This is not the place for an academic historical survey of agriculture as it has played its part in the world's civilizations, or as it has opened up the re- sources of the American continent. I shall be satisfied to assume that the historical rôle of agriculture lies close to the surface of every educator's mind. The present-day facts will suffice to bring the whole picture suffi- ciently before us . First: the farm population, the group we are thinking about. It is 29.9 per cent of our total population. While there are several types of agri- culture, running the gamut from orange raising to cotton, from cattle raising to wheat, from grapes to milk, it is beyond question that there is DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 727 a greater degree of homogeneity in this group of thirty millions of our people than in any other thirty millions. The group that most nearly ap- proaches the agricultural group in point of numbers is that of the manu- facturing and mechanical industries. The number of persons ten years of age and over, gainfully employed in the one group, is virtually equal to that in the other; but, taking their families into account, the agricultural group doubtless proves somewhat the larger ; whereas, there can be small question that the three hundred varieties of mechanical arts, ranging from boiler making, printing, sugar refining, to dressmaking, piano tuning, and dynamite making, provoke and sustain a heterogeneity among their workers, where among the arts of agriculture is homogeneity. The trading group, wherein are bankers, retail dealers, undertakers, newsboys, and the like, while a large group, next in fact to that of the mechanical arts, has not a third of the population of the farm group. Other minor groups are those of transportation, mineral extraction, domestic and personal service, pro- fessional service, clerical occupations. The farm group, however, not only overtops the others in point of numbers, but in point of homogeneity of characteristics, has no equal among the large groups. Secondly, let us take a look at the net wealth of the farm group. The best authorities on this subject, after careful calculation, place the net worth of all farm classes in 1920 (a year when farm values were at their height) as 21.5 per cent of the total wealth of the Nation. If we were to include the value of all the capital employed in agriculture, the percentage would rise considerably; but seeing that a certain amount of the capital is owned by those persons living in cities and identified principally with other occu- pational groups, we are including in this estimate only the property belong- ing to the farm population. Just a glance at the annual income of this farm group. The best that the group has done in recent years was its achievement in 1919, when it received 20 per cent of the National income. No one knows when it will again reach this high-water mark. Low tide now obtains with the farmer. While the temporary character of the low tide is conceded, no one will venture to predict the return of high tide. So much for the economics of the farmer's numbers, property, and income. His is our largest homo- geneous group, possessing a little short of an average share of the Nation's property, and quite a bit short of the Nation's annual income ; but it is said that the bare fact that he brings food and fiber out of the soil makes him beyond question the basic worker; for food the Nation must have, while slippers and pianos it can, if necessary, get along without. Let us view this angle a moment. As the Nation runs along at present, about 40 per cent of its annual budget goes for food in its final edible form. This is a good deal. It is much the largest single item of family expenditure. Although the raw ma- terials of food which the farmer supplies are not half this 40 per cent, this big food budget will always draw the attention of the households of America to the farm where food is produced. In time of stress in the 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Nation, the foodmaker will be under scrutiny. A look at Germany at the present time illustrates the point in question. The food-raiser there has food, but the Nation has not sufficient food. There is stress with the middle class city dweller. America has always had food to eat-plenty, and the balanced ration. America has eaten wheat, meat, milk, fruit, and vegetables. America's infants have had milk for growth. The young American has not known what it is to live on a lifeless, growthless, im- potent diet. American agriculture, so far at least, is furnishing to the Nation quantity and quality par excellence. While it is true that the mechanical arts, through discovery and inven- tion, have in some spheres invaded the territory of agriculture, there seems in the process of synthetic foods, no relief to agriculture in its role of food producer. It is at this point, doubtless, where the Nation drives down a stake and on it writes "Basic Industry." It is the fear of what might come, what may come indeed, but never yet has really come, which makes the American statesman tremble for his country when he thinks of possible famine or famine prices for food. It is the deep-seated knowledge of man- kind that when food is reduced to doles and when infants starve, then men become wolves and jackals. This menace, hitherto dormant in America, is probably the real truth back of the flattering sobriquets attached to agri- culture, "Basic Industry," "Backbone of the Republic." The insincerity in the use of this term "basic" as applied to the economics of agriculture lies in the fact that the flippant user reckons that the farmer of America does not know how to do anything else than produce food in abundant quantities to feed the Nation. The user of "basic" knows that the farmer hasn't learned the miner's trick of shutting down on coal ; hasn't learned the labyrinthine methods of finance; is, in fact, so far away from the contemptible restriction of food that it is ludicrous to think of him as bringing famine on America. And yet, the cynic will say, "Who knows when the day may come, that the farmer may learn the ways of the world and may begin to exert some of his superpower and bring the menace of food shortage upon us, just as the coal man has recently brought us shortage of coal ?" So while the hollow ring of the demagogue may be there, the truth is lurking there just the same; and the life of the Nation is in the hands of the farmer. But there is another aspect of farm life which merits even more our serious attention. No other large group of the Nation has so many children as the farm group. This economic fact is of special interest to rural educators, and in fact to all educators. Here is the point where all citizens will do well to "sit up and take notice." We are no longer guessing, for the census lets us know the facts. And these are the facts : In the United States as a whole there are 12.9 per cent more children under 21 years of age in the farm population (and this excludes all village and small town population) than in any equivalent population group dwell- ing in cities. The city appears to be a poor place for children; city women DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 729 have not the chance to mother much there; there isn't space enough for children; there isn't pure air, sunshine, quiet enough. The city is a place for business to be born, to grow, to reach achievement ; but it is no place for the human home. The farm home proves to be the ideal place for children, and there the children are found. In fact, there is at present an excess of four millions of children among the thirty millions of farm people, when compared with thirty millions of city people. Some cities of over 25,000 population have as low as 29.2 per cent of its population in children to match the 50.4 per cent of the farm population for the whole United States ; or the 58.2 per cent of the farm population of one of the States. In fact, were it not for the foreign-born element in many of our cities, the presence of children there would be something of a phenomenon. And with re- stricted immigration, we shall be prepared to see the child rate in cities drop materially, in spite of the growing decrease of infant mortality. What is the purport of this fact? Simply this. The farm can not use its share of adults over 21 years of age, but the city can. The city uses 12.9 per cent more of adults than does the farm. Therefore, the farm, as these excess children come of age, and cross the line to the adult class, will send them to the city. The farm is not sending children to the city ; not raw, untutored, weak, under-fed children. No. It is sending in a constant stream its excess young adults, who, born, reared, nourished on the fat of the land, in space, fresh air, sunshine; and apprenticed, mind you, to the habits of work, go to the city as the best recruits industry has, the best recruits the arts, the professions, the trades have. This regular sup- ply of labor, of brain-power, of race potency to city population and in- dustry is a contribution which rivals in an economic way the farm's contri- bution of raw food and fiber to the Nation. This is the economic fact from which rural educators will get the answer to their question : "Will it pay to educate the farmer ?" I am not pressing home the point here (some one, however, at some appropriate time must) that the farm population is mightily overloaded in the attempt to give an American education to 12.9 per cent more children -four millions of them-than cities, possessing an equivalent population, are educating. Education is expensive business. It forms, whether in city or country, a bulky share of the yearly tax. But I am stressing this fact, that the city and the Nation has a great economic stake in country children, in their up-bringing, their preparation for life, their higher education, their ideals of citizenship, simply because one quarter of these children, anyway, and from time to time, as many as one-half of them coming of age, recruit city life and industry. But there is still another economic feature in agri- culture which rural educators should have at their fingers' end. The economic importance of the farm population to National life is to bemore plainly seen by the ordinary city man in the fact that the farmer is aheavy consumer of goods, than even in the fact that the farmer furnishes him food and adult workers . The tradesman likes the man that buys . The national manufacturer likes the man that buys nationally advertised goods. 730 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION The railroads like the man that buys goods to be hauled. And here are thirty millions of buyers. This group is known as the "farm market." When farmers cease buying, very soon trade and manufacture "stop and listen." But why should rural educators be particularly interested in this feature of National life ? The answer is not at all abstruse. The rural educator is one of the parties to this stirring economic situation; for the educator is the instigator of higher and more costly wants. He implants the ideas in the minds of children which issue in longings, ambitions, determina- tions to have. The child comes to want books, a piano, better clothes, a better house, vehicles, better furniture, travel, concerts in other words the facilities for life, more life, and still more life. The educator, therefore, is the propagandist for the mechanical arts, the fine arts, and the trader in these arts. Will it pay, then, to educate the farmer ? The answer is that nothing will pay the maker and seller of goods better than to have insti- gated in the farmer's mind the irresistible want for better goods. In a sense, and a very real sense, too, it will pay the maker and seller of goods better to instigate a great longing in the farmer's mind for high-grade goods, than to help the farmer make a dollar to buy goods with and run the risk that he will use his dollar simply to bid up the price of land instead of investing in other goods. In these days of deep agricultural depression, it takes a brave man to count aloud the blessings of the farmer and to suggest that soon he will be again a great buyer of the goods of life. I have heard direct from the State Department of Education of every State, and the word is, "Rural education, while hard hit, has not lowered its ideals." Rural educators must be persuaded that rural education of the best type will pay; pay the farmer in better production; pay the city dweller in better food; pay the city trader in a better farm market. And I have not said a word about the humanisms of the case, which, perhaps, after all, are the most compelling features of the whole matter. EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OF COUNTRY LIFE JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH , PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION , CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK When we speak of the educational resources of rural life some think at once of those conditions in the country favorable to education that are not found in the city, or are found there to a negligible degree only. This defi- nition of terms tends to contrast rural life and education with city life and education. It leads readily to the argumentative frame of mind: Which is better for the education of children, the country or the city? It has seemed desirable for our purpose here to give another meaning to the term " resources," that is, whatever in rural life is an aid to education whether or not those conditions are found in the city to the same degree. This meaning has been chosen for two reasons: It is difficult, if not un DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 731 possible, to find conditions in either type of environment not found in the other. The country gives us nature in her completest form and in her natural setting, but the city is not entire devoid of grass and trees and flowers and birds. The city may have its symphony orchestra, but the re- motest farm home may have an organ, or an accordion, or even a piano, while the victrola and the radio are rapidly bringing to the isolated families the city's best music. The generalization appears to be true that, if one could measure any environmental factor, he would find a gradual change in composition of that factor from open country, through hamlet and villages of different size, to the large city. In other words, continuity seems to be a law here as in other aspects of nature. A second reason for our use of the term " resources," in its wider sense, is that, as rural educationists, we are really concerned with the rural environment as it is, without regard to whether cities do or do not possess those resources. We have an educational task to perform and we want to know what materials and conditions are available for performing that task most effectively. Where a contrast between the two environments is made in this paper, it is for the purposing of showing more clearly why a certain condition should be considered a resource . Time limitations require an emphasis of one of the several classes into which the resources of the country may be divided. We shall not analyze the resources of the school teacher, buildings, equipment, and the like. Inadequate as the country school often is, whether measured in terms of the achievements of city schools or in terms of attaining educational ob- jectives, it nevertheless is a real resource. Nor shall we enumerate those resources represented by economic wealth, by units of school administra- tion, and by such organizations as teacher training institutions, government agencies for health and road improvement, the Red Cross, and the like. Burnham has recently given us a survey of resources of this type.¹ So far as possible we shall confine this discussion to those conditions largely in- herent in country life that in general work favorably for education. Tο confine ourselves entirely to conditions of this type is, however, impractica- ble since school, home, and other agencies of society are means whereby the resources are to be made effective. The term "education" is here used in a broad sense. To make the most significant analysis of the rural environment as it affects education, it is necessary to include other than school experiences. No defense needs to be made before a group of this type of the conception that the out-of-school environment has a powerful influence in shaping the ideals and activities of children. The farm life, the walk to and from school, the visit to the village, the grange meeting, the church, and the Sunday school, with other agencies and activities contribute their share to development. We cannot make the school function most usefully unless we take all these conditions into account. There are, of course, all sorts of experiences that hinder as 1Ernest Burnham: " Resources in Rural Education," Journal of Rural Education, Vol. I, pp. 33-440. 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION well as aid the right sort of development.¹ Those that aid may be utilized by the school in forwarding its proper program. Where the environment has an undesirable influence, as is often the case in the unsanitary methods of disposing of garbage, the school may endeavor to counteract it through the teaching of hygiene. Where the environment is insufficient to provide the right kind of experiences, as in vocational guidance of young people, the school should supplement within the scope of its functions and the limits of its resources. Since the school that is doing its task fully must outline its program in terms of all the resources and limitations of the par- ticular group to be served, it is clear that a discussion of resources should be broader than those that affect directly the traditional school. Nor can we evaluate the educational resources of the country without knowing what ends education should serve. If a primary purpose in the education of the rural child is to keep him on the farm, then we should emphasize the opportunities of the country and minimize those of the village and city. If a primary purpose is, on the other hand, to take him away from the farm that he may escape the privations that his parents experienced, or for any other reason, the process should be reversed effort should be made to point out the attractions of urban life. If our fundamental concern is to improve vocational practices connected with the farm, then we should give more attention to the development of the skills, the knowledge, and the attitudes that will enable the young man and woman when they begin their occupational work, to raise more and better potatoes and to make better bread. Each of these objectives contains something worth while, yet we doubt if many would contend that any one of these should be the ultimate goal of an education. We want rather an education that will stimulate growth in desirable directions on the part of the child. We should train him to be as productive in his field of labor as possible, but we do not want to develop that productiveness to the neglect of other qualities essential to his complete growth. We should strive to keep the highest possible grade of person in the country, but we must not do so by limiting the educational opportunities of the individual. This end must rather be attained by making rural con- ditions of labor and living such that high grade persons will go there of their own will. Nor do we want to divert from the farm those who may find their greatest happiness and success there. A genuine democracy will foster in every possible manner the development of each and every indi- vidual so that he may be able to perform most completely his duties in whatever line of work his interest may direct him. This relatively long introduction has seemed essential if our discussion is to result in clear thinking on the question before us. As we turn to a consideration of the resources themselves we are con- fronted with what appears to be a fact that, while the resources of country life are very real, it is difficult to present them in other than descriptive 1See, for example, Brim, "Handicaps of the Rural Child," Journal of Rural Education, Vol. II; pp. 52 63 ; and Evelyn Dewey, New Schools for Old, ch. 1. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 733 form. As yet any effort that may have been made to analyze resources and to present a quantitative measure of them has resulted in only very frag- mentary data. We must, therefore, content ourselves with a general de- scription of some of the more important resources of the type under con- sideration. Even this may serve the purpose of recalling to us the source ofsome of our most significant materials for education, of emphasizing the need of understanding them more completely, and of seeing something of how they may be utilized. One of the most obvious of these resources is the out-of-doors. Its great variety of animate and inanimate objects-flowers, trees, fruit, crops, birds, animals , stream, and grove-make possible a variety of experiences. This environment, in its more natural state, is characterized by its availability ; it is right at hand instead of ten blocks away and there are few "keep off," "don't mark," "don't pick the flowers" signs. Plants may not only be seen and studied in their habitat but taken home for further enjoyment ; trees may be climbed; berries may be picked; wild animals may be pur- sued and domestic ones petted. These sensory experiences of sight, hear- ing, touch, smell, and the like furnish the materials for a multitude of per- ceptions that are not only satisfying but useful. How can a person really appreciate " Snow Bound" or "To a Water Fowl" unless he has had ex- periences that enable him to revive in his own mind the imagery that is in the author's mind ? If Vinal's¹ study of the knowledge about nature possessed by 281 persons from junior high school through college, gives correct facts and is at all representative, there is need to learn more about the world in which we live. He found, for example, that 34 per cent of the females and 12 per cent of the males thought that a woodchuck was a bird ; 36 per cent of the females and 42 per cent of the males thought a bat was a bird; while 30 per cent of the females and 16 per cent of the males thought aheron was a fish. Asked what a katydid is 12 per cent of the males said it was a plant; 22 per cent an animal ; 16 per cent a reptile ; 26 per cent abird. With some guidance from home and school, the child may come to appreciate the beauty of a landscape ; of an apple tree in bloom; of a stately elm; of a field of waving wheat. He may grasp through first hand ex- perience some of the laws of life-birth, growth, and death. He may learn that life is conditioned by certain factors and that by controlling these factors he may modify, within limits, the life itself. He may realize the economic importance of animals and plants ; he may see the interdependence of the various forces and aspects of nature. A recent experience has made the writer conscious of an educational factor he had not fully realized before, that is the development of sympathy from dealing with pets. A few weeks ago, his 13-year old son secured a puppy. Sometime during the first night that the boy had it, his parents were awakened by a noise in The Nature Study Review, November and December, 1921. 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION his room. On investigation he was found out of bed in his pajamas lying with the dog, because, as he said, "Skippy couldn't sleep and was lonesome." Experiences of this sort give opportunity to develop feeling under the di- rection of judgment. That many who live in the country have not experienced the results enumerated is not an indictment of the educational resources of the country, but rather of the country's type of education that has not made effective use of them. The writer has several times wondered how general is the attitude taken by a certain teacher of geography. A child who had made the trip up Pike's Peak, in which he had passed through the low hanging clouds, then looked down with the sun shining upon them and had had a view as wide as the eye could see, asked the teacher if the class, at that time studying the Rocky Mountains, might not like to see some pictures and have a description of the peak. Her reply was that the textbook gave all that was necessary ! Another resource is the opportunity that exists for freedom of move- ment in early physical development. To the country child, space is prac- tically unlimited. In early life he may play in the yard; as he grows, he may roam the fields relatively free from danger. This gives opportunity for development of the larger muscles so essential to proper physical growth. The importance of this may be realized when one contrasts the limitations of the city child who has no yard in which to play, or one with serious restrictions as to size and variety of stimuli, and who dares not wander far from home for fear of being lost or kidnapped or injured by traffic. From the point of view of health, the country has certain advantages which may be made more clear if we compare, for a moment, the condi- tions of rural and urban life. The evidence regarding health conditions in city and country is somewhat conflicting probably due to variations to be expected in different communities. The most reliable data give the rural sections a lower death rate than the cities. In 1917 the comparison was 13 to 15, communities under 10,000 being counted as rural. The tendency during the last few decades seems to be toward reducing the difference between the two groups . Data regarding health conditions are less con- clusive. Out of 100,000 examined for military service 21.6 per cent were rejected for physical defects in the cities, while in the rural sections (boards with less than 1,200 registrants) only 16.6 per cent were so rejected. A variable factor here that must not be overlooked is the possible difference in standards of the examiners in city and country. On the other hand, a report in 1919, by a committee of the National Council of Education shows decidedly better conditions in city than country among school children on such matters as teeth defects, tonsils, eye defects, malnutrition, spinal curvature, heart disease, etc.¹ The meaning of these facts is probably this: People living in cities have greater chance of contracting contagious diseases, meet with more acci 1Gillette: Rural Sociology, ch. VIII . DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 735 dents, and have, generally, living conditions that make any unsanitary conditions that exist more dangerous. In the country, the difficulty of securing professional services or carelessness in doing so is a cause of the larger percentage of defects of a correctable sort. Education of people to the need of care in such matters, instruction in methods of correction and prevention, and a more adequate system of professional health service, including doctors, nurses, and hospitals, will make for considerable im- provement in the rural situation . At the same time it appears safe to conclude that the country has health assets in its relatively unhurried mode of living, in its conditions that make possible and even demand exercise of the sort that keeps the larger muscles in form, and in its freedom from continuous, nerve racking noises. There is opportunity to participate in matters vitally concerned with successful living. Country life is particularly rich in situations that train in the development of initiative and responsibility. For the younger child there is opportunity to run errands about the home, to bring in kindling, to feed the chickens, and the like. For the older child there is the garden, the orchard, the lawn, the chores, and the care of the house. Consider the educative value in giving a 15-year old girl responsibility for planning and preparing a dinner for the family or of a boy of the same age assigned the duty of keeping the fires including all the operations, from the cutting of the kindling and the sawing of the wood, to the proper disposal of the ashes. Unless we train children to do tasks about the home, we cannot expect them to have a proper sense of responsibility about their own homes when established. For this reason parents should make it a point to share with their children, as they are able, the consideration of family affairs- amounts and sources of income, the family budget for the next season, the investments that should be made, and the forms of recreation that should be sought. This is an opportunity that, one fears, is often neglected. As the child matures, the small home tasks may be supplemented by projects involving more of an intellectual element and tied up with the work of the school. Consider for a moment the educative possibilities in raising a small field of potatoes. In such a project there are several specific problems such as selecting the seed, treating the seed, preparing the ground, cultivating the plants, overcoming a blight, harvesting the crop, keeping a record of costs, storing the crop, marketing it, and using the proceeds. If these problems have been met conscientiously and wisely, the boy has been influenced in these ways among others that might be mentioned. The proj- ect, being concrete and definite, has given him a motive to carry on the activ- ities involved. Certain old habits, as harnessing a team, ploughing, and cul- tivating have been utilized, drilled, and possibly modified. New facts and principles dealing with the chemicals to be used in treating the seed, time of planting, destruction of insects, and storing a crop are collected from various sources-home, school, and books-utilized as the need for them arises, and impressed upon him for future use in similar situations. The 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION boy has had to do much thinking in which the facts and the principles just enumerated have been employed. He has learned something of where to go for facts and how to evaluate them when found. He has developed a confidence in his ability to deal with farm problems, has come to under- stand something of the labor and thought necessary in making a successful farmer, and has therefore developed a greater respect for the occupation. He has had an opportunity to test his vocational interests and has seen something of the interdependence of social groups as illustrated in the supplying of food and the development of a system of exchange. He has learned the value of money and will save and expend more intelligently because of that fact. While this particular problem is primarily vocational, growth has not necessarily been limited to vocational efficiency; the boy has acquired facts, principles, attitudes, and habits that may be employed in many other situations. That we are beginning to utilize this opportunity is indicated by the growth of the boys and girls club work under the Smith- Lever Extension Act. In 1912, thirty-three States of the North and West had a total enrollment of 22,000 ; in 1921 this number had grown to 212,287 enrolled in 16,262 clubs. In country life there are certain factors favorable to developing the in- terest of lay people in the work of the schools. It is true that there are often factors working against this interest, such as the difficulty in making contracts and the lack of leisure during certain seasons . Fundamentally our failure to get a more alert interest in better schools is that we have not made ourselves sufficiently effective as leaders. The farmer often may not now appreciate the need for a greatly improved school, but he does, as a rule, believe in education and is exceedingly jealous of the control of his school. With fewer distractions than exist in the city it is possible to enlist the interest of country folks in this very significant process of educa- tion. Some farm organizations now give one or more discussions each year to the schools. Parent-teacher associations may be organized to bring into coöperative relationship the school and the out-of-school agencies as thev affect the development of children. Of the half million members of parent- teacher associations in this country, it would appear that relatively few are found in the open country, though in Somerset County, New Jersey, for example, every school, except four, has such an affiliated group. Here is a sampling of the resources of the country life for education. Let us outline their more important implications. We have children living under a rural environment through whose educa- cation we want to reach certain objectives. To do this we must have our objectives clearly in mind, must know the characteristics of the children. and must understand conditions in the environment that affect or may be made to affect the educative process . This environment is made up of a great variety of influences some of which aid us in attaining our objectives, while some hinder. Where there DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 737 are hindrances, conditions that offset or supplement should be provided. Where there are resources, they should be understood and utilized. These resources and limitations in the environment are certain to differ to some extent both as to their nature and their degree. We have not one rural environment but many, illustrated by such varying groups as : the general farmer; the fruit grower; the cattle rancher; and the cotton grower. The lumbering camp, the small mining camp, and the fishing village, while not directly agricultural, nevertheless possess strongly rural characteristics. Environmental conditions likewise vary as to whether the group is in the East, Middle West, or South; whether the family is well- to-do or on the margin economically. It follows, therefore, that while we may point out certain types of resources and limitations that are common, we must know in some detail the conditions in the particular community in which we are working. We should even know something of the out-of- school environment of each family if we are to assist to the fullest degree each child in making the utmost of growth. For purposes of analysis we may separate educational resources from educational handicaps, but in practice we must make our program with both inmind. For example, in the country there are some conditions that give opportunity for a boy to make an intelligent selection of his life work. There are the activities of the farmer, the village retailer, the doctor, and the insurance man; but to depend entirely upon these would be to limit the boy's vision of life opportunities. A resource improperly used may be- come an educational handicap, as would be the case if vocational project work were made to develop only, or even primarily, habits and knowledge making for better vocational practices. An opportunity to work about the farm is an educational advantage when used in moderation but might easily become an educational handicap. To make the most of the environmental factors requires the partici- pation of school and of all other agencies, and their coöperation with each other. The school may find in the environment materials to be used as supplementary in nature study and biology. It may find situations that may be used to vitalize the work of the schools, such as vocational projects, civic activities, farm finances, and composition materials. The rural teacher will find many helpful suggestions along this line in two very readable volumes -Miss Dewey's "New Schools for Old," and Collings' "An Experiment with a Project Curriculum." The latter volume is of particular interest because it shows how the use of the experiences of every-day life may give educational results seemingly superior to those of the traditional school . The out-of-school agencies must also assume their responsibility in the edu- cative process if the resources are to be properly utilized. Family life, for example, should contribute its share to right training in the fundamental virtues of responsibility, initiative, coöperation, and integrity. The most casual study of school and home shows that neither institu- tionmakesthe most of its opportunities. The school tends too much to in 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION struction with formal materials, while the home is too often not even con- scious of what it might do to make for growth of children in desirable direc- tions. While society cannot hold the school responsible for what the home or other out-of-school agency does or does not do, the school does have re- sponsibility, within the limits of its resources, to stimulate such agencies to understand educational objectives and ways and means of realizing those objectives. Each of us should therefore ask himself the question: "What conditions are there in the environment of those I am teaching that may be used to stimulate growth through the school, and what may I do, without neglecting my primary task, to get the home or other environmental agency to assist in this great work ?" Department of School Administration SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-CHARLES EVANS, President, Board of Education Oklahoma City, Okla. Secretary-WILLIAM C. BRUCE, Editor, American School Board Journal.... Milwaukce, Wisc. The Department of School Administration was organized in Denver, in 1895. See Proceedings of 1895, page 46. As this department covered the same field as that covered by the Department of Superintendents, the Department of School Administration was discontinued by the board of directors in 1924. See Proceed- ings of 1924, page 96. FIRST SESSION, WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 2, 1924 President Charles Evans called the meeting to order and announced that William George Bruce would serve as acting secretary. He also announced the committee on nominations as follows : C. B. J. Snyder, New York City; A. E. Musrush, Oklahoma City, Okla.; Mrs. L. R. Buchanan, Wichita Falls, Tex. W. S. Deffen- baugh, of the United States Bureau of Education, then read a paper entitled "Shall School Boards be Independent of Municipal Government?" A general discussion, in which some twenty persons participated, followed. The sentiment was that there should be a total separation. Owing to illness, President George J. Ryan, of the New York City Board of Education, was unable to appear as announced in the program. The chair then presented James T. Lloyd, president of the board of education of Washington, D. C., who spoke on the subject, "What are the Essentials of Boards of Educa- tion?" Mr. Lloyd said that the school problem of Washington is different from that of any other city in the United States. The board of education is appointed by the Supreme Court. The estimates made by the board of education is subject to the approval of various authorities, including the District Commissioners , a budget bureau, and finally the Congress of the United States . There are four factors in a school system-the school board, the administrative heads, the teaching forces, and the taxpaying public. There must be coöperation among the several factors in order to secure the highest degree of efficiency. A poor teacher can do much harm; an obstreperous school board member can dis- organize things ; a taxpayer can undermine the morale of the school system. Partisan politics and nepotism should be kept out of the schools. No man should go on the board because of his political faith. No superintendent should be chosen on any basis other than that of character and fitness. The school system of Wash- ington is hampered by red tape and by divided authority. The District Commission- ers, rather than the board of education, hold the purse strings. Mr. Lloyd pointed out the great necessity of maintaining the schools upon high standards if the Republic is to be strong and prosperous. It becomes the task of the boards of education to provide the instrumentalities that will ensure efficient school systems. The discussions were participated in by Mrs. Leila Calhoun Leidinger, president of the board of education, Louisville, Ky.; John H. Linn, member of the board of education, Topeka, Kans.; Superintendent C. F. Perrott, Stuttgart, Ark.; C. B. J. Snyder, New York City ; William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wisc., and others. [739] 740 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SECOND SESSION, THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1924 President Charles Evans introduced G. W. Gerwig, secretary of the board of education, Pittsburgh, Pa., who spoke on the subject : "Should the School Secretary be under the Direction of the Superintendent ?" The speaker stated that he pre- ferred to designate his discussion as one dealing with coöperation between the several school administrative factors. The subject was discussed by William Dick, secretary of the board of education of Philadelphia, Pa. The subject of school architecture was then taken up. W. H. Gompert, the architect for the board of education of New York City, spoke on "What are the Outstanding Essentials of Modern School Architecture?" The paper was dis- cussedby C. B. J. Snyder, Mr. Gompert's predecessor. In the discussion, Charles Evans held that it was of the greatest importance to combine the utilitarian with the esthetic, and to produce school buildings that are both serviceable and dignified in appearance. He complained of the tendency of making the front of a building attractive and the rear unattractive. Mr. Snyder replied that the schoolhouse plans of New York City provided attractive fronts on the four sides of a building. In answer to the statement that the school buildings of Washington, D. C., were subject to severe criticism, Mr. Gompert laid the blame upon the Congressmen who have no appreciation of urban schoolhouse problems. Chairman C. B. J. Snyder, of the Committee on Nominations, reported the reten- tion of the present officers. Upon motion the election of Charles Evans for presi- dent and William C. Bruce for secretary was ratified. It was the judgment of those present that the program deserved a better attend- ance, and upon motion it was decided to ask the National Education Association authorities to inform boards of education next year as to the character and services of the Department of School Administration and thus stimulate a better attendance. SHALL BOARDS OF EDUCATION BE INDEPENDENT OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT-ABSTRACT W. S. DEFFENBAUGH, CHIEF, CITY SCHOOL DIVISION U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION The need of a board of education is so seldom questioned and the cities in which there are no boards of education are so few that very little has been said or written regarding the advisability of placing the management of city schools directly in the hands of city officials. When cities began to adopt the commission form of government, the question was raised by one or two authorities on municipal government as to whether the board of edu- cation would not give way to a commissioner of education. Only four cities, however, St. Paul, Minn., Asheville, N. C., and Chattanooga and Jackson, Tenn., have placed the management of their schools directly in the hands of the city commissioners . The Cleveland, Ohio, survey staff, commenting upon the view held by a few persons that it would be a good plan to have the city officials employ a director of schools who would have something of the same relation to the city commission or council as exists between the chief of police or the chief of the fire department, says in effect: "If the proper work of the board of DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 741 education were to deal with a mass of routine business details this view would be sound, and the board of education might be dispensed with. However, a board of education is not needed to conduct business details but to formulate policies." Since a board of education is necessary in the management of a city school system, what relation, if any, should it have to the city officials ? The answer is, it should be a body elected by the people, especially in the smaller and medium sized cities, and entirely free to raise its own revenue for cur- rent expenses. It should provide funds upon vote of the people for the purchase of grounds and the erection of school buildings, and should have complete control of all school properties. The school board is more likely to be independent of city government if it is elected by the people. Election is now the general practice. In cities of 30,000 or more population 74 per cent, and in cities of less than 30,000 population 81 per cent of the boards of education are elected. Of the appointive boards, the large majority are appointed by the mayor. Almost without exception authorities on school administration favor an elective board. They say that appointment by the mayor or city council places the schools too far away from the people, and that the people take more interest in the schools if they elect the board of education. In some cities where boards of education are appointed, the mayor or members of the city council control the schools to a great extent, so that any one seeking an appointment or a contract needs only to obtain the approval of the mayor or of the members of the council. If the board of education is appointed by the city officials there is tempta- tion on the part of the mayor or of individual council members to dictate policies to the school board and to influence it to elect such janitors and teachers as they may suggest. In other words, appointment by either the mayor or the city council tends to entangle the schools in petty ward and citypolitics. While a large majority of the city school boards are elected by the people, only a little more than half the city boards are fiscally independent of other bodies. In all classes of cities approximately 52 per cent of the boards of education do not refer their estimates to any other body, and about 65 per cent do not refer their estimates to the city officials, including boards of estimate . The plan of requiring boards of education to submit estimates that may be revised has been a source of irritation both to these bodies and to the city officials. The court records in many States show that friction has arisen between the school and municipal authorities over the control of school funds. It is only necessary to call attention to a few instances. In Buffalo, N. Y., an attempt was made a few years ago by the common coun- cil of that city to reduce the salary of the superintendent of the city schools from $ 10,000 a year, which amount had been fixed by the board of educa- tion, to $7,000. The question was settled by the court which held that the 742 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION board of education had exclusive power to fix the salaries of its employees under the teachers' salary law, and ordered that the superintendent's salary be restored . If the court had ruled that the city authorities of Buffalo could reduce salaries at will, the schools would in effect no longer be under the control of the board of education but would be under the control of the city council. Another instance to show that boards of education and city officials are not always in entire agreement may be cited. The mayor of Springfield, Massachusetts, and other taxpayers, petitioned the court to restrain the school committee from diverting money for purposes other than those speci- fied in the appropriation made by the city council. To provide for increase in teachers' salaries the school committee eliminated the summer schools and discontinued 11 kindergartens, and curtailed expenses in other schools con- stituting distinct headings or items in the budget. The results of the sev- eral votes of the school committee were not to exceed the total appropria- tion for schools but to change the application of some of the items in the budget. The precise question, therefore, to be decided was whether the school committee had power thus to carry out its policy as to the management of the school system or whether it was bound by the action of the mayor or city council to the items set forth in the budget, without power to modify or change them in any substantial particular. These and other instances that might be given go to show that responsi- bility is confused where school boards are financially dependent upon city officials. What is needed is responsibility lodged in one board, and this should be the board of education, since education is not a municipal but a State matter. Boards of education are chosen to manage the school affairs of school districts whatever their boundaries may be. These boundaries may or may not, as the State decides, be coterminous with those of the municipality. Even if they are coterminous the school district cannot be classed as part of the municipality. According to the American and English Encyclopaedia of law, school districts are political subdivisions within a State, created for the purpose of maintaining and administering the system of public education. They are not bodies politic or corporate with the gen- eral powers of corporations, but may be considered as quasi corporations variable in organization and extent, and having corporate existence by force only of their public functions, and therefore the strict principles of the law respecting corporations generally cannot, in all cases, be applied to these aggregate bodies created usually by statute. Although a school district possesses corporate capacity, it does not as a rule fall within the definition of a municipal corporation. Court decision after court decision could be cited to show that education is a State and not a municipal function. This principle having been estab- lished, it is being recognized more and more throughout the country that DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 743 the efficient administration of city schools demands that boards of educa- tion be given full control over the educational, business, and financial affairs of our city school systems, that they should be entirely independent ofmunicipal government. To support my thesis, I am going to quote two eminent educational au- thorities whose opinions have been based upon their observation of schools managed both by dependent and by independent boards of education. One of these is Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, who, when assistant commis- sioner of education of the State of New York, said : The policy of utilizing city officials in the administration of the work of the schools and of conferring upon them the power to determine appropriations and control budgets has given to the common council, the board of estimate and ap- portionment, or other similar bodies in many of the cities of the country greater influence over the management and control of the schools than have the board of education and the superintendent of schools. In many cases city officials not legally associated with the schools and in no way responsible for their manage- ment have usurped the functions of the legally chosen school officers. This plan means a division of responsibility in school administration which results in a delay in providing necessary school buildings and other improvements, and is to the distinct detriment of the children's interests. The authority exerted through this course has often resulted in influential citizens and political organizations exercising the power of appointing teachers, of increasing the salaries of those in whom they were interested without reference to their fitness or worth, and of exercising other functions in the administration of the schools which the generally accepted policy of school management required officers to perform. This is one of the weakest points in our public school system. The leaders of educational thought in this country should strike a decisive blow at this evil, should lead in the fight for complete freedom of the schools, for the complete independence of those legally charged with their management, and for the universal recognition of the principle that the schools are institutions dedicated to the service of the people, and that no power or influence shall be permitted to impair their usefulness or efficiency. Dr. E. P. Cubberley, another high authority on school administration, says regarding municipal control of the schools : The experience of our American cities indicates clearly the desirability of re- moving the tax-determining power for the schools from the control of the city council and of placing it, within certain legal limits to be fixed by the legislature, with the school authorities for determination. If within the legal limits, the rate decided upon should not be subject to review by any city authority. The results have been uniformly good in those cities where such power has been transferred to the school authorities, and the schools of such cities, in general, have been able to make better progress than in those cities where the school department still remains a branch of the city government. The rates frequently are higher than under council control, as they usually should be, but they are not higher than the needs of the schools would indicate as desirable or the wealth of the people would indicate as reasonable. Of all money expended by any department of a municipal- ity, that expended for schools is probably the most honestly and most intelligently expended. Turning now to city school survey reports let us see what we can find regarding the relation that should exist between boards of education and 744 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION city officials. Fortunately for our purpose school surveys have been made in several cities where the estimates of the school board may be revised by some other body, as the city council. It is interesting to note what the surveyors have to say in regard to this practice. The Memphis, Tenn., survey report says in no uncertain way: The charter should be changed so that the board of education may levy taxes for the support of the schools. The board's limitation in this important respect means, of course, that it is not an independent body. It has neither full and final power, nor full and final responsibility in its control of the schools, for its estimates of the amount needed for the support of the schools are passed in review by the city council, which may or may not grant the amounts called for. Thus the power of the board of education to carry out its plans for the extension and improve- ment of the schools depends upon the action of an independent body which can have no such intimate knowledge of the school's needs as has the board of education. The board of education, therefore, is unable to formulate any definite policy with the certainty of being able to put it into operation, and, as a consequence, it can not properly be held responsible for any inefficiency of the school system which may develop. The San Francisco school survey report, discussing the general powers of the board of education, says : The Board of Education of San Francisco ought to have, through its proper officials, full control and management not only of all its educational activities but of its business and financial affairs as well; it should not only make its budget but it should have power to make the school levy ; it should not only select and pur- chase school sites but, under the guidance of its proper technical experts, it should plan and construct schoolhouses and make all necessary repairs to the school plant. In other words the survey staff would give to the board of education full power to control and manage, through its proper officers, everything con- nected with the management of the public school system. The report continues : This will tend not only to give the board of education power, it will tend also to give it dignity in the sight of the people. Finally, such a plan will make it possible for the people to fix responsibility for efficiency or inefficiency in the con- duct and management of their school affairs . The commission that made the survey of the schools of Wilmington, Delaware, finding that the board of education never knew what its income would be, recommended that it be made independent of the city officials. The commission that made a survey of the schools of Winston-Salem, N. C., which are considered a department of the municipal government, says in regard to this plan of school administration : Public opinion is a function of the State government, and a city board of con- trol is the delegated power of the State to administer State laws relative to public schools . As such the city board of school control should administer in full its financial affairs . By placing the power to determine the amount of money which should be spent for schools in the hands of the board of aldermen, the body in actual control of DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 745 the schools has become the board of aldermen, and not the board of public school commissioners as was clearly intended and as the State expected. The State does not desire to have public education forced to "form entangling alliances" with any part of municipal politics. The Baltimore survey commission would give the board of school com- missioners of that city a large degree of control over the money made avail- able for the public schools of the city. The survey staff says : The responsibility of the board of school commissioners should be further recognized by giving to them the complete control of school buildings and grounds and of the purchase of all supplies and equipment used by the school system. It is clear that all materials and supplies, all school equipment, and all building construction and repairs have a direct bearing upon the educational work of the school system. If the board of school commissioners is to have a reasonable degree of responsibility for the development of an adequate system of public schools, it should through its executive staff have complete control of these particulars. Other school survey reports could be quoted to emphasize the fact that boards of education should be independent of municipal government, but this is not necessary . One of the arguments advanced by those who do not favor independent boards of education is that such boards would be extravagant. The facts, however, do not confirm these fears, as is shown by Dr. J. R. McGaughy inhis study of the fiscal administration of city schools. Dr. McGaughy found that fiscal independence has not resulted in increased expenditure for schools, that the total expenditure per pupil in attendance in independent cities is $83.28, and in dependent cities $84.29, practically no difference. He concludes : "This lack of difference in total school expenditure is a con- clusive answer to those who have feared that fiscal independence would lead to extravagance. Most clearly an adverse decision concerning fiscal independence may not be justified on the ground that it would result in heavier expenditure for school purposes." Facts have been collected which prove that schools administered by fiscally independent boards of education are more efficient. In a study made by Professor George W. Frasier, dean of the Colorado Teachers College, he arrived at some interesting conclusions on this point by measuring the effi- ciency of each of 169 city school systems by an index number made up of the following factors : 1. The per cent of 16 and 17 year old children in school. 2. The per cent of elementary classes having fewer than 40 chil- dren enrolled. 3. The per cent of children who have 60, or more, square feet of playground space. 4. The per cent of teachers who have had 6 or more years training above the 8th grade. 5. The per cent of children en- rolled who attend all day, and in adequate buildings owned by the school district. 6. The per cent of the increased cost of living from 1913-14 to The Fiscal Administration of City Schools , The Macmillan Co. The Control of City School Finances. (Frasier, George W.) 132 p. $ 1.25. Bruce Pub- lishing Co., 1922. 746 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1919-20 that was met by increased salaries for elementary women teachers. When the independent city school systems were placed in one group and the dependent ones in another and comparisons were made, it was found that the independent cities had a higher average rating than the dependent ones . One of the significant things found by Professor Frasier was that the independent cities provide more adequate and desirable school buildings than do the dependent cities. Thus from whatever angle the question of fiscal independence of boards of education is viewed, all the evidence is in favor of the independent board. SHOULD THE SCHOOL SECRETARY BE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SUPERINTENDENT ?- ABSTRAСТ GEORGE W. GERWIG, SECRETARY, BOARD OF PUBLIC EDUCATION PITTSBURGH , PENNSYLVANIA It is self-evident that the solution of this problem should be approached solely from the standpoint of the best interests of the school and the child, rather than from that of the preferences or prejudices of any single official . The question is one purely of the best type of organization. Upon the size and character of a task depends the type of organization best suited to its accomplishment. The task of providing good schools for America is one of the largest and most important which ever faced a people. No Nation except America has ever accepted the ideal of furnishing to all its children equal opportunities for the full development of their ability. Once accomplished, this task will not only be the most important contribution ever made to the welfare of the Nation but it will be America's choicest contribution to the well-being of the democracies of the world. Of all American welfare institutions the public school has proved to be the best. This institution should be continually improved until it becomes the best possible means of transforming American ideals into actual Ameri- can life. Americans believe that their public schools are the best means yet found for the training of self-governing free men; that they constitute the most valuable means for the conservation of their own life and the preservation of their own liberty; that they embody their highest ideals of practical means of preparation for peace and the elimination of ignorance, suspicion. and hatred which are the roots of war; that they point the surest road toward making the Nation safe. But while Americans have a keen sense of humor and are fond of pleas- antry and while they often prefer to make their approach to wisdom by the DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 747 humorous route, and to view life from the funny angle, they are not fond of fooling themselves in the serious affairs of life. They recognize per- fectly that the millennium has not arrived. It is still a tragically dumb world. The high cost of ignorance is still being paid, and will continue to be paid for generations to come. Whatever else it may have done, the war to end war has not yet ended it. We are still, in spite of our boasted school system, a nation of sixth graders, with 25 per cent physically unfit and 25 per cent unable to read. The world is not even safe for stupidity, to say nothing of democracy. Perhaps the greatest of the delusions of a democracy is that it can be made safe overnight. Neither the manufacture of amillion flivvers every 132 days, nor any other material achievement will make America mentally or spiritually safe. The task is a tremendous one, calling for the most effective organization America is capable of producing. There are three outstanding types of organization. First, under a single, arbitrary, autocratic control. This was the Prussian type and the type of the old autocracies. Second, under control by the multitude, in which all have part, regardless of ability or preparation. This type found its ex- treme example in Russia recently. Third, the representative type, in which the whole people delegate their power and authority to selected ones of their own number, chosen because of expert knowledge, special ability, or unusual skill and wisdom, to represent and act for the whole. The world is long past the period of exclusive individual action. The success of any group endeavor in human life depends upon the willingness and the ability of the group to select from its entire number those specially qualified and best suited to act for the welfare of the entire group. The unpardonable social sin is an offense against the well being of the whole group. And the unsolved problem, thus far, in a democracy, is that of find- ing a practical method of selecting from the whole people those best qualified to act for all the people. With all its defects the public school has thus far been the best working model of means for this type of public service. The wisest action, in any particular instance, will not be predicated upon the individual dictum of any single person, however learned or capable he may be. It will be such action as is indicated by a composite judgment, properly arrived at by the select group best qualified to pass on the question . For centuries the school man has represented the finest and highest type of individualism. For centuries the teacher, recognizing and jealously guarding all his rights as a free man, has gathered about himself a small group of select spirits and passed on to them the priceless privilege of developing to the full their own special latent capacities. For centuries school men and teachers represented a preferred class, an aristocracy of in- tellect, pure in its motives and altruistic in its aims. If there has ever been a benevolent autocrat it has been the teacher, for he welcomed to participa- tion in his special privileges all those qualified to enjoy them, and almost in- variably used his privileges for the benefit of his fellows. 748 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION But autocrats, even benevolent autocrats, are out of style. Educational autocrats are as obsolete as political or industrial autocrats. For weal or for woe democracy is with us. The public school, supported by universal taxation, is the last institution in the world which should contemplate even the possibility of catering to or perpetuating a preferred class. The rock bottom principle of a public school is the inalienable right of every child and every adult to equal educational opportunities, not for the development of a limited group of special capacities of a certain preferred class, but of all the capacities of all the people. The vital problems constantly before a school system, therefore, since they do not deal with a single individual or a preferred class, but with the most sacred rights of all the children and all the people, may not rightly be solved by any one single individual. They are best solved by a composite judgment, properly arrived at, after a full consideration of all the various interests involved. It is not wise to attempt to make an arbitrary separation between the educational and the business interests of the schools . Less wise is it to attempt to put either education department or business department in the complete control of any one person or any one department. There should always be complete coöperation between the two departments, rather than domination by either one. An ideally organized school system regards every single department as a service department, coöperating in securing the maxi- mum results from taxes levied upon the whole people for the sole good of the child. The levy of this tax, and the amount that may be fairly required at any one time is far too vital a matter to be determined by any single citizen. The preparation of a proper budget is the very heart of any year's program. Its success absolutely requires composite judgment in which every single angle of every question is most carefully and capably studied. The type of a proposed building program, and the extent to which it will lead or follow the developing needs of a community for educational service which will actually make the school the radiating center of the best physical, mental, moral, inspirational life of the people, involve questions calling for all the combined educational and business ability not of any one man but rather of the entire community. The selection, stimulation, and management of the entire personnel of a school system, extending from the janitor, upon whose faithfulness and ability rests so largely the comfort of all, through kinder- garten, grades, and high school, involve one of the most difficult and com- plex ofhuman problems, and certainly one not wisely entrusted to the single, uncontrolled judgment of any individual. The fundamental philosophy underlying any school system, the relations and proportions of all the vary- ing and contending types of educational activity, the course of study by which every child is given progressive opportunity for all the desirable disciplines and exposures to all the desirable incentives and ideals involved intraining for a well rounded physical, mental, and spiritual life this sub- division of school management involves decisions beyond the capacity of any DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 749 one man. Even the most brilliant individualist loses something of his high- est potential efficiency if he is unwilling or unable to learn team-work, the value of composite judgment, and coöperative activity. Awell organized school system has thoroughly trained experts in charge of each department. Each expert thinks thoroughly through the problems of his own department and formulates a tentative plan for their solution . This plan, like the detail plans of any well organized business corporation, is submitted for joint consideration by all the departments involved. It thus receives the benefit of both criticism and suggestion from every angle of interest. When the proper composite judgment is thus reached it is adopted as a settled policy for the entire organization and is referred back to the particular administrative expert with whom it originated, that it may be carried into execution. Intelligent coöperation, together with an eye single to the welfare of all, rather than any individual conception or arbitrary dictation, is the keynote of success. America is unique in its effective combination of signal individual ability subordinated to the disciplinary requirements of team-work. In a republic, as in a football team, orders are signals for coöperation. In each there is developed and preserved all the individual initiative of every player along with the willingness and the ability to subordinate these to the accomplish- ment of the task of the team, and reach the team goal. It was this dual capacity which, along with their perception of spiritual values, helped our American lads to win in the contest with the Prussians, trained for subordinated regimental team-work alone, without individual initiative. Horace Mann, three quarters of a century ago, predicted and prophesied the fatal defect in the system of Prussian education as accurately as a post mortem educational inquest would reveal it today. The war to end war is not over. Like Paul Jones we have just begun to fight. The world is far from wise. In the battle against our ancient enemy, ignorance, the schoolhouses will ever be the battleships of the republic. And the school teacher will find a way to combine all the virtues of individual life and development with the social needs and discipline to team-work. Thus will America be made safe. OUTSTANDING ESSENTIALS OF MODERN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE—ABSTRACT WILLIAM H. GOMPERT, ARCHITECT FOR THE BOARD OF EDUCATION NEW YORK CITY School buildings receive a greater share of attention than other public buildings; therefore the building of schools is a subject which offers con- tinual opportunity for debate on various phases which affect the type of building best adapted to the educational requirements. 750 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In New York City from February 1, 1923, to July 1, 1924, twenty-seven new school buildings and additions were completed ready for occupancy, at an aggregate cost of $14,781,622, providing 38,474 sittings; and nine tem- porary schools, costing approximately $266,172, providing 2,320 sittings. At the present time there are under contract and construction seventy-five new buildings and additions which will provide 140,629 sittings, costing approximately $84,126,991 ; one temporary building, providing 270 sittings, costing $28,461. We have in course of preparation in the draughting room, at the present time, plans and specifications for thirty-six new build- ings and additions, providing 48,215 sittings, costing $30,556,000. There are approximately seventy-nine additional buildings contemplated for the balance of 1923-24 providing 99,000 sittings and estimated to cost $65,687,000. The outstanding essentials of modern school buildings are: Well chosen sites of adequate plottage to give buildings proper setting and allow for future expansion; expertly planned schools advocating open plan, avoiding inner courts ; well designed buildings, truthful to the plan and with esthetic merit to serve as a note to improve the standard of design of all buildings in the community; the use of good materials with the best of workman- ship, both as a matter of economy and a means of making the architectural design endurable; ample provision for future needs and expansions in the planning of the building as is being done in New York City where pro- vision is being made for an expansion of from 25 per cent to 400 per cent. Recently M. Andre Morize, exchange French professor at Harvard uni- versity, in addressing the annual convention of the New Jersey State Federa- tion of Women's Clubs, criticized expenditures on American colleges and school buildings, advocating spending more on teachers and less on build- ings. This is a poor way to approach the question of securing adequate compensation for teachers, for the reason that if school buildings are cheap in appearance everything else will be appraised accordingly, including in- structors' salaries. SHOULD THE SCHOOL SECRETARY BE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SUPERINTENDENT-DISCUSSION WILLIAM DICK, SECRETARY, BOARD OF EDUCATION PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVAΝΙΑ The subject under discussion is so directly personal in its applicability to one holding the position of secretary and business manager in one of the larger school districts, that I might have, with due propriety, declined the assignment, but I am already on record on the negative side of this ques tion and a failure to respond at an National Education Association meeting might be misconstrued. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 751 What I have to say upon this subject is not from any personal motive or desire on my part to underrate or discount the dignity and responsibilities of the superintendent of schools, but it is given as a sincere expression of my belief after a rather lengthy service in the business administration of a large school district-serving with seven superintendents. I know full well that it is the honest desire and earnest belief of the average school superintendent that he should have full control and authority to superintend not only the instructional branch of the school system but all of the vast details incidental to the management of the physical plant involv- ing millions of dollars in value, as well as the many-sided questions in con- nection with the financial operations of the school district. The purse strings of a public body, whether it be a school district or a municipality, should never get beyond the control of representatives of the people; therefore, I argue that the school directors elected to govern and control the school system and charged with the responsibility of properly expending the school funds, should never surrender control thereof to the extent of becoming rubber stamp representatives of the people in their exercise of power and control over the expenditure of those funds. There are two separate and distinct lines in the administration of a school system: the educational side and the business side-one prescribing the various courses of study, special activities, and the needed school extensions with proper methods of instruction and supervision, and the other, the financing, construction, and upkeep of the physical plant. In the small school systems this last named division may be easily handled by the superintendent of schools with little or no interference with the main purpose of his office, namely, to direct and superintend the instruction of teachers and pupils. In the smaller district the physical school plant is of such limited extent and so often looked after by individual members of the school board that the superintendent is free to devote all his time to the professional work. In the larger districts, however, a different situation is presented, with an army of employees, inspectors, mechanics, clerks, engineers, and janitors, numbering in the thousands and expenditures apart from instruction, run- ning into hundreds of thousands yes, I should say millions. In Philadelphia this year, aside from the eighteen millions spent for salaries of supervisors, instructors, and educational supplies, the school board will expend many more millions for other purposes in the operation of the school system. This entails responsibilities and a vast amount of work altogether aside from the pedagogical viewpoint, and the wise superin- tendent will seek to be relieved of any such responsibilities. In the modern school system there are many features, such as school ex- tension work, community work, social centers, recreational activities, care of and aid to the subnormal, keeping the public fully and satisfactorily informed of the objects and aims of the school system; in short, as I have said once before, the superintendent should be not only the historian, but the 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION •prophet of the school system. On the other hand, it seems quite apparent that the construction, care, and custody of a physical plant valued at many millions of dollars, the acquiring the necessary school sites by purchase or condemnation proceedings, the making of contracts for equipment and sup- plies, as requisitioned by the superintendent's departments and various sub- divisions, and the keeping of costs within due bounds, are all matters of so much importance, and need so much attention, as to warrant the school board in relieving the superintendent of any responsibility in the direction thereof. It is often held by the superintendent that it is his duty to prepare, sub- mit, and recommend without regard to cost, that which should be done in the conduct of the schools and place the responsibility of approval or rejec- tionupon the school board. On the other hand, I believe it is only fair to the school board that its executives should carefully consider in connection with their recommendations, the means at hand or in prospect to carry on the work as recommended and to discriminate accordingly. The advice of the superintendent as to character and size of buildings, the quality of school equipment and other matters necessary to the maintenance and upkeep of the school plant should be given due consideration. Former U. S. Commissioner Claxton called attention to the fact that a number of communities in recent years had elected a business manager whose duties on the business side of school administration were coördinate with those of the superintendent on the educational side, and that such addition had been accompanied by a distinct increase in efficiency. The business manager, or director, or secretary, as he is more often called, is the mouth piece of the school board, and it is but right and proper that he should be subject to direction only by the school board. Therefore, I say, unhesitatingly, the secretary should not be under the direction of the superintendent. Department of Science Instruction SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-W. L. EIKENBERRY, State Normal School, East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Vice-President-THOMAS J. MCCORMACK, Principal, La Salle- Peru Township High School, La Salle, Illinois. Secretary ARTHUR H. FRENCH, California School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco, California. Local Committee-WILLIAM A. HEDRICK, Central High School, Washington, D. C. The Department of Science Instruction is an outgrowth of a State Department of Natural Science Teachers which was organized at a meeting of the Colorado State Teachers Association in 1894. See proceedings of 1895, page 951. It was first known as the Department of Natural Science Instruction. At the business session of the Department of Science Instruction of the National Education Association, held on Thursday afternoon, July 3, 1924, at Central High School, Washington, D. C., the following officers were elected : President-Otis W. Caldwell, Lincoln School, Columbia University, New York City ; Vice- President- Dr. George W. Hunter, Knox College, Galesburg, Ill .; Secretary-Emma M. Griebel, Lincoln High School, Portland, Oregon. It was voted that the president of the department appoint a committee of two from Washington to study the National Education Association membership and that of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, to try to de- termine the membership of the National Education Association. The following communication was therefore, sent to the Executive Committee : To the members of the Executive Committee of the National Education Association: The following resolution was passed unanimously by the Department of Science Instruction at its meeting, Tuesday afternoon, July 1. The Department heartily recommends the endorse- ment of this resolution by the Executive Committee of the National Education Association. W. L. EIKENBERRY, President, Department of Science Instruction. Whereas, the American Association for the Advancement of Science has invited the National Education Association to become affiliated with it; Whereas, the relation of affiliation between the two organizations would involve no financial responsibility to the National Education Association, but would involve only the naming of representatives of the latter to be council members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, thus giving to the National Education Association an official voice in the control of the American Association for the Advancement of Science policies and affairs; Whereas, the relation of affiliation would in no manner infringe upon the full autonomy of the National Education Association in regard to its meetings and all its affairs; Whereas, the said relation would involve the special privilege granted by the American Association for the Advancement of Science to members of affiliated organizations, namely, that they may become members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science without payment of the usual five dollar entrance fee ; Whereas, the purposes and aims of the two organizations are heartily in accord and are mutually approved; and Whereas, the American Association for the Advancement of Science stands for science education and the popularizing and humanizing of scientific knowledge, as well as for scientific research in all lines, including the science of education itself; therefore be it Resolved that the Department of Science Instruction cordially favor acceptance by the National Education Association of the above-mentioned invitation of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; andbe it further Resolved that this Department urge the general officers of the National Education Associa- tion to accept the invitation and to ratify the official affiliation of the National Education Association with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. [753] 754 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SCIENCE FOR THE MILLION EDWIN E. SLOSSON, DIRECTOR OF SCIENCE SERVICE, WASHINGTON , D. C. Once upon a time a country school teacher rang her bell after recess, but none of the children came in. She went outdoors to see what was the matter and found them all gathered along the roadside. "Oh, teacher," cried the children, "can't we stay out a minute longer? There is a circus coming by and we want to see the elephant." The teacher hesitated a moment, but she was a conscientious woman and knew her duty. "No. children," she said, "work must come before play." So she gathered them all in and shut the door and set them at their reading lesson, which was on "The Elephant, Its Appearance and Habits. " Now, like all fables, this is capable of being interpreted in various ways. It may be argued that moral training is of greater value than informational acquirement, that it was more important that the children should acquire the habit of obedience, and be able to resist the temptation to distraction of attention by passing events than that they should learn how an elephant looked. Put to the pragmatic test, who of us can say that his conduct or happiness in life has been materially affected by his knowledge that the elephant is distinguished by the possession of two tusks and a trunk? But if we consider the question from a purely pedagogical point of view, and assume that the teacher's duty was that prescribed by the curriculum, namely, the imparting of information about the elephant, then we must : admit that she did not adopt the best plan for the purpose; that she adhered too closely to methodology; that she failed to recognize that there are different ways of getting at the same thing; in short, that she allowed the means to obscure the end, which is a common fault of ordinary people as well as of school teachers . In looking over some old letters recently, I came across one that I will read to you because it contains more educational heresies than I ever found before on so small a sheet of paper. It is from the late William Hayes Ward, who was a living contradiction of the saying of Oliver Wendell Holmes that those who get up early in the morning are apt to be very conceited all the forenoon and very sleepy all the afternoon. Dr. Ward was certainly not sleepy when I knew him as editor-in-chief of The Inde- pendent. When he was more than eighty he still put in more hours at the office than any of the younger men on the staff. He was intensely inter- ested in scientific progress and social movements of the day, and after a hard day's work at the desk, he went home to spend a large part of the night in the study of Assyrian seals for the monograph, with thousands of illustrations, which he wrote for the Carnegie Institution. This is a letter that Dr. Ward wrote, in 1913 , to a friend who asked advice as to the education of his son : DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 755 The Independent, N. Y., February 15, 1913. My Dear Sir: I don't know whether I am old-fashioned in education or not- children are not crowded enough. It does not hurt them, if they have plenty of exercise. I was taught by my father at home. On my sixth birthday I began He- brew, and read the Hebrew Bible through before I was nine; the Greek Bible, Old and New Testaments, before I was twelve, and the Latin before fifteen, besides the other usual and some unusual studies. I believe in one study at a time, and push it,till the boy learns it. But science can be made a play. Your boy is old enough, buthe cannot read well enough, I fear, to analyze a flower from the book, even with your teaching. It is the best way to begin science. At least he can learn to dis- tinguish plants, and, as far as possible, by the Latin names . The only question about other studies is that he is backward in his English. He ought before this to have begun French ( or German) , not as much by book, in his case, as by word of mouth. Can't he find some teacher of French to talk with ? I am sorry that Latin seems to be out of the question. For his play I would take botany, in walks and talks, and for his study, in all probability, arithmetic, and push it. Yours truly, WILLIAM HAYES WARD, Editor. This idea of education, as you see, is quite the opposite of the popular theory and prevalent practice of today. William Rainey Harper had also the belief that it was better to concentrate on one study at a time and he intended to make this the plan of his new university of Chicago. I wish hehad had a chance to try it out. It would have been an interesting experi- ment. But nowadays students in our high schools and colleges take from four to six studies at a time and the class is supposed to keep in step for four years whatever may be their natural gait. In the army it is con- sidered essential that all the soldiers shall keep in step regardless of their various length of leg and rhythm of movement. I am somewhat skeptical about the necessity of such rigid conformity in the army, and I am quite sure that it is undesirable in education. The result of the lockstep system is that the laggards are pushed and the eager are checked. Consequently the students who are not able to keep up the pace get discouraged and fall out and those who do not find an outlet for their energies in the classroom, turn to athletics and what are euphemistically called "extra-curricular activities." It is not true that bright students are overworked. On the contrary, they are underworked. That is why they are apt to lose interest intheir studies, acquire a contempt for their slower classmates, and plunge into dissipation. It is not work but play that brings them to ruin. The idea that precocious students break down from overcrowding may serve as a plea in a court of law, but it has no standing in the court of reason. The new movement for the classification of students according to their native ability promises to give a fair chance to bright and dull alike. You will also see that Dr. Ward believed and demonstrated that some of the sciences, such as botany, could better be learned as recreation than astasks. I think that the same could be said of the cultivation of literature 756 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and the fine arts, and of the reading of history, philosophy, and science. Interest and appreciation in these fields can best be acquired through volun- tary and individual initiative rather than by compulsory and uniform drill. Not every boy, of course, can have such a parent-teacher as Dr. Ward had and was. But it illustrates the point I am making, that there is more than one way of learning science, and that we need all of them. You will doubt- less criticize his curriculum as too largely linguistic, yet you would not have reason to complain of so much devotion to dead language if they were well out of the way by fifteen and the boy had in the meantime become actively interested in several sciences. Dr. Ward was a teacher of science, both when he was a college professor and when he was an editor, and I never knew a man who took more delight in a new theory or a new dis- covery in any field of science than he, although his vocation was theology and his avocation was archeology. It is this side of science that I want to talk about its human interest, its cultural value, its amusement possibilities. Three hundred years ago, Bacon urged upon an incredulous world the novel idea that science might have a practical value, that it might lead to useful inventions and con- tribute to the comforts of life. Naturally the suggestion shocked the philosophers of that day, who cultivated science for its cultural value alone, an elegant pastime of a leisure class, which should never be debased to mercenary purposes. It seemed to them like harnessing Pegasus to a plow. But now Bacon's strange notion has come into such complete pos- session of the mind of modern men that they can hardly see any side of science except the utilitarian. The value of research as a contributor to the patent office is fully realized. But research as a recreation is quite incomprehensible. The amateur is being crowded out by the professional in science as in all the other sports. If an outsider shows an undue in- quisitiveness as to what is going on in the laboratories, he is apt to be snubbed by the investigators. Not because they have anything to con- ceal, but because they do not like to be bothered, and besides, as they sometimes frankly say, "it is none of his business." But it is a curious quality of the human mind to be interested in other things than our busi- ness, and it is to this irrational impulse, this divine deviation, that the arts and sciences owe their origin. They pay in the long run, but they were cultivated long before they paid. The radio and the trolley car are the recent fruits of a tree that has been longer growing than the giant red- woods of California. The sciences are like the arts in this : They need appreciators as well as practitioners. A baseball team plays best when the grandstand is full and enthusiastic. It may be said that the commonly professed admiration of fine arts, music, literature, and the like is a fashion- able affectation. That is largely true, but the mere existence of hypocritical interest proves that there are a certain number of respectable people who have a non-professional interest in such pursuits, and get a genuine benefit from them. That there is no similar social pressure imposing an affecta- tion of admiration for science proves that there is no considerable body DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 757 of laymen who take that sort of interest in science. There are doubtless many people who have never enjoyed a symphony, or have never been thrilled by "a chorus ending from Euripides." But those who have not have felt a certain misgiving and reluctance about admitting their incapacity to appreciate such things, even though they may in bravado profess disdain of them. On the other hand, those who have never felt the delight of the solu- tion of a scientific problem or experienced a moral elevation "at the con- templation of the starry heavens," have no sense of secret shame but are most apt to boast of their ignorance and incapacity. Witness the con- tempt manifested by the classicists for " the modern side," as given in Kipling's school stories. It is even possible to discern distinctions in the honorific rank of the several sciences, dependent, as in the case of aristo- cratic families, chiefly upon their ages. Astronomy, for instance, claiming a respectable antiquity of some six thousand years, and having received the commendation of such well-known literary men as David, Kant, and Addison, is not to be sneezed at as chemistry is. Yet the contemplation of the electronic system within the atom is quite as awe-inspiring, and gives one the same sense of moral elevation as may be derived from an appreci- ation of the magnitude of the starry heavens. Of course, astronomy, being, in its higher branches, a useless study, has thereby a better claim to honorific rank with those who admire only the sciences that belong to the leisure class and do not have to work for a living. Mathematics, almost as old as astronomy and also largely cultivated from non-utilitarian motives, is held in higher esteem than such parvenu and practical sciences as botany and zoölogy. It is, of course, easiest to ascribe this popular indifference to the defects of our educational system. The schoolmaster has largely taken the place left vacant in our modern thought by the abdication of the devil. Teachers are nowadays held responsible for anything that goes wrong with either the individual or society. I shall not attempt here to relieve them of any part of the heavy burden of responsibility thrust upon them, for as a class they seem rather to enjoy it, perhaps because it is a tribute to their importance. But it seems to me unwarranted to assume that a distaste for science is due to the introduction of science into the curriculum, as it is also unwarranted to assume that the reason why people do not commonly read the English classics in after life is because they had to study them in the classroom. No ; the difficulty is, in my opinion, due largely to the lack of a class of competent and zealous interpreters of scientific thought, and if our educational system is in any degree responsible for this deficiency in our modern life, it is because it does not lay enough stress on training in the art of popular presentation. Our universities cannot be expected to discover and train many Mendels or Galileos. The number of persons who can profitably devote their lives to research is relatively small in each generation, even though it ought to be larger than it is now in this country. These professional investigators 758 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for the most part dislike to have people crowd around them and look over their shoulders as they work. I do not think it would hurt them so much as they think it would, to give a popular exposition of their researches, but I recognize the fact that they are often incapable of making comprehensible to the lay mind the significance of what they are doing; and in any case it would not be profitable to take much of their time for this purpose from the labors for which they are peculiarly fitted. But here is a task, indeed a duty, for the large number of our graduates who have been trained in the method of science and inspired by its ideals, and yet are not able, either for lack of genius or opportunity to devote themselves to its advancement. They should constitute the middlemen of science, its spokesmen, and popu- larizers. They might stand between the small group of research men, absorbed in their specialties, and the great mass of readers to whom the progress of science is of importance, and to whom it would be of interest if pains were taken properly to present it to them. It is not, of course, to be expected that people will follow with interest every step in routine of research, the steady, tedious march of the advance guard of science, ever onward into the unknown. But people are naturally interested in two features of scientific work: in its speculative and practical sides, its theories and its applications. In recent progress of the physical and biological sciences, both these features have been present. The new theories are revolutionary and the new applications innumerable. The newspapers and magazines offer unprecedented opportunities for reaching the public, but these channels are insufficiently utilized. If our bachelors of science had a little more of the missionary spirit, and a little more appre- ciation of popular needs and tastes, the deficiency might readily be remedied. The beauty and meaning of scientific discoveries can be revealed to the general reader if there is an intermediary who can understand equally the language of the laboratory and of the street. The modern journalist knows that anything can be made interesting to anybody if he takes pains enough with the writing of it. It is not necessary either to pervert scientific truths in the process of translation into the vernacular. The facts are sensational enough without any picturesque exaggeration. Science is making such rapid progress nowadays that the science teacher, like Alice in Wonderland, has to keep running in order to hold her ground, and the public, not having to hurry so, is being left far behind. Never before in history has the human mind been given so many strange and disconcerting ideas to digest as during the last decade. Geometrical conceptions that have been accepted as axiomatic for 2,500 years are now know to be inadequate. Generalizations that have formed the foundation of modern science, like the laws of the conservation of matter and of energy, are found to require revision. Old ideas that we were taught had been definitely disproved, like the corpuscular theory of light, again come to life and demand reconsideration. The ghost of abiogenesis, once thought laid by Pasteur, walks the earth a hundred years after . In the leisurely days of the past century, the universe seemed to be • DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 759 running smoothly and continuously, but now everything is on the jump. The Mendelian method of evolution by jerks had displaced the Darwinian process of the gradual accretion of infinitesimal variations. And now comes Einstein with his creased and humpy space, Bohr with his excitable atom, and Planck with his patent brand of energy delivered only in unbroken packages. And there is more to follow. Physiology, biology, and psychology have still to have their innings as creative sciences. J. B. S. Haldane, of Cam- bridge, who has a more far-reaching imagination than any biologist since Wells grew up, says in his portentous booklet, "Dædulus," that "A time will come as I believe when physiology will invade and destroy mathe- matical physics, as the latter have destroyed geometry." And he gives some startling suggestions of what the biologist may do in the way of improving the human race when once he gets his hand in, as an experi- mentalist and inventor. During the late war, when we all took daily lessons in military strategy and tactics, we learned that it was dangerous for the troops at the front to advance so fast and far as to cause a break in the line of communication with the rank and file. Supplies for the firing line were likely to fail and there was a chance for the enemy to make a dash around to the rear and cut off the advance guard from its supports. We also learned from the war that the liability of a lack of coördination and coöperation was greatly increased when the army consisted of troops who did not understand each other's language. To prevent such disasters an efficient corps of liaison officers was kept in the field. Now it seems to me that science is in the serious situation of an army where communication has been temporarily interrupted between those at the front who are engaged in fighting the battle of the human race against ignorance, and the great mass of the people from whom the active com- batants must draw their support and recruits. Scientists use among them- selves a language different from the vulgar tongue, and they are so absorbed in the conflict that they have no time to explain their war aims and give reasons for their maneuvers. Consequently there is great need for inter- preters and liaison officers as intermediates between the scientist and the layman. We must also bear in mind that a scientist is a layman in every science but his own, and so he likewise needs to have the new things in other fields explained in non-technical language. It was for the purpose of filling in the missing link between scientific circles and the world at large that Science Service was founded in Wash- ington three years ago. Being a unique institution in the world, it has been something of a puzzle to press and public. Being debarred by its charter from propaganda or profit-making, not being engaged in booming any business or promoting any university, the sole purpose of Science Service is the dissemination of scientific information on the widest possible scale. Science Service may, therefore, claim to be a sort of public school, using newspapers, magazines, books, motion pictures, and radio as means 760 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of instruction. I am, then, engaged in teaching, as you are, except that my classes are larger and less attentive. It was at first the intention of Science Service to supplement the schools rather than to assist them, but when we began syndicating science news to the papers various teachers of science wrote to ask if they, too, could not get our mimeographed sheets for use in their classes, to bring the text- books up to date, and to impart a new and practical interest to the sub- ject. So we arranged to run off a weekly set of sheets under the name of the " Science News Letter," which is supplied to schools and colleges at somewhat less than cost. Another of our plans, in which I hope to get your advice and coopега- tion, is to provide the papers with a "Young People's Page of Science," that will keep pace through the school year with the courses in general and special science, and furnish a variety of news items, biographical sketches , interesting sidelights, simple experiments, and other readable ma- terial, designed to aid the teachers by awakening the student to the fact that what he is studying is not confined to the classroom, but has practical applications to the affairs of the world at large. But I may confess to you in confidence that we expect that older people will read on the sly our school science page, as they do other books and articles ostensibly written for young people. I want you teachers to regard Science Service not only as your aid, but also as the extension department of your schools. Science teachers can help our work by hints as to how to reach the people of their locality, and as to what sort of material is most needed. English teachers can help our work by giving their students practice in the rewriting of scientific articles in a way to reach the non-scientific reader. This is an excellent drill in English, and opens up a new field for the exercise of literary talents. As a result of our three years' experience in the popularizing of science, I may say that we have found the public eager to hear of the results of scientific research; we have found the newspapers and magazines ready to publish such material if attractively presented ; we have found scientists generally willing to provide information if they were sure it would not be distorted in the translation into the vernacular. But we have not found enough contributors who combine a scientific conscience with a knack of writing and a nose for news. We are constantly missing chances to place articles because we can't find writers who can handle the subject compe- tently and interestingly. I spend a large part of my time angling for authors, baiting my hook with a mixture of altruistic and mercenary induce- ments and, though I get many a nibble, I rarely land a catch that fills the bill. As teachers you may be interested in the conclusion I have arrived at as to what is the matter with most manuscripts. It is usually not a lack of information or intelligence. It is not lack of training or talent. It is amoral defeat, lack of sympathy. It is the failure of the authors to obey the maxim, "Put yourself in his place." They have not been able to realize DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 761 the reader. They have neglected to consider what he wanted to know and how he needed to have it put. They write for their own amusement, rather than for the profit of others. But authorship is essentially an altru- istic act. It is something done for others, unless one is writing a private diary. So one must be unselfish about it, if he is to succeed. The Golden Rule is not only a good guide to life, but a guide to good writing. SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL HOLLAND R. SPERRY, LINCOLN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COLLEGE NEW YORK CITY The subject, "Science in the Elementary School," which has been as- signed to me, covers a large field and has many ramifications. I wish to confine my discussion to the work that is being done in the Lincoln School of Teachers College, having in mind the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. However, some of the activities which I shall describe may be used in the lower grades. My paper is based on my experiences and observations as a classroom teacher, and is not the result of any special investigation. I believe that education in science should do these things for the indi- vidual: It should develop in him a scientific attitude. By that I mean not only an attitude of inquiry and of investigation, but also an attitude ready to doubt preconceived notions based upon traditional hypotheses. He should be able to formulate new hypotheses as more and more truths are dis- covered. It is an attitude receptive of changes. A truly scientific mind is the truly open mind. It should give him a greater appreciation of his environment-a liking for it-an active positive attitude to do something about it. This will help toward a fuller, richer use of leisure time. The positive attitude implies going out to find out about things in his environment and not waiting for them to come to him. Also to be anxious to conserve the natural resources and beauty that are around us. It should give him an appreciation of what science and a scientific atti- tude have meant to modern progressive life. It is difficult for the classroom teacher to keep in mind and to try to achieve all the special aims or objectives claimed for science. Nor is there very definite evidence that anyone is realizing these special aims of science. It would be far better to teach our science in such a way that we would satisfy the general educational aims. Better still, we should provide science activities which, when properly carried out, would, in their very nature, lead to the accomplishment of our objectives. It may be true that all the aims should not receive equal attention at any one time or in any one grade. However, when the opportunity presents 762 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION itself to develop any of these aims, stress it, and make the most of it, whether it is in the first grade or sixth-whether we are studying the weather or magnets. The curriculum should include objective nature experiences determined by the environment. There should be a definite body of knowledge stated in the curriculum. This means certain group experiences common to all in the group. In addition there must be opportunity for individual inter- ests, problems, and investigations, not necessarily experienced by the rest of the group. The science problems should naturally arise from needs felt, interests aroused, or facts doubted in other work, as in social studies, industrial and household arts, and in experiences and activities both in and out of school. Science should not be a thing apart nor taught apart from its real con- nections with the problems of life. Investigators and science teachers have concerned themselves for the most part with science for the junior and senior high schools. There is an urgent need for someone to determine what science to teach, how to teach it, and where to teach it in our elementary schools. Much will be accom- plished when we have conducted careful and accurate studies in the ele- mentary schools. Our knowledge of the subject as taught in the junior and senior high schools does not answer the question. Much to our sur- prise, the fourth and fifth grade pupils did not care to know the chemistry connected with photography in the same way that a high-school boy would care to know it. All their interest was centered upon the mechanics of the process. They were perfectly willing to accept the contents of the tubes of developer as a substance which when mixed with the proper amount of water would produce a negative from their films and a positive picture on their print paper. During the entire course, no question was asked concerning what chemical action took place on the plate while it was being developed. Their chief interest seemed to be in the finished product and the control of the scientific process. Our problem is not what chil- dren are interested in, because with the proper presentation they are inter- ested in almost any subject of science. As I see it, the problem is agreater one than that. It is in what phase of the subject and to what extent is he interested. Is he satisfied to spend a few minutes on a particular subject, or could a unit such as corn, milk, or magnets engage his active interest for ten or more lessons ? It seems to me that no unit of science work should be prolonged beyond the active interest of the class as a whole. Those responsible for our science curriculum are very apt to look to the materials of the science course in the junior and senior high school, selecting that which they think could be taught just as well in the elementary school. Perhaps they will suggest a similar plan of teaching it. Wouldn't it be a far better plan to begin to build at the bottom without any reference to what is being taught in the higher grades, and determine what science experiences will follow, based upon what has already been experienced, rather than to do it in the reverse order ? DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 763 We do not desire a detailed curriculum in science for the grades. What we need, however, is a definite plan setting forth specific activities and subject matter for each grade, providing for an intelligent and progressive program in science throughout the grades. For example : Provision should bemade for some plant and animal studies to be made in each grade. The kind of plant or animal study should be determined by careful investiga- tion for each grade. The detailed procedure should be developed by the teacher, who will have in mind the pupils' interests, materials at hand, and his own limitations. I can conceive of a subject like milk being taught in all of the grades, dealing with a slightly different aspect in each grade. Whether the services of a special teacher should be used will be determined by the needs of the teacher and the availability of such help. A special room for science is desirable, though not necessary. The teacher should avail himself of all the help and equipment that are to be had. Lacking these, he should proceed to do the best he can without them. A determina- tion to teach science is all that is needed. The life of the school should be conducted in such manner that the children would be expected to use and practice facts or principles of science. This is especially true of the laws of health such as exercise, care of the teeth, eyes, hair, and nails; eating, drinking, rest, personal cleanli- ness, civic pride, safety first, first aid, fire prevention, and many others. Merely reading and discussing a health habit does not necessarily develop a lifelong habit. "We learn to do by doing," is a truth that ought to cause us to question the effectiveness of much that we are teaching. We must do more than teach a child how to brush his teeth-we must teach him to brush his teeth day in and day out; until he has a very uncomfortable feeling in his mouth when he does not brush his teeth. If the fire extinguishers placed in your schools are to be used in case of fire, teach the children to use them by having a fire out-of-doors. This spring, some fifth-grade pupils proposed that they be allowed to demon- strate the use of these extinguishers. Teams of two each were organized and a contest was staged to see which team could extinguish the fire in the least amount of time. Materials for several fires were provided and one lighted for each team as their time came. At the signal the team was to run into the building, take down the fire extinguisher from its support, carry it out, invert it, and put out the fire. Previous to the contest the class examined an unloaded cylinder, and the principle was very carefully explained and then two of the boys loaded it ready for use. The children had learned from a talk on fire prevention that it was important to extin- guish a fire in the first few minutes. They had also seen a moving picture showing how to handle a fire extinguisher. The signal was given, and the first team rushed into the building. After four minutes were over and the fire had nearly burned the material, the team came out to say that they could not take the extinguisher from the hook. Failure one. The second fire was lighted and the signal was given the second team. All went well until they inverted the extinguisher. 764 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Action started immediately. They had forgotten to grasp the hose; the force of the water jerked the hose around, throwing water all over the other children and themselves, but very little, if any, on the fire. Finally, when they had it under control, the extinguisher had spent itself, and there was not enough left to put the fire entirely out. The third team. profiting by the experience of the others, extinguished their fire in less than aminute. Yet the members of the losing teams could tell you in no uncer- tain terms how to put out a fire. They needed only experience to complete their training. Time does not permit a detailed account of the science work done even in one grade. I believe a brief list of the science activities, with a short description of each, will be helpful in understanding what we are attempt- ing to do. To aid you in following, I will state the activity by the best name I can give it, followed by the explanation with a few examples of that activity. To appreciate what the activity does for the pupils you would have to see it in its natural setting. During the past year we tried text material for the first time in the fifth and sixth grades. This material was in manuscript form and was an attempt to provide some worth-while science for our three twenty-five- minute periods per week. Time does not permit me to discuss the content of the course; perhaps the reading of the chapter headings will give you a general idea. We feel that science, if properly taught, is worth being taught for its own sake, and is entitled to a place on our program. Summer collections-The child's education does not end with the close of school. He has many experiences which teach him new things regard- ing his environment. We plan special science activities for the pupils to carry out during the summer. Before school is out he usually decides what he will collect, or what industries or exhibits he will visit during the summer. In our summer suggestions, we list useful and interesting things to do or to collect, including a carefully prepared list of science books that may be used to assist him in his work. When school opens in the fall, each pupil brings a collection or a record of the work done, and the entire school has an exhibit of summer work. We secure a variety of exhibits, such as written reports on industries visited, samples secured, col- lections of insects, rocks, leaves, flowers, ferns, etc. The pupils are required to prepare and label their own material. Each grade has several science lessons based on this exhibit. This type of work is very important because it tends to relate the school work with the summer experiences and vice versa. Science in other subjects-We study science topics that arise in the other school subjects, such as the study of inventions in history, milk in the house hold arts, and dyeing in industrial arts. Many times after studying a topic in this way the pupils prepare a class booklet to preserve their work. Such has been the case in booklets on milk, silk, aquaria, bulbs, and leaf prints. This provides valuable material for written English. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 765 Field trips to the out- of-doors-Trips are planned to study trees, plants, rocks, birds, and pond life. These trips are taken in the fall and spring months. They require careful planning on the part of the teacher in order that they may not become a picnic instead of a real study experi- ence. However, the pupils should be allowed the enjoyment that naturally develops from such activity. One of the aims should be to develop a habit of taking little nature trips during the time that the child is not in school. In this activity lies the opportunity to teach in a concrete way the preserva- tion of our wild life by learning to enjoy what they see without destroying it or taking it back to the school or home only to have it die. Reporting interesting articles-We encourage the pupils to read and discuss interesting science articles found in the daily papers, Popular Me- chanics, and the Weekly Science Letter, published by the Science Service. This is science up to the minute. The pupils are unusually interested in the historical sketches contained in the Weekly Science Letter. Nearly every day pupils ask for time to report on some interesting article which they have read. Science bulletin board-Encourage pupils to post interesting science arti- cles or pictures on a bulletin board. These clippings may be cut from newspapers and magazines. Give the pupil time to make a brief report upon any interesting item that he posts. Pupils develop the habit of read- ing science articles that they find, and this gives them an interest in the present-day development of science. The bulletin board committee pre- serves the material in a science scrapbook. Inspecting industries and exhibits-During the year many special trips are planned. Sometimes to assist in the better understanding of processes studied in the classroom, such as a visit to a milk station, flour mill, or paper mill, and sometimes a visit to an exhibit, because it is worth while in itself and may lead to further work in the classroom, such as a silk exhibit, fire-prevention exhibit, and Ford processes exhibit. In either case , careful preparation and planning beforehand and definite discussion after- ward are necessary. Industries and exhibitors are usually glad to have the school children visit them. Science assemblies-Several science assemblies have been held this year . Our summer collection exhibit, held at the opening of school, raised a num- ber of questions that were not answered by the information cards and labels on the materials. These questions were written out and handed to the exhibit committee. These were classified, and talks were given by adults, relating to birds, insects, trees, plants, and rocks. Each speaker tried to answer the questions raised concerning his topic. Two assemblies were given by pupils, having to do with simple science experiments which they had in the classroom or had done at home. The subjects were air pressure, expansion and contraction of air, destructive distillation of wood, distillation of water, need of oxygen in burning, and many others. The pupils made their own preparation outside of regular school time. The school furnished simple apparatus for those who needed it. Much of the 766 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION apparatus was made or supplied by the pupils. These assemblies increased the interest in our regular science work. Special reports by pupils-These reports are given to the class by indi- vidual pupils on some topic which they have selected. The pupil presents a story of an excursion, a special interest, or demonstrates some simple experiment before the class. There is a wide range of topics: "My Visit to the Hangar at Lakehurst, N. J." ; " How I Studied Birds Last Summer" ; "The Use of Water Power in the United States" ; "Types of Airplanes and Their Uses" ; " The Liberty Motor" ; "The Origin of Fire and Meth- ods of Making Fire" ; and simple physical and chemical experiments. Preparation for these reports is made without the assistance of the teacher. The pupil may prepare the report at home, or use any spare time that he has. The pupils prepare a program and have one or more of these reports given each day during the fifteen-minute lunch period. This provides us with real oral English material. Questions are asked and criticisms are given by the pupils and teacher. Usually the speaker illus- trates his talk with the object under discussion, or else with pictures or dia- grams. A pupil giving an unusual report may be asked to give it to another grade or to the whole school at one of our weekly assemblies. The pupils giving the best reports are asked to hand in a copy to the special report committee to be preserved in their booklet. Handling apparatus-This type of work consists of the handling and the study of electrical and mechanical equipment found in the home or in the child's environment. Here the pupil has an opportunity to see the inside of the electric iron, socket, switch, and sweeper. This material is secured in various ways. Sometimes a pupil brings it from home, and sometimes a merchant is willing to loan or demonstrate some household appliance. After taking the apparatus to pieces and assembling it again, all the mystery is gone. This is an activity that deserves development. Use of exhibit cases-Many interesting and instructive exhibits have been placed in the display cases in the halls. There are enough of these built-in display cases to provide one for each grade. Sometimes an entire class plans the exhibit, sometimes one pupil or a small group of pupils furnishes all of the materials. The exhibit may be the outgrowth of the class work, a field trip, or the expression of some special interest of one or more pupils. A few prepared exhibits that have been loaned to the school have been shown to the entire school in this manner. If the exhibit is a valuable one and of general interest, each grade goes as a group at some scheduled time to see it and to have some one explain the points to be observed. These exhibits are prepared and arranged in the cases by the pupils receiving the necessary help from the teacher. The exhibit case committee, consisting of one pupil from each grade and a teacher advisor, decides when a display has served its usefulness. All material of permanent value is preserved for future school use. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 767 During the past month the following exhibits were placed in the cases: Fuel, and outgrowth of the study of coal and its products, made by the fourth grade; nuts, a collection of a dozen or more kinds of nuts grown invarious parts of the world, an outgrowth of a special interest of a fifth- grade pupil; cheese-various kinds of cheese collected by the pupils of the fourth grade during their study of milk and its products; paper products- an exhibit showing samples of paper products collected and arranged by two fifth-grade pupils as a special interest; ration for a dairy cow-pre- pared by a pupil in the fourth grade as a special interest developed in the class study of milk. The collecting, arranging, and labeling of these exhib- its require careful and accurate work on the part of the pupils. By using this method the entire school can see some of the finished work of each grade. The exhibit, however, is a by-product or result of the activity, and not the reason for which the work was done, since most of them were not prepared especially for the cases. Science question box-Pupils having questions on some science problem are encouraged to write the questions out and hand them in. Once a week the classroom teacher or special teacher helps the pupils to answer these questions, using any available apparatus or material to make the answer clear. Many times questions are raised which would otherwise not be answered, since they do not pertain to the subject matter of the science course. This material could form the basis for a paper. Use of demonstration material-When possible, we should provide such things as observational bee-hives, plant aquaria, animal aquaria, insect cages, school gardens, dark room, museum, and laboratory, to assist the pupils in their work. Much of the material needed for the plant and animal study can be planned and made by the pupils. Useful material may be collected by the pupils and preserved for class use, such as pictures, specimens, and booklets. Cabinets or boxes should be provided for storage or filing. Besides providing a source for illustrative material, it stimulates an interest in the subject for the pupil. If the school has a library, a special reference shelf ought to be provided. Books and magazines containing reference material for the science of the classroom should be placed on this shelf. Pupils develop the habit of going to this shelf in order to find any new science books that have been added. It would be very helpful to teachers if the town or city school system would provide a centrally located exhibit room. From time to time, teachers of the various grades could exhibit units of work which they have done and which may encourage other teachers to try out the same material. In time we would be able to develop a real science curriculum for the elementary grades. The use of lantern slides and moving pictures-Lantern slides are used in all the grades whenever slides are available which illustrate the sub- ject that is being discussed. These cover a variety of subjects and assist in making the class work more effective since slides tell a story that would 768 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION be difficult to tell in mere words. Needless to say, great care shouldbe used in selecting slides. A few that meet your needs will be of greater service than a larger number of general interest. The use of the new day- light screen makes it possible to use slides in ordinary light. Science clubs-These clubs may be formed by those interested and may stimulate interest which will carry over into the class work. The club may be interested in birds, photography, or nature, or may have a general science interest. In this manner we can provide for an outlet for the special interests or hobbies. Special group work-Pupils of the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, who are especially interested in science, meet in the laboratory on one afternoon each week. The size of the group is limited and each pupil decides before- hand just what he will do during the period. Simple physical and chemical experiments are performed. The entire group made a special study of photography in which we took pictures, developed films and plates, made prints, made some enlargements, and learned how to mix the needed chemi- cal solutions. One lesson was given to the making of leaf prints on ordi- nary print paper and tinting the prints with Japanese water colors. Each member of the group had an opportunity to work at each of these proc- esses. This study has led to individual work in photography before and after school hours. Three boys who were in the group made thirty-five sets of seven pictures each for the play booklet that the sixth grade was preparing. Several members of the group have prepared to make leat prints during the summer for our fall exhibit. This plan is an attempt to provide a time and place for pupils to do the kind of science work that they are especially interested in. Here, many of the class experiments con- ducted by the teacher are repeated by the pupil because of his own desire to do so. In conclusion, I wish to anticipate your question, "Yes; that is all very nice, but how are we to find a place for science in an already overcrowded program ?" The answer to this depends very largely upon the classroom teacher. If you are sympathetic toward science and want it badly enough you can find time for it. If we can justify any of the subjects that are now taught in our elementary schools, we can justify science. Science is needed in our program to give the program the proper balance. Besides , science has a contribution to make to the other studies-oral English, written English, social studies, and the industrial and household arts. DEVICES AND METHODS IN NATURAL SCIENCE J. T. SHRINER, A. B. , HEAD OF SCIENCE DEPARTMENT , LATIMER JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL , PITTSBURGH , PENNSYLVANIA The intermediate grades, seven to nine, inclusive, or those comprising the junior high school, constitute preeminently an exploratory period, a DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 769 trying-out period to which the Heuristic method of science is particularly adapted. The content of the science work of this period is not a deli- cately balanced conglomerate of physics, biology, chemistry, and physical geography, but a course based upon the social, hygienic, and economic needs and interests of pupils of the early adolescent age. For example, the progressive and normal development of a pupil, as an increasingly worthy member of his home, needs to be traced and outlined, step by step, and the other subjects brought to bear upon a solution of the problems involved. This is the period when amateur scientists are developed. Witness widespread interest among boys and girls of this age in the recent exten- sions of the use of the wireless and the automobile. The science club, both curricular and extra-curricular, with its opportunity to develop and play with scientific hobbies and toys, is admirably adapted to this period and should be encouraged. From being largely empirical, the thinking of the pupil rapidly becomes more constructive, and under the skillful guidance of the teacher, will enable him successfully to work his way through problems of considerable complexity. In general, the course will stress the science of home and community life, with special reference to those features that make the pupil more socially efficient on the playground, at home, at school, and in the community. A rigid syllabus for the science work of this period applicable to all schools alike, is unthinkable. Rich in its suggestions of materials and methods, the syllabus must leave each teacher free to work out his own course in terms of the special needs and interests of the varying groups of boys and girls in his classes. There is no substitute for a skillful and resourceful teacher of science in the intermediate grades. A prominent educator recently said : " My observation leads me to say that the position of a teacher of science in this all-important period is the key position, no other subject excepted, in the whole high-school range, from the seventh grade to the twelfth, and should attract, as it indeed requires, the most skillful and human of teachers." The course in science should be continuous throughout this period. The time allotment should be approximately the equivalent of two years of work in a single subject, four hours per week. Probably the best distribu- tion of this time would give two hours per week throughout the seventh and eighth grades, and four hours per week during the ninth grade. It goes almost without saying that the junior high school science course, if it is to realize its full value, cannot well be a textbook course. Mate- rials of instruction must be chosen with reference to the needs and resources of the local community on the one hand, and the interests and capacities of each class group on the other. Several texts can well be used, and these as reference books, rather than as texts out of which consecutive lessons are assigned. Such a course must never be allowed to become fixed or static. New materials and new methods must be constantly sought and adapted to meet the need of varying groups of pupils and, so far as possible, to meet in some measure the special interest of individual pupils. 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The problem-project method of instruction is the one best adapted to this exploratory period, so that young people may have the opportunity of expressing themselves individually along lines of their fundamental in- stincts and interests, and thus develop lines of individual aptitudes. This is not to say that the problem-project method should be used exclusively. The work will necessarily have to be developed by use of clubs; visualiza- tion work; note-books; recitation and demonstration; reference material , and correlation. The science club-"Self-activity is the law of growth." The aim of the club is to encourage general scientific knowledge; to have every child function; to help the teacher get better interest; to encourage the pupil to present the thing he is most interested in; to help himdo better the thing he will do anyway. The child's interest is often formed in him and is given an enthusiasm started by his classmates rather than by his teacher. It develops leadership, and teaches self-reliance. The appreciation of the important part that science plays in the everyday life of every citizen. The time allowed should be one class period each week. The officers should be as follows : president; vice-president ; secretary-treasurer ; sergeant-at- arms; club editor and English critic; magazine buyer ; note-book critic. The duties of the president are to take charge of the club meetings; to see that those who have topics are prepared; to take charge of room when teacher is out; put "pep" into the club; invite criticism; visit other clubs : post club standing each week ; arrange for visits to factories, etc. The vice-president marks each pupil for work done in club according to scale agreed upon by the club and teacher. All the officers receive A or B grades. Army officers who cannot earn such a grade are promptly re- moved from office. The club marks of the class are submitted to the teacher at the end of the month for his or her approval. The secretary-treasurer keeps the minutes of all meetings; marks short topics which are held over, keeps time of illustrated short topics; appoints a time-keeper, and assigns topics. The sergeant-at-arms sees that magazines are kept in order; operates projector; attends to shades ; appoints a light regulator, and keeps the clubroom in order. The club editor places all important club news in the school paper, and criticizes the grammar used in all topics. The magazine buyer purchases all the latest magazines on science, as soon as they are on the market. Visualization day-This type of recitation is in the experimental stage. The aim is to try to turn the motion and still pictures from entertainment to educational purposes. They are shown one day each week. Only pic- tures based on the subject at hand are shown. Notes and drawings are made as the picture is shown. About half the period is taken for the showing and the other half for the writing up of the subject. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 771 Note-book work-" Improvement of laboratory practice will result in - less cumbersome forms of note-taking and note-book marking. The ex- periment is not designed for the sake of a note-book record. A summary of results which can be used in interpreting the work done should be made, and pupils should be allowed much freedom in the precise manner in which the record is made. They should record important and significant facts, and the record should be clear and complete." Recitation and demonstration-The problem-project method is the best suited for this age of pupils. The problems and projects are unified on the basis of individual experiments, class discussion, reference and labora- tory work by individuals, and small groups. "Frequently the laboratory and classroom are separate, not only physically, but mentally. The value of individual laboratory work has been seriously injured by requiring each pupil to do exactly the same experiment as every other pupil and to do it in the same time and the same way as nearly as possibble." The classroom should be made a workshop. Each child has a right to work out the thing he or she desires. Coöperation in a group project frequently has a high social value. INVESTIGATION OF DEMONSTRATION VERSUS LABORA- TORY AS A METHOD OF TEACHING NATURAL SCIENCE—ABSTRACT FRED G. ANIBAL, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI Desiring to show by purely objective methods, whether adequate instruc- tion could be given by the lecture method as efficiently if not better than by the laboratory method, an experiment was made in the regular chemistry classes of Central High School, Kansas City, Missouri. Two classes were first balanced by shifting students from one to the other, after the ability of each student had been determined by the use of general intelligence tests. The groups were then taught, one by the regular procedure of individual laboratory work and the other by the method of lecture demonstration. The experiments were demonstrated before the class without the students having any contact whatever with the apparatus or the materials. At frequent intervals, both groups were tested by means of the same objective tests, and the results compared. The lecture-demonstration method consistently gave better results all the way through the experimental study. The students seemed to under- stand the fundamental principles of chemistry better. Perhaps this is due to their being less distracted by the novelty and also complication of the apparatus, when they have to set up the equipment and try the experiment also, as in the case of the individual laboratory method of instruction. The results of the first investigation were checked by a similar experi- ment made with two similarly balanced groups of high-school students, after 772 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the completion of the first study. The second investigation confirmed the results arrived at in the first study. The cost of the lecture-demonstration method is remarkably lower. Only one complete supply of equipment is required in this method, as con- trasted with the cost of about fifteen complete sets in use when the students do the work by individual laboratory procedure. Much building space is also saved, in that the lecture-demonstration room need not be more than one third the size ordinarily given over to the regular chemistry laboratory. The cost of the laboratory furniture required to do the work by lecture-demonstration would not be one tenth the amount that is neces- sary to meet the requirement for the individual laboratory method of instruction. SCIENCE INSTRUCTION IN SOME EUROPEAN SCHOOLS E. R. DOWNING, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS During 1922-23, the writer spent a semester at the University of Mont- pellier, and a month at the University of Paris. He also visited the uni- versities of Marseilles and Grenoble, both in France, of Geneva, Switzer- land, Oxford, Portsmouth, and London, in England; teacher-training schools at Montpellier, Paris, Geneva, Chichester, Portsmouth, London; secondary and primary schools in all of the above places and in many other cities. He also visited agricultural colleges, medical, commercial, technical, and other types of schools, primarily to observe the science instruction. Members of his family were enrolled both in the university and secondary schools, so that some information was gained at first hand from the students' point of view. A bare summary must omit the many illuminating experiences. Science work in universities seems very like that in similar American institutions. One misses the catalogue of our schools giving details of courses . That information is found on the bulletin board at the university. The professor lectures to his students, rarely conducting a recitation or quiz. There is no roll call at class ; students attend or not, as they please. If there is a counter-attraction in the city, like an excellent matinee at the opera, the classrooms may be nearly deserted, but the lecture proceeds just the same. But in the laboratory work there is the same aid and super- vision of students that we are accustomed to. The laboratory instructors seem very skillful and conscientious in their attention to students. The final examinations are very thorough and many students cram, under tutors. who, in every university town, become quite famous for their ability to coach students successfully for the finals, each in his special line. Many universities in France are poorly housed, often in old monasteries or palaces that are adapted with difficulty to university use. Laboratone are, therefore, likely to be poorly lighted and inconvenient. In Switzer DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 773 land and England, the university buildings are, as a rule, built for the purpose and so are more commodious and convenient. The Oxford campus and buildings are incomparably beautiful, though little space is devoted to science. Cambridge and London give considerable attention to science. Laboratory equipment is, as a rule, adequate without extrava- gance, and is not under lock and key. The display of historically interest- ing apparatus used in famous investigations by the great scientists fur- nishes an element in the apparatus cases largely lacking in our own; it compensates in a measure for the occasional lack of modern appliances. The university professor is usually an efficient, charming man of broad culture, always hospitable both at home and in his classroom or laboratory, welcoming the opportunity to show the visitor about, and alert to learn all he can of American schools and customs. His relations with his students are friendly, often intimate. The French and Swiss lycées and colleges are, as far as age of pupils is concerned, the equivalent of our high schools, for the French lad, after his kindergarten, usually spends five years in the primary or elementary school ; then, if he graduates successfully, seven years in the lycée or college. If he passes the stiff finals-about sixty per cent fail each year he receives his bachelor's degree, and proceeds to his professional school at about seventeen years of age. If he elects a classical course, he must take eleven year-hours of science out of a total of 172, and in the scientific courses he must have twenty-six. Expressed in American equivalents, this would mean that pupils in grades six to twelve, inclusive, receive a minimum of ayear and a half of science instruction five times a week and a maximum of four years. The science work of the lycée consists of zoology the first year; botany and geology the second; physics and chemistry continuously from the third to the seventh years; zoology again in the fourth year; and natural science in the seventh. Physics and chemistry have between them 21 out of the 26 required hours. The Swiss requirements are very similar. Although science is offered in English secondary schools, it is seldom elected and the equipment is meager. Instruction in lycées and colleges is by lecture. Textbooks are used by pupils only when points in the lectures are not quite clear. Lectures are accompanied by demonstrations, made by an understudy of the professor. The apparatus for such demonstrations is ample in physics and chemistry ; but very inadequate or totally lacking in biology and physiology. Facili- ties for laboratory work are provided for students only in the few lycées that are distinctly vocational schools. Most of the French and Swiss lycées and many English secondary schools are boarding schools ; about half the pupils live in the school. Day pupils attend from eight o'clock in the morning to seven in the evening, with a few coming only for recitations. The above statements apply to the boys' schools only. The lycées for girls have quite different courses, and a smaller proportion are boarding 774 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION pupils. If the girl desires a degree she must pass the final examinations of the boys' lycée. The instruction in the lycées impresses one as excellent. All lycée professors must be university graduates. Many are gray-haired men of long experience. Only men teachers are found in the boys' schools. Since the war, the majority of teachers in the girls' schools are women. The courses of study, textbooks, and even the content of the courses are uniform throughout France, all prescribed by the central board under the Minister of Public Instruction. The same is true in each Swiss canton. There is no corresponding uniformity in England. While the academic schools are thus under one control, the entire educational system is not unified. Schools of agriculture are under the direction of the Minister ofAgriculture, technical schools under the Minister of Labor, etc. In the elementary and primary schools of France and Switzerland, about one hour of instruction a week out of twenty is devoted to science. This work consists largely in reading from a series of books on object lessons. Occasionally a teacher is sufficiently enthusiastic to bring object studies into the schoolroom, or even to take pupils out for out-of-door study, but this is exceptional. Pupils are supposed to get their own contacts with illustrative materials both in elementary and secondary schools. Department of Secondary Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS Fresident-C. L. BIEDENBACH, Principal, Berkeley High School .......... Berkeley, California Vice-President-MARY HARRIS, Central High School .. ....... Minneapolis, Minnesota Secretary-LILLIAN V. JOHNSON, Lincoln High School. ...... Seattle, Washington The Department of Secondary Education was organized in Topeka, Kansas, in 1886. See Proceedings of 1887, page 395. Anticipating the proposed merger of the National Association of Secondary School Principals with the National Education Association, the name of the Department has been changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers of the National Association of Sec- ondary School Principals for 1924-25 are : President, C. P. P. Briggs, Lakewood, Ohio; secretary, H. V. Church, Cicero, Ill. The first session of the Department of Secondary Education was held in the Crystal Room of the New Willard Hotel, Washington, D. C., on Tuesday afternoon, July 1, 1924. In the absence of the president, the vice-president, Miss Mary Harris , presided. The following program was presented : Organizing the High School and Classifying its Pupils so as to Serve Each Equitably-H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, California ; Mar- garet M. Alltucker, Assistant Director, Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Ways and Means of Accrediting Secondary Schools for College Entrance- Arthur Whitman, Lincoln School, Teachers College, New York City; Fannie W. McLean, Vice-President, Berkeley High School, Berkeley, California. Mr. H. B. Wilson's keynote was that the cosmopolitan high school must be organ- ized to meet all the children of all the people. "It must so provide that at the close of the day every child shall have grown in every way as much as he can grow with the talents which the Lord gave him." The child, first, has the right to be understood ; secondly, to be properly hitched up that is, placed in such groups that he may best express himself ; thirdly, to be properly nourished; fourthly, the right to be trained in functional ways . Miss Alltucker gave a most interesting account of the ways and means of carry- ing out in Berkeley High School, the principles expressed in Mr. Wilson's talk- of the segregation of pupils and the counselling of individuals . Mr. Whitman spoke of the various plans for college entrance now in vogue- the college-board examinations, examinations in the schools, and the certificate plan, favoring some plan of recommendation and certification. Miss McLean favored the California plan of certification. There was much discussion on the certificate plan and the consensus of opinion seemed to be for such a plan. Miss Vay, dean at Wadleigh High School, Philadelphia, spoke strongly for the examination method, favoring the educational training obtained through examina- tions. It was moved and seconded to extend the time of the meeting twenty minutes for discussion of the subject of entrance methods. Adjourned until Thursday afternoon. [775] 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The second session met on Thursday afternoon, July 3, in the Crystal Room of the New Willard Hotel, with Miss Mary Harris, presiding. The program follows: The Relation of the Secondary School to Junior Employment-Mary E. Stewart, Director, Junior Division, Employment Service, U. S. Department of Labor, Wash- ington, D. C. The Future of the Cosmopolitan High School-Thomas R. Cole, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Washington ; George S. Counts, Department of Education, Yale University, Connecticut. Miss Stewart gave a most impressive account of the work done by the Junior Division of the Employment Service, saying that this service is a first aid to youths in practical problems. It makes contacts with schools and social agencies and gives sympathetic and skilled advice. In the absence of J. D. Stark, Mr. Frank Leavitt, associate superintendent of schools of Pittsburgh, spoke on Vocational Guidance in the Pittsburgh schools, giving a most interesting account of the work done in Pittsburgh, with the aid of the Federal Employment office. Mr. Cole and Professor Counts in their addresses both favored the cosmopolitan high school . Mr. Cole gave the experiences with that type of school in Seattle and stated that Seattle high schools had the distinction of receiving the highest per- centage of pupils from the eighth grade, of any school system in the country in cities of over 100,000 inhabitants. Professor Counts believed that the cosmopolitan or comprehensive school with its democratic appeal would continue to grow. At the business session, which followed, officers were elected for the ensuing year as follows : President, Ernest Becker, Principal, Western High School, Baltimore, Md. Vice- President, James Taylor, Principal, Denfield High School, Duluth, Minn. Secretary, Lillian V. Johnson, Girls' Adviser, Lincoln High School, Seattle, Wash. ORGANIZING THE HIGH SCHOOL AND CLASSIFYING ITS PUPILS SO AS TO SERVE EACH EQUITABLY H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA Every high school pupil has certain inalienable rights which should neither be defeated by neglect, nor set aside by wrong leadership, or inade- quate or improper organization. Superintendents of schools and high school principals are fundamentally responsible for revising and setting up those ways and means which shall guarantee each child a fair opportunity to realize his rights with appropriate resulting growth. There are many of the child's rights which must be recognized and pre- served to him for his welfare and that of society through proper leadership and organization in the high school. The time limits on this program will permit only the brief presentation of four of these rights which shouldbe conserved and made the basis of pupil growth. The high school pupils first right is that of being fundamentally and correctly understood. In order that he may be understood he must be known as to the physical, mental, and spiritual changes which he is under- going during that period of his development when he is a pupil in the high school. At this period of his life much adjustment, growth, and modifica tion are outstanding characteristics, amounting, as G. Stanley Hall pointed DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 777 out, to a second birth. The extent of the adjustments which any child undergoes from infancy to maturity is suggested in the fact that his body increases in size four times, his arms three times, his legs five. His head increases in size four times, his heart thirteen times, and his lungs twenty. He adds bone and muscle in great quantities during the period he is in high school. So rapidly do these changes take place that nervous coördination does not keep pace. The result is that he loses certain abilities, such as neat- ness, grace, and precision which he possessed at an earlier age. He becomes awkward and ungainly in appearance. Accompanying these changes and in part growing out of them are mental and spiritual changes even more remarkable. Teachers and parents who do not understand fundamentally what is taking place in the child are often disposed to lose patience with him. They believe he is losing his standards of conduct, and what he does is accredited to the influence of some evil spirit or to misconceptions of the principle of right conduct. The result is that he is seriously misunderstood and is often sadly mistreated. The need is that the growth and mental changes which are taking place should be understood fundamentally, in order that those who would guide, counsel, and educate him may exercise intelligent appreciation, love, and faith toward him. What the child needs at this period is understanding and sympathy. Nothing is more detrimental to high school pupils than to misunderstand and to discipline them severely, even with arrogant sar- casm, which is withering and disheartening to a student at this period of his development. The second right of the high school student is that of being properly "hitched up" in his school work. He needs to be in a school that is so organized that he is assigned to classes for work with his equals. Under these circumstances, each student is able to succeed in the work undertaken approximately as well as any other student. These conditions stimulate and enable boys and girls to work successully, giving heart to those who would otherwise become discouraged. In the third place, the high school boys and girls have a right to be properly nurtured physically, mentally, and spiritually through the work and the experiences of the school. To this end, the modern high school provides a rich and varied course of study, suited to different ability levels as well as to different types of service in society. It further makes large use in constructive, educative ways of student and school activities of means whereby each student is given opportunity to carry school responsibilities and to participate in making such changes as will result in improving the school for the benefit of all the students of the school. In the fourth place the high school pupil has a right to expect to be exer- cised and trained in the use of these methods and procedures in work in which the business and social life outside the school will require him to be proficient. Outside the school, a person finds himself working in situations 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION where he is constantly concerned with important questions which he must answer, with fundamental problems that he must solve, with difficulties and obstacles that he must overcome before progress is possible, and with significant important needs which he must be able to satisfy. In answering his questions, solving his problems, getting rid of his obstacles and satisfying his needs, he makes use of books, laboratories, excursions, his friends, and any other means that will meet his needs fundamentally and economically. The school must so order its procedures as to give high school pupils ex- perience in working in the school by the methods and procedures which they will be called upon to employ outside of the school. The time has come when we must cease trying to train children traditionally and mechanically for the work of the world through the mere assignment of lessons from books. This bookish, mechanical, routine procedure must give way in all schools, as it has been done in a few, to those ways of working which will train children to use all good sources of help in answering their significant questions, in solving their important problems, in surmounting their real obstacles, and in satisfying their fundamental needs. The result of such a procedure will not only be training in the use of such methods, but also fundamental mastery, resulting from hard work which it is impossible to secure when the mechanical, bookish procedure is employed. In order to carry into effect the securing of these rights to each child, new types of machinery are being set up in progressive schools. A staff of persons well equipped in personality and in sympathy and in knowledge of simple statistical procedure is being provided. The responsibility of each of these persons is to know throughout their high school life a group of children. Their aim is to know their boys and girls scientifically in terms of mental ability, subject matter, achievement, social, and other interests, and their educational and other ambitions. Upon the basis of these data, they give constant attention to the interests of each child, consulting with him, with his parents, and with his teachers-all with the object of guiding and inspiring each to do the finest and best of which he is capable while in school as a basis for securing that growth which will enable him to enter successfully into the duties and responsibilities of life which are just ahead of him upon the completion of his high school career. The high school of Berkeley, California, to the end of achieving the results above suggested, has developed during the past four years a counsel- ing system headed by a scientifically trained woman, experienced in statistical technique who has general responsibility for the successful operation of this machinery in the school. In addition to her there is a teacher counselor, who teaches two periods daily, giving most of her time to working with the students of each half-year grade in the school. There are four teach- ing counselors with responsibilities of the type suggested above and two attendance counselors. I feel warranted in saying that no money we are spending is bringing such large returns in student opportunity and growth as that which is being invested in the work of counseling, guiding, and inspiring students to realize the most possible from their school opportunities. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 779 ORGANIZING A HIGH SCHOOL AND CLASSIFYING ITS PUPILS SO AS TO SERVE EACH EQUITABLY MARGARET M. ALLTUCKER, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, RESEARCH DIVISION NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION School population of the United States has increased three times as rapidly as general population in the past ten years. The greatest expansion has been in the high school. The increase in high school enrolment demands more than merely an increase in the plant and teaching staff of the tradi- tional secondary school. Within the present high school population are vast differences in capacities, interests, needs, and training. From the high school, pupils today go into practically every type of work and social activity known to the present generation. The problem is this: How can each pupil be so trained that he will go out to meet life in terms of his own best self ? The needs of the individual pupil can only be met by organizing the high school and classifying its pupils so as to serve each equitably. Ability grouping is an assurance of individual justice, and is, therefore, an educational square deal. It is a plan of organization in which a well- defined system and carefully planned schedules are followed, but individual pupils are not pressed down or drawn out to fit a prescribed average. At the same time that the school adapts itself to individual needs, it must fulfill its responsibility to the student body as a whole and make only reasonable demands on faculty and taxpayers. This can be done when the basis of school organization is a study of individual and community needs. One of the first steps in organizing a schedule of classes for a particular school is to study the pupils who will be in those classes-to discover the over-age child, the slow child, the precocious child, the child who is particularly poor in English, the child of special capacities and aptitudes, the child handicapped by physical weakness or economic pressure, and dominated by certain interests and ambitions . In a high school, organized to serve individual pupils, student body, and faculty equitably, each pupil and teacher are expected to work up to capacity, and work is arranged commensurate with capacity. The pupil of inferior ability is not sent out with a good start toward failure in life- namely, a background of failure in a college preparatory course-instead, he goes out self-respecting with a record of successful performance of routine tasks by means of which he will earn a livelihood. Few school administrators question the desirability of ability grouping, but they do question its feasibility and the bases of classification. A study reported in the School Board Journal on Provision for Ability Grouping in Junior and Senior High School summarized plans operating in fifty selected schools located in twenty-three States. In fifty-three per cent of these schools the basis of classification is the rating on some reliable test of general intelligence verified by teachers' estimates of pupils' abilities. In forty per cent of the cases, the intelligence rating was verified by subject grades or marks; seven per cent considered subject marks alone in making 780 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION classifications. These bases are inadequate; for results of training must not be limited merely to knowledge, but to the "integration of personality " or individual personal growth on the part of the pupils themselves. No child is receiving an all-round development unless the following parallel ages are nicely balanced-namely, the chronological, mental, physical, educational, social, and moral. Whenever possible classification should be based upon the following ten criteria : ( 1 ) Time spent in school, (2) school accomplishment, (3) chronological age, (4) physical development, (5 ) health, (6) industry, (7) temperament, (8) environmental influence, ( 9) mental age, and ( 10) vocational ambition. These criteria when applied to the personnel of a large cosmopolitan high school usually result in at least six "case groups," namely: ( 1 ) Those who plan to enter colleges of liberal arts, (2) those who plan to enter technical schools, (3) those who plan to become elementary teachers, (+) those who plan to enter skilled trades or some form of directive business upon completion of their high school course, (5) those whose ability, resources, and ambitions lead them to want to fit themselves for subordinate business and commercial positions, and (6) those who lack the ability to complete a four-year high school course, but who can be trained to be good citizens and to go out and do routine work in subordinate positions. Classification requires time, patience, thoughtful planning, and scientific knowledge on the part of the school administrator. However, principals and superintendents who have a thorough conviction that the welfare ot pupils demands "case-groups," manage to find ways of meeting the obstacles which their particular situation imposes upon them. Secondary school principals who have persisted in working out an organization of classes grouped on the criteria listed, say that for them personally it is an ounce of prevention that saves pounds of cure for difficulties which harass every principal and superintendent. Careful placement and follow-up in school prevent pupils' failure in scholarship, truancy, injustice to an individual pupil and resulting ill will of parents, high percentage of drop-outs, poor student morale, inability to adapt the course of study to suit individual needs, unfair distribution of praise and blame and inability on the part of the school administrator to satisfy his own conscience that he has done all that he might for the pupils committed to his care. Meeting the individual needs of pupils does not mean that school routine is thrown into chaos-it means additional and more carefully planned organization. Incidentally, it means keeping a cumulative record for each pupil which record follows the pupil when he transfers from one school to another. This cumulative record, together with registration card and list of subjects selected in conference with the pupil, his junior high school adviser, and parents, should be sent to the senior high school several weeks in advance of his enrolment. After these data are received comes the most difficult task of all that of tallying each pupil's program to see how many sections of each subject DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 781 are required, assigning each teacher his particular subject, avoiding conflicts of subjects, and reducing to a minimum the conflicts in grouping pupils according to ability, and at the same time keeping the enrolment in each section practically the same. When individual cumulative student records are had in advance from the junior high school, together with subjects elected for the new term's work, it is possible to prepare in advance a program for each student, assigning him to periods, rooms, and teachers, so that within one hour after his arrival at the senior high school he is at work. This is the ideal plan. It requires close coördination of junior and senior high schools and the homes from which high school students come. In only a few schools has this plan been developed. Many schools, however, are making an approach toward it through the following plans. Registration for subjects and class periods-Students register not for their individual sections, but for class periods; that is, 9 A.M. or 2 P.M., etc. In these periods are run three or four parallel sections-one high, one or two middle, and one low. This gives opportunity to shift pupils from one section to another at any time during the term, without upsetting any registration in other subjects. This plan is difficult to administer because often there are only a few sections in certain subjects, and these cannot be scheduled for the same hour. There is also lost motion for a month or more while teachers are trying out students to see in what section they belong. A second plan for meeting the needs of individual pupils is through "make-up sections." At the beginning of the term no attempt is made to assign pupils to sections on an ability basis, but at least one teacher in each department is given one less class than the normal teaching assign- ment. At the end of six weeks, subject teachers begin reporting names of students who are not succeeding and who will probably not complete the term'swork if left in regular classes. A new "make-up section" is formed which gathers together all the pupils who are failing in a particular subject. This plan usually has the disadvantage of upsetting registration in other subjects, and hence is difficult to administer. Furthermore, the needs of inferior secondary pupils cannot be met through "diluted" courses in geometry, Spanish, and so forth, any more than they canbe metmerely by electives or by reducing the number of subjects carried. The real solution can come only through classification and variation in curriculum requirements. In other words when we educate all children, it is necessary to adjust instruction to meet the needs of all grades of ability . In some instances, this may mean the addition of new subject courses as well as complete modification of the old. Most secondary school administrators agree that the old-time high school diploma can no longer serve as a blanket voucher for all the various kinds of training offered. In its place should be given a certificate of accomplish- ment, showing time spent in school, and the kind and quality of work 782 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION done. The granting of such a certificate will not lower high school standards ; neither will it cheapen the high school diploma. Any scheme of organization for a high school and classification of its pupils so as to serve each equitably must provide scientific human counsel and guidance. There must be some individual or committee, responsible for gathering together and coördinating all the forces of the school for pur- poses of guidance. Various plans have been developed. One method is to have every member of the faculty act as an adviser to thirty or more pupils, and an advisory period of from ten to thirty minutes, provided each day. In most instances, this plan has proved unsatisfactory, for the advisory work is looked upon only as a side issue by teachers who are already fully loaded with teaching duties, who are not interested in counseling, or have not the temperament for it. Another plan is the combination of study-hall and advisory periods. Pupils are assigned to "home rooms," with sixty or ninety minute periods, with no study halls and no vacant periods, half of each period being devoted to study. The chief criticism of this plan is its expense. Supervision of study under this plan costs fifty per cent of the sum paid for salaries. Furthermore, this plan lacks flexibility, since each pupil must take a study every hour in the day. School administrators who have tried out various advisory schemes have found generally that a large student body of 2000 or more pupils is more easily counseled if pupils are responsible to a small group of counselors than when they are responsible to fifty or more teachers. Systems which are proving particularly satisfactory place program making, records, attendance, discipline; educational, social, and vocational guidance, and, in some schools. supervision of study periods in the hands of experts. Some schools have a counselor for each high school grade, some for only the ninth and tenth grades. Under this plan teachers are relieved from major advisory duties and routine and are left free to teach. A case study of each individual pupil is made. Counseling is in the hands of experts. Classification of pupils and individual student's curricula are planned for in advance, school actually starts the day school opens. Incipient cases of delinquency are discovered and remedial measures taken. Causes of failure in scholarship are not guessed at, but are carefuly analyzed. Teachers are able to secure from the counselor information about pupils that explains away much misunderstanding. In some schools the counselor has both a public and a private office, where parents, pupils, and faculty come for help. The high schools of Detroit, Michigan, combine advisory and study rooms. According to the Detroit plan, each high school is organized into large groups assigned to large study halls, which are the "home rooms " of the pupils. Each group is in charge of a house or grade principal who handles all counseling problems for his group. A report from Detroit states that this "home room" system creates a valuable socialized atmosphere. The rooms become great democratic clubs, which lend themselves readily DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 783 to intra-school contests in punctuality, attendance, scholarship, and athletics. Inother words, the "home room " is a powerful agency in building up school morale. To summarize briefly, the organization of a high school and classification of its pupils to serve each equitably require: The grouping of children--not alone on the basis of teachers' estimate, mental, or chronological ages, but on as complete knowledge of each child as can be obtained. It requires modification of curricula to meet individual needs as well as community needs. It requires an organized plan for scientific counseling and follow up of pupils, and it requires teachers and administrators with a philosophy of education that leads them to consider educational outcomes, not merely in terms of knowledge and skill, important as these are, but also in terms ofhabits, attitudes, and moral and spiritual values. WAYS AND MEANS OF ACCREDITING SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR COLLEGE ENTRANCE —ABSTRACT ARTHUR D. WHITMAN, LINCOLN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COLLEGE NEW YORK CITY There are now in operation in the United States ten types of accrediting agencies, ranging in method between two extremes, one of which is repre- sented by the New England College Entrance Certificate Board, and the other by systems in use in Florida and South Dakota. The New England College Entrance Certificate Board is an organiza- tion composed of one representative from each of eleven colleges; the schools have no representation. This body bases its decisions as to the fitness of schools for certification on two sources of information : The study of blanks filled out by the school authorities, and the college scholarship records of students admitted by certificate. The defects of this system of accrediting are the absence of representa- tives from the schools and the failure to provide for inspection of schools. It involves neglect of one of the fundamental principles upon which ad- mission to college by certificate rests-namely, the recognition of an organic relationship among all branches of an educational system. Atthe other extreme, involving just as great lack of coöperation between school and college, are the systems of accrediting like that of Florida, where the State board of education has absolute power to determine the fitness of a school to certify its pupils for admission to college. In the former case the colleges are able to maintain the high standards of scholarship that they insist upon, and the schools are handicapped in the organization of their curricula; in the latter, the schools are emanci- pated from college domination, but the colleges lose all control of their entrance requirements. In neither case is there any proper kind of co- operation between the two. 784 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Between these two extremes lie such accrediting associations as the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, a body whose func- tions are advisory, whose personnel includes representatives of both schools and colleges, and which operates through a system of inspection of schools by State and college authorities, and through the establishment of standards for every essential aspect of school administration and instruction. Both systems, the New England and the North Central, are criticized; the latter on the ground that it fails to maintain high standards of scholar- ship, the former on the ground that it exercises a harmful domination over the school curriculum. Evidence is not lacking, however, to indicate that such grounds for just criticism as exist are being removed; in New England, especially, satisfactory preparation for admission to college is coming to be more and more liberally interpreted; greater freedom in choice of subjects is allowed, and greater stress is laid on sound habits of study and thought. and on such qualifications as civic attitudes, vocational aptitudes, social interests, and ethical character. The ultimate objective to be hoped for is perhaps a system of accrediting so wide in its application that the graduates of an approved high school in Maine may enter on certificate into a college in Texas, and vice-versa; especially vice-versa.. The first step in the direction of this Utopia has. however, been taken, for such transfer of credits is now possible between certain States. WAYS AND MEANS OF ACCREDITING SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR UNIVERSITY ENTRANCE FANNIE W. MC LEAN , VICE- PRINCIPAL, BERKELEY HIGH SCHOOL BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA This question of the relation between the secondary school and the university, in the matter of admitting students into the university, is of primary importance, both for the secondary school and for the university. The vital problems of the secondary school curricula and of the status of extra-curricular activities depend largely for their solution upon the degree of hospitality the university shows in its attitude to the high school. We are all aware of the crowded conditions in the universities, which result in enormous classes, lacking individual relationship between student and instructor. We understand the great financial burden even such mass instruction is becoming. We cannot believe, however, that such a pro- foundly essential matter as higher education should be controlled by financial considerations, or that the increasing number of applicants for a university education should be looked upon as other than a fortunate sign in a democracy, where it is necessary that each person should make the most of himself for the common good, and should be intelligent as to what makes up the common good. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 785 The question that confronts us is simply this: Does a higher education, in the main, assist the average young man or young woman to a better appreciation of life, to a higher satisfaction in himself, and to a greater degree of social efficiency ? If we can answer this question affirmatively, then the gesture of the university should be an invitation, not a threat; bridges to its doors, instead of barriers, should be set up; and the transition from the secondary school into the university should be made as simple and natural as the passing from the elementary school into the high school- a sort of seasonal rite, like the blossoming of spring into summer, and the ripening of summer into autumn, which, in turn, passes into the sterner season of adult activity. In California, and in almost all of the Pacific Division States, the rela- tions between the secondary school and the university are thus simple and mutually helpful. There are several favorable conditions for such a rela- tionship. In Berkeley, the seat of the State University of California, and in many other cities of California, the schools are organized into a six-three-three system: six years of elementary education, three years of junior high school, and three years of senior high school. This division makes the idea of a third promotion of students from the senior high school into the university a logical one. The trend of thought and practice in California is toward a gradual change to the six-four-four system, the senior high school taking over, by this plan, the freshman and sophomore years of the university, and becoming a junior college--the final college for many students. The gap between the high school and the university would thus be quietly and satisfactorily bridged. In the second place, the school law in California encourages prolonged schooling. Attendance at school is compulsory for all children until they have reached the age of eighteen or have been graduated from a high school. Part-time school may be substituted for high school attendance for children from sixteen to eighteen years of age. In Berkeley, however, by far the greater proportion of young people from sixteen to eighteen years of age attend the regular high school. The high school curriculum today is so varied, with its cultural, industrial, and commercial groups of subjects ; the extra-curricular activities are so educational in their influence ; and the counseling system is so effective in placing students where they will best be developed, that the inner urge for still higher education is felt by a rapidly increasing number of students. In the third place, in California there exists an eminently satisfactory ac- crediting system-a genuine hand-clasp between university and high school. In 1884, the University of California adopted the system of accrediting then in use in the University of Michigan. At that time the grouping of high school subjects was very simple. There were three inclusive groups , literary, classical, and scientific. Secondary schools, both public and private, were accredited in one, two, or three of these groups. The accrediting was 786 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION based upon the reports of visiting professors from the university, who spent several days in inspecting the schools that made application for accrediting. Students, graduated from these approved schools, could enter the university without examination in those subjects in which they received a recommendation from the principal. In other subjects, they were obliged to take the matriculation examinations. Ten years later, in 1894, the secondary school curricula had grown so varied and complex that group accrediting was changed to accrediting in departments, such as English, science, and mathematics. Students were still recommended by subjects . With the growth in number of secondary schools in California, and with the increase in number of departments, the expense to the university of sending out so large a corps of visiting professors as was necessary to examine each department became a burden. It was felt, also, that the tendency in the schools, because of the accrediting system, was to place undue emphasis upon subject teaching and to underestimate matters of school organization, of discipline, and of social activity, and other phases in the life of a standard high school. For these reasons, a second modification of the accrediting system was instituted in 1905. Thereafter each school was reported on as a whole by one university visitor, who included, in his investigation, such matters as the plan of administration and the character of the school spirit, as well as expertness in instruction. The system of student recommendation by the principal remained the same. In 1919 the last change was made in the accrediting system. The principals of accredited schools were authorized to recommend their students in the same large way in which the schools were approved. Each recom- mended student from an accredited school can now enter the university with no examinations. Those students, not recommended, must take all the matriculation examinations. This throws the burden of deciding whether or not a student, on the whole, is a fit candidate, in mentality, in scholarship, and in character, for a university education, upon the principal of the high school. The generally accepted plan of meeting this serious responsibility is as follows : The principal, with an advisory council, judges the fitness of the graduates for recommendation, at the close of the high senior term. In the Berkeley High School this advisory council is composed of the heads of departments, the school secretary, and the school counselor. The general basis of recommendation is a grade of two in not less than twelve units of work and a good moral character. There are many fine questions to be considered, however. Are the recommendable grades in essential academic subjects (English, history, mathematics, languages, and science) ? Were there special extenuating circumstances in home conditions or in the student's health that caused the low grades ? Was there a steady growth manifested in the student's work, even though twelve twos were not DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 787 received ? Did the senior year work show progress or deterioration ? Has a student, once indifferent and lazy, definitely and profoundly waked up to a scholarly ambition and interest ? These and other considerations result in variations from the norm in recommending. Students with less than twelve units of second grade may be recommended, while a recommendation may be withheld from students with twelve units of second-grade work. Fifteen units of recommendable work and a good moral character, there- fore, form the only sure claim for a university recommendation. I have gone thus into detail in describing the accrediting system adopted by the University of California because it is the one I am familiar with and because it is typical of the other systems in California. The University of Southern California makes a slight variation from this plan. It fixes the number of recommended subjects that a high school graduate must receive in order to enter that university without examina- tion. If the applicant has fifteen units of twos, he is admitted without examination; if he has from twelve to fifteen units, he may be admitted by successfully passing the entrance intelligence test; if he has less than twelve, he must take both entrance subject examinations and intelligence test. Character, native ability, seriousness of purpose, and scholarship are to be stressed in the principal's recommendation. Stanford University is slightly more rigid in its requirements, although it follows the general plan of accrediting and recommending. The number of students that can be admitted is limited, which makes a process of selec- tion possible. Eligible candidates for admission must present a certificate showing fifteen units of recommended work, including two years of English, together with the principal's recommendation of good character and serious- ness of purpose. Account is also taken of the candidate's qualities of leader- ship and of school citizenship. In the final selection of entrants intelligence tests are used . In Oregon, Nevada, Wyoming, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, Idaho, and North Dakota there are uniform requirements for admission into all the colleges and universities. Graduates from approved high schools, provided they are recommended in character by their principals, are ipso facto admitted. High school graduation implies that the student has completed ten units of work in the fundamental subjects (English, history, mathematics, science, and languages), and five units of significant electives. These are called acceptable units. In most of these States the accrediting of the secondary schools is done by the State Board of Education through an inspector, which unifies the public school system from the kindergarten through the university. At the University of Washington the accrediting system is slightly more complex. The secondary schools are placed on the approved list by the State Board of Education, but the university reserves the right of final authority and is not compelled to accept the board's decision. A scholar- ship requirement for admittance has been established. The candidate's 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION high school record must show a rating of eighty per cent (a grade of two) in at least two thirds of the subjects studied. The acceptable subjects are ten units of the fundamental subjects and five units of electives. Graduates from the secondary schools who have not reached the scholarship require- ment may raise their grades in the deficient subjects by taking entrance examinations in these subjects. These examples indicate that the tendency in the western States is to unify the educational system by removing all barriers for the intellectually and morally fit between the secondary school and the university. It is the aim of the secondary schools, by their curricula, by their counseling, and by their methods of instruction, to make the number of the fit as large as possible; for our theory is that the highest purposes and accomplishments of education should be shared by the many. If true democracy means equal opportunities for education, too many young people are missing a college education. Perhaps the truth is this not that young people are unfit for a higher education, but that a higher education is not always fitted to them. because it is not yet so diversified and so well balanced between the material and the spiritual aspects of endeavor as to be helpful to the many types of human character. The accrediting system used by the University of California is a logical mean between the two extreme methods used elsewhere of compulsory examinations for all entrants and of a general admittance for all secondary school graduates. We believe it is superior to these other two methods because it places the responsibility of deciding who are qualified for a university education upon those who are best acquainted with the individual student and can give his case personal attention, and who are best fitted to give him counsel for his future, if he is denied admittance to the university. This system has accomplished much in raising the standards of the high schools of California. It has interested communities in their respective high schools. Every town, for its own satisfaction and for its material prosperity. wishes its high school to be on the accredited list of the State university. and, to that end, provides its school with teachers of the right quality and with the necessary equipment. The teachers keep themselves freshly in- formed as to the requirements of higher education and hold frequent con- ferences with the members of the university faculties. Small high schools in the remote country districts keep up to the same level in those subjects which they teach as do the cosmopolitan high schools in the cities. All through the State there is a feeling, growing constantly in force, among parents, students, and teachers that the high school, while giving a com- plete unit of education in itself, is, in its best use, a portal to a temple ot higher learning. A spiritual wind of enthusiasm and endeavor blows from everywhere in the direction of the State university or of one of the other universities. These helpful relations between the university and the high schools an DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 789 California have been aided by the university's policy in gradually removing all set curricula prescriptions for accredited schools. At the present time the university directs the high school curricula only in so far as it indicates the necessary prerequisites for certain courses to be pursued in the university. These must enter into the consideration of the counselors who assist students in making out their high school programs. When these requirements have been satisfied, there is a wide latitude left for choosing free electives suited to individual aptitudes. The State board requirements for high school graduation are very simple. Two units of English, one unit of history and civics, and one unit of laboratory science, and the four years' schedule so arranged as to include two majors in the fundamental subjects, are the requirements. There are two strong objections made to the university's accrediting system by those who would replace it by entrance examinations. First, it is claimed that too great responsibility is given to the principal of the high school and that, in small country communities, he may be tempted to favor the children of influential citizens. This objection seems an unworthy one. Any good principal must have in the organization and administration of his school some means by which to measure with fairness the qualifications ofthe graduating students. If he has not the courage to carry out his con- victions, carefully made in conference with some advisory council, against the solicitations of influential citizens, he is not a suitable principal for that particular community. Errors in judgment will sometimes be made, but no student is debarred from taking the entrance examinations, through lack of recommendation; and, on the other hand, any unfit student entering on recommendation will eliminate himself from the university in the proba- tionary freshman year. The university itself has a check on the laxity of principals in recommending unfit students in the annual statement it sends out of the scholarship rating of California high schools as determined by the records of freshmen in the university. The second objection is that this close relationship between the university and the high school tends to make the latter merely a preparatory school with no individualized life of its own. As the first objection assumes a weak principal, the second assumes a weak faculty, in addition. It is a poor teacher who cannot make his subject vital and interesting in itself, without thought of its being a preparation for some future study. It is a narrow teacher who does not keep in his mind the fact that many of his students will close their school life when they leave the high school. It is an unimaginative teacher who does not make every day as gloriously alive and significant as though it were to be the student's only day at school. The wealth of extra-curricular activities, moreover, that enter into the program of every progressive high school, gives its life an absorbing and unique interest. If our purpose is to increase the number of young people desirous of a higher education, to encourage rather than to discourage their entrance 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION into the university, and to unify all the consecutive blocks of State education into a progressive training for social efficiency, the accrediting system, as I have outlined it, seems to be the best means yet found for accomplishing these ends. Our social, political, and ethical problems are growing more complex with the passing of each generation, and for this reason the youth of each new generation should be offered increasingly greater and more varied opportunities for education. The university's task has become something more than the training of wise leaders ; its work is also to raise the general level of intelligence, else our democracy, which depends for its success upon the will of an intelligent majority, has no future. We have always to remember that it is not science, or art, or general knowledge that, per se, is sacred; but it is, rather, the converting of science, or art, or general knowledge, by humanity, into new and higher forms for the use of each succeeding generation, that is the sacred thing, and that tends toward the betterment of our common life. There are just two kinds of education-one, knowledge of what past generations have done, and thought, and learned ; the other, inspiration for progress, or the power to add to the sum total of knowledge or achievement. These two forms of education can be multiplied by all the forms of human endeavor, and the university that multiplies them the most generously makes a higher education fit for the greatest number of young people. In counseling students for or against entering the university one must remember that there are also two types of mind needed in the world-the receptive and the creative, and the creative mind is sometimes discovered and developed more quickly through what we call extra-curricular activities than through the standard curriculum. Is it too much to expect that out of the close relationship between sec- ondary school and university developed by the accrediting system a new educational curriculum will be created ? The high school, through its careful supervision of school activities, has learned their educational value. These activities transcend in value, oftentimes, the regular curriculum, be- cause they are natural and voluntary projects of immediate interest. Some time the leading educators of the three school units-elementary, secondary, and university-may create out of this wealth of voluntary youthful endeavor the new curriculum, in which these activities will no longer be called extra-curricular, but will form the constant part of the school program, and the standard subjects of study will be introduced when and where they can best assist youth in the carrying out of its projects and in its joyous progress along a path of natural effort and adventure toward a goal of higher social efficiency and of better mastery of life. This is what we hope for through the closer bridging between the secondary school and the university by the accrediting system. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 791 THE RELATION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TO JUNIOR EMPLOYMENT -ABSTRACT MARY STEWART, DIRECTOR OF THE JUNIOR DIVISION , U. S. EMPLOYMENT SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. No secondary school vocational guidance program is complete without an adequate placement office. By adequate we mean an office that gives discriminating service alike to the applicant and to the employer. It is not the business of a school employment office merely to sell jobs-or juniors. Itmust get the applicant a job for which he is fitted. Nor is it enough to send the employer an applicant; some one must be sent who is both fit and fitted to do the work that is to be done. The placement office is the point at which life checks up on the school as well as on the boy and the girl seeking work. It can provide the applicant only with the work the occupational world offers. If he is unwilling, or unfittedin ability or educa- tion to do what is to be done, no magic placement wand in the office can conjure a job to his need or his liking. The problem then becomes one of re-education. This may mean not only retraining of an individual, but reorganization of a school curriculum. When sixty per cent of the graduates of a high school are prepared for a kind of work that is available for only twenty per cent, something is the matter with the plan of the education that has been given these boys and girls. When forty per cent of the graduates must enter a kind of work for which the school has offered no training, something is the matter with the school. When an employer seeks a kind of service from boys and girls which is outside the nature of boys and girls to give, something is the matter with the job. The placement office is the place where the boy, the school, and the job meet for adjustment. Obviously, then, it must be equipped with an adequate knowledge of all three-the kind of education the schools provide, the kind of work that the occupational world wants done, and the kind of boys and girls that are going from the one to the other. The secondary school sends to the placement office three classes of pupils the graduates, the drop-outs, and those who threaten to drop out, the totterers. The placement office must be prepared to give sound advice to each of these three. It by no means follows that it must find each applicant a job, or that its greatest service lies in doing so. The obliga- tion does rest upon it to provide a new, a broadened, or a strengthened point of view. And this service may be extended alike to applicant, to school, and to employer. In the placement office both educational and occupational world may meet, measure their demands, determine just how far boys and girls can meet them, and how far they must both take note ofhumannature and modify those demands. 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE RELATION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TO JUNIOR EMPLOYMENT J. D. STARK, IN CHARGE OF EMPLOYMENT SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA The question of the relation of the secondary school to junior employment might be discussed in a variety of ways, for example-" The apathetic atti- tude displayed by the secondary school toward the subject of employment " ; or, "The secondary school of the future will make the matter of vocations and the practical ways in which education shall function in the lives of the pupils, the 'hub' about which the rest of the educational scheme shall revolve" ; or, "How the secondary school plans and trains for the entrance of its pupils into the field of employment" ; or, "The evident insistent demand for a Nation-wide intelligent study of junior employment by educators and those who take juniors into their business, as a fundamental in our social order"; or, "How the present movement to help solve the junior employment situation is organized and functioning in its relation to the secondary school." Let us assume that we admit the existence of the apathy displayed; that we see the "hub" coming to its place in the not distant future; that we recognize a rapidly growing tendency on the part of the schools to train for more specific things; and that we are happily surprised at the tremendous interest displayed in the movement for more and better facilities for guidance and placement, which has assumed such large proportions in so short a time. Upon these assumptions, let us consider the aspects of the question as the work is at present actually functioning in many places and what we believe to be some of the essentials in the program to be carried out. Junior employment must not be considered as a means to be resorted to only, when boys and girls are failing in their subjects or are such disturb- ing elements that they are no longer welcome members of their classes. Many such boys and girls have not had the proper adjustments made. Employment should be just as much an objective, to be planned for and looked forward to, as the course of study, and I believe is a more certain objective for most people than algebra or Latin usually are, as they are prescribed. Labor and honest toil must be dignified or dignitaries a few generations hence will perforce roam the forests, if there be such, and gather food and seek shelter as did the aborigines. It is not to reduce the amount of education for the masses, but for the best training for the individual to meet his needs, that we are pleading and to help bring in that age, to which Miss Stewart refers, when she says, "The time will come when all decent work will be done by decent people." One of the things most feared by our regulation secondary school people seems to be the open advertising of the opportunities afforded by the school 내 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 793 itself and the community in which the school is located. To illustrate, where credit is offered in a school course for instruction and practice in music performed outside of school, many pupils are retarded in their music because the school seems fearful that the music may be overdone, and the regular school work underdone. Thinking to obviate this situation the information is not freely given, and, in many instances, good talent is stultified and no doubt some satisfactory careers are spoiled. Some high schools fail to make known to the students the employment opportunities of even their own placement office, fearing that the school will be largely depopulated, a result which we observe is not happening very rapidly. As a result of this many boys and girls seek the aid of paid agencies, follow up window signs and advertisements, float around unassisted and poorly directed, and drift into undesirable places. It has been common custom to keep the commercial, industrial, and trade courses, or in fact, any subject with a vocational content in the background, so that a larger number of pupils might "be properly cultured." This has caused many who are not fitted by nature or inclination for collegiate courses to waste a lot of time wading through, or failing in, the more strictly academic studies, and we find them either dropping out or eventually graduating unprepared, or poorly prepared for anything. Our attitude on these matters is that if a thing is good and worthy in itself, we should give it full and free advertising to all, so that each pupil shall have the best chance of finding himself in the thing in which he can function best. The unpardonable sin of the secondary school is the worship conducted at the shrine of the graduating class, with special reference to the honor students, when the halo becomes so bright as to blind the eyes to the army of drop-outs and stragglers along the way, who, in many instances, are stragglers who, with better adjustment, might have been succeeders. To live up to our so-called democratic ideals, we should not be so concerned with the survival of the fittest, as with the fitting of every one to survive, by doing those things in which he can function best, and in which he may work up to the best of his capacity. So, the secondary schools should have the future success of each individual pupil constantly in mind, while assisting him to some definite end. It is easy to cater to the best and strongest at the upper end of the class; it is a job to attend to the needs of the lower third. All deserve our best; none should be slighted; all must be treated with equal concern; the individual pupil first, and the institution last. A few Theses on Placement 1. Placement is a necessary part of the present-day process of vocational guidance, which is becoming recognized as a specialized educational function. 2. As vocational guidance cannot be left to the principal of the school and haphazardly to the teachers, as in the past, but must in the main 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION be turned over to those who by training, experience, and fitness, are specifi- cally adapted to the work, so placement must be handled by those who are not so burdened with other duties that they can give but spasmodic efforts to it. 3. The work of placement must be in the hands of those thoroughly acquainted with the local school systems, its policies, personnel, and offerings on the one hand, and close to the business and industrial organizations, their practices, needs, and opportunities, on the other. 4. Those charged with placement must not only be in contact and work- ing sympathetically with both parties to bring proper coöperation and co- ordination of effort, but must maintain such a well-poised balance of interest that a spirit of mutual benefit to business and schools, to employer and employee, shall replace what might seem to be neutrality. This can be done even though operated and controlled by the school authorities. 5. Occupying this middle ground between schools and business does not mean and must not be misconstrued as giving to those charged with place- ment any power of dictation to either party. Instead, it furnishes one of the best means of explaining each to the other, and, therefore, one of the best means of learning the needs of the community to be provided for by the schools, and also of interpreting the inside workings of the school to the community. 6. The placement office affords many opportunities for studies and the basis of much research work, and this side of the work. must be promoted to assist in further development, and at the same time it must be a practical place striving for immediate results for applicant and employer, always improving its methods and always performing a higher grade of service due to a better knowledge of its problem and to increased experience in its sphere. 7. A school placement office must not become a mere job-finding office, and its work should not be measured merely by the number of boys and girls placed. It should be judged by its success in placing them in positions which they fit, by the extent to which business looks to it for help, and by the wisdom displayed in the guidance given to the young worker before and after entering employment. Does guidance and placement really function ? is a question that the business man and the secondary school wish to have answered. A short time ago one of the large business concerns of the country started a study to ascertain "the methods for promoting the spread of enlightenment in the industrial communities, especially among industrial employees and their families, in respect to wise choice of occupation, effective service in occupation, and civic opportunities for those engaged in industry to foster its welfare and their own. " One of the phases of the study is vocational guidance as given by the schools. In investigating the matter, instead of asking those engaged in the work: Howdo you do it? or What is your idea or ideal ? or What theories DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 795 are back of it? the results of guidance and placement were checked directly with a large group of young people themselves. The information was sought from those who had had the benefit of guidance in the schools and were at work, having been placed by the school employment office. What they discovered as effective features will be described in print and dis- tributed by them to other cities as proof of the value and effectiveness of this sort of work. This short discussion will not permit of entering into the details of the technique of interviewing, testing, counseling, follow-up, field work in the schools, and in business, and industry. We shall not attempt to catalogue the endless number of duties devolving upon a well-organized and fully functioning placement office. Time will not permit to discuss its many ramifications into the school system and into business, but a little attention given to the subject will convince any one that it forms a bridge carrying a heavy double line of traffic between the schools and the busy workaday community . Placement instead of being a drain upon the school, sapping its vitality by causing unrest and dissatisfaction, reducing enrolment and placing youth on the block to be auctioned off for the exploitation of the greedy, brings back to the school more than it takes. As you watch the double line of traffic moving, please notice that what goes out from the schools is not boys and girls only. Here we see the school, giving out its plans, its ideals, its story of progress, and its growing desire to "fit for" and "fit in" with real life. Here we note the instructors and students going out to learn more of the real world round about and getting contacts which do not exist to such an extent where placement service is not provided. The public is more sympathetically inclined to- wards the school as a result, and the school becomes more democratic. Now what do you see in the return line ? Employers going in among the school people explaining the opportunities in business and industry to those coming from the schools. Here are those who have left school to work before completing their courses returning for further training or to advise others of the value of the training they themselves have missed . Information concerning the needs in business and training requirements for the various occupations are passed back to the schools. So little by little, not by any sudden upheaval or revolution, the attitude of the school people changes over to open-mindedness and hearty receptivity for all that is good on the outside of scholastic walls and halls. Curricula, methods, and most of all, the atmosphere change, and a more human program obtains. Only too often do the schools ignore the existence of business which sup- ports them. If a placement office has nothing more to its credit than being an agency which helps to fuse the two, it will pay. Were Goldsmith with us today he might say that many educators "who came to scoff remained to pray." To use a more modern phrase, they have been sold to many propositions growing out of vocational soil which 796 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION were ignored if not scorned before. When failures become successes by transplanting, when readjustments take the place of "good riddance," and constructive planning replaces the attitude of ignoring, the dawn of a better day enters the soul of the adjuster, as well as the adjusted. As the Junior Officers study the employment field and continue to gather information about occupations, their requirements and opportunities, and this matter is collected and returned to the schools year by year, it does not require a prophet to foretell that curricula, building programs, and equip- ment will be revamped, as well as the thinking of many secondary educators. While industry and business are assisting in providing this flow of in- formation to the schools, their interests, both mental and financial, are stimulated schoolward. Junior employment to many is synonymous with child labor, or the exploitation of youth. From what has been said, we may close with the thought that the program in operation is an educational one and that the practices used, based on a square deal to employer and youthful employee, will work out for general social betterment. THE FUTURE OF THE COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL GEORGE S. COUNTS, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, YALE UNIVERSITY NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT Towards the close of the second volume of his Modern Democracies, Bryce considers the future of democratic institutions. After pointing out that in the third quarter of the Eighteenth century such penetrating students of society as Burke, Johnson, and Gibbon were quite unable to forecast the great political changes which were about to shake the foundations of society on two continents, he makes the following observation regarding the futility of prophecy in the realm of politics : "Men stood on the edge of stupendous changes, and had not a glimpse of even the outlines of those changes, not discerning the causes which were already in embryo beneath their feet, like seeds hidden under the snow of winter which will shoot up under the April sunlight. How much more difficult it has now become to diagnose the symptoms of an age in which the interplay of economic forces, intellectual forces, and moral and religious forces is more complex than ever heretofore, incomparably more complex than it had seemed to be before discoveries had gone far in the spheres of chemistry, physics, and biology, before education had been diffused through all classes, before every part of the world had been bound together with every other so close that what affects one must affect the rest." So it is with the prediction of the future of educational institutions. Even though those in charge of our schools were given a free hand to shape educa- tional policy and practice (which of course they are not) , it would be quite impossible to forecast with any measure of assurance the form which any one of our educational institutions will take. We must concede that our DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 797 practices in this realm are largely the product of tradition; in no complete sense are they based on carefully tested experience. What will be the educational pronouncements, when they have reached maturity, of the infant sciences of psychology and sociology is a matter for the merest conjecture. We may safely assume that the effects of these sciences on education will be just as profound as those of chemistry, physics and biology have been on society at large. Moreover, the destiny of any institution, such as the public school, which is controlled by the representatives of the people, must always be as difficult of prediction as are the ideals and passions of men. It is, therefore, with a degree of humility that the writer takes up the sub- ject of this paper, the Future of the Comprehensive High School. If the subject read, What Should Be the Future of the Comprehensive High School, the task would be a relatively simple one. This wording of the subject would take it out of the realm of objective and place it in that of subjective phenomena. In the latter realm each man can choose his own path, there is none to dispute his course. Everyone of us, nurtured in a democratic society and reflecting his own experience, philosophy, and bias thinks that he knows what form each of our social institutions should take. If it does not proceed to take this form, then he comfortingly concludes that its development has proceeded in the wrong direction and that in good time proper punishment will be measured out to those who have erred. But our task here does not have to do with what should be, but rather with what will be. The problem is greatly complicated by the fact that up to the present time there has been displayed little disposition to test out in any objective way the merits of either the comprehensive or the specialized high school. In this controversy there have been claims and counterclaims, charges and countercharges. On the basis of prejudice, strong positions have been taken, butcareful comparative studies of the way in which these institutions work are lacking. Each party to the controversy is so certain of its ground that it regards as quite superfluous an examination of the facts. The case is pre- judged. The great need of the present, therefore, is for an objective investi- gation of these two types of schools in communities where they have received honest support and able direction for a considerable period of time. The object of such a study would be that of discovering the amount of truth resident in the claims advanced by the ardent advocates of the one or the other type of school. It is for an investigation of this type that the writer wouldlike to make an appeal before this gathering. But we shall now have to proceed to the question in hand. In view of the situation described in the foregoing remarks the writer will make no attempt to predict the form which the high school will take in the more or less remote future. Such a course would be both hazardous andunprofitable. He will content himself with directing attention to cer- tain facts in the existing situation about which there is no controversy and to certain tendencies which he thinks he has observed in the American 798 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION secondary school. These observations and conclusions, which are eleven in number, will now be set down in serial order. There is every reason to believe that the public high school will continue to grow in the immediate future as in the immediate past. The fundamental change that has come over secondary education during the last generation is the growth in enrolment from approximately two hundred thousand to two million. We should remark parenthetically here that anyone who in 1890 would have predicted the unprecedented development which was to follow would probably have been branded a lunatic, or at least a dangerous person. Possibly something just as unexpected will happen in the next thirty years. This growth of the high school population is largely responsible for the prob- lem that has been raised regarding the form of the secondary school. The increase in enrolment added to the heterogenity of the student body, this heterogenity made necessary the enrichment of the curriculum, and this enrichment made necessary either a comprehensive school or a group of specialized schools. At present about one fourth of the children of high school age are in high school. Whether secondary education will be completely universalized ineither the near or remote future is problematic. But that the heterogenity of this population will be appreciably increased is certainly to be expected. This means that the problem which we have raised will assume greater rather than less importance as the years pass. For a period at least, the student body of the high school will become more varied in its capacities, aptitudes, interests, and expectations. The need for general education seems to be increasing rather than decreas- ing. As a result of changes that have occurred and that are occurring in industry, greater and greater numbers of semi-skilled and unskilled positions are being created. This removes for an increasing proportion of our pop- ulation the need for vocational training of any extended sort. Also child labor laws are being applied to later ages and are being more strictly en- forced. At the same time the growing complexity of our social life is in- creasing the civic burdens which the ordinary citizen must bear. Likewise the need for recreational and moral education is becoming more urgent. These facts suggest that the secondary school of the future will have to give more attention than has the secondary school of the past to the general education of the masses. This condition would seem to favor the growth of the comprehensive school, a school with a somewhat restricted vocational bias, but nevertheless with a great variety of interests and activities. There seems at present to be a tendency towards the comprehensive type of school in the United States. This school is apparently more congenial to the spirit ofAmerican institutions than is the specialized school. It makes ademocratic appeal. The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education has given a vigorous indorsement of the comprehensive school in which are enrolled the children of all classes, of diverse talents, and of varied social expectations. We feel that it is good for all of these children to be DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 799 brought together into a single institution. We feel that there are certain rather subtle educational products which can be achieved only in a school of this type. But whether the total effect of the specialized school is un- democratic and that of the comprehensive school democratic is a question that has not been answered in any objective way. It would seem probable that the form of the institution may prove to be of less importance here than certain other factors. Few large cities are following a clear- cut policy with respect to the organization of comprehensive and specialized schools. Those cities which have been regarded as favoring the comprehensive school tend to supplement this school with some specialized institution or institutions. Also cities which have apparently committed themselves to the specialized school show atendency to expand the curricula of these schools by the introduction into the academic schools of vocational material and by the introduction into the vocational schools of academic subjects. St. Louis has its Rankin Trade School; the technical high schools in Cleveland are teaching the languages and other academic subjects. In many cities there is dissatisfaction with the existing arrangement . Whether this is merely an exhibition of the common biological tendency to regard with covetous eyes the distant pastures, or whether it has a more solid foundation, one cannot say. But an inquirer does not have to converse long with teachers and administrators in a system that has established the com- prehensive school to discover a feeling of discontent, to discover the convic- tion that certain educational problems would be readily solved by the estab- lishment of some specialized schools. Dissatisfaction of a corresponding order may also be discovered in systems that have pursued the other policy. In St. Louis at the present time, a city that has long been famous for its comprehensive schools, there is strong agitation for the establishment of some vocational schools of secondary grade. The argument which has gained most currency is that efficient vocational training cannot be provided in a comprehensive school. On the other hand, in Newton, Massachusetts, the authorities have recently embarked on a thoroughgoing program of re- organization which will wipe out the lines that have heretofore separated the academic from the vocational schools and will create a single large com- prehensive school under unified management. The argument most frequently heard is the argument of democracy. Historically, it has been very difficult for a community to maintain a specialized high school. The first high school, established in Boston in 1821, was in a sense a specialized secondary school. At the time of its origin it taught no foreign language, and it did not prepare for college. This latter function was being performed by the existing secondary schools of the city. But as this school survived and as it was transplanted to other communities, it was forced to become comprehensive and prepare for college as well as for life. In more recent times we have seen technical and com- mercial schools modify their programs in order to meet the requirements of the higher institutions. 800 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The reasons for this tendency away from the specialized school are easy to discover. The facts of geography make it very difficult for a school to remain specialized unless the local community which it serves is specialized in its interests. There is always a strong temptation for children to attend the nearest school. Geographical. accessibility must always be recognized as an important factor in extending educational opportunities. The desire on the part of certain pupils attending the specialized school to go to college, since they are ordinarily the children of the more influential families in the community, naturally forces the introduction of academic subjects. More- over, few administrators can refuse to be influenced by the prestige which attaches to the academic subjects and college preparation. And the com- petition for students often causes the academic schools to introduce the indus- trial arts and other subjects of a non-academic character. Another point to be noted is that the specialized school assumes, for the great majority of children of high school age, a degree of vocational decision that does not exist. Parents rightly insist that educational choice shall not march more rapidly than these other decisions which have to do with the later careers of their children. They wish to keep open, for as long as possible, all avenues to the future. This end can be achieved more effectively in the comprehensive than in the specialized school. There seems to be quite general agreement that the junior high school should be a comprehensive school. Although the junior school often reflects the peculiar needs of the local community which it serves, radical special- ization in any direction is seldom found. According to common opinion, marked differentiation of curricula which follows vocational lines should not be encouraged at this educational level. This suggests that the special- ized school will not invade this division of our educational system. In the small community it seems to be impracticable to establish special- ized schools. Even though the educational advantages of the specialized institution were overwhelming, the community of restricted population and meagre resources would have to be satisfied with a comprehensive school. As a rule, such a community could afford but a single high school. In this school must be offered the entire program of studies provided at the secondary level. It is possible to provide genuine vocational training in a comprehenswe school. About this question there has, of course, been much controversy. Inmany instances, to be sure, the vocational training provided in the com- prehensive schools has been ineffective. The writer, however, has visited comprehensive schools where this work is apparently well done. Neverthe- less, we must admit that it is usually extremely difficult to provide such training in a high school of this type. In so far as the vocational motive should dominate the education of children of adolescent age, this will remain for a time a serious obstacle to the development of the comprehensive school. The traditions of the secondary school of a century ago still all too largely dominate the public high school and narrow its field of service. But this DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 801 is probably a condition which with proper educational guidance and leader- ship may be expected to pass away. There is a tendency for the larger communities to establish various forms of continuation schools. Through these schools vocational training at the trade level, a level that we may regard as appropriate for the secondary school, is being provided : To what extent the need for trade training can be met through such institutions is a question which remains to be answered. But it seems to the writer that, because of the excellent motivation which is here insured, because of the greater certainty that the training given will be used, an important portion of the training for the skilled trades may be provided through these schools. This would leave as the common second- ary school one that is somewhat comprehensive in its interests . In the comprehensive high school there is a strong tendency for the academic curricula to dominate the program of studies . As far as the observations of the writer go, teachers seem to be quite generally agreed that these curricula carry much greater social prestige than do the voca- tional curricula. Teachers of the industrial arts almost universally com- plain that there is severe discrimination against their subjects on the part of the other members of the high school faculty or the members of the administrative and supervisory staffs. This situation often causes the champions of the vocational subjects to desire a special school where they will be given freedom to control their own curricula and to develop their own traditions, freedom from the cramping influences of a narrow educa- tional past. With this feeling of protest many of us are in sympathy, but changes in the existing situation can come only through the enlightenment of those who control the high school. This suggests that the future of the comprehensive school rests in no small measure on the shoulders of the teachers of the older subjects. If they adopt narrow and bigoted views with respect to their own subjects and the callings for which these subjects prepare, they will be sowing those seeds of discontent and conflict which are not uncommon in the existing public secondary school. A high school cannot be made into a comprehensive school by merely adopting the comprehensive form. Often today those very divisions which so obviously mark a group of specialized schools mark with equal force the spirit of a so-called comprehensive school. Only as our teachers and administrators come to see the scope of secondary education in its completeness and as they come to view with sympathetic mind the entire field of worthy human interests, can the high school become com- prehensive in spirit as well as in form . What light do the foregoing observations throw upon the problem of the future of the comprehensive high school ? To the writer it seems that, with respect to the immediate future, the following conclusions are justified : First, In practically all communities the junior high school will be of the comprehensive type; second, In those small communities which can afford but a single senior high school the institution will take the comprehensive 802 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION form; third, In the larger communities the prevailing secondary school will also be comprehensive in character; fourth, In communities of this latter type a limited number of schools, specialized in their purposes, may be established to supplement the work of the ordinary high school. These observations suggest that the prevailing type of secondary school in the United States will assume the comprehensive form. It happens that this conclusion is in accord with the writer's desires; but he hopes that in this case the wish has not been father to the thought. He would call your attention again to the need for a careful study of the results that actually flow from the two types of schools. Department of Superintendence SECRETARY'S MINUTES AND OFFICIAL PROGRAM Chicago, 1924 OFFICERS President, PAYSON SMITH, State Commissioner of Education .. ...Boston, Massachusetts First Vice-President, JOHN H. BEVERIDGE, Superintendent of Schools ....... Omaha , Nebraska Second Vice-President, M. G. CLARK, Superintendent of Schools ..... .. Sioux City, Iowa Executive Secretary, SHERWOOD D. SHANKLAND . ..Washington, D. C. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE-MEMBERS BY ELECTION FRANK CODY, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1924) ............ Detroit, Michigan RANDALL J. CONDON, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1925 ) ......... Cincinnati, Ohio FRANK W. BALLOU, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1926 ) ........ Washington, D. C. WILLIAM MCANDREW, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1927) ...... Chicago , Illinois Recent Achievements and Next Forward Steps in American Education Sunday Afternoon, February 24, 1924 Vesper Service INVOCATION Frank L. Eversull. ADDRESS-MORAL AIMS IN THE TRAINING OF YOUTH-Henry Neumann, Leader, Brooklyn Society for Ethical Culture, Brooklyn, New York. Monday Morning, February 25 WATCHMAN, TELL US OF THE NIGHT-Olive M. Jones, President, National Educa- tion Association, New York City. THE GREETINGS OF CHICAGO William Dever, Mayor of Chicago, Illinois . NATIONAL OBLIGATIONS IN EDUCATION-J . W. Abercrombie, State Superintendent of Education, Montgomery, Alabama. ENCOURAGEMENTS-William Mather Lewis, President, George Washington Univer- sity, Washington, D. C. Monday Evening, February 25 NEXT STEP IN WORLD PEACE- Florence Allen, Judge, Supreme Court of the State of Ohio, Columbus, Ohio. TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF WARREN G. HARDING William M. Davidson, Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania . [803 ] 804 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF WOODROW WILSON-Randall J. Condon, Cincinnati, Ohio. MORE ENCOURAGEMENTS-William McAndrew, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Illinois . Tuesday Morning, February 26 EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURES CONSIDERED AS INVESTMENT-E. C. Hartwell, Superin- tendent of Schools , Buffalo, New York. EDUCATIONAL FADS CONSIDERED AS FUNDAMENTAL- O. L. Reid, Superintendent of Schools , Youngstown, Ohio. RURAL EDUCATION- Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education, Albany, New York. THE NEED AND HOPE OF THE CITY-W. R. Hopkins, City Manager, Cleveland, Ohio. BUSINESS MEETING. The president announced that nominations for officers were in order. Nomina- tions were made as follows : For President-Edwin C. Broome, superintendent of schools , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; Milton C. Potter, superintendent of schools , Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; William McAndrew, superintendent of schools, Chicago , Illinois ; Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, California. For Second Vice-President-John J. Maddox, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mis- souri. For Member Executive Committee, four years-Melvin G. Clark, super- intendent of schools, Sioux City, Iowa. Mr. Edwin C. Broome and Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey asked that their names be withdrawn as candidates, and it was so ordered. The president appointed the following tellers to conduct the election: Charles A. Philhower, superintendent of schools, Westfield, New Jersey William John Cooper, superintendent of schools, Fresno, California; Elmer H. Webber, super- intendent of schools, Mapleton, Maine ; Bonner Frizzell, superintendent of schools, Palestine, Texas ; James W. Gowans, superintendent of schools, Hutchinson, Kan- sas. The president announced the appointment of H. V. Holloway, State superin- tendent of public instruction, Dover, Delaware ; W. J. Bickett, superintendent of schools, Trenton, New Jersey, to constitute the auditing committee for the calendar year 1924. In accordance with the action of the Cleveland convention, and with the approval of the Executive Committee, the president announced the appointment of the Com- mission on the Curriculum, as follows : Edwin C. Broome, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools , Berkeley, California ; John. M. Foote, State rural school supervisor, Baton Rouge, Louisiana : Paul C. Stetson, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio; John L. Alger, president, Rhode Island College of Education, Providence, Rhode Island. The 1925 Yearbook will be in charge of the Commission on the Curriculum. On motion of Mr. William M. Davidson, the Department recommended to the Executive Committee that favorable consideration be given the application of the "Conference on Educational Method" for affiliation with the Department of Super- intendence as an officially allied organization. Thursday Afternoon, February 28 HAZARDS OF THE SUPERINTENDENCY AND THE NEXT FORWARD STEPS IN REDUCING THEM-J . H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebraska. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN CURRICULUM- MAKING-Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superin tendent of Schools, Los Angeles, California. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 805 HIGHER EDUCATION, NEW TYPES OF ADMINISTRATIVE ADJUSTMENT-Lotus D. Coff- man, President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. SCHOOL BOARD ORGANIZATION AND THE SUPERINTENDENT-J. W. Studebaker, Super- intendent of Schools, Des Moines, Iowa. RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS AND NEXT FORWARD STEPS IN AMERICAN EDUCATION-WHAT SHALL BE THE NATION'S PART ?-George D. Strayer, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. FINAL BUSINESS SESSION . Superintendent Frank W. Ballou, of Washington, D. C., as chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, read the report of that committee. Mr. Ballou then moved that the resolutions be adopted as read. The motion was seconded and unanimously carried. The executive secretary reported that the tellers had counted the ballots and had certified to the election of the following persons : President-William McAndrew, Chicago, Illinois ; Second Vice- President-John J. Maddox, St. Louis, Missouri ; Member Executive Committee for four years, M. G. Clark, Sioux City, Iowa. H. M. Maxson, superintendent of schools, Plainfield, New Jersey, moved that the Executive Committee be requested to take a referendum of the Department as to whether or not a change in the time of holding the meeting is advisable, and if they find a change desired, to report at the next annual meeting an amendment to put that desire into effect. The motion was seconded, but when voted upon it was lost. The president announced that the vacancy on the Executive Committee, oc- casioned by the elevation of Mr. McAndrew from the Executive Committee to the presidency, had been filled as provided by the constitution, by action of the Exec- utive Committee in the election of Frank D. Boynton, superintendent of schools , Ithaca, New York . The president then declared the fifty-fourth session of the Department of Super- intendence adjourned. CITY, COUNTY, AND STATE GROUPS Monday Afternoon, February 25 Superintendents of Cities of Population Below 5,000 Chairman, John D. Whittier, Superintendent of Schools, South Hamilton, Massachusetts CURRICULUM- IN WHAT RESPECTS SHOULD THE CURRICULUM OF RURAL ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOLS, FOR GRADES 1-6, DIFFER FROM THAT OF SIMILAR GRADES IN CITY SCHOOLS-John M. Foote, State Supervisor of Rural Education, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. DISCUSSION LED BY Burr F. Jones, State Supervisor of Elementary Education, Boston, Massachusetts. TRAINING OF TEACHERS- MINIMUM INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING-Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Education, Augusta, Maine; A DEFINITE PROGRAM OF TRAINING IN SERVICE-Florence M. Wellman, Superintendent of Schools, Brat- tleboro, Vermont. DISCUSSION LED BY Charles A. Philhower, Superintendent of Schools, Westfield, New Jersey. 806 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Wednesday Morning, February 27 CURRICULUM- THE STANDARD FOUR- YEAR HIGH SCHOOL-E. E. Ramsey, High School Inspector, Indianapolis, Indiana ; THE JUNIOR- SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL-W. L. Spencer, State Supervisor of Secondary Education, Montgomery, Alabama. DISCUSSION LED BY C. H. Dempsey, State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vermont. COÖRDINATION OF EDUCATIONAL UNITS FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY-Milo B. Hillegas, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. DISCUSSION LED BY Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois . Monday Afternoon, February 25 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 5,000 and 10,000 Chairman, J. A. Sexson, Superintendent of Schools, Sterling, Colorado Scientific Method in Administration: The Superintendent as an Educational Engineer WHAT SERVICE SHOULD SCHOOL SYSTEMS RENDER IN CITIES WITH A POPULATION BETWEEN 5000 AND 10,000 ?-C. R. Gates, Superintendent of Schools, Grand Island, Nebraska. NEXT FORWARD STEPS IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION-N . L. Engelhardt, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. THE NEW SCIENCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLICITY-P. R. Spencer, Superintendent of Schools , St. Cloud, Minnesota. PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE IN THE SELECTION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN CITIES WITH A POPULATION BETWEEN 5000 AND 10,000-H. A. Sprague, Superintendent of Schools , Summit, New Jersey. NOTABLE PROGRESS IN ADMINISTRATION IN CITIES WITH A POPULATION BETWEEN 5000 AND 10,000-J. J. Early, Superintendent of Schools, Sheridan, Wyoming. Wednesday Morning, February 27 Next Forward Steps in Curriculum - Making CRITERIA AND STANDARDS FOR THE SELECTION OF SUBJECT- MATTER-(a) THE SELEC- TIONS OF ESSENTIALS FROM TRADITIONAL MATERIALS-A. G. Erickson, Superin- tendent of Schools, Ypsilanti, Michigan; ( b ) THE SELECTION OF ESSENTIALS FROM NEW MATERIALS SUGGESTED BY REPRESENTATIVE EDUCATORS-Will French, Superintendent of Schools, Winfield, Kansas ; ( c) THE SELECTION OF ESSENTIALS BY JOB ANALYSIS OF LIFE-ACTIVITIES INVOLVING THE PARTICULAR SUBJECT- Richard W. Kretsinger, Superintendent of Schools , Franklin, Nebraska ; (d) THE SELECTION OF ESSENTIALS BY AN ANALYSIS OF IDEALS DESIRABLE IN EVERY INDIVIDUAL- Harry W. Langworthy, Superintendent of Schools, Oneida, New York. METHODS OF FINDING, ASSEMBLING, AND USING THE RESULTS OF THE LATEST INVESTI- GATION IN EACH OF THE LARGE CURRICULUM BRANCHES-Oscar S. Wood, Super- intendent of Schools, Aberdeen, South Dakota. THE ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULUM MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTON PURPOSES-H. М. Corning, Superintendent of Schools, Trinidad, Colorado. CURRICULUM- MAKING-L. Thomas Hopkins, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo rado. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 807 Monday Afternoon, February 25 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 10,000 and 25,000 Chairman, Walter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello, Idaho SOME USES AND ABUSES OF INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT TESTS-J. H. Risley, Superintendent of Schools, Pueblo, Colorado. THE BEVERLY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AN INDICATION OF THE TREND IN EDUCATION- S. Howard Chace, Superintendent of Schools, Beverly, Massachusetts . C. E. Rose, Superintendent of Schools, TEACHING FOREIGNERS TO SPEAK ENGLISH- Tucson, Arizona. KEEPING THINGS CHECKED UP-Edward B. Sellew, Superintendent of Schools, Mid- dletown, Connecticut. A METHOD OF CURRICULUM- MAKING- H. D. Fillers, Superintendent of Schools, Corsicana, Texas . VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN SMALL CITIES-C. Ray Gates, Superintendent of Schools , Grand Island, Nebraska.. ART IN A PUBLIC SCHOOL RELATIVE TO LIFE-P. R. Spencer, Superintendent of Schools, St. Cloud, Minnesota. Wednesday Morning, February 27 DEVELOPING THE INDIVIDUAL-C. B. Cornell, Superintendent of Schools, Shaker Heights, Cleveland, Ohio. VALIDITY AND FUTURE OF THE 6-3-3 PLAN- D. W. Horton, Superintendent of Schools, Logansport, Indiana. THE CASE AGAINST SILENT READING-E. T. Duffield, Superintendent of Schools, Virginia, Minnesota. EXPERIENCE WITH A SINGLE SALARY SCHEDULE-Frank E. Converse, Superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wisconsin. THE HUMANIZING OF THE GRADE-SCHOOL CURRICULUM-E. M. Sipple, Superin- tendent of Schools, Burlington, Iowa. THE SUPERINTENDENT AS A SALESMAN OF EDUCATION-Burr J. Merriam, Superin- tendent of Schools, Framingham, Massachusetts . Monday Afternoon, February 25 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 25,000 and 50,000 Chairman, John F. Gannon, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsfield, Massachusetts POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM-E. E. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools, Flint, Michigan. POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION- Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, New Jersey. RELATION OF THE SUPERINTENDENT TO THE SCHOOL COMMITTEE AND TO THE COM- MUNITY-Darrell Joyce, Superintendent of Schools, Hamilton, Ohio. SPELLING, A VITAL FACTOR IN THE CURRICULUM- Sarah Louise Arnold, Dean- Emerita, Simmons College, and Member of Massachusetts Advisory Board of Education, Lincoln, Massachusetts. DISCUSSION LED BY J. E. Burke, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Massachusetts. 808 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Wednesday Morning, February 27 COMPARISON OF THE 6-3-3 PLAN AND THE 6-4-2 PLAN IN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS-William John Cooper, Superintendent of Schools, Fresno, California . MERIT RATINGS OF TEACHERS-A BASIS FOR DETERMINING ANNUAL INCREMENTS- E. R. Whitney, Superintendent of Schools, Schenectady, New York. VALUE OF TEACHER ORGANIZATIONS-John W. Thalman, Superintendent of Schools, St. Joseph, Missouri. SAFETY TEACHING IN OUR SCHOOLS-Albert W. Whitney, Chairman, Education Section, National Safety Council, New York City. DISCUSSION LED BY R. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools, York, Pennsylvania. Monday Afternoon, February 25 Superintendents of Cities of Population Between 50,000 and 200,000 Chairman, Henry C. Johnson, Superintendent of Schools, San Diego, California. HOW SHOULD WE ORGANIZE TO WORK OUT A CURRICULUM AFTER THE EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES HAVE BEEN DETERMINED ?-J. H. Bentley, Former Superintendent of Schools, Duluth, Minnesota. DISCUSSION by C. B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Alabama; M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. IMPROVED METHODS OF SUPERVISION-William John Cooper, Superintendent of Schools, Fresno, California. DISCUSSION by H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, California; Daniel J. Kelly, Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton, New York. SOME PRACTICABLE NEXT STEPS IN THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION- Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, New Jersey; W. C. Reavis, Principal, University High School, University of Chicago. Wednesday Morning, February 27 PLANNING SCHOOLROOMS AS WELL AS SCHOOL BUILDINGS TO FACILITATE INSTRUCTIONA PROCESSES-J . W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools, Des Moines, lowa DISCUSSION by M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Kansas. MAKING THE HIGH SCHOOL A SOCIAL INSTITUTION- ( a) THE PROGRAM-Paul C Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio ; ( b ) THE BUILDING-J. H Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebraska. PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION OF THE TEACHING STAFF-E. E. Lewis Superintendent of Schools, Flint, Michigan. DISCUSSION by P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa, Oklahoma, and L P. Benezet, Superintendent of Schools, Evansville, Indiana. RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS IN BUDGET PLANNING-Orville C. Pratt, Superintendent d Schools, Spokane, Washington. Monday Afternoon, February 25 Superintendents of Cities of Population Above 200,000 Chairman, Herbert S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, New York. Improving the Service THROUGH BETTER TRAINED TEACHERS-Ernest C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Buffalo, New York. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 809 THROUGH BETTER ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION-John J. Maddox, Superin- tendent of Schools, St. Louis, Missouri. THROUGH BETTER ORGANIZED CURRICULA-Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools , Denver, Colorado. Wednesday Morning, February 27 Possible Economies THROUGH CHANGED ORGANIZATION WITHIN THE SCHOOL-I . I. Cammack, Superin- tendent of Schools, Kansas City, Missouri ; Charles L. Spain, Deputy Superin- tendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan ; and Carleton W. Washburne, Superin- tendent of Schools, Winnetka, Illinois. THROUGH A LONGER SCHOOL YEAR-David B. Corson, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, New Jersey. THROUGH CENTRAL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION- R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Monday Afternoon, February 25 County Superintendents Chairman, Charles E. Dickey, Superintendent of Allegheny County Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania THE SUPERINTENDENT'S RELATION TO HIS ( a ) SUPERVISORS-Edward J. Tobin, Super- intendent of Cook County Schools, Chicago, Illinois ; ( b ) PRINCIPALS A. G. Yawberg, Superintendent of Cuyahoga County Schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; (C) TEACHERS-Fern Kennedy, Superintendent of Redwood County Schools, Redwood Falls, Minnesota ; ( d) SCHOOL DIRECTORS-M. S. Bentz, Superin- tendent of Cambria County Schools, Ebensburg, Pennsylvania ; ( e ) PATRONS- Marie T. Harvey, State Chairman of Applied Education, Kirksville, Mis- souri. Wednesday Morning, February 27 MY EXPERIENCE IN ADMINISTERING EDUCATION-M . S. Pittman, Director of Rural Education, Ypsilanti, Michigan; Lillia E. Johnson, Superintendent of Eau Claire County Schools, Eau Claire, Wisconsin ; Carleton B. Gibson, Superin- tendent of Chatham County Schools, Savannah, Georgia ; W. L. Mercer, Super- intendent of Olmstead County Schools, Rochester, Minnesota ; George P. Bar- ron, Superintendent of Grimes County Schools, Anderson, Texas ; C. H. Barnes, Superintendent of St. Louis County Schools, Duluth, Minnesota ; A. F. Harman, Superintendent of Montgomery County Schools, Montgomery, Alabama; and O. E. Pore, Superintendent of Portage County Schools, Ravenna, Ohio. Monday Afternoon, February 25 State Superintendents and Commissioners Chairman, J. M. McConnell, Commissioner of Education, St. Paul, Minnesota MODERN EDUCATION-ITS SCOPE AND PROGRESS ; REACTIONARY FORCES; LINES OF DEFENSE-Ernest W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, New Hampshire; Thomas E. Johnson, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, Lansing, Michigan , J. A. Churchill, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, Oregon; Minnie J. Nielson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, North Dakota; and John W. Abercrombie, State Super- intendent of Education, Montgomery, Alabama. 810 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Wednesday Morning, February 27 SCHOOL SUPPORT-PURPOSES AND DISTRIBUTION OF STATE SUPPORT; DIVISION BETWEEN STATE AND LOCAL SUPPORT ; SOURCES OF SUPPORT-John Callahan, State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin ; S. M. N. Marrs, State Superintendent of Education, Austin, Texas ; May Trumper, State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Helena, Montana ; H. V. Holloway, State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Wilmington, Delaware ; and W. F. Bond, State Superintendent of Education, Jackson, Mississippi. TOPIC GROUPS Thursday Morning, February 28 Group A, Educational Publicity Chairman, L. P. Benezet, Superintendent of Schools, Evansville, Indiana EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY-W. H. Holmes, Superintendent of Schools, Mount Vernon, New York ; R. J. Tighe, Superintendent of Schools, Muskogee, Oklahoma; Carleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools, Savannah , Georgia ; E. W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, New Hampshire; J. H. Risley, Superintendent of Schools, Pueblo, Colorado ; and P. H. Smith, Super- intendent of Schools, Bayonne, New Jersey. GENERAL DISCUSSION LED BY W. H. Allen, Director, Institute for Public Service, New York City ; R. G. Reynolds, Director, Bureau of Educational Service, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Group B, Training Teachers in Service Chairman, J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, California Joint Meeting with the National Council of Education See program of the National Council of Education. Thursday Morning, February 28 Group C, Character Education Chairman , Jeremiah E. Burke, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Massachusetts TRAINING IN CHARACTER AND FOR CITIZENSHIP-Milton Bennion, Dean, School of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah; Lotus D. Coffman President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota ; Margaret T Maguire, Principal, George A. McCall School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Peter A. Mortenson, Formerly Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Illinois ; Francis H. J. Paul, Principal, DeWitt Clinton High School, New York City: and Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenr ville, North Carolina. Group D, Major Objectives of Elementary Education Chairman, Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado REORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT- MATTER IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL-F. G. Bonser, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 811 REORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TO MEET MAJOR OBJECTIVES-Charles L. Spain, Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan. RESEARCH IN RELATION TO THE ATTAINMENT OF OBJECTIVES IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA- TION-Ernest Horn, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. HOW SHALL WE SELECT THE SUBJECT- MATTER OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CUR- RICULUM-William H. KHoatrick, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. THE RELATION OF SUPERVISION TO THE ATTAINMENT OF MAJOR OBJECTIVES-Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California. Group E, Physical and Health Education Chairman, David B. Corson, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, New Jersey HEALTH EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS-E. George Payne, Professor of Educational Sociology, New York University, New York City. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL UNFITNESS IN CHILDREN- ( Illustrated by slides and a clinical demonstration with a nutrition class ) -William R. P. Emerson, Tufts College, Boston, Massachusetts . COORDINATION OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH ACTIVITIES-Frederick W. Maroney, Head of the Department of Health Instruction, Atlantic City, New Jersey. Group F, Civic Education Chairman, Jeremiah Rhodes, Superintendent of Schools, San Antonio, Texas BETTER CITIZENSHIP THROUGH BETTER TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES- Harold O. Rugg, Educational Psychologist, Lincoln School, New York City. WHAT A STATE IS DOING, THROUGH ITS SCHOOLS, FOR CITIZENSHIP-Fred L. Shaw, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pierre, South Dakota. How A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM FUNCTIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP-W. L. Stephens, Superin- tendent of Schools, Long Beach, California. How MAY THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN THE SCHOOLS LINK UP WITH THE PRACTICAL CITIZENSHIP OF THE COMMUNITY ?-Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Georgia . MILLIONS OF CHILDREN : FREE-William McAndrew, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Illinois . Group G, Visual Instruction in Education Chairman, H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, California THE VALUE OF VISUAL AIDS IN EDUCATION SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE- Frank N. Free- man, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois ; Joseph J. Weber, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas. DISCUSSION by George C. Kyte, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. THE USE, VALUE, AND EXPENSE OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION- ( a ) IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM-R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; ( b ) IN A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM-Alfred W. Abrams, Visual Instruction Division, State Department of Education, New York City. DISCUSSION by Dudley Grant Hays, Director Visual Instruction in Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois. VISUAL AIDS AVAILABLE FOR USE- IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED AND UNDER WAY- Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, California ; Ernest L. Cran- dall, Director of Lectures in Public Schools , New York City. 812 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TRAINING TEACHERS TO EMPLOY VISUAL AIDS IN TEACHING-William Gregory, Pi- rector, Educational Museum, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; J. J. Tigrt, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. С. ACHIEVED AND DESIRABLE IN VISUAL INSTRUCTION-Charles H. Judd, Uni- PROGRESS versity Chicago, Chicago, Illinois ; Thomas E. Finegan, National Transpor tation InstituteinWashington, D. C.; and Olive M. Jones, President, National Education Association, New York City. Group H, Vocational and Part-Time Education Chairman, William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania THE SUPERINTENDENT'S RESPONSIBILITY FOR DETERMINING AND COÖRDINATING THE MAJOR POLICIES OF VOCATIONAL AND PART- TIME EDUCATION-Ernest C. Hart- well, Superintendent of Schools , Buffalo, New York. THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OPPORTUNITY TO COORDINATE VOCATIONAL AND GENERAL EDUCATION-Robert J. Leonard, Director, School of Education, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York City. THE RELATION OF PART- TIME EDUCATION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION- Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio . VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AS AN ADJUNCT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION-Frank M. Leavitt, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Group I, Immigrant Education Chairman, A. B. Meredith, Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Connecticut THE PLACE OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRATIC SCHOOL SYSTEM-William McAndrew, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Illinois. WHAT THE SCHOOLS HAVE ACCOMPLISHED IN THE EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT- Daniel J. Kelly, Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton, New York ; George E. Smith, Supervisor of Extension Work, Buffalo, New York. THE OUTLOOK FOR IMMIGRANT EDUCATION in the United StatesS-John J. Mahoney, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. * FEDERAL LEADERSHIP AND LEGISLATION-Report of a committee on recent legislative proposals, types of legislation, and definitions of fundamental policies in National legislation affecting school work in English and citizenship for foreigners- H. S. Gruver, Lynn, Massachusetts , Chairman; Marguerite II Burnett, Wilmington, Delaware ; Raymond Molay, Barnard College, New York City ; R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; Albert Shiels , Columbia University, New York City ; Joseph M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, California. STATE LEADERSHIP AND LEGISLATION-Report of a committee on the present status of Federal and State leadership with recommendations as to the most effective types of coöperation in this work between Federal, State, and local school authorities-Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan, Chair- man; Albert Jenks, National Research Council, Washington, D. C.; Ethel Richardson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, California , John J. Riley, Specialist in Evening Schools, Albany, New York; Howard Bradstreet, Director, Bureau of Adult Education, Hartford, Connecticut ; Mor- gan G. Hogge, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Illinois. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 813 Group K, The School and the Community Chairman, Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan PARENT, TEACHER, AND SCHOOL-M. E. Moore, Superintendent of Schools, Beaumont, Texas. CITY SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITY SERVICE-Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. A RURAL SCHOOL COMMUNITY PROGRAM-Mabell G. Bush, State Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Madison, Wisconsin. THE BOY SCOUT PROJECT-Loren W. Barclay, Educational Director, Boy Scouts of America, New York City. SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY POSSIBILITIES- Charl Ormond Williams, Field Secretary of the National Education Association, Washington, D. C. RESOLUTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE February 28, 192+ MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, FRANK W. BALLOU , Superintendent of Schools ....... ..Washington, D. C. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent Public Instruction . Lansing, Michigan J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools . San Francisco, California MABEL C. BRAGG, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Newton, Massachusetts L. B. EVANS, Superintendent of Schools . Augusta, Georgia MRS. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Denver, Colorado F. D. BOYNTON, Superintendent of Schools . Ithaca, New York American Education Week-In order that the American people may have a full knowledge of the plans and purposes of those who are engaged in teaching the youth of America, and thereby be convinced of the economic and patriotic value of education, and in order that the patriotic and financial support of American public education may be commensurate with its importance in our representative democracy, the Department of Super- intendence gives its cordial endorsement to the observance of Education Week throughout the Nation . We commend the action of the President of the United States and of the several States in issuing proclamations on this subject, and ask for a continuance of their endorsements . We hereby call upon the profession to continue to prepare plans and programs for this appointed week that will still further carry to the people a message of what has been done, what is being done, and what should be done to insure the safety of the Republic by a full measure of education for all its citizens . Education in the Nation's capital-We reaffirm our position regarding education in the Nation's capital by the repetition of the resolution adopted by the Department of Superintendence in 1923, as follows : "We note with satisfaction and heartily endorse the expressed intention of Congress to make the school system of Washington the model system 814 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the country. We pledge to Congress our hearty support of this proposed legislation and of such appropriation of funds as may be necessary to pro- vide in the Nation's capital a system of public education which shall ex- emplify to the Nation the best in administration, supervision, business man- agement, and teaching service. To this end we urge the immediate passage of the Teachers' Salary Bill now pending before Congress. " To avoid war-We recognize both that another world war would de stroy civilization and that the hope of today and the security of the future lie in an adequate education. To this end we demand a program of educa- tion which, by bringing about a better understanding among the people of the world, will speedily produce a situation in which offensive wars will become impossible. Rural education-We recognize the rural-school problem as one of the most important and difficult in American education. It is a fundamental problem in American life. It is a question that concerns people of the city as vitally as it does the people of the country. It has been the long-established policy of the Department of Superin- tendence to promote the welfare of the rural schools in the same degree as the city schools, and we, therefore, endorse the action of the President of the National Education Association in the appointment of the Committee of One Hundred to devise ways and means for the solution of this problem. We solicit the interest and coöperation of every organization and of men and women interested in rural-life betterment to the end that the perma- nence, prosperity, and happiness of people in rural communities may be insured. Education Bill-We have noted with great satisfaction and approval that President Coolidge in his first message to Congress gave expression to hishigh regard for education and to a belief that education is a fundamental requirement of National activity and is worthy of a Department in the National Government and a place in the Cabinet. The clear and forceful statement of the President in his message has greatly encouraged us in the hope for an early and favorable consideration of the Education Bill now before Congress . We affirm our allegiance to the Education Bill in the language of the resolution adopted last year, as follows : "We recognize that a Department of Education is necessary in order that the educational activities of our National Government shall be efficiently and economically administered. We believe that National sanction and National leadership can be provided only in the person of a Secretary of Education in the President's Cabinet. Federal aid for the purpose of stimulating the several States to remove illiteracy, Americanize the foreign- born, prepare teachers, develop adequate programs of physical education, and equalize educational opportunities, is in accord with our long-established practice and is demanded by the present crisis in education." DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 815 Law observance-We recognize that our civilization is in danger of being undermined by the failure of our people to observe the laws of our country and the communities in which they live. We. further recognize the fact that law observance can be best secured by proper observation and training. We therefore urge that the schools of America stress as never before the fundamental principles of American citizenship-participation in governmental activities and complete loyalty and obedience to its laws and respect for duly constituted authorities. Efficient service of teachers-The great body of the people of our country are demanding increasingly higher standards of education. These demands are resulting in the new, vitalized educational program in our schools. There is a clarion call for broadly educated, highly trained leaders with clear vision and high ideals . The Department of Superintendence commends the inspiring and efficient service of teachers, principals, and supervisors who are whole-heartedly devoting their lives to this high type of patriotic service, and urges increas- ing understanding, appreciation, and support by the public of these teachers, principals, and supervisors in the schools of America. No reduction in appropriations for public education-The unprecedented rise in the cost of public education as represented in the elementary and secondary fields may be traced to definite causes . It is the conviction of the American people that an education is the birthright of every child in this democracy. Within the period from 1890 to 1920 it became necessary to expand the elementary-school plant seventy per cent and the high-school plant one thousand per cent, with like extensions in the instructing staff, to take care of the ten million additional children in the elementary and two million in the secondary school. The increase in population, vast as that was for the period named, does not account for the increase in attendance. The real reason is the difference in conception on the part of the people as to what their schools should do. Compulsory attendance laws brought children by the thousand into schools, the age limit was raised, and civic organizations inaugurated "back-to-school movements." The public demanded physical and health education, courses in civics and patriotism, in fire and accident prevention, in music and drawing, in indus- trial and household arts, in science and commercial studies, expanded options in foreign languages and history, classes for the mentally and physically disabled, part-time and continuation courses, open-air schools, night schools, summer terms; in short, a public service was demanded of the schools to meet changing domestic and economic conditions unheard of a generation ago. Local pressure and legislative enactment established the present public-school program and changed public schools from places for the intellectual training of a selected few to public-service stations whereby and wherein all might be equally served irrespective of race, color, creed, economic status, or parental occupation. If the present conception, which seems to be the creed of the American 816 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION people, is to continue and the public schools remain public service stations, then it is futile to discuss a diminishing cost for public education. On the other hand, if every child of school age is to receive what is conceded to be his just due-namely, a full school day five days each week-the cost of school construction must go on. For example, two hundred million dollars are required at this moment for school construction in a single State if the children of that State are to enjoy this privilege. There is another factor in the recent cost of education. As late as 1917, salaries of teachers were proverbially and disgracefully low. Because of this, at no time in the history of American education has there been an adequate supply of trained teachers. At the present time, public education is suffering because of this lack. If public education is ever to have an adequate supply of trained teachers, millions more must be provided for our teacher-training schools. When an adequate trained instruction staff is had, the cause for the charge that "superficiality now obtains in public education" will have been removed. Prior to 1917, thousands of trained teachers left the profession because salaries had dropped below main- tenance level. The situation became so serious that public sentiment crystallized into a Nation-wide movement for better salaries for teachers. This movement resulted in legislative enactment setting a minimum wage and annual increments. While teachers' salaries have materially increased in the number of dollars, there has been no corresponding increase in pur- chasing power. This movement, therefore, must go on. Present salary levels must be maintained and in many instances advanced, if we are to secure men and women of the same standards of ability and efficiency re- quired in general business. If the schools are to Americanize the 13,000,000 of foreign-born now in this country and the millions more yet to come, it they are to banish illiteracy, if they are to take over the care of the health of childhood, and do the other things that the people now expect them to do, then there must be no expectation of a reduction in appropriations for public education , either State or local. Can the Nation finance the program ? The late Franklin K. Lane placed the annual loss to the Nation from illiteracy at $826,000,000. The Provost General places the loss due to remedial physical defects at still greater figures. In 1920, Federal statisticians placed the Nation's bill for luxuries at $22,500,000,000-a sum approximately equal to the cost of the Government from the adoption of the Constitution to the declaration of war against Germany, a sum large enough to replace the public school plant from the ground up. The American people own fourteen out of every seventeen automobiles that the world has built. A single State has within the last fifteen years built State roads sufficient to lay three parallel routes from New York to San Francisco and had $200,000,000 left for the development of its canal system. It may be necessary to cut down expenses, but it should not be done by robbing childhood of its birthright. The remedy rests in a more scientific distribution of funds and the equalization of taxation. The destiny of the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 817 public schools is the destiny of the Republic; the Nation of the future must pass through the schoolroom where the traditions of our free institutions are conserved and transmitted. What that future shall be rests with the American people. MORAL AIMS IN THE TRAINING OF YOUTH DR. HENRY NEUMANN, LEADER, BROOKLYN SOCIETY FOR ETHICAL CULTURE BROOKLYN, NEW YORK President Payson Smith : The cause in whose interest we have assembled here in Chicago for this week has its deeply religious implications. It is, therefore, highly appropriate that we should continue the custom inaugu- rated several years ago of having the convention open with this Vesper Service. It is a very great privilege to be able to present to you as the speaker of the afternoon Dr. Henry Neumann, who will speak on the topic Moral Aims in the Training of Youth. Dr. Henry Neumann: Those of us whose privilege it is to be teachers may look upon the children who come to us as so many names in a roll book or we may look upon them as candidates for promotion to the next grade, but it is something better. We may also look upon them as candi- dates for those excellencies that constitute the dignity and the glory of human existence. We can look upon our task of educators with John Stuart Mill, who said that education is a bridge across the gulf between men as they are and men as they might become. In New Orleans there is a statue erected to a woman, the first of its kind in our country. It is that of an old peasant woman, who had come from Ireland to earn her living in this country. On her way to work each day, because ofher interest in the orphans, she would pass over the fence to the youngsters an apple, orange, or some toy. She prospered in business, and when she died, her will directed that all her money should be equally divided among the Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish orphan asylums. This incident I mention to show how those who have privileges which were denied to this woman, never rise to her level, nor have they caught what in her life was an answering echo to the call of the ideals of the Republic. This democratic soul illustrates that there is something better than learning . It is quite possible to cultivate intellect and certain graces of manner without developing finer and stronger men and women. Many a person can pass an intelligence test and keep out of jail without being morally courageous, honorable, fair-minded, and public spirited. It is not the criminal elements that constitute the gravest moral problems for our country. Their number is relatively small ; and every community is more or less alert to the danger which they constitute, The more serious problem is raised by the easy-going contentment, the moral unenlighten- ment, the hand-to-mouth, sporadic idealism of the vast number of quite 818 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION respectable persons. When a crisis occurs like the recent war, they rise to a splendid willingness to give their services freely. When the war is over, they sink back into apathy, or, as in many circles in our country, they switch over their hatred of the war-time foe to any group whose race, color, religion, politics, or social philosophy they find uncongenial. This wide- spread intolerance on the part of people who regard themselves as emi- nently respectable is but one instance of the need for thoroughgoing ethical outlooks. Moral education is more than an attempt to save young people from vice. The best way to shield one's life from evil is to be ruled by great positive ideals of the dignity and worth of our human gifts. The absence of such ideals is responsible for the failure to be interested in the right solutions for our many problems-right solutions and not merely the easy, quick, tem- porary ones . College students rarely think that all those problems, the perils con- fronting the modern home, the labor problem, the question of how unlike groups shall live together, the problem of building up a genuine world society, need to be worked out in the light of great, comprehensive ideals for the whole of life. The same is true in the lives of those who are not privileged to go to college. Our working classes do not regard this work as a service to mankind. Neither, for that matter, do their employers. To both sides, the day's work is little more than a means to money-making. What wonder that they quarrel over the division of the spoils ? Work should be treated as a way of supplying the needs of a better human living for all whom the work in any way affects, but this is not taught in every school and home as yet. The results are revolt, strife, slip-shod work, feverish chase after senseless luxuries. The spiritual emptiness of vast numbers of "respectable" lives is a much more serious problem than the open criminality of a small class. The splendid response which America made this summer to the call for aid to the victims of the Japanese earthquake shows that there is in people a fund of goodwill which, if rightly directed, is more than ample to pre- vent world-old wrongs and to make our sick earth over. But that goodwill needs to be enlightened. Not so long ago we were being urged to prepare for war against the very Japanese whom we so generously helped. Evi- dently it is much harder for people to be just to one another all the time and to settle their differences on a basis of fairness than to give charity on those chance occasions when their feelings are strongly moved. We have an ethics of justice as between man and man. The world is badly sick. however, for lack of an ethics of justice as between groups and nations. The root problem of our age is to get saner ideas into every human head. Let our schools always keep before the minds of our young people the thought that all tools, whether in the shape of modern machinery or of the mere power to read and to write, are good or bad according to the uses we make of them. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 819 In the last analysis it is the kind of thinking that these boys and girls carry with them into the world which will decide what kind of world it is going to be. It may be a petty and cruel world, or a large and noble world, corresponding to their ideals. To refine and clarify their thinking, to inspire their deepest energies, and to elevate their ideals, are tasks which our country can never take too seriously. It is a grave mistake for the teacher to think that his main concern must be to prepare his pupils for the next grade. What sense is there in the work of the school if the pupils are left with little inspiration to put their training to its worthiest uses ? For example, it is easily forgotten that science lends itself as readily to the doing of hurt as of good. The latest findings in chemistry are as available to the burglar as they are to the sanitary engineer. Poison gas is as typical a product of our age as vaccines and anti-toxins. The printing press and the radio have enormously in- creased the speed and the range of our communications ; but they can be used indifferently to transmit truth or lies, wisdom or stupidity. It is indeed good to make the tools. We are not children who must be kept from using knives and forks for fear that these tools may do hurt. But now that human beings can do so much more harm or good than ever before in history, it behooves them to think more earnestly and more intelligently than ever upon questions of good, better, and best in the uses of their gifts . Because we travel at the rate of sixty miles an hour Dean Inge reminds us we are not ten times more civilized than ages that traveled only six. Our work, in short, must keep forever in mind this double need. There is a moral heritage which must be preserved against assault from man's lower nature. But beyond the righteousness accepted of our times there is a vastly nobler life still to be furthered. Literature, art, history, civics, science, all the studies, all the methods, all the influences with which we can surround our young people and all the activities to which we can get them to give themselves, find their highest usefulness in what they offer to this double task of moral conservation and enrichment . We can, if we will, teach in mechanical, routine fashion like slaves driven to their task by the lash of mere habits. We can do our work like day workers intent only upon the day's wage. We can also teach like master craftsmen inspired to a sense of the privilege that it is to quicken the better life in these unspoiled, uncompromised young people. We can teach like creative artists touched by a spark of the Divine fire to a realization of the greatness of their privilege and obligation. OPENING ADDRESSES President Payson Smith : " The convention will be in order ." Former President John H. Beveridge : "It is always customary at the close of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence for the out- going president to introduce the new president. That was impossible a 820 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION year ago because the honorable president was in Massachusetts and the meeting was held in Cleveland, Ohio, so it becomes my very great pleasure this morning to introduce to you your new president as your presiding officer. Last year I found that there were certain tools or instruments of warfare that were beneficial in facilitating operations of the meeting, and so I want to present to you, Mr. President, this morning, a block and gavel made by the Omaha school children, which I hope will aid you in presid- ing over this deliberative assembly. I want to add that this block and gavel are to become your permanent property, to remind you of pleasant associations on this occasion. Mr. President, I present you with this gavel." President Smith: " It certainly is a very great pleasure to accept at your hands this gavel, which is the handiwork of the boys of the schools of the city of Omaha. I am very happy to accept this as a symbol of the service which these young men and women of our schools are prepared to render to us in these days when we are trying to carry the burden of the day, and as a symbol of that greater service for which they are being prepared when their day arrives. It is a privilege likewise to accept it, sir, because it is a symbol of your own splendid service as the presiding officer of this great Association, and I might wish that there might be renewed in this symbol the justice, the fairness with which you have presided at these sessions. I should ask nothing more or better than that I should be able to keep alive the splendid tradition that has been established by you and your predecessors in office, and I am particularly glad to accept it as a symbol of that trust which was placed in me when, sight unseen, you were willing to place the destinies of the Department of Superintendence for a little while in my hands. I trust that I shall be worthy of this faith and this confidence of yours. " In tens of thousands of American schools today millions of American boys and girls are offering a petition, the petition taught us by our Lord. It seems to me appropriate that we who are working for and with them should join our voices with theirs and I ask, therefore, that you will arise and join with me in repeating The Lord's Prayer. "Our Canadian friends have a very happy phrase in which they express the relationship of the Dominion to the Empire. The phrase runs, I think, something like this : "Daughter am I in my mother's house, but mistress in my own. " A relationship I think something like this obtains between the Department of Superintendence and the mother Association. This great Department has attained to the fullness of the stature of manhood, and it is perhaps fair to say master in its own house, but we are indeed always very proud to give our allegiance to the parent Association of which we are a part, that largest and greatest Association of all associations of the teachers of the world, and it is a very great privilege to present to you this morning, the President of the National Education Association, Miss Olive M. Jones, who will speak on the topic, "Watchman, Tell Us of the Night. " 1 1This address was printed in full in the JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Vol . 13 , No. 4, April, 1924. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 821 President Smith : "We are deeply grateful to the President of our Na- tional Education Association for this splendid message of leadership which she has brought us, particularly for this challenge which she has laid down to those who would set forth on a program of financial retrenchment in education. It may be said, as well first as last, that we who are the servants of the American people in the cause of education believe that the public schools of this country are not to cost less but are going to cost more, because there are going to be more children who are going to attend school. Children will attend school for longer periods of time and there must be a larger range of educational opportunity to meet the requirements of the larger numbers of children who will attend school. With this mes- sage, which we send to the American people, that American education is to cost more, we have a very vital interest, to accompany it with this other message that we who represent them in the cause of education are deter- mined to see just so far as lies in us that we shall produce dollar for dollar in value for the money that is expended for education. That is the purpose of our great meeting to see that we shall, wherever possible, make our systems of education more effective. "It is a very great privilege to present to you this morning the Chief Magistrate of this great city of Chicago, a man who, as I understand, in his private belief holds no brief for the policy of our Government with reference to the control of liquor but does hold a brief, an official brief which he has splendidly maintained that whatever the Constitution orders and the laws proclaim that shall be carried forward by those in executive position. It is a proud moment in which I present his Honor, William E. Dever, mayor of Chicago, who brings to this convention the greetings of the city." THE GREETINGS OF CHICAGO WILLIAM DEVER, MAYOR OF CHICAGO, ILLINOIS I doubt whether it would be quite possible to select a city in which to hold your great national convention whose Mayor would be less fitted than myself to deal with the important questions upon which you will deliberate here in Chicago. My work in life has been somewhat different from that of educators. Sometimes in a remote, occasionally in an intimate way, I have had to deal with school affairs, but usually my problems were concerned more particularly with the business side of Chicago's educational organization. That is about the beginning and the end of my actual contact with educational affairs except that I am a product of our American schools. I am here solely to extend to you a welcome, something more than the ordinary official welcome to Chicago. Your Chairman during the few moments I have been here has touched upon the matter of cost of education in this Nation and its tendency to increase as the functions of education become more extended, as there comes to be a more widespread apprecia 822 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the fundamental importance of the work of the educator. That is quite true, and that fact, it seems to me, ought to be diffused more generally throughout the body politic. The increased cost of education grows out of the necessity for sound education, the necessity, through a properly or- ganized system, of inculcating those lessons in the young mind that mean so much to the moral, the cultural, and the civic spirit of the men and the women who are to govern this Nation in the future, as well as from the tendency to high costs in all directions. There is a growing knowledge of the important function of the teacher and the supreme importance of the public schools which must of necessity awake the public mind to a belief that money properly spent in that service is money well spent. We are spending of the taxpayers' money now in the city of Chicago ap- -proximately $55,000,000 a year to support our public schools. The Mayor of the city as such has no control over the expenditure of that money. Under our laws the Mayor's only official contact with the school system is that he has the power to appoint the members of the School Board, and this Mayor appointed the present School Board, and it is one of the things I am a little bit proud of. We have obtained the consent of distinguished men and women to serve upon our School Board. They serve without any salary whatever, their only reward, the only reward that it is possible for them to receive is the consciousness of duty well performed. The Presi- dent of our Board, I am going to mention his name, because as I say , this is about all he will ever get out of it, is Charles M. Moderwell. He was appointed by myself, and he has had to lay aside large private interests, because no man who has the burden of expending so large a sum of the taxpayers' money can also devote himself to private business. He has as- sumed a man's task, and for a man to do that for the public solely out of civic spirit is a fine thing to contemplate. After all that is the spirit that will make this country great. In talking to the gentleman on my right I made the inquiry as the Chair- man was speaking, whether your convention included a Business Managers Organization ? The form of this convention, as I understand it, is to deal almost altogether with matters of educational consequence. There is an- other side to our educational system that sometimes I think ought to be correlated in some manner with this organization, and that is the Business Managers' Association, if there is such an organization and I am informed there is. The work of the two is essentially different, but that there must be correlation between them it seems to me is quite evident. There ought to be some point of contact between the two organizations that will enable them to work out a proper economic and effective expenditure of the tax- payers' money. I am glad to be here this morning. I am talking longer than I usually talk to organizations of this kind. One of the pleasant things in connection with my office is that I am called upon to meet so frequently distinguished men and women from out of town and to welcome them to Chicago, but DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 823 knowing as I do the tremendous significance of your life work to the wel- fare of this Nation I want to assure you in all sincerity I am extending you a real, sincere, cordial welcome to Chicago . NATIONAL OBLIGATIONS IN EDUCATION JOHN W. ABERCROMBIE , STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, MONT- GOMERY, ALABAMA I am deeply grateful for the privilege of meeting, knowing better and co- operating with so many of my educational co-workers in the solution of common problems. When we really and truly know one another our problems become common problems, our burdens common burdens, our dangers common dangers, our country one country, our flag one flag, and I might say our God one God. Educational problems are difficult of solu- tion. Both in America and throughout the world problems of every kind have been tremendously complicated by recent developments. History and reason teach us that no country can afford to rely solely upon natural resources for the development, prosperity, and happiness of its people; that natural resources alone, however varied, extensive and valuable, will not suffice to make a country great. If only natural resources were necessary, our country would have no need for concern about the future. Sky and air, earth and sea, forest and stream, mountain and valley, soil and climate all conspire to make of our land a delightful habitation for man. Most important resource-Man himself is a natural resource. Nature has decreed that his development shall precede the utilization of the things over which he has been given dominion. Only to the extent that he is de- veloped can those things be appreciated and appropriated by him. Fortu- nately, he is capable of self-development. The power to acquire and apply knowledge is peculiar to man and through its cultivation and exercise he has made much of progress in civilization. In some respects this progress has been greater nowhere else than in the United States. The prime requisite-However, great as have been our achievements, we still lack the prime requisite for the maximum of development-namely, a citizenry universally qualified to live sanely and efficiently, to utilize wisely and fully the unsurpassed natural advantages with which our land is blest. Out of slavery, secession, war, emancipation, and reconstruction the South inherited perplexing problems, chief among them being those relating to education, labor, and racial adjustment. These conditions and problems are so related that it is impossible to discuss them separately. Prior to the War of Secession conditions in the South were not con- ducive to the development of public-school systems. Slavery and universal education have never been coexistent anywhere in the world. Not until after the war was the principle of universal education at governmental expense firmly established. 824 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In the South the labor problem is largely a race problem and for the same reasons the race problem is largely a labor problem. Labor and capital seem to be destined everywhere to the waging of an unending contest, which at times shakes the foundations of government, threatens a disruption of business and industry, and presents an appalling spectacle of man's inhumanity to man . The South's labor problem is peculiar to the section and grows out of the occupancy of the same territory by two very dissimilar races. Effects of slavery-My opinion is that as a race the Negro was benefited by slavery. Inhuman as it was, the Negro got vastly more from bondage than did the white man. What did the Negro get ? Release from barbar- ism, physical development, industrial training, the lesson of obedience, the discipline of work, the example of the master, the English language, the foundation of the home, the introduction to civilization, and the elevating influences of the Christian religion. What did the white man get? Per- sonal animosities, family divisions, sectional hatreds, devastating war; and with other injurious influence he got exemption from physical labor and mental exertion, the results of which are habits of ease, idleness, indulgence, dissipation, weakness, inefficiency, and helplessness. The effect of slavery upon labor was to degrade it. With the white man labor came to be regarded as menial and fit only for the slave. With the Negro it came to be looked upon as an attribute of slavery, and there- fore a thing to be despised and evaded. Is it any wonder that freedom brought to both races economic confusion and industrial disaster ? The Negro regarded it as freedom from work ; the white man as subjection to an ignoble existence. The result was many mistakes upon the part of each race. Each suffers from those mistakes today, though many of them were made over a half century ago. Negro enfranchisement-But the southern whites and blacks were not the only people who blundered in the beginning of freedom. One of the greatest mistakes of that exciting period was committed by those who ad- ministered the affairs of the Federal Government. The sudden, unanimous, and complete enfranchisement of four millions of people steeped in ig- norance and superstition, who had received no preparation whatever for the grave and exacting duties of citizenship, was the colossal mistake of the time, and was as injurious to the Nation itself as it was cruel to the ex- slave and unjust to his former master. It drove a poisoned dagger through the very heart of the white south, and retarded temporarily, if not for all time, the civic growth, the economic progress, and the educational develop- ment of both races there. It polluted the body politic of the entire Nation and complicated, if indeed it did not create, the race problem. The dis- astrous effects of that stupendous error are still visible and burdensome. For more than fifty years they have obscured the visions of men. If Lincoln had lived that mistake would not have been made, and the South would have escaped the horrors of reconstruction. Let us con- gratulate ourselves that our country has not made the same mistake in DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 825 Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippine Islands. Though ten thousand miles away we are spending many millions of dollars preparing the Philip- pinos for citizenship before granting them its full privileges, just as should have been done with the Negro, and just as I believe would have been done had Lincoln lived. The race problem-And there is a race problem. Close our eyes to it as we may, try to evade it as we will, the problem remains. It will not down at any man's bidding. It is a living, everpresent, all-pervasive, irre- pressible problem. What is that problem ? To teach the two most dis- similar and unassimilable of all the races, one of which was for generations under involuntary servitude to the other, to live upon the same soil and under the same government in harmony and mutual helpfulness; to develop without friction a race within a race; to establish a civilization within a civilization-that seems to be the southern race problem. There has been nothing like it in history; we have no lamp of experience by which to guide our footsteps. Upon its wise solution depend the peace, prosperity, and happiness not only of the South but also in large measure of the Nation itself, for the problem is fast becoming Nation-wide. The problem is not open to immediate, definite, permanent solution. If it is ever solved the solution will come slowly, gradually, and through co- operative efforts upon the part of intelligent and patriotic representatives of both races and all sections. Great intelligence, unswerving honesty, wisest discretion, untiring consecration, and unfaltering patriotism will be necessary. There will be needed also much of sympathy, confidence, patience, toleration, earnestness, courage, and true religion. In other words, for the race problem as with all other problems there is no solution outside of education. Only through educational processes, only through the cultivation of head and hand and heart can a people be ad- vanced in civilization and prepared for self-government. This education must be of the right kind and it must be universally applied. I do not sub- scribe to the doctrine that ignorance is a qualification for certain kinds of labor. The most ignorant are not the most efficient even in the performance of so-called menial tasks. On the contrary, the most ignorant are always the most inefficient and at the same time the most diseased, the most im- moral, the most criminal, and the most dangerous to society and govern- ment. This is true of individuals; it is equally true of races. There are 10,500,000 Negroes in the United States, 9,000,000, or 85 per cent of whom are in the southern and contiguous States. Of the 8,100,000 ten years of age or over, 1,850,000, or 29.9 per cent, are illiterate. In numerous communities in the South the Negro population is many times that of the white. Naturally illiteracy is highest in such localities. Owing to insanitary conditions and unwholesome living habits due to ignorance, the Negro has so degenerated physically since emancipation that he falls an easy victim to contagious diseases, especially tuberculosis. When he goes to other sections, and he is going by the hundreds of thousands , he carries this and other diseases with him. The whites there contract 826 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION diseases from him and through travel, visitation, and migration scatter them throughout the country. It is impossible to have such a condition in one section without endangering health and life in every other section. In self-defence, if not from a sense of altruism and patriotism, it devolves upon the government in both State and Nation to see to it that the Negro is taught how to live intelligently, hygienically, and morally. He must be trained for his environment and his education must be dominantly voca- tional and moral, rather than dominantly cultural and professional . Our forefathers took lands from the savage red man and in restitution we have made him a ward of the Nation. We have expended many mil- lions of dollars in an effort to prepare him for efficient citizenship. Our forefathers made a slave of the savage black man ; why not treat him with equal consideration ? The new democracy demands equal and exact justice for all people. States unequal to task-While each of the forty-eight States is definitely and irrevocably committed to the policy of providing universal education at public expense, while each is striving heroically to meet its educational obligations and while under existing conditions each is making commend- able progress, the fact remains that in most of them the work is only well begun. If the South were as well developed, as productive, and as wealthy as other sections of equal area and population, which is not true by reason of the ravages of war and the presence of the Negro, it would require a rate of taxation greatly above the average to give to all of her children ad- vantages equal to those provided by other sections for theirs, because the South is confronted with the irremovable necessity of maintaining a dual system of schools. To provide adequate advantages under existing condi- tions would require a rate of taxation many times larger than that levied elsewhere. Such a rate would be oppressive, impoverishing, confiscatory. National aid essential-If this be a correct diagnosis of our country's educational ills, what is the remedy ? I answer : Without action by the Federal Government there is no hope for prompt and effective relief. The Nation must come to the rescue. Congress must make adequate annual appropriations for all forms of education to be apportioned equitably among all of the States and to be expended under the supervision and con- trol of State and local authorities. Such apportionment and expenditure would place the appropriation where it is most needed and therefore where it would accomplish greatest good for the entire country. It would also leave the direct administration of the fund with the individual State and local governments where it properly belongs. In other words, Congress should forthwith pass the pending Education Bill, now known as the Sterling-Reed Bill, which provides for coöperation between the States and the Federal Government in the removal of illiteracy, the Americanization of the foreign-born, the equalization of educational op- portunities, the promotion of physical education, and the training of teach- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 827 ers. The proposed plan involves no new principle. The Federal Govern- ment and the States have long coöperated in certain forms of education. In 1785 Congress set aside every sixteenth section of land to be used for the maintenance of public schools, and since then has appropriated many millions of dollars in land and money for the encouragement of education. The pending bill would simply extend the application of the principle by granting Federal aid to the States to be used for these five specific purposes which are fundamental to the most effective citizenship in both State and Nation. Full of error is the contention that the citizen is under obligation to provide education for his own children, and for his own children only. Equally untenable is this contention when applied to States. It is as much to the interest of a State that the people of every other State be adequately educated, as it is to the interest of a community or county within a State that the people of every other community or county in that State be properly trained. If it is the duty of the richer communities and counties to assist the poorer communities and counties in a State, equally is it the duty of the wealthier States to assist the less wealthy States in the Nation. In this age of transportation, trade, travel, visitation, and migration we are fast coming to be one country. Already over 20,000,000 of our people are residing in States other than those in which they were born, and it is no longer possible to permit a child to grow into citizenship in ignorance anywhere without endangering every other citizen everywhere. What- ever jeopardizes the freest and fullest development of any State or section imperils such development in every other State and section. Manifestly the logical and essential next step in our educational develop- ment is the passage of the Education Bill now pending in Congress. Shall the Federal Government make appropriations for the building of locks and dams, for the deepening of rivers and digging of canals, for the construc- tion of railroads and highways, for the reclamation service, for farm demon- stration purposes, for the eradication of boll weevil, cattle tick, and hog cholera, and at the same time neglect the nobler duty of preparing its children for that citizenship upon which its very existence depends ? Shall the Nation continue to sacrifice its citizens and endanger its efficiency and stability by permitting its children, through the neglect or cupidity of un- natural parents, or through the avarice and inhumanity of grasping cor- porations, to grow into manhood and womanhood dwarfed in body, mind, and soul ? The continuance of such a policy would be nothing less than social, economic, and governmental suicide. 828 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ENCOURAGEMENTS WILLIAM MATHER LEWIS, PRESIDENT GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY WASHINGTON , D. C. Some one has said that a pessimist was one who looked both ways be- fore crossing a one-way street. There is no need for us to look both ways in this matter of education because American education today is leading only one way and that way is to the most successful service that the edu- cational system of any Nation has ever rendered. At this particular time when the air is filled with criticism of Govern- ment organizations and of the various institutions which we have estab- lished in this country it is remarkable to note that no criticism is leveled against our school system in the effect which it is having upon American life, and this despite the fact that within the last generation there have come up in America industrial, social, and business problems such as the world has never seen; this despite the fact that in the last generation our entire industrial system and social system have been overhauled and changed, and yet the schools have kept pace and have furnished the people to man the social and the industrial and the business machinery of Amer- ica. When you and I were students in the high school there was no such thing in America as the automobile. Its advent was not an unmixed bless- ing. We could occasionally in our cities get up to the curb. There was also the advantage that when we took the young lady out into the country for the drive Saturday afternoon we never had to walk back fifteen miles to a barn to get hay before we could proceed. Travel was somewhat slower, but after all it was surer. When I was a boy only the most patient people used the telephone. The person who talked about flying in the air was put under the surveillance of the family physician, and as for the more important inventions of our times-gas and the thermos bottle, and the phonograph-we never thought about them. It was the age of the indi- vidual, it was the age when education was led along the quiet byways of life. Then there came this tremendous change in our whole fabric. I lived in a steel town in Illinois, a town where the production of that great essential was and is the principal industry. At that time 124 or 125 men were handling the ingots that today are handled by three or four men with electric magnets. Some of you live on the Atlantic or Pacific seaboard. You can remember the time when eighty or ninety people on their backs carried the coal up into the hold of the ship, work which is being done today by four or five people with a conveyor. Those two homely pictures suggest what the American educational system has been called upon to do, suggest why essentially this is in America the century of education. We have passed through first in America the century of the pioneer, the century of the individual, who went out into the woods to hew out his fortune and to hew out a livelihood at the same time. We DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 829 have gone through the century in America of political organization. We have gone through more recently the century of industrial and business and social centralization, and all have led inevitably to this. Why is it that today in the American public schools there are practically 22,000,000 of our young people ? Why is it that there are more people in colleges today than were in high schools in 1890 ? Why is it that over that period, while the entire population of the United States has increased 65 per cent, the attendance at high schools has increased 520 per cent? The tremendous speeding up of life in America demands that we raise up a generation which shall know and not guess, and that is what the American school system is doing. We have had reference made to the problem of illiteracy, and it is in America today a great problem, but do not forget that because of the self- sacrificing work and the intelligent work of the American school teacher that percentage of illiteracy in a period of a very few years has been lowered from 13 per cent to something like 6 per cent, and this despite the tremendous influx of alien population to our country. The night school and the part-time school in America are encouraging new developments. At George Washington University 3500 young people come to us at five o'clock in the afternoon from the Government depart- ments. Why ? Because they realize that you cannot stand still; you must continue with your education or fall into the back ranks . Only a few weeks ago a very successful electrical engineer came to our Dean of Engineering and said he wanted to register in the schools, and the Dean said "Why ?" and he said, "Because electrical engineering is moving along so fast that unless I keep pace with it, unless I study and keep up with the latest developments in this branch of science, within two or three years I will be dropped out of my job." Look at another angle of American modern life and see the additional responsibility that the American school has had to take over. There has been a tremendous survival of youth in the last ten years participated in by the fathers and mothers and grandfathers and grandmothers of America. There has never been a time when the effort to push back the flight of time has been as insistent as it has been in America today, and naturally that mother who will not take the testimony of the mirror, that mother who has thrown the four-wheel brakes onto the flight of time is rather embarrassed by the appearance of a debutante daughter, and father finds it rather dif- ficult to be one of the boys and have one of the boys at the same time. Since that responsibility for education, which in a former generation was the responsibility of the home, has in a great measure been pushed on the American school, it is to the glory of the American school that despite the giving up of responsibility by the American home we are still producing so wholesome, so fine a lot of youth in America. I want to say to you in behalf of this generation of youth that wherever today in America we find the old-fashioned, wholesome, American home, 830 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION we find just the same group of American children that we ever had, and that element, the strength of the American youth today in its changing generation, can go to the credit of the American schools. Something has been said about professional standards in the schools. Isn't it encouraging, isn't it gratifying that instead of what did happen in former generations that gala youth too often sat in the teacher's chair simply waiting for something more attractive to open up, or the superan- nuated took the job simply to eke out an existence, today American public-school education as a profession can stand beside any learned pro- fession in this country and not blush because of the growth of the teachers' college and the requirements for certification in our States. The teacher used to be a thing apart. Today in every community into which I go I find the superintendent one of the leading civic figures, if not the leading civic figure in the community. You should glory today in the fact that you have taken your place in the leadership of America, that you have taken your place in a profession which in my judgment is the profession with greater future to it than any other in this Nation of ours. I find, and I am sure you do too, that in a republic the essential matter of education is the education of the children, not the people, that where we must lay stress is in the early grades, that we should see to it that the overcrowded elementary school is a thing of the past in America, we should see to it that the archaic curriculum is wiped out. On the basis of what a child in America gets in the first few years depends the future development of his educational life, and we should see to it, furthermore, that the teacher who makes good in the first grade in the public school is not at once promoted to the second grade, and so on, but that we should seek out the best teachers in America and give them adequate compensation to teach the children at the beginning of their school life. I am glad to find out as I travel about that in the more progressive cities of our Nation that is already an accomplished fact. Beyond what America has to do for the mentality of the youth of America in the next few years there is coming another great problem, be- cause of this industrial and socially complicated life of ours. More than ever before American youth must be built up with physical strength, and I want to say to you as a man who has played his football and his baseball in high school and in college, that we are making a tremendous mistake in America by thinking that physical education means that we should emplov a coach and then seek out the eleven strongest students in the schools, seek out this particular eleven, and train them in specialized athletics while thousands of shivering children stand on the benches and watch them. That is not going to get us anywhere in the physical life of America. You and I have got to make a sharp distinction between organized athletics, which is a fine thing, and the physical development of the race. What we need in every school system in the United States is a system of physicians and school nurses, who seek the physically subnormal, the weak, and the timid and build them into strong, physically efficient American citizenry. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 831 May I say just one thing and that is that the American school today is an anchor to windward in a time when there is more drifting, more getting away from established thoughts, more wild theory abroad than there ever has been in the history of this Republic. A little while ago the great airship, the Shenandoah, in a terrific storm was torn away from her moorings and drifted as a plaything of the wind until they got the engine going and headed her up into the storm and then she made her haven sturdily and safely. What we need to do in America today is to get the engines going, to head up into the storm. All of us are too much afraid of being classed as conservatives. Our thought today, as was the thought of Paul at Athens, is either to hear or to express some new thing. From soap-box, pulpits, or platforms, a clamor arises, but every now and then there steps out of the cloud some man whose thought is founded on solid scholarship and on the spiritual verities, and that man always puts to silence those who are loud in their denunciations of this or that and their expression of this or that which has not a sound foundation in fact. Today the thinking world is rent with this terrible storm of unbelief, the questioning of the non-essentials of Christianity, but, above that storm you and I, ignoring the rantings of certain professional theologians, recog- nize that the philosophy of the Galilean is today and ever will be the most potent force in the advance of civilization . In the city from which I come the air is full of rumors; the storm of accusation has broken over the halls of Congress. There is whispering, doubt, questioning, hysteria, but above all that there remains the fact that inAmerica today there is a steady hand guiding the Ship of State. This is just one of a thousand storms that have broken over our country, and de- spite the failings of human management, our form of Government proves every day and every hour that it is the finest form of government ever de- vised by the brain of man. It is your duty and mine to teach the big things, the big issues of life to the students of America, to set their engines going, tohead them up into the storm. What we do need in America more than anything else is a thinking citizenship. A citizenship that is intelli- gent enough to realize that out of this oil scandal there is going to come a wonderful thing for America. What is that thing ? America is going to realize that we must look to the conservation of our natural resources . Criminally, perhaps sometimes ignorantly, America has stripped away her natural resources. We had originally 830,000,000 acres of forest, today 130,000,000 ; we are stripping it off three times as fast as we are replant- ing. What does that mean to students when they come to the age when they must take their part in life ? It means tragedy, unless out of our efforts theAmerican people, by the force of American sentiment, will demand the saving of that wealth in which America so greatly abounds . This is the century of education, the century when the school man takes holdwith the full knowledge that the future of America depends upon the development of those who can think straight and act straight, with a full knowledge of the responsibilities and opportunities of the youth of America. 832 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Through the system which we have and the betterment of that system the opportunities are to be realized, the responsibilities are to be assumed, and America is to lead the world into a new day-a day of service and of trust in mankind . NEXT STEP IN WORLD PEACE JUDGE FLORENCE ALLEN , OHIO SUPREME COURT , COLUMBUS , OHIO I feel deeply honored to be standing before this body which holds in its hands not merely the individual future of the boys and girls in America. but the future of the Government of the United States. If this body could realize its relation to government, there is no problem which would remain long unsolved, because every problem in government is at base a problem of education. The great challenge which America sent out to the world in her creation was that she enunciated a new doctrine-the State shall do no wrong. To teach the children that the State shall do no wrong is the greatest contribu- tion that can be made both to domestic progress and to international peace. Whenever the children are taught that the State can do no wrong we are turning them back to the time of evil doctrine which led inevitably to the World War. What we have to teach the youth is not that the State can do no wrong but that the State shall do no wrong. That is a problem for the school. I can speak to you intimately upon that subject because I count it an honor that I taught school for three years, and no one honors more than I the profession of the school teacher. We have in every school in this United States branches which teach the heart and science of government. If we teach mere book knowledge in these branches, we fail to carry out our responsibility, civic and profes- sional. We have to teach the boys and girls to demand the most searching scrutiny of public affairs. We have to teach the boys and girls to place the most drastic standard before the public officials. When disclosures which are unpleasant make us question the efficiency and the integrity of government, those disclosures are an indictment not merely of possible official dereliction, but they are most of all an indictment of public apathy. The public official is entitled to your constructive criticism, to your co- operation, to your support. The public official is entitled to have you know what he is doing. The public official cannot give you his maximum unless he has that kind of scrutiny, unless he has that kind of drastic standard to live up to, and when events in our history, in the current lite of the Nation make us question the competency and the integrity of gov- ernment in any line I care not where, that is an indictment not of the men involved in accusation but of the people who direct their public servants, and so we have to demand that the State shall do no wrong in domestic life just as we have to demand that the State shall do no wrong in inter- national life. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 833 Warfare must be destroyed if the white race is to maintain its dominance. If there is another world war within the next generation between the so- called Christian powers of the world what will be left but the dregs of the white race ? There may be a yellow peril, but how can it compare with the white peril which we have brought upon ourselves, because we have maintained in the world the old Machiavellian standard that the State can do no wrong. It rests with you whether the youth of today shall have the intelligence inworld problems to solve practically the great questions of world organi- zation which must be solved to secure world peace. It rests with you whether a moral basis shall be laid for international coöperation so that we can go forward not merely to take a few steps in international co- operation but actually to prevent war. Peace is the condition of not hav- ing war, and if we are really to build world peace, our problem is to eliminate war. I am going to suggest what I consider the basic step, the indispensable prerequisite toward building world peace, the step without which no matter what other steps we take we cannot achieve world peace, and it is that we shall declare war illegal; that we make it a crime under the law of nations; that we penalize it and brand it in the eyes of the civilized world. The reason I say that step is the basic step is that you cannot stop a man or a nation from doing what the man or the nation has a perfect legal right to do. I do not mean that is the only step which must be taken toward peace. I do not believe that automatically as soon as we have branded war as illegal that war will stop. When the various States of the Union made murder a crime that did not automatically do away with all murder, but go back to the time when private warfare existed, to the time when society did not recognize killing as a crime, and then you will understand that the first step which was taken toward repressing killings was to brand murder, to make it disreputable, to put it outside the pale of the law, and sowhile I do not say that making war illegal of itself will eliminate war, I say that without that step no other will eliminate war, because we cannot stop war while we recognize it, while we sanction it, while we say that it is legal and proper. There are many other steps toward world peace in which I am interested. I am not talking about the League of Nations subject except incidentally. I am not here opposing entrance into the World Court . My experience as a lawyer and a judge is this, that no matter what or- ganization we enter, no matter how many courts we build, we cannot prevent warwhile we recognize is. So long as war is sanctioned we cannot prevent its use in international disputes, and this is a problem for you. It is a problem for education, it is a problem of country-wide education, it is aproblem of educating the youth of this country to understand that the same ethical principles which apply between private individuals have to be applied between governments if we are to go onward in world progress. Today there is no law nor any declaration of the nations making war a crime. It comes to this that if I go out on Michigan Avenue and kill a 834 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION manwith premeditation and deliberation I can be killed for that, but if I lay the plans that lead to killing ten million men in war nothing can be done to me and I go scot free because war is legal and proper and sanctioned. The man who starts a war is perfectly within his rights. There was some talk after the war was over in one of Lloyd George's campaigns about trying the Kaiser for starting the war. That talk was purely political bluff. I hope the time will come when we shall be able to try men for starting wars. There never has been any law under which a man could be tried for starting an aggressive war between nations. The only kind of war that a man can be tried for starting is the only kind of war that has some justification for starting. Did you ever stop to think that if John Adams, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Patrick Henry, and Benjamin Franklin, any of our forefathers, yours and mine, those even who stood barefooted and bleeding in the snow of Valley Forge, if they had lost that war, if they had taken part in an unsuccessful revolu- tion, every one of them could have been strung up because theywere traitors to King George, because they were fighting the only kind of aggressive war which is illegal. There are all kinds of laws about war but none against war. There are laws that you should kill a man this way or that way in war but not that you should not kill him at all in war. This matter of killing men humanely- what a repudiation of the rights to life, that is, the right to life guaranteed in the Declaration of Independence! Then, that you shall kill certain per- sons in war but not certain other persons. Kill the young and not the old. I am old enough to stand here and say that the world needs the young more than the old not because they are better than the old, they are not so good, but the chances are that as they go on living by just living they will get about as good as the old are and they will have more life to give the world. There are atrocities of war, but the great atrocity is war itself. I was one of those who believed that we could not stay out of this last war, and if I had been a man I would have enlisted as both of my brothers did, but I want to say to you that if America with her physical resources, with her tremendous moral force, her moral leadership derived not merely from the fact that she is detached from the hideous hatreds over on the other side, but also from the very significant fact that she has more young men alive and sane than any other great nation of the white race in the world, if America with that strength could take a substantial step forward to take away the sanction from war, to eliminate war, we would not have lost the great opportunity for which we were established. How can this law be declared? It could be accomplished in a number of ways. The President of the United States could call a conference of nations to outlaw war, just as a conference was called to scrap some battle- ships. We can make international law by treaty. In order to be com- pletely effective such a treaty should be universal. We could start without a universal treaty. This very year the State Department could send out treaties to every nation of the world agreeing that as between us and am DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 835 4 nation that signs the treaty the use of war should be declared a crime against the law of nations and should be abolished. Let us take that proposition at its very worst. Suppose that not one nation in the world accepted the treaty. Would we have lost anything? Would our name be tarnished? Would we have repudiated our old ideals of friendship between the nations ? I think our name would shine brighter than ever before. It is inconceivable that no nation would accept that treaty. Some of the small nations would be eager to sign such a treaty with a first-class military power, and furthermore I believe that we should find support among some of the great nations. Last summer I went to visit the League of Nations in Geneva and had a talk with a man who is the head of his own country in the League. After discussing this propo- sition, I said, "Now, leaving out of account the question of whether we enter the League, would it do any harm if America would offer treaties to the separate nations of the world, agreeing that as between us and the nation that signs such a treaty the use of war should forever be abolished ?" and he said, "It would do no harm and it would do great good and I should favor it greatly." We might find support where we least expect it. You might perhaps disagree with what I have to say about conception of how this law should be enforced. I think it must be enforced by a court with jurisdiction over the nations. That court can never prevent war. I say this in utter friendliness both to the Hague Court and the League or World Court. Those courts cannot prevent war so long as we sanction and recognize war. When "Thou shalt not kill" was written there were no courts, there were no constables; they had to declare the law before they could enforce the law. They had to enunciate the rule before they could evolve procedure toenforce the law, and once we have declared the moral law that the killing ofmen en masse with deliberation and premeditation is murder, is a crime under the law of nations, once we have branded it and made it disreputable in the eyes of the world we will evolve procedure to enforce that law and we cannot evolve that procedure properly until that law is declared. When I think of the complete repudiation of moral principle that has attained among the so-called Christian nations of the world in the last one hundred years; when I think of the hideous things that have happened inthe century, the doings of so-called Christian followers, then I am re- minded of the story about the old colored man. He was confessing his sins inprayer meeting and he said, " My brethren and my sistern, I's lied and gambled and shot craps and slashed with my razor and robbed hen roosts, but thank the Lord I's never done lost my religion." We have never lost our religion, but we have never once applied it as a general basis in inter- national matters. Now and then we have done some decent Christian things in international relations. The problem of world peace is indeed a problem of practical organization, it is indeed of the utmost im- portance what associations we shall form and what machinery we shall have. It is a problem of ethics, a problem on morals, it is a problem of 836 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mobilizing the spirit of decency in the world to demand that right be done in government, and the first tangible expression of that spirit must be made in a declaration that the killing of men en masse with deliberation and premeditation is a crime. That declaration could be made today by America. We could lead the world in making that declaration and there is not a single international agency in the world but that would be strengthened by that act. The only question is whether we shall all grasp our opportunity or whether it shall fall from our hands. Shall we take the indispensable, basic step for building world peace by taking away the sanction from war ? And so place ourselves hundreds of years in advance towards realizing the perfectly feasible dream of the prophet, a dream just as feasible as it was to substitute an era of law for the era of private warfare which used to exist in history, that "Nation shall not lift up sword against nation neither shall they learn war any more." A TRIBUTE TO WWARREN G. HARDING WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH PENNSYLVANIA When on that fateful hour of August 2, 1923, out by the continent's Golden Gate, the life of Waren G. Harding was swept into the larger atmosphere, a nation of a hundred million people mourned the passing of one of the gentlest and of one of the kindest souls that ever lived and labored among his fellow-men and one of the most lovable men that that Nation has ever honored with high position. A peace-time President, he sought, with earnest purpose, to bind up the Nation's wounds, and to avert those distresses and those disasters that are ever wont to follow in the wake of war, to mar the pages of a country's history. To that task, greater than any similar task that has ever fallen to the lot of any other of the Republic's chief executives, save alone to the lot of the incomparable Washington, he brought a high purpose, a pure heart, and a courageous will, so to guide the Ship of State that it would ever ride on an even, and on a clean and steady keel. Stricken at his post of duty while studying at first hand the problems of his country's needs, out on the very frontier of the Republic's most distant outpost, and in the very heart of the Great Empire of the West, his task slipped from his fingers, and his life and his work passed hand-in-hand into history. It is not for us tonight to pronounce his eulogy-that has already been done by loving hearts and trembling lips in every nook and corner of the Republic. Nor is it for us to attempt at this service to fix his final place in history; that can be done only when, with the vanishing years, the im DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 837 partial stylus shall record the thrilling narrative of decreasing and diminish- ing armaments, the promotion of mutual understandings among the na- tions of the world, and the progress of peace and good-will among all the peoples of the earth. It is rather for us tonight, on the occasion of this, our first assembling together since the hour of his passing, to exalt in this presence those out- standing qualities of head and heart and those homely virtues in his per- sonal and private life which so endeared him to his fellow-men and which today are so worthy of being passionately emulated by your charges and mine, the children and the youth in the public schools of our beloved land. And among these virtues youth should be taught to know and remember that Warren G. Harding was an absolutely pure and clean man in his private life, in thought, in word, in deed, and, Oh, my countrymen, what a heritage for the Chief Executive of a mighty people to bequeath to the youth of a nation; that, typifying our common democracy, he fought his way up from the printer's case to the Presidential chair only because he had in very truth, what the world calls character, and no one need have any fear tonight that out of the muck and slime of the days that are just now passing in such hectic and unhappy review in our Nation's Capital, that any taint will touch or shadow fall upon the name of Warren G. Harding; that the cause of humane education was given a new impetus and a new life through his sincere endorsement of the teaching of kindness to dumb animals, to the children in our schools; that that self-same quality of kindness was revealed through his love of beast and love of man as the one outstanding quality of his life. He was kind to little children, and in their turn they loved him with deep affection; he was kind to the aged and infirm, and they leaned trustingly upon him; he was kind to his fellow- men, and they held him in affectionate regard. His chivalrous treatment of women was noted on every hand, and his devotion to Mrs. Harding at the time of her prolonged illness in the White House won him the respect and sympathy of people in the remotest corners of the world. Montaigne, in one of his happy phrases, has said: "The arms of friend- ship reach to the ends of the earth." How graphically and intimately that phrase describes the circle in which foregathered the vast army of friends which the personal charm and magnetism of Waren G. Harding attracted to himself in every State of the Union and in every country of the world. There sit here tonight in this great audience men and women, who in common with their fellows scattered throughout the vast reaches of the Republic, have felt the charm of his gracious personality and been blessed by the steadfastness of a friendship which knew no abating and which, when once given, could never die. But above all should youth be taught to remember that Warren G. Harding was a praying man-and that he was unashamed when he stood in high position to exalt the value of religion in the life of a people. He 838 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION loved his country and he loved his God, and he sought with passionate purpose to promote those things that concern the spiritual well-being and the spiritual welfare of a nation. He loved youth with a passionate devotion and was uncompromising in his support of the public school system of America. When the Committee from the National Education Association called upon him at Marion, Ohio, during his campaign for the Presidency, he pledged himself without hesi- tancy or reservation to the principle of Federal aid to the public school systems of the several States of the Union, through moneys appropriated out of the Federal Treasury for that purpose. While he was not quite willing to approve the request of this body that a Secretary of Education be placed in the President's Cabinet, still he was the first of the Republic's chief executives to favor the creation of a Department of Education and Welfare within the Cabinet. Even in this partial endorsement of the things for which this Association has fought, he is entitled to our grateful remembrance forever. It is, therefore, both appropriate and fitting that this great convention should pause amidst its labors and pay a sincere and genuine tribute to the memory of one of the noblest men who has ever filled the high office of President of this Republic. Happy the throught that in all those things which men call good, his life was a blessing and a benediction to the youth of America and a lasting inspiration to every teacher in the land. A TRIBUTE TO WOODROW WILSON RANDALL J. CONDON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , CINCINNATI, OHIO During the month in which we are holding our meeting one of the world's great leaders, one of the noble sons of America, one of the most distinguished representatives of our profession has joined the com- pany of the immortals. In voicing a tribute to Woodrow Wilson I wish first to read a paragraph from Pilgrim's Progress, a selection which was used in the memorial services held in Cincinnati and read by one of President Wilson's former students at Princeton. After that it was noised abroad that Mr. Valiant for the Truth was taken with a summons by the officer and had this for a token that the summons was true. That is, the pitcher was broken at the fountain. When he understood it he called for his friends and told them of it. Then said he, "I am going to my father, and though with great difficulty I have got hither yet now I do not repent any of all the trouble I have been to, to arrive where I am. My sword I give to him who shall succeed me in my pilgrimage. My courage and skill to him who can get it. My marks and my scars I carry with me to be a witness for me that I have fought His battles who shall now be my rewarder." So he passed over and all the trumpets sounded for him on the other side. Woodrow Wilson, teacher, prophet, statesman, chosen leader of a mighty people in a great world conflict, wounded comrade in the fight. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 839 champion of righteousness in the days of peace, prophet of a just and abiding peace in the days of war, without sacrificing nationality he believed in the principles of international faith and justice and sought to lead men away from the selfish individualism and narrow nationalism into the unselfish strength of international understanding and coöperation and world unity, anoble character who was willing to lay down his own life that the world might be saved, and like many in the long procession through the ages , his way led to Calvary and he went bearing his own cross. It is for us who followed him afar off to take up the unfinished work and to strive on in order that war may be banished from the earth and that peace and good-will may come to abide in the hearts of men. Out from the bounds of time a great soul has embarked on the sea of eternity. God called and he answered "I am ready." Weary soul, rest in peace, sure of the abiding place which you shall hold in the hearts of your countrymen. Washington, Lincoln, Wilson, the creator, the savior, the spirit of America. God grant that the meaning of the life and work of Wilson, and of Washington and Lincoln as well, may be planted in the hearts of the children and may spring up and bear fruit an hundredfold. President Smith : Will you rise, please, and stand in silence until the fall of the gavel. (" Lead Kindly Light" was sung by a quartet.) MORE ENCOURAGEMENTS WILLIAM MC ANDREW, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS About one hundred and twenty miles northwest from where you sit there is a school system which has an official known as the joy disseminator and this young gentlewoman goes to the homes of the children into whose lives shadows of one kind or another have come, and by the sunshine of her temperament she makes the sad places glad. She goes to the crippled, the sick, and the otherwise handicapped children. A friend was telling me of the remarkable successes she had, particularly with a little child suffering from infantile paralysis who had lost complete use of his right hand and his right arm. The joy disseminator comes in and says, "Hello! How much better you are looking today. Now, let us wiggle our left fingers. Come on, we will wiggle them," and there are two twinkling left hands and then she says, "Now, righty, come and join in with lefty," and the two of them begin twinkling the fingers of the right hand and they twinkle away as merrily as the stars of a winter night until they have had enough of that, and then she begins to play an arithmetic game and then they come twinkling down the ages with stories in history, and then back again to this hand wiggling performance. By her patience and cheerful encouragement in that case the joy disseminator finally re- stored almost complete use of the child's right hand. ۱ 840 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION If you have ever been down in Vineland perhaps you have seen the in- teresting experiment that one of the directors will show you there. There is a line of children waiting to test their powers on the grip machine and along in the line is a boy called Tom. When Tom comes along the di- rector says to the visitor, "Now, we have Tom. He is no good. He can't grip a little bit. Tom, you might as well take hold of the machine. " Tom takes hold of the machine and grips and he registers 13 and then the director puts Tom a little way back down in the line and the other chil- dren come up and practice, and finally it comes to Tom again, and then the director turns to the visitor and says, "Here is Tom. He has a won- derful grip. He is a regular giant at it. He is the human nut cracker. Tom, show the gentleman how you can grip," and Tom takes hold of the machine and squeezes his hand down and it comes to 130. Well, Tom is feeble-minded and yet it is in these feeble-minded people that you sometimes see psychology, simple psychology without any of the complexities, that exist in some of us whose feeble-mindedness is concealed by other things. The psychologists have gotten this effect of encouragement and of joy dis- semination, so that you can measure it, 13 or 130. In Nassau County I remember a board of education that was always having trouble with itself and with its superintendents, and the favorite indoor sport was to fire the superintendent, and sometimes it was practiced three or four times a year, and I remember living near that county and having various conversations on the train with members of the board of education. They used pet names as they described the superintendent and one another, usually referring to the superintendent as "that joke," and the vice-president called the president of the board "that skunk," and the president of the Board referred to the chairman of the Finance Com- mittee as "that crook." Well, it happened that a girl who used to go to school with me was married to a school superintendent who finally was engaged in the light season to take a position in Nassau County, and after a little while I went down and visited them. The circumstances threw me into his company for about eight hours, and would you believe it, in all the time that I was with that man I never heard him utter one negation. I had not been talking with him more than five minutes before he told me he had the finest group of teachers and the most splendid school board in the country, and he took me and showed me the schools; he had three of them. In front of them were green grass and beautiful flowering shrubs, and he said Mr. Soandso, chairman of the Finance Committee, gave us those roses, and the president gave us those petunias. He was exuding de- light and encouragement all the time that I was there. There was that fine, splendid school system working under the influence of what the psychologists now can scientifically prove and measure. Last week I went through the schools of Detroit, Michigan, and the superintendent, a man by the name of Cody, went along with me. Hedid not ask me what I thought of the schools or of the teachers, but he told me. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 841 He said, "You know we have here the finest principals and the finest teach- ers in the United States." I remember going through Pittsburgh once with that handsome young fellow sitting yonder in the senatorial attitude with his arms folded, and he told me that they had the finest schools, the finest teachers, the finest principals, and the finest assistant superintendent. He left me to guess what kind of superintendent they had. I remember going through the Washington schools and the superintendent said, "Right here in this capital, as it should be, we have the finest teachers, the finest prin- cipals there are in the United States," and then years ago I went up to Maine and they had a State superintendent in Maine by the name of Pay- son Smith and he had his whole bunch out on an island, so none of them could get away, and he said, "I have the finest teachers and county super- intendents and city superintendents in the United States." About a month ago I saw him in Massachusetts and he told me the same thing about the teachers in Massachusetts. How he figures it out in accordance with his early George Washington instruction about telling the truth, I don't know. In Philadelphia there is a man who has been issuing week after week this same sort of encouragement, of positivism, of optimism, of saying this is the finest business in the world that you people are doing. Now, I do not want to slop over here, dearly beloved, with any of this wild and glad Pollyanna stuff, but I want you to notice that the towns in which these superintendents are claiming that they have the finest teachers and principals in the United States are the towns where people want to go and see the schools. So the psychologists must have some basis for it. There must be something in the fact that Cody and Davidson and Ballou and Smith and Broome and all that wild group out on the Pacific coast are joy disseminators. They are encouragers, their habit is to compliment. I have been thinking of our little village on Manhattan Island where Wil- liam L. Ettinger at almost every meeting reminded us that there was the very finest corps of teachers and principals in the United States, and so his school system was the best in the United States. He ought to know because as school boy, teacher, principal, and superintendent he has gone up through the entire system. Then may I not say to you as a company of educational working men and women that if these habits of looking for things worthwhile, make those who are the subjects of them more efficient than they were before, is it not important for us to review the good old-fashioned methods of en- couragement with which we are all familiar ? No one believes for a minute that a school superintendent thinks that his business is merely to get out and bubble forth without any basis for it. You well recognize that you are charged with the immense responsibility of the pay rolls of the educational department of your city, which in the aggregate for the United States represents an immense amount of the people's money, and you recognize as well as any one that it is your main business to test, appraise, direct, and move forward the service under your 842 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION supervision, so that you can assure the people who are paying for it, that they are getting dollar for dollar the very best that you and your teachers can give; but according to these psychologists and their measurements, we must admit that the way to do that, the way to give the public dollar for dollar in value is to use the methods which they now by scientific proof have shown us are the things that produce the results. Of course, we knew it in a general sort of way before they began to make their measuring sheets. Why, three hundred years ago your old friend William Shakespeare told us that, when he said, "Your merry heart goeth all the day, your sad, tires in a mile." Centuries before Shakespeare, the wisest man of all the world, told us, "that the merry heart doeth good like amedicine, but the broken spirit drieth the bones." Now, if the negative, if the whining, if the purely corrective, if the fault-finding breaks the spirit and dries the bones-the bones are already in the body the hardest part of it-what must that sort of treatment do with the softer, more fluid parts such as, for instance, the part behind the face and between the ears, and it it is true that this treatment drieth the bones then a purely corrective and fault-finding superintendent is a man who first makes himself into a bone- head, and then creates a system of boneheads, all of them bonehead satellites revolving around him in a dry and dreary orbit of dismal didactics. There- fore, it behooves us at this time to consider what are the means by which we increase our encouraging capacities. First, there is the old Pythagorean proposition. Pythagoras recom mended it, Benjamin Franklin worked it out into a system, Louis Pasteur used it effectively, and Woodrow Wilson, in addressing the New York Schoolmasters' Club, advocated it. That plan is to keep books with your own virtues. The application of that, as Franklin developed it, is that the school superintendent has a record book which he either carries around with him or locks in his head, and in the morning he puts down, say six or eight blank spaces which he expects before night to be able to fill with names of persons whom he has encouraged during the day. Now Pythagoras said that worked, Franklin said that it made him what he was , Pasteur ad- vocated it, and Woodrow Wilson said it was a fine thing, and lots of people have been doing it. Now, if a man is big enough for his job he ought to be big enough, said Wilson, to keep books, and to keep books means that in the morning he plans and in the evening he records. So a man starts out in the morning with a contract to do six or eight good turns during the day, and it is a good plan to start right at the breakfast table at home. Just tell her right to her face that she is the finest thing that ever came over the pike. You know they just eat it up. The psychologists say that it is nourishing to them, and splendid practice for you. Then as you gu into the schools say "This is the finest class I have seen this morning." It may be the first class that you have seen so that your veracity is all right. At night you can write in each of those spaces the names of people in your particular parish, field, or club whom you have helped in rendering them most effective service. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 843 The next thing which the masters of life have told us with regard to encouragement is that the encourager, that is you, the encourager has to keep his supply up, otherwise he is not able to encourage, and they give us directions as to how to keep it up. He especially ought to do it when being abused, when being reviled, when being criticized. There is something about your business that still tempts the American people to abuse it. It is historical, it goes back even beyond your friend Pythagoras, because you find all through the Roman classics, whenever they wanted to describe any contemptible person or put him on the stage, they made him a schoolmaster, and when you come to the middle ages it is just as bad. You remember the story that Montaigne told. Montaigne lived in the middle ages and he told a story about a man being up on top of a wall where he could see the gate and he saw two coming in at the gate. He said to the man who tended the gate, "Who were those two men that came in just now?" The warder said, " Those aren't men, those are two schoolmasters ." Then even in our own country our first great master of literature, the gentle and lovely Washington Irving, fell right into this dastardly habit of making fun of the schoolmaster, and when he drew the picture of the most contemptible, little, picayunish character that he could think of, he labeled it schoolmaster. We have all that to live down. If you happen to live in a town that has two newspapers, when one of them begins abusing you, don't bother, don't answer because, as Butler says, anybody that answers a newspaper or a woman or an echo makes a mistake, but you just wait, for such is the sense of fair play in the Ameri- canpeople that before you know it that other newspaper will begin finding in you virtues that nobody else has discovered, and then you get publicity. It is quite likely that in your town there are people who are not psychol- ogists nor philosophers who when you are being abused and criticized and awhole lot of troublesome gossip is going around about you, will come and say they are sorry, and condone with you. That is not right. That is not the thing to do. They should not say, "I am sorry." They should say, "I congratulate you," because, as you remember, all the philosophers have said that. Emerson summed it up in the splendid phrase that to the real man a threat comes joyously as a bride, and the Scriptures said, "Blessed are ye" you Latin scholars-"Blessed are ye when men shall revile you and persecute you and say all manner of evil against you falsely for My sake." And what is My sake ? What does it mean? For humanity's sake, for truth's sake, for justice's sake, for the sake of all the good things. When men shall say those things against you don't go and whine, don't go and receive condolence, but rejoice and be exceedingly glad for so per- secuted they the prophets which were before you ; which means that for little humble you and me, that very thing is what puts us in the class with Wood- row Wilson, with Abraham Lincoln, with Thomas Jefferson, with George Washington, with Socrates, and with all those of the world who have loved 844 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mankind to the extent that in spite of good report and bad report they went cheerfully on their way. The Persians have a proverb, "Nobody throws a club at a barren tree," and the politicians have a proverb, "Oh, newspaper man, praise me if you can, but if you can't, for Heaven's sake knock me or the public will forget I am alive." There is one other method of increasing one's power of encouragement and for the school superintendent, the most convenient and the handiest of all. It is a privilege that he enjoys that no other profession than ours can give, and that is the chance of association with youth, with the young and with the growing. Herbert Spencer, as the old man when suffering from the severest depression used to say to his sister, "Anna, send the children over for the afternoon. I need them." And there the old man, seated in the doorway while the children played in the garden, simply absorbed and took in the influence of youth until it blew all the cobwebs out of his brain. So then let the superintendent not go to his office first in the morning where vexatious matters are filed upon the desk, but let him first go out somewhere into his school and see these young animals at play, and if he is particularly depressed, if the newspaper has particularly roasted him the day before, let him ask that they sing and let him drink in this feeling of youth and renew that which is within him, for didn't you hear Judge Allen say that the world must have youth? The world must have the spirit of youth, and if you lose it at twenty or at thirty or at sixty or at eighty the world has no further need of you and you might as well call the buggy with the black plumes and crawl into it and get out of the way. Therefore, I will sum up in these words, that although a part and a main part of your business is as commander in the field, yet in your par- ticular work it devolves upon you that you should be a water carrier on the field of battle as well. How silly, how stupid it is for us as water carriers to go out in the morning without assuring ourselves that there is some re- freshment in our pail. EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURES CONSIDERED AS AN INVESTMENT E. C. HARTWELL , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , BUFFALO, NEW YORK There was recently unearthed among the eastern ruins of Babylon a hitherto undiscovered temple. Its four walls were covered with a veritable panorama of cuneiform characters. Scholars and scientists assembled from the uttermost parts of the world with the purpose of deciphering the mys- terious message thus marvelously preserved. At first it was thought that this might be the five-mile bookshelf of Babylon's best literature and the theory was only abandoned when one of the investigators, a former super- intendent of schools, declared that the immense labor had been expended on DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 845 nothing less important than a report of the Babylon Teachers' Association for the year 605 B. Ç. This remarkable man who deciphered the strange hieroglyphics on the half-mile front of the temple discovered that they dealt with the ancient question of school costs, and finding himself thus on familiar ground and guidedby instinct and experience he readily translated the remaining several miles of educational history. One gentleman, apparently a retired money-changer, deplored the ab- sence of fairness in the kind of instruction given in the schools of Babylon. Professor Bullbow discussed modifications in the course of study, using even in that far-off time many of the expressions that have since become so pleasantly familiar to all here. A personal message was read from King Nebuchadnezzar urging the importance of military training in the school. The resolutions commend- ing the Committee on Arrangements were substantially the same as have come down through all the centuries hallowed and unchanged in the proud positionthat they occupy at the present time. Very nearly a mile of wall space was taken up in listing various organiza- tions, either soliciting the coöperation of the schools in conducting drives or demanding that new and special subjects be added to the curriculum. Expanding the courses in brick modeling, stone carving, embalming, fire protection were among those most seriously advocated. Apparently every organization in Babylon, from the Associated Rug Weavers to the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Indigent Snare Drummers, was de- manding an expansion of existing educational service. Thirty-five hundred square feet of space were consumed in reporting the recent commands of the king in regard to education, and immediately un- derneath these directions was a recommendation from the astrologers of the realm that the day be lengthened to thirty-six hours in the hope that the king's will as to birth records and labor permits and other statistical serv- ice might be fully met without further diminishing the scanty time yet left . for purposes of instruction. A great deal of space was used up in recording a report from the Or- ganized Money-Changers, complaining bitterly about the tax rate. Certain per capita costs were chiseled in a most indignant and emphatic manner. It was recommended that a committee be appointed to thoroughly investi- gate the situation and that during the five years undoubtedly necessary for a complete survey, a drastic retrenchment in school expenditure be adopted as the imperial policy. On seventeen loose bricks discovered among the ruins were other per capita costs compared-none of them agreeing with the others, nor with those of the money-changers. Indeed, in an obscure spot in what would today be called discussion, there was recorded the observation of a sarcastic gentleman in attendance at the convention to the effect that if all the mud that had been wasted in making worthless per capita cost comparisons had 846 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION been otherwise employed the tower of Babel might long since have been completed. On a prominent part of the temple there was chiseled in a very elaborate manner the comparison of the expenditures in Babylon for glass beads and porcelain and ivory trinkets and coffin lids and candy with the expenditures for education, but nowhere in the ruins or on the temple itself was there any evidence that this comparison had ever diminished the expenditure for coffin lids or candy or had ever expanded the appropriation for education. By far the most important inscription deciphered was an address from one of the king's wise men, apparently the wise man directly in charge and re- sponsible for the schools of Babylon, who said in part as follows : "The educational affairs of this empire leave much to be desired. We have temples and palaces and camels in abundance. We have carefully cared for our camels of commerce and our elephants of war. Behold our beauti- ful zoological gardens with their happy hippopotami, their joyous jaguars , their contented pythons, and their singing birds. We have carefully cher- ished our sacred bull, but thousands of the school children of Babylon are inadequately housed, and compliance with the king's will as to their educa- tion has been exceedingly difficult and sorely discouraged: In some respects it is perfunctory and in others it is even as a dead letter. Although the imperial revenues are the greatest in the world the portion thereofde- voted to education is insufficient to meet the king's will. Either the king's demands that education must be moderated or the imperial revenues de- voted to the purpose must be expanded." Babylon has fallen, and the good man whose wisdom is thus preserved for our profit has long since gone to his reward, but the problem of educa- tional costs is still with us. The scenery and the cast are changed but the plot of the piece remains as it was in the days of Nebuchadnezzar. To those of you who believe with the founders of the Republic that morality and knowledge are necessary to good government, and that therefore schools must forever be encouraged, the present inadequate support of public education is nothing less than a tragedy. To those who watch our boards of estimate and comptrollers and financial officials daily expanding appropriations for municipal art galleries and bathing beaches and zoological gardens while at the same time curtailing in the interest of an alleged economy the appropriation for public education, the spectacle is a farce, but whatever the name under which the drama is enacted, whether it be the tragedy of dollars versus children or the farce of tinkering with the tax rate, one fact stands out like Mars at Perihelion-either the public demand for educational service in this country must be moderated, or the public revenues appropriated for the purpose must be expanded. This is the oldest of these demands, that of perfunctory attendance tha leads through the common schools. We all know the theory of the Com pulsory School Attendance Act, premised upon the idea that the State has a paramount interest in the quality of its future citizenry and that there DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 847 fore it can compel children to attend school whether they wish to go or not and whether their parents wish them to go or not. Now, the law that can compel children to go to school whether they wish to or not and whether their parents wish them to or not, certainly has a responsibility to provide schools for them to attend, schools that are decently equipped with toilet facilities, that are properly heated and lighted and ventilated, schools that operate for full time, schools in which a properly trained teacher is not expected to give instruction to more than twenty times the number of children whom the parents of those children find it difficult to keep in order. Now, not even the gentlemen who suggest that we are spending too much for public education ask that this fundamental American demand be modified, and neither do those men suggest that it has ever been fully met. They probably would like to see the teacher paid a little less money if the truth were known. They probably have not forgotten the sweet old days when the teacher in the common schools and the collector of the common garbage received about the same stipend. Neither are they fairly reconciled to the reckless modern tendency of paying the teacher in the common schools a salary approximating that formerly received by the janitor of the school, but they are willing to be broad-minded and all that they insist upon is that somehow, somewhere, some way this expenditure for public education shall be reduced. They have sounded the alarm. It is for us to give heed thereto and govern ourselves accordingly. Let us suppose that our board of education is engaged in the grateful task of making up its annual budget. Let us suppose further that this board has read in the local paper some of these pronouncements about the curtailment of school costs. Let us suppose still further that the board of education, having fortified itself with per capita costs and comparisons and having girded on the impregnable armor of cost accounting statistics, sallies forth with the purpose of attempting to cut down the appropriation for public education. The first question that confronts the board is the ques- tion of salaries, and the board discovers that approximately three quarters of its budget goes for salaries and wages. It also discovers, probably, that the public has taken away from it any discretionary power over that item. In most of our communities the teachers' scale is fixed by State law, so also are the number and the amounts of the annual increments, and the teachers now are actually hired for life. Even if the board thought it desirable, the public itself, wisely in my judgment, has taken away from the board of education the power practically to reduce those salary expenditures. Of course there is this question of how many, if any, additional teachers shall be employed, but it appears the discretion is more apparent than real. In- creased enrolments and other acts of God will determine how many teach- ers are needed before it is really a helpless matter. It can either employ the necessary additional teachers, or it can turn the children into the street, and this has never been popular with the taxpayer either indeed it has rarely been tried outside of one or two of our very wealthy cities. 848 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Now, with three quarters of that budget underwritten for salaries there remains the other twenty-five per cent spread over a great variety of items that we roughly lump under the item of maintenance. If your experience is like mine, every one of those forty or fifty items has been shaded and pared and reduced and curtailed and investigated and surveyed and experi- mented with for fifty years. They have reached bed rock if the present educational service is to be maintained . The board of education goes out and personally visits the school build- ings in the hope it can salvage something out of the request for money for repairs. It is a good thing for a board of education to visit the school building because invariably they are shocked at what they find, especially in the larger and wealthier cities. They are pretty apt to find a large num- ber of children on half time. They will find other large numbers in an- nexes and so-called temporary make-shifts, attics, cellars, church basements. former saloons, and store buildings, and portables that don't port. They find other large numbers of children in badly overcrowded rooms, in old buildings with rotting foundations, defective plumbing, and reeking toilets, and the board comes back and says there is no retrenchment possible, in- deed in the interest of economy it actually expands its original estimate of what will be needed for repairs because there is no economy in allowing the building to rot on its foundations . Cannot we get this across to the American people that if boys and girls are to be brought up to respect property they must go to school in a building that merits respect. If they are to be brought up to have respect for law, the law must give them at least an even break with the animals in the zoo. Their captivity must be spent in quarters that are at least semi-safe, sani- tary, and adequate. If we are to teach children respect for authority they must go to school to a teacher whose training and character and public treatment command respect. If we really need a thing we are going to pay for it whether we buy it or not. The board of education knows this and it also knows that any curtailment of existing educational service already undertaken is very difficult, if not impossible, for the reason that that service exists in deference to a very real and sustained public demand. It is public sentiment that has demanded and secured somewhere in the United States a new high-school building every day of every year for the past twenty-eight years. It is the public itself that has wisely insisted that its school buildings be open for evening use. It is the State itself that has demanded the continuation school and special attention to physical educa- tion, and mentally defective, and a great variety of other necessary educa- tional service. It is a long sustained, carefully developed public sentiment that has demanded and secured the kindergarten, domestic science, domestic art, and manual training ; chambers of commerce and labor unions may not agree on very many things, but they have united to demand attention to vocational education. No one of these aspects of educational service is the result of promotion by an individual, neither are they of mushroom growth. There is nothing DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 849 ephemeral about them. They are not the result of temporary enthusiasm. They represent what the greatest democracy in the world calmly, slowly, deliberately, thoughtfully over a long period of years has made up its mind that it cannot afford to be without, and who shall say in this conviction the public has been wrong ? With all of the defects and shortcomings of the public school, is there any institution in our history with anything like its record of constructive achievement ? Is there anything like it in the history of the world? Where in our State, National, or local government do we find that public money more wisely or efficiently and economically expended? Where shall we look for anything comparable to the devotion and the consecration of the teachers in our schools ? What shall we sacri- fice of the needful work there being accomplished for the development of character and citizenship ? Dicta ex cathedra carries very little conviction unless we have faith in the source of the pronouncement. The mere state- ment that we are spending too much money for public education inAmerica is entitled to no serious discussion until we know that all of the evidence has been considered. Dividends must be scrutinized as well as costs, the necessity of the service considered and above all the cost of its discon- tinuance. America in wealth and power is unsurpassed in the history of the world. The potentialities of modern science are infinite. Is it true economy, in a sound sense to put these tremendous responsibilities in the hands of an aver- age sixth-grade education ? Is it good economy, is it sound sense to curtail the activity of one tax-supported institution devoted to the upbuilding of character and citizenship ? Until these questions are answered authorita- tively in the affirmative, let us press forward in the high calling in which we are engaged. Let us fight the good fight. Let us keep the faith. EDUCATIONAL FADS CONSIDERED AS FUNDAMENTAL O. L. REID, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , YOUNGSTOWN , OHIO Several years ago an editor longing for certain popularity served notice that the schools must get back to the fundamentals, cut out the frills, and lower their tax demands. I approached him for advice, told him that I longed to improve the product at the same time that I lowered the cost of production. I offered to recommend the elimination of any subject or subjects that fifty-one per cent of our patrons would be willing to give up. I got no help; the offer still stands. Therefore with real doubts as to whether or not there is such a thing as a school fad I shall discuss some of the fundamental subjects which some childless or unthinking people may at times rate as fads. Let us consider the kindergarten as fundamental in education. In theory and practice the kindergarten maintains conditions favorable to growth. Possibly at no other point in the entire educational system is the 850 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION child so encouraged to exercise his power of making choice. The stimuli are carefully set to insure the child's socially desirable response, but the big point is that the kindergarten is definitely devoted to the principle that it must be the child's response. Do the activities of the kindergarten satisfy our definition of fun- damental? Are they essential, important, primary ? Are they free from the competition of mechanical devices ? Take a recent statement of the National Kindergarten Association: What the Kindergarten does It Americanizes-through its democratic atmosphere, through mothers' meet- ings, and kindergarten teachers' calls. It socializes through the develop- ment of coöperation in games and group projects, and the individual handling of the aggressive, the shy, the spoiled, and the backward child. It educates physically-through emphasis upon cleanliness, and the value of sunny, well-ventilated rooms . It develops physical coördination, grace, and skill through rhythmic exercises, games, and the use of apparatus. It educates manually-by teaching correct handling of scissors, brush, and crayon, and by utilizing clay, sand, paper, and wood for self-expression. It trains intellectually-through songs, stories, and poems, teaching the child to speak and understand simple English. It develops accurate ob- servation, concentration, attention, intelligent obedience, and orderly habits. It builds character-by developing habits of self-control, industry, initi- ative, self- reliance, fair play, courtesy, sympathy, and protection for living things . We may add that it gives the normal child a start in his school life that tends to eliminate retardation, produces acceleration, and in large measure saves more money than it costs. Is the kindergarten considered a school fad ? In the United States there are over four million children of kindergarten age who are denied the kindergarten training. California leads the States in its provision for kindergarten children. Less than thirty-two per cent of California's chil- dren receive this training. In Ohio but ten and a half per cent of the children are so trained. In seven States of the Union less than one per cent of the children of kindergarten age ever see kindergarten. In Ken- tucky, where Louisville has been a stronghold of the kindergarten for many decades, a center that gave Professor Patty S. Hill to the world, but 2.9 per cent of the children have the blessings of the kindergarten. Those who know what real educational fundamentals are, must set their faces firmly toward the goal of a kindergarten training for every child. Few have the courage to call music a fad, but how is it treated in many quarters? Did you ever hear a teacher insinuate that she could do a better piece of work with the fundamentals, if she didn't have to spend so much time on music and the rest of the non-essentials? A father telephoned me thathe didn't send his son to school to listen to phonograph records, because a few minutes were being devoted each day to the preparation for the music memory contest. Education in appreciation meant little to that man. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 851 Music is fundamental ? Chicago is estimated to have spent on its music in the year 1916 over $30,000,000. Small cities frequently pay a great artist three or four thousand dollars for a single concert. I submit to you that music is in its appeal primary, elementary, probably essential. There is a gradually increasing mass of scientific fact that points to regulated sounds as the natural controls and stabilizers of the emotions. It is pointed out that it is the absence of this natural stabilizer of the emotions that renders deafness in many cases a greater affliction than blindness. We may safely say that music is one of the great educational fundamentals. This is true despite the fact that on its production side it has ever-increasing mechanical competition in piano players, talking machines, and the radio. It is that question of production which seems to justify many thoughtful people in their opposition to music and the fine arts especially, and to the industrial arts in a lesser degree. Did you ever hear the argument ad- vanced that only the gifted can become musicians and artists ? That the public schools should not undertake in this field to make a silk purse out of a sow's ear ? Art in the schools not fundamental ? That which was Greece, the wonders of the tomb of Tutankhamen, the engravings and paintings on the caves of France, estimated to be early man's artistic strivings of 25,000 years ago, these and more proclaim the primary characteristics of art and affirm man's innate need from earliest times for artistic expression both as producer and consumer. America may well consider why it is that France devotes half of the child's school time during the three years corresponding to our junior high school years to the study of art. That is turning a fad into a fundamental. America still swaps her raw materials for the finely designed and highly wrought products of France . For long ages the domestic industries, largely these same industrial arts , formed the very core of education. Modern changes in social and in- dustrial adjustments cause society to protect itself by demanding that the school do for the child many things that were formerly done in the home. We are agreed that the old-time incidental education of the home, the farm, and the shop was of prime importance in the making of men and women. The success of the old-time school was not due to its poverty-stricken cur- riculum, but much more to the rich supplementary incidental education that a different social and economic organization imposed upon its pupils. We are willing to accept the ideal of a bone-bare education, if we may be permitted to establish a working substitute for the incidental education of the past. The fine and industrial arts, as nearly as possible on a com- mercial product basis, seem to offer the most satisfactory substitute for that d incidental education. I say commercial product basis because I believe that the sense of reality is necessary if the worker is to get the full benefits of this substitute for the former-time.incidental education of home, farm, and shop. 852 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Our National Commissioner of Education recently sent out a letter an- nouncing the plan for a conference of home economics workers to consider the contributions of home economics to the cardinal principles of education. Among the suggested topics for discussion we note : Contributions of Home Economics : ( 1) To the health of the entire school population; (2) to the command of fundamental processes of learning ; ( 3) to the development of worthy home membership of boys and girls; (4) to the development of citizenship ; ( 5) to the thrifty use of leisure time; and (6) to ethical character . Those who attack the health education of the schools usually take an elevated stand in defense of the sacred rights of the home. They tell us that the child belongs to his parents, not to the school. They resist the invasion of the parent's right to neglect his child not only to the detriment of the child, but also to the detriment of society. I grant that many nice and delicate issues may arise in this field, but I also believe that in no other field can the schools render a finer service to society and to the race. Health chores performed in the social atmosphere created by the school result in health habits such as few homes can successfully establish. It is within the power and the province of the school to develop functioning health habits and to set higher hygienic and health standards than have ever been known. Insistent desires for right living conditions can be planted in the children of today to flower in a sweeter and more whole- some tomorrow of their own making. While standardized educational and mental measurements are funda- mental in school administration today, I feel more kindly toward their critics than toward the critics of other so-called school fads, both because of their recency and also because of the high character and purpose of the leaders of the opposition. The opposition has had ample time to discover its mistakes and names high in education should no longer cast doubt on scientific work that has been tested on so many human beings. Few things are more certain than the findings of our mental measurements experts. Mental measurements in their early stages very naturally nudged the funny bones of many people, including many first-rate journalists and even a few college professors. As the accumulating facts began to reduce these jokers to seriousness, they had the usual sensations of the laugher who did not laugh last. They tell us that intelligence has not been defined and that we are trying to measure an unknown quantity. The experience of teachers bears witness to the fact that we are measuring the relative ability of the pupils to do the tasks of accepted school courses. Whether or not this is a measurement of intelligence the fact remains that it is a procedure that enables us to classify children in terms of individual differ- ences with ever-increasing accuracy, free from the variations in the judg ments of teachers . Compulsory education is here and its corollary is education adjusted to the capacity of the learner. A poured-concrete type of education was workable in the days when the schools could say, Take it or get out. The DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 853 tables are turned. The law says to the school, Take the pupil and keep him. More than that, it tells us to keep him until he is fourteen, sixteen, eighteen years old. The best brains of our profession have grappled with the problem of devising workable tests for the rapid and accurate classification of these pupils that we must keep. They have given us great administrative tools and in a way great educational tools. When dealing with well classified pupils the educational results are so superior that we may be excused for thinking of the classification unit of measure as an educational tool. Are there not people in your home town who begrudge the dollars spent on those special classes for the mentally defective ? Can you hear them asking, " If these children are as hopeless as you say they are, why spend money on them ? Why have them organized in small classes that cost twice as much as a class of normal children ?" A teacher working with eighteen or twenty of these defectives can get some results, can break through the barriers here and there and, in most cases, can give the child a motor training and citizenship training that will work for his future happiness and partial independence and will give society its best insurance against future trouble and expense because of that child. Of greater importance is the effect on the classes of normal children. The removal of a mental defective from a class of thirty or forty normal children frequently means raising the educational efficiency of that class many degrees . We all believe that classes for the gifted children would give society its best insurance against that heaviest of all social burdens, the desperate lack of trained leaders . Without mental measurements the schools of America could never have reached their present standards and ideals for taking care of individual differences. I know there are many good people who honestly believe that these classifications could be made equally well on the basis of teachers ' judgments. The mental test makes possible the holding of an individual responsible for performance in terms of his own capacity. Given a fair show and a reasonable amount of time this particular school fad will justify itself in dollars saved to a school system. The teachers of today do not join with the fad snipes in their attacks on trained supervision. They know that because of matrimony, if for no other reason, the turnover in our profession is very great and that the crowds of young and inexperienced teachers must be trained in service. They also know that ours is a profession that suffers from a lack of com- petition and that trained supervision with its facilities for circulating ideas throughout the school system in a measure off-sets that lack. It is easy for a teacher in her own classroom, or for a group of teachers in their par- ticular faculty meeting, or for the city corps within the Chinese wall of its own self-approval, to proclaim to an admiring citizenship that our schools are the best on earth. The citizens may be in a mood to agree. Changes always cost real money. 854 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The trained supervisor arrives with his educational tests and discovers that all is not well. He has a gift for making comparisons, for achieving accepted general standards. The real teachers welcome him. He brings to them the fresh zest of competition. Those men who honestly believe that "apples were redder when we were boys" and those of us who think that we have not seen apiece of real pumpkin pie in thirty years are prone to believe that the children of today are not spelling so well as they did in the good old days. This attitude embraces all the three R's. What more natural when looking about for an explanation of the supposed deplorable condition than to seize upon the fundamental subjects more recently introduced into the curriculum and dub them fads ? RURAL EDUCATION FRANK PIERREPONT GRAVES , STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION ALBANY, NEW YORK Each year New York holds an old-time spelling-match at its State Fair in Syracuse, and this contest generally teaches us something about human nature, if it does nothing else. A few years ago the young girl represent- ing New York City, who, as coming from the great metropolis, was most confident of success and decidedly condescending toward the other con- testants, failed in the middle of the match and fled from the hall in tears. To one who tried to comfort her she confided : "I would not have minded missing, but what shall I say to them in the city, when I go back and tell them I was beaten by a set of up-State hicks ?" Here was a real tragedy. Nothing to this poor little metropolitan's mind and to that of several hundred thousand older minds-could indicate a lower state of intelligence or a greater. humiliation than to have proved inferior to children from the rural regions . Such terms as boobs, hicks, rubes, jays, and hayseeds, with their opprobrious connotation, clearly indicate the contempt and scorn prevalent among city people who do not understand or make any effort to discover the handicaps under which rural communities are laboring. On the other hand, it must be confessed that the country folk do not always understand or have any real confidence in people from the city. They simply grow exceedingly angry at their aspersions as gratuitous lies, or treat their statements with disdain. They are fairly complacent and satisfied with their own standing and achievements. They are certain that they know all that is of any importance, and it is a prime article of their creed that they have always done that which they ought to have done, and have left undone nothing that they ought to have done, and there is abund- ant health in them. If the city dweller surpasses them, it is because he is "putting on airs" or "showing off." If he calls them "hicks," they stig- matize him as "dude," "cigarette-smoker," " stuffed shirt," and "smart Aleck." They are suspicious of him and of most others outside their im DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 855 mediate communities. They pride themselves upon their sturdy independ- ence, and are generally unwilling to listen to new information or to heed advice. Evidently a barrier of misunderstanding, aversion, and even hatred, has , been growing up between two groups the rural and the urban folk-in our common country. And if we are to be a united people, all lines of this sort which tend to divide us as Americans must be removed. Nothing can be more fatal to the strength of the United States than emphasizing such differences as those between North and South, East and West, white and black, Jew and Christian, Catholic and Protestant, rich and poor, urban and rural. Unless we can largely erase these artificial lines in our citizen- ship, and come to understand and aid each other, our country is doomed. The basal cause of this division between the people of the city and of the country is the growth of centers of population and the comparative isolation ofthose people still remaining in the country. We Americans but a century ago were mostly all rural and fared alike, but, with the development of cities, advantages of living came into existence in which those still on the farms could not share. This has put them out of the race and tended to bind them to the soil and to dull labor, with few of the relaxations and opportunities of city folk. Unless Americans generally can be aroused to the unfairness and inequity of this situation-the conscience of the city man awakened to his duty to share these larger opportunities with his country brother, and the consciousness of the rural man awakened to his plight and lack of equal advantages we are likely to be divided into two peoples, without understanding and without sympathy. But in many ways the country people are awakening and securing their rights. The advent of good roads, automobiles, telephones, and radios is bringing them into touch with the city and enabling them to obtain many of the comforts and opportunities of urban life. Many of the farm folk now easily drive into town, buy from the best shops, visit first-class theaters, hear the finest music, listen to intelligent sermons, consult the leading doctors and dentists, and dress in the latest styles. In one respect, how- ever, progress has been exceedingly slow, and that is in the demand for and the establishment of good schools. Much has been accomplished in this direction during the past quarter of a century since our eyes have been opened to the iniquity and un-American plan of affording one type of school for the city and quite a different and inferior type for the country, but far more remains to be done. Our educational slogan must continue to be "A square deal for the farm boy" until he is given practically the same school opportunities as the lad reared in the city. Atpresent this is still far from being the situation. As yet about one fourth of the total rural school enrolment and forty-five per cent of the rural teaching corps are housed in one-room schools of the crudest sort. There are upwards of two hundred thousand of these one-room buildings in the United States, and a fairly large percentage of them were con- structed at least forty years ago, despite the fact that school architecture 856 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and equipment have been advancing by leaps and bounds during that time. Four fifths of them have no provision for heating and ventilation, except the old unjacketed stove and the rickety windows respectively. Nine tenths . of the buildings are not properly lighted. In at least ninety per cent the seating is poor and unadjustable, and often where the seats could be arranged to suit the pupil, this has never been given consideration. Where in the cities some four fifths of the teachers have had at least the minimum amount of standard training-that is, two years beyond the high school, in the country less than one twentieth have so qualified, and the turnover in rural teachers each year is just about fifty per cent. As a whole, but rarely can the country districts secure any except the youngest, most immature, and least experienced young women for their schools. The better class of teachers, attracted by improved living conditions, assured tenure, larger salaries, professional companionship, and opportunities for growth and promotion, are largely drained off into the cities. As a natural result, scholastic progress in the rural schools is greatly handicapped, and, on the average, children of the same age are at least a year or two behind those in the cities. Moreover, in innumerable instances it is all but impossible for the farm children, however bright, to secure a high school training, for there is nothing of the sort anywhere in their neighborhood and no facilities are available for board or transportation. Probably the saddest aspect of the whole matter is that many have come to view the objectives of the country school as being quite different from those of the city school. Realizing the hardships in rural life and fearing lest the youth may gravitate to the city, some people hold that the country school should make it its business to retain children on the farm, whatever their abilities, interests, and needs, and others that as soon as possible it should begin to prepare them for the pursuit of farming. Consequently, they insist that all rural schools should be built in the open country in a purely rural environment and have the course thoroughly ruralized, with rural arithmetic, rural geography, etc., so that the child may be forever tied to the farm community and not be lured away. And they would even in the elementary grades have him trained in agronomy, stock breeding, dairying, poultry raising, horticulture, and other agricultural arts, and from the first would make him as vocationally efficient as possible. In either case little is likely to be done to fit him for membership in society at large. The larger life, richer satisfactions, and the broader social views open to those educated in the city become almost impossible for him. His life is predetermined and he is fettered by a class system as fixed as that of Europe. This is absolutely opposed to our American ideals, for we believe that in modern democracy the rural child should have the same rights as every other child. He should not be bound to the soil, like a peasant or serf under a caste organization of society, but, as President Butterfield has put it, "The door from the country to the city should swing wide." Rural elementary education should not differ from elementary education in the city, except possibly in the matter of approach, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 857 Thus for over a century the growing concentration of population in urban centers has been breeding an unfair contrast between the educational facilities of the city and those of the country. For almost as long a period educators have been calling attention to the comparative ineffectiveness of the rural schools; and since statistics, tests, surveys, and other forms of measurement have come more into vogue, it has been clearly shown that the country- schools have not only fallen short of reasonable standard of efficiency, but that they have cost far more for each pupil. The funda- mental difficulty in this whole sad state of affairs is, of course, the need of a larger unit of organization. The existing weaknesses can never be over- come as long as the small district with its sparse population and conse- quently meager wealth back of each child exists as a separate and inde- pendent entity. The unit must be greatly enlarged and the schools con- solidated, and, wherever necessary, the pupils transported, if the available resources and the educational conditions are to approach those of the city. Of course this effort to produce a larger school population for each unit will not alone be sufficient, as the rural districts are still too poor, even when their money has been equalized and economically expended, and the State must, therefore, step in and provide more substantial and better equalized subsidies for them all. No one has yet devised a plan that will secure good buildings and equipment without money, and all the special training of rural teachers in the world will not help the situation if the salaries and other conditions are not such as to attract them to the country. Clearly the start must be made through consolidation. This we have been recognizing more and more during the past quarter of a century. There has been a constantly increasing tendency to organize larger units in administration and to secure the enactment and improvement of consoli- dation and transportation laws. The movement began a generation ago in New England, and has gradually spread throughout the country. It has leaped from State to State through the zeal of educational reformers and missionaries and the force of example. The number of small schools and weak districts has now been substantially lessened through statutory provisions in most States, and the best ways for increasing the size of the unit have been carefully worked out. Some commonwealths, like those of New England, New Jersey, Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana, have adopted the township basis, while county control has been generally utilized in the South and in Utah, and the community or enlarged district plan in Illinois and other Western States; but, while the county will often be found to form the most effective unit for both administration and support, the exact method is not so important as the general idea of consolidation and un- doubtedly various ways will be most effective in different States. In some of our commonwealths public funds may now be used for transportation, and in most of them the amounts are carefully reported. The only States in which the principles of consolidation and transporta- tion have as yet had relatively little recognition are New York, Texas, Arizona, and Nevada. These four commonwealths should remove them 858 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION selves from the black list as soon as possible, and the improvement in method should everywhere be continued. Our efforts must, however, be patient, though persistent. Rural people cling with great tenacity to the old colonial right of each little district to administer its own school and to the out-worn machinery of the small district system, and they will not readily be benefited against their will. Moreover, there are always selfish and bigoted outsiders, sometimes with considerable influence and even journalistic and political backing, who appeal to the suspicions and preju- dices of country folk and to their out-worn devotion to the "little red schoolhouse . " But the policy of centralization is bound to win in time through its own merit and in proportion as its value becomes known by trial. In the future, as in the past, progress in this direction will be most safely made first, through special enactment for certain sections, then through permissive legislation for the entire State, and finally, when most rural sections have been converted, through a mandatory law for all. There is no reason for discouragement over the present situation. The achievements of today have been strung out over many years and have often been preceded by unsuccessful attempts and not infrequently followed by reactions. But there has been a steady, if slow advancement, and, amid all the adverse conditions and bitter opposition, the principle of consolida- tion has shown its strength . It can no longer be regarded as a mere experi- ment or fad; it has won a permanent place in practical school administra- tion. It is preliminary and fundamental to effectiveness in all other re- forms-in building, equipment, content, and method. But, it has been argued, the country people as a whole do not demand or wish any better facilities in education. This is indeed the pathetic part of it-that those who are the victims have not more generally realized their own situation. Progressive movements, however, have never come about through the request of those who need them most, particularly when their suspicions and resistance to outside suggestion have been aroused through isolation, provincialism, and prejudice. A sin-stricken world did not demand Jesus nor did the Gentiles seek after the gospel of Paul, and the outlying nations of today do not cry out for the missionaries. The peasants of France did not demand their civic rights, and the serfs of Russia their freedom, nor the negroes ofAmerica their emancipation. The perils of typhoid, malaria, yellow fever, and hookworm have not been curtailed through any request of the districts afflicted; and the drunkard and dope fiend of today do not ask to be delivered. Emancipation, relief, and prog- ress have come only when some outside agency, with steady vision and intelligence, has had the courage to insist that it is not a question of what the people wish but of what will help them. And in rural education the necessary aid does at times require not only courage but a spirit of sacrifice. One State superintendent has recently failed of reappointment by the Governor largely because he undertook to lift the country districts out of their slough, and a superintendent in an- other State was defeated for reëlection by the candidate who took as a DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 859 slogan, "Back to the one-room school." But so have others suffered in the past and will again in the future, and one may be proud to fall in so good a cause as education. "Where do you wish my detachment to take its stand ?" asked a subordinate of General Stonewall Jackson. "Go where you will," was the reply; "there's good fighting all down the line. " There have been great victories in the administration of rural education of late, fellow superintendents, but we must be ready and eager to press constantly forward on all sides. We may well have high hopes of ultimate victory. "The mills of the gods grind slowly, but they grind exceeding small." THE NEED AND HOPE OF THE CITY W. R. HOPKINS, CITY MANAGER, CLEVELAND, OHIO The invitation to address you upon this subject is an indication that the feeling which has led the people of Cleveland to discard one form of government after another is not local but merely part of a wide-spread feeling that the government of American cities is not what it should be and the hope that by some sort of change or changes it can be improved. No one familiar with the facts would question the statement that the American people have less cause for satisfaction with their accomplish- ments in city government than in any matter of real importance to them. Viewed in the light of the capacity of the American people for doing well anything which they really care to do well, the government of our large cities is undoubtedly our outstanding National failure. With the tremendous growth of our cities, not only in population but in every kind of activity involving the movement of great masses of people at short intervals over wide areas and the ever-increasing complexity of city life, the failure to make city government a really efficient instrument in- volves more and more serious consequences. The whole trend of city life makes it increasingly necessary that we shall secure by some means city administration equal to the great tasks necessarily thrown upon it. The protection of life and property under these conditions, the mainte- nance of public health, the administration of public education, the manage- ment of traffic, the provision of adequate facilities for mass transportation, the maintenance of worthy public parks, grounds, and buildings, and an increasing regard for civic comeliness and beauty, all combine to assume an importance to the whole people which will not permit us to tolerate the present shortcomings of city government. We are faced by the necessity of adopting new views of city government which will eventually result in making it adequate to its tremendous and ever-increasing tasks . At the root of every evil lies erroneous ideas, and in the last analysis, the continuance of any evil must be due to erroneous ideas as to the proper means for ending it. Much of the evil in the government of large cities is due to a belief, all 860- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION too widely held, that municipal government is necessarily incompetent and generally corrupt. Many people who would be unwilling or ashamed to express this view undoubtedly act upon it. Many men who could con- tribute much to any attack upon municipal government abuses not only make no such attack, either personally or in conjunction with others, but even submit to the existence of such conditions as being inevitable and now and then feel the necessity of paying tribute to men and organizations in transactions undeniably illegal. And they do this not only because they feel personally inadequate to resist lawless demands and impositions, but because deep in their hearts they regard the municipal corruption which permits such demands as an inevitable and inescapable thing. The first need of our people with reference to city government is that of rejecting the idea that municipal government is necessarily incompetent or corrupt, or both. It is a fact that the functions of city government involve drudgery, or something very near it. The cleaning of streets, the removal of garbage and ashes, the construction of sewers and pavements, the policing of a great city, the care of parks and public buildings all involve labor offering little attraction to the ordinary citizen. And the exercise of the police power with its necessarily constant and intimate interference with the individual inevitably lends itself to every sort of indulgence and favorit- ism on the one hand, or harshness and oppression on the other, and thus easily opens the way to corruption of one kind or another. And the very closeness of municipal government to the people naturally subjects it to every kind of personal influence and interference, making efficiency difficult and the just enforcement of rules almost impossible. Of all forms of government, municipal government is the most common- place, difficult, and lacking in glamour. There are some good reasons why we have achieved so little success with it. But the old idea that the government of large cities is necessarily cor- rupt was effectually and completely exploded in Cleveland by Mayor Johnson, who, in the course of an administration extending over nine years, gradually but steadily rooted it out and made it so plainly unnecessary that the community would never again tolerate the common forms of corrup- tion and graft which may be found in almost any large city. With the element of corruption eliminated-and by corruption I mean not merely the payment of money but the use of public power and authority to reward friends and punish enemies-I think it has been demonstrated in every city of any size in this country that it is possible to have a larger degree of efficiency in city government. Wherever a community accepts the view that municipal government is necessarily incompetent, generally corrupt, and altogether an unsatisfactory instrument for the performance of indispensable services, it invites a situa- tion in which the city government is left to the control of those persons and groups who have most to gain directly by controlling and exploiting the community through its government. These people make a private business of city administration and use the city's own power and resources DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 861 to strengthen their hold upon its agencies. They use the city's own funds to corrupt the corruptible; they use the city's power to favor the sub- servient and harass the independent and, like all rulers for gain, make those who support and enrich them their subjects and victims. And these things they are able to do because they take the trouble neces- sary to control the municipal machinery. At bottom they are actuated by the same motives as those which moved armies in former times to capture cities for loot and tribute. The government of large cities by so-called political machines is merely a modern survival of medieval practices made possible by a strange combination of native neglect and cynicism with foreign ignorance and rapacity. These organizations are in no true sense political, for they have no real political convictions or aims. They are essentially private business combinations which utilize in local elections the tendency of certain groups of voters to combine on real political issues. As government in a democracy goes always by majorities or pluralities, it is easier to secure a majority or plurality in a local election if the party flag can be made a rallying point or party affiliations be utilized. But be- yond mere habits of political association in elections involving real political issues, there is no party politics in municipal government. The fact is that the difficulties incident to securing any general co- operation of voters in local elections make it very natural that political managers who are active in rounding up majorities in general elections should possess a great, if not overwhelming, advantage in struggles to con- trol municipal elections. And such managers learned very early in the history of our country the enormous value in general elections of strong local political machines, as witness Aaron Burr with his Tammany Society. But just as in Burr's day the necessary material for constructing such a machine was the voter of foreign birth, prejudices, and limitations, so to this very day the local political machine must get its support from great masses of voters who have as yet no real conception of the duties and privi- leges of American citizens, but are moved by foreign conceptions of govern- ment as an instrument for obtaining personal and class advantage at the expense of other persons and groups. The largest city in America is, to a large extent, ruled at this moment by ignorance and prejudices and cus- toms which had their birth in Ireland and Russia. When New York finally becomes American, Tammany government will be as obsolete as Russian Czars and Irish Home Rulers . And so it seems to me that the great need of our city government today is a new view of the true nature and possibilities of city government-a view which regards city government as the chief instrument in making the city a home worthy of its people, a home in which every member of the community feels his responsibility for the safety, the health, and the well- being of every other member of the family, in which he feels his own re- sponsibility to help in every way he can to make the government of his city worthy of its great task and opportunity in making the city home one to be 862 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION proud of it. In the clear light of such a view of city government, the pres- ent fogs of inefficiency and corruption must eventually disappear. Is there solid ground for the hope that such a view can really prevail? We in Cleveland have good ground for just that hope. In fact, it is already more than a mere hope. We like to think of Cleveland as a truly typical American city-old enough to have traditions, but not too old to appreciate the swift and marvelous changes of these latest days; eastern in origin and tradition, but the creation of pioneers in the first settling of the West; with eighty per cent of our people foreign-born or the children of parents of foreign birth, representing almost every part of Europe, yet valuing education and increasingly sharing the aims of an energetic, am- bitious, prosperous, generous American community which has for years been steadily growing in community sense, perceptibly developing strong appreciation of ties which bind the citizens in one body with feelings, aims , and ambitions which we all share. These things make Cleveland a typical American city. We are coming to a basis upon which we can appeal for the acceptance of a new view of the true function of city government-a truly American view-a view which requires us to start out with an appreciation of every member of our community as a human being possessed of immeasurable possibilities, endowed with inalienable rights so precious that even govern- ments must have their right to live measured by their fitness to protect those rights a view which makes government the special protector and defender of all that makes life safe and adequate. And we have yet to ap- peal in vain to the most foreign of our foreigners for support of anything truly American. Indeed, their instinct for what is essentially best and finest in our American conception of government often puts us to shame. The trouble with the government of our large American cities has been primarily a failure of our so-called Americans to infuse true Americanism into it. Having failed to lift their city government up to the American ideal of government, they have allowed it to slip down into the muck of personal interests, class and factional advantages, corruption, inefficiency. and oppression and all that brood of governmental evils with which our foreign elements were familiar in the lands from which they came. And from this mass of municipal corruption, the evils of graft, inefficiency, and oppression have, in many cases, spread from political into the commercial and industrial life of some of our great cities. But just as the evils of the open saloon reached their peak of arrogance and power at the very moment when it was about to become a national out- law, so we have reason to believe that the unpatriotic and un-American view of city government which has made it our outstanding failure, is swiftly approaching its end because our people have made and are now making such tremendous strides toward a truer appreciation of American ideals and a new sense of national unity and solidarity. The great hope of city government lies in the tremendous progress which the American people are now making toward an entirely new National DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 863 life. In former times, the individual American citizen had very few points of intimate contact with considerable numbers of his fellow citizens. His church and his political party represented in most cases all of his affiliations outside of his family. To these were gradually added affiliations with fraternal organizations which have now become so general and so numerous that most adult American men belong to more than one such organization. These fraternal organizations have been followed in turn by all sorts of business and trade organizations in which the personal, social, and friendly element has finally become more potent than the ordinary business connec- tions. We have reached a time when all our citizens, men and women, belong to organizations of many sorts, in all of which the personal and friendly element is a large factor and in which the consideration and dis- cussion of all sorts of questions has become the regular thing. In fact, we have reached the point where an intelligent foreigner described us as a "people who belong to innumerable organizations, to some one of which they go every day in the hope of hearing some new thing." We are in the midst of the most significant and fruitful period of Ameri- can history, a period in which the finest qualities of the American people are bringing together into a new unity the friendship and understanding from which we shall get an entirely new American patriotism. In any case, this amazing development of organizations, each concerned in pro- moting something worthwhile under circumstances which bring its mem- bers into closer relations, furnish us innumerable places in which to present under the most favorable circumstances any municipal program worthy of presentation, and afford the possibility of alignments and combinations for the accomplishment of civic projects far exceeding in potency any political alignment ever made. We are coming to know each other better, to under- stand each other better, to have a more intelligent interest in everything that is good, which is but another way of saying that we are gradually eliminating ignorance, prejudice, jealousy, suspicion, which have always been the stock in trade of schemers-the obstacles in the way of effectual coöperation for the accomplishment of really great things . The hope of the city is the hope of America. The hope of city govern- ment is the hope of American government-a government founded upon a true appreciation of the individual, his rights and his possibilities. The ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence were necessarily far above and beyond the conditions then existing. Between that day and this, we have traveled far on the road toward the realization of those ideals and we are coming now to an entirely new view of the possibilities of a government so founded. But we must not forget that the broad door which we have opened to the peoples of all lands has admitted with them all the limitations which oppression puts upon its victims; that we cannot eliminate the evil effects of those things in a day or a year ; that these people and their children must be given every opportunity to become truly American and that in the end all progress in government must be measured in terms of education. 864 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HAZARDS OF THE SUPERINTENDENCY AND THE NEXT FORWARD STEPS IN REDUCING THЕМ J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , OMAHA , NEBRASKA It has been my good fortune as a public-school administrator to have had well-chosen members of the board of education, men for the most part of intelligence, high character, and more than average ability. It is my pleasure to work with a remarkable group of teachers, principals, and supervisors. They are my associates in educational service in an excep- tional community. Personally, I feel that the public in cities where I have worked has been generously minded to the school. But owing to a peculiar philosophy of the American people and probably to all people- that the "ins are wrong and the outs are right," a public administrative position is ever and always subject to the hazard of a constantly changing mental attitude of the people. Witness every one of the great countries engaged in the World War. No head of any of these governments re- mained in power for any considerable period. The city superintendency is a public administrative position subject to political entanglements, district prejudices, parental whims, newspaper mis- representations, internal dissension, external pressure, large responsibility and often limited power. No man, it seems, is positively secure in a city superintendency-however efficient, scholarly, or diplomatic. Why ? Listen to the statement of a man who served as a city superintendent in cities varying in size from 15,000 to more than half a million people. He was one of the great city superintendents of this country-able, scholarly. and keen. He had caught the vision of service and kept his eye on the star of hope. He fought a good fight. We all respect and honor him. This is his statement: "The superintendency of a large city school system is un- questionably the most wearing and wearying work in all the educational fields." An editorial by Doctor Charles H. Judd in one of the leading educational magazines stated : " One is compelled to ask, however, what is to become of the superintendencies of the great cities if they do not offer tomen of the largest training the most attractive openings for work. "The plain fact is that the superintendency of any great city school sus tem is coming to be an almost impossible job. The superintendent is ham- pered in most cases by board action which interferes constantly with his expert professional efforts. He is harassed by the politicians and assailed by the busybodies of the community. He has to stand at short intervals for re-election or rejection, and his salary is so much below that of a moderately good business position that it is difficult to find any real justification for his attempting to serve the community." To be specific: What are the hazards of the superintendency ? How have they been met by the successful superintendents of the country? What methods of solution have been applied by those of training and seasoned experience? Let us deal in facts not theory. What follows is the result DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 865 of investigation. The data have been gathered from those in administra- tive work-superintendents, college presidents, deans of education. I want here and now to acknowledge my gratitude for their assistance. The budget-A superintendent of seasoned judgment, and skilled in the art of managing men writes: "The most trying hazard among city and State superintendents is the budget problem." He assumes that the super- intendent is competent, an educational leader, doing his level best. He must have an "aggressive and progressive program," yet changes inevitably involve an expenditure of money. The "increased expenditures and rising tax rate ultimately arouse the opposition of the largest taxpayers, who are frequently the most active and influential members of a community." .. "The serious cutting of the budget by appropriating bodies not only ham- strings his program but reacts to discredit his general standing." "Many a superintendent is today being attacked for extravagance and bad judgment in a manner which is as alarming as it is distressing." What is the solution? You can not go for a long time too far beyond public opin- ion. You as the educational leader in your community supported by your associates must mold public opinion and must sell the schools-methods, activities, and program to the community-to taxpayers, large and small . In making up your budget you must include just what you have sold to the community and what you can pay for. You must visualize the school as a social institution contributing to a higher citizenry of the State. Your budget must be made carefully, scientifically, and specifically. Make only such recommendations as can be defended. The board has a perfect right to ask: Why do you ask for this amount ? How is it to be expended ? What will be the result? There is a hazard so closely associated with this one that it is a part of it. Every growing city means a greater number of pupils each year. To accommodate these pupils it takes more schoolrooms, more teachers, more textbooks, more coal, etc. Your community must understand this. It should be made plain that you cannot expand this business with a decreasing revenue and maintain standards. It is the opinion of some that the rapidly expanding high-school budget needs special study. In some cities by actual numbers, the increase in the number of high-school pupils is greater than in grade schools. The per pupil expense is greater. More equipment is required. Is it not true that as a pupil advances he should be able to help himself more and more ? If education means anything should not the pupil be able to work more in- dependently in high school than in grades ? Then should not the high-school teacher be able to handle a greater number of pupils per class than the elementary teacher with the same expenditure of energy ? This may prove an important factor in budget making. How completely is your high-school building being used every hour of the day ? Changing personnel of board of education-It takes time for a new member of the board of education to become familiar with the workings 866 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of that body. Frequently the member believes sincerely that it is his duty to initiate reforms. He has, previous to his election, acquired so much misinformation that he regards reformation a necessity. Many able men become members of a board of education knowing full well their duties and responsibilities as members of a board of directors in a bank, a department store, a manufacturing establishment, or a railroad, but fail to relate that former experience to their work as members of the board of education. What surgeon would think of asking the board of directors of a hospital how to diagnose a case or perform an operation ? The highest type citizens in the community should be selected for the board of education. Only the best men and women should even be sug- gested for such an important position-men and women of good judgment, wide experience and of sound common sense-men and women who can intelligently check the chief executive of the school system, the superin- tendent. There are some in every community who seem to think that one of the chief functions of a board member is to grant favors and pay political debts. It is a dangerous hazard to any school system if such are at any time selected. The indifference of a community in a matter of this kind is a hazard which every one of us has faced. It is my policy to let the people select the members of the board of education and my business to live peaceably with them thereafter and work as effectively as my limita- tions will permit, as a citizen interested in the welfare of his city and in the progress and achievements of his community. It may be entirely appropri- ate for those of you who are superintendents in other cities to take an interest in the selection of honest, efficient, capable, upright, and progressive members of the board of education. Such action may be justified in the interests of children and I am told is upheld by the so-called preamble of the Constitution of the United States and indeed provides for the common defense, promotes the general welfare of the community, secures greater liberty in administering the schools of the city system, insures greater tran- quillity in achieving success, and guarantees a more perfect union of all the forces tending to provide for and promote educational service, and aids in establishing justice in settling difficulties and meeting the exigencies which arise in school administration. The newspaper hazard-The newspaper may be one of the most helpful agencies in promoting a progressive school program, or one of the most baleful. I have seen blocks on the front page of the daily papers given over to the most vital things concerning the public schools. I have seen them vie with each other in helpful school publicity. While preparing this paragraph there came to my desk a number of newspapers from a certain city with glaring headlines two or three inches high, no doubt meant to be sensational. The purpose was to discredit the superintendent and the board of education. A careful reading of the paper indicated to the thoughtful mind that the superintendent was doing good work, that he was instituting worthwhile policies, that he had the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 867 courage of his convictions. To the general public it gave the wrong im- pression. The tendency would be to place a barrier between superintendent and teaching force, between people and members of the board of education. Not even a shadow of community uplift was evident. It was entirely a matter of destructive criticism. There are many metropolitan daily newspapers that harass the school program. These newspapers are reactionary and attempt to thwart the coöperation of civic agencies. They magnify the slightest error of the board of education, and carry forward a bitter fight against any pro- gressive school program, but, thanks to other newspapers, civic organiza- tions, the Chamber of Commerce, courageous superintendents, and their staffs and teachers, the programs still move forward. So-called highly privileged class-In every large city you find people of wealth and influence, large property holders themselves or managers of valuable properties held by non-residents, who make it their chief business to hamper the schools by inadequate taxation, forgetting that education is a State function and that good schools in a community are a protection to their property, and enhance the value of their holdings. If the public schools were taken out of this great city, out of the State of Illinois, what would the property in this State be worth ? Within self-Notice the clearness and frankness with which a leading superintendent of this country writes: "I believe fully that most of the hazards are from within and not from without. The two greatest hazards which I have encountered have been : ( 1) Lack of adequate preparation for the superintendency ; (2) The difficulty of summoning courage to carry out my convictions. Personally, I have never suffered from politics, that is, severely, nor any of its manifestations. I do believe that very much of the success or failure, acceptance or rejection of policies, is due to the fundamental power of the superintendent himself. If he is wanting in important factors, the confidence of the community dwindles and begins to take over his work." From this superintendent the challenge comes for better and more thorough preparation. "The fault is not in our stars, but in ourselves." I confess that the sentiment expressed by this superintendent has been true in my own experience. When we catch a vision of the task to be performed by one engaged in the administration of a large school system, we would shudder on account of the responsibilities were the task not so tremendously interesting and the opportunity so great for real service to mankind. It is entirely contrary to my philosophy to condemn in any way those with whom I am associated in either business or professional life, but to take an inward look when difficulties arise. In the face of this hazard it is interesting to note in the analysis of the superintendents' preparation, as indicated in the Yearbook published by this department a year ago, that it is found that the superintendent is entitled to his place as a leader in the public-school system by reason of his superior training. And yet, the next step forward, as indicated by my friend and co-worker, is to demand more 868 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION thorough graduate training, travel and observation, research and investi- gation on the part of those who undertake the work of the city superintend- ent. This is necessary if we are to make the work of the city superintend- ent a profession in the real sense of the word that a profession is a vocation in which specialized knowledge acquired after long years of study is, ration- ally, ethically, scientifically, and skilfully applied in practical affairs. You know how easy it is to respond to popular appeal. You know how dif- ficult it is to summon courage when faced by selfish opposition. You know, too, that "courage is largely born of conviction supported by a thorough understanding and power to express it when occasion demands." One who becomes a city superintendent has need of leadership keen enough to discover those of marked ability in selecting his associates and his assistants ; generous enough to give credit to each for what each accom- plishes; leadership which will stimulate the members of the personnel com- posing the organization of which he is the head; leadership shrewd enough to discover inefficiency where efficiency does not exist, and fair enough to children and taxpayers, and honest enough with himself to eliminate those who are inefficient or lack the possibility of growth; willing to employ his energies for the welfare of others. A city superintendent should have that type of leadership which will first merit, then secure, the confidence of his associates. If a city superintendent is to have this confidence, he must be willing to pay the price of research before his school policy or program is promulgated. He must gather facts; organize them; study them; formulate his judgments with deliberation, state them clearly and frankly; take the public into his confidence; fix his eye on the goal, and move forward. The next step forward may be National or special State certification for this service following a thorough course of training after the bacca- laureate degree has been granted, and then granted only to those who by nature as well as training are adapted to the work. Hazards of the superintendent! Their name is legion. I can mention only a few of them briefly, with suggestions given by my co-workers for their solution : 1. Unwise Legislation-Throw out your line. Watch. Think ahead. Meet it in advance. 2. The Voice of the Agitator-Meet him with facts secured through research, promulgated through organized agencies, such as Rotary, Kiwanis, Parent-Teacher Associations. 3. Disregard of Personal Business Obligations-Meet your obligations. Pay your debts. Maintain your credit and your self-respect. 4. Failure to Develop and Promote Those Within the Organization- Self-evident. A failure to develop and advance those in your own organi zation is an admission of your own weakness . 5. Failure to Use the Best Efforts of All in Promoting a Program-lt pays to have the workers own stock in the business. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 869 6. Suppressing Expression Among the Members of the Group-Let them clear the atmosphere through debate. Let them turn their guns on each other rather than center on the superintendent. Much of the ammunition will be exhausted before the direct fire. 7. Dismissing the Inefficient Teacher-One superintendent states, “ I suggest 'Indirection.' Most of those who have used the 'Direct Method' have not survived to tell the tale." In other professions and in other businesses the pay may be more nearly commensurate with the responsibilities, but let us remember that this is our job. The superintendency of a city school system is a tremendous undertaking, a great responsibility, a magnificent opportunity. The task would be ap- palling if it were not so interesting. It offers an opportunity for almost every type of ability, business and professional, for keen discrimination, careful judgment, analysis of human nature, power of organization, and courageous action. Mistakes we have made; mistakes we shall make. But we must and will move forward. I have suggested in this address some of the forward steps in reducing the hazards of such a position. I mention one more. The hazards will be reduced as men of marked per- sonality are brought into this work-men who possess the king-becoming graces, such as "justice, verity, temperance, stableness, bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness, devotion, patience, courage, and fortitude" ; men who recognize the significance of coöperation and right human relationships- themost important fundamental principle of the social order. The president of a great railway system says : It is not the great hundred- thousand horse-power locomotives, or the still more powerful electrical motors, or the endless chain of freight and passenger cars, or the well-appointed terminals, or the solidly-laid tracks, or the intricate signal systems-it is not all this elaborate network of equipment that makes the railroad wheels go around twenty-four hours every day of the year. It is the human heart- beat. Whether you are running a railroad or any other kind of business, ninety- five per cent depends upon the human beings in it. Unless the great majority of those constituting the organization are working in harmony and working heartily, the results can only be disappointing. Success comes from the human heart, not from materials or machinery. RELATIONS OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS TO THE TEACHING CORPS SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES CALIFORNIA For one who is a party in the case, honestly to discuss a subject of this character is a difficult and delicate matter. What is said on this occasion will be for the most part a presentation of actual experiences in superin- tendent-teacher relationships and will contain consequently no flights of 870 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION idealism, no imagined situations of near-perfection. As a member of the official family, the teacher has certain claims and the superintendent certain obligations. The very entrance into the family circle is bound to be pro- tected by every condition of fairness. If, as in most large cities, the teacher enters by a semi-civil service examination, with eligible list and appoint ment according to order of merit, it is a matter of great concern that the superintendent protect even the youngest teacher against the possibility of unjust discrimination. There must be absolute confidence of the teacher that the eligible list will be followed in a spirit of equity. There must be equal willingness on the part of the teacher to accept her lot when the dial points to her name. This last is not always easy, especially in cities of great distances and conglomerate population, if the teacher draws a room miles from her home, or in locality whose children are uninteresting. Disappointment is registered on her countenance if not expressed in words, and there is immediate danger of straining the friendly relations between superintendent and teacher. In a spirit of impatience the superintendent is tempted to say, and I have known it to be said: "Take this room or nothing. " Well, that is one way of settling such a matter. There are other ways. It may be well to reflect a bit whether a teacher traveling miles every day or presiding over a room of children, perhaps even from wealthy homes, for whom she feels she cannot do her best, is after all as valuable as that same teacher under other conditions. In a city of great distances, the matter of miles is often a perplexing problem, involving almost impossible hours and impossible street-car conditions. I know a superintendent who earns his salary every year by the supreme patience he exercises in working out adjustments for teachers disheartened because of impossible distances to travel, or of uncongenial classrooms, or other dis- agreeable scool conditions. But this takes time, oh so much time. Does it pay? The teacher thinks it does and those who work in the same office with this superintendent agree that just being human to the members of the official family gives enormous returns in contentment, willing effort, and tangible results. A relationship involves of necessity two parties. Too much time consequently cannot be given to the whims of the unreasonable teacher whose persistent demands for special consideration sometimes pre- vent cordial relations. Fortunately, most teachers are good soldiers, expect to share the common lot in brave fashion and bide their time for promotion. The head of any official family should expect to look after the members in many ways, and so it happens that the superintendent has it in his power to do much toward making the physical conditions under which the teachers work satisfactory, at least, that should be true in most staid and well-behaved cities. It cannot be true in a city like Los Angeles, where life is a procession with no last wagon of the train ever in sight. It must be a matter of real satisfaction to any executive to feel that he has man- aged the physical conditions of his district so well that all teachers have full-day sessions, well-lighted, well-ventilated, adequately heated, and DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 871 equipped rooms, with ample facilities in the way of rest rooms, closet space, and all that contributes to make the day's work move on with ease, expe- dition, and success. Some superintendents, with all good intentions and much hard work, with unconquerable courage and determination, are doomed to see the day of such happy conditions still far in the future. It is none the less a goal to covet. As a second point in this discussion, it is pertinent, especially at this time, to comment on those relations of the superintendent to the teaching corps which have to do with teachers as factors in the administration of the schools. It may not be amiss to remind ourselves just here that teaching and the teacher, along with the children, were the original and still remain the one essential requisite for any school; that all other accessories such as principals, supervisors, superintendents, and business managers have been added for the one and only purpose of making it more possible for the teacher to do better the essential work of teaching. That some or all of these accessories may occasionally get in the way of teaching, obstruct the process, and confound the teacher is to be charged to human weakness and the general tendency of things to run down, harden into formality, or arro- gate to themselves undue importance. This comment on the importance of teaching as a chief function and the reason for being of the school has a momentous bearing on all theories propounded and conclusions reached in the matter of teacher participation in administration. Let it be said at the outset that no superintendent can administer his schools in the best fashion without advice and sometimes actual administrative assistance from teachers . What, then, should be the conditions and limits of such assistance ? Mani- festly, the most obvious essential is that such participation shall contribute directly to the best interests of the child by increasing the capacity of the teacher for teaching service, for be it emphasized that nothing done any- where in the whole school department is or should be done for the sake of any one other than the child. If, then, the participation of the teacher in administration is permitted to become purely superficial, a mere sham, justdoing something-ifit consumes time, energy, vitality at the cost of the one great function of teaching; if it involves the teachers in unhappy con- troversies among themselves, with the board of education or with execu- tives; if it brings teachers into embarrassing situations that occasion loss of serenity and general satisfaction; if those immediately sharing the responsi- bility of administration come into possession of confidential information respecting their confreres or other knowledge which results in strained or unhappy relations; if at any point the teacher becomes less capable, less buoyant, less responsive to the claims of the children because of this new responsibility-then one of two things, possibly both, must be true ; either the superintendent is not tactful and understanding, does not know what nature of problem to submit, what type of work to entrust to his helping teaching corps, and what to withhold, or the teachers have not rightly sensed the kind of help they should give, or how to participate in 872 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION this new relationship without tension and loss of teaching power. For there are limitations to this delicate responsibility. Sometimes one wonders whether it is ever possible for a manufactured machinery of participation growing out of a theory, to work as well as an evolved custom resulting from conscious needs and unconscious adaptations. We pass that, how- ever, and are brought face to face with an actuality. There are limits to the amount of time and energy that a teacher may profitably give to any- thing except her immediate work; once the teacher feels that other things. no matter what, are more important for the time being than her regular school work ; once these other things become a matter of first thought or worry, then the children will feel the weakening of power and begin to fall short of their best accomplishment. This is what actually happened in one school not in my own city. A fine, enthusiastic, promising kindergarten teacher, over-enthusiastic about certain theories, in order the more surely to compass their acceptance and trial in the entire school department, plunged into propaganda work designed to secure administrative recognition for those theories, with the following unhappy result: Night work proved exhausting and resulted in the late arrival of the teacher to her class in the morning, with work for the day unprepared; afternoon meeting appointments called her away too promptly and resulted in throwing upon other teachers an undue share of certain types of school duties, the whole thing culminating in an unhappy debacle and request by the principal for the transfer of the teacher. What superintendents should desire is such help as teachers can give without too heavy a tax upon time and vitality. There is, however, one indispensable condition to teacher participation in administration and that is that those teachers who participate shall gain something immensely worth while from this experience for their own work and for the whole school system. It is cruel robbery for this administrative work to take all and give nothing. It should yield large returns in a better understanding, not merely of the necessary machinery of school administration and how it works, but of the mighty purpose of public schools, of the difficulties and dangers that con- front them from time to time, of the way in which the teacher may help the educational morale and render the great service of interpreting the public schools to the public, who owns and operates but sometimes fails to understand this important institution of the republic. Is it possible in this administrative participation to keep the relationship one of genuine help- fulness to the teacher rather than a drain upon her energies and an essential worry? If not, we had better abandon the attempt. A most pitiful and unforgivable degradation of this particular relation- ship of superintendent and teacher is what might be called the "gossip fest," for unless matters of real moment are forthcoming, the meetings of advisory committees soon resolve into discussion of mere aimless nothings. Teacher participation in administration just for the sake of it is unforgiv- able; so also is that form in which there is a semblance of such activity DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 873 but no reality because participation ends with discussion since the superin- tendent's will prevails at last and always regardless of teacher advice. No one is ever deceived by this sort of thing. Better far to bide by the old way than to pretend a new one. I have known of some vital participation where really good things were accomplished, not only for teaching, but for the schools and the community, where serious problems were worked out to successful conclusion. Το name some of these problems : the parents in a community were dissatisfied with the information or lack of information sent out by the report card. Frequent complaints to teachers and principals resulted in a joint effort with the superintendent's office for improvement in this particular. The original report card was of the negative type ; no mark indicated satisfac- tory progress, a red check typified failure or near failure. A long suffering public had endured this thing for years, but at last their voice was heard and there was evolved a report card that for the first time in many years indicated to parents in understandable symbols not only the progress of the child in his studies but also quite as important, his progress in the socializing process since the card made mention and evaluated such virtues as honesty, courtesy, thrift, and the like. Who can doubt that all teachers who participated in the construction of that report card will always be more competent and understanding because of the experience ? A grateful community has not neglected to return thanks . Another type of service being rendered by this advisory council is a study of class interruptions, of the different types and occasions, with intention to suggest if possible ways of lessening these in number and of minimizing necessary interruptions. Still another problem has to do with analyzing the dangers of traffic to school children. Here coöperation has been sought with other service and civic agencies with the ultimate intention of safeguarding lives by means of a specific system in which city and schools shall be partners. In closing the comments of this type of relationship, I venture the state- ment that teacher participation in administration entered upon by the superintendent in a spirit of reluctance, or by the teacher in a spirit of self- seeking, had better be passed by; but entered upon by superintendent , principals, supervisors, and teachers with an earnest purpose to improve the administrative, supervisory, and through these the teaching processes , will perhaps prove difficult but profitable, and, as is true of all good things, they who participate will improve through the very seeking of better things for others.. I know of a school system where committees of teachers and principals are constantly working with the superintendent's office on standardizing supplies, equipment, rooms in buildings, and even whole buildings. Great economies have resulted, and what is more important, an equity in the administering of such matters as the result of these many conferences. To mention a single economy, it was found that a certain expensive table was 874 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssocIATION being supplied in large numbers to all commercial rooms; it was also found that this piece of furniture was highly unsatisfactory. A standard device, much less expensive and more usable, was substituted. In the case of schoolrooms, who knows if not the teacher what kind of cupboards are best adapted, what width of shelves and what other provisions for storage are suitable to the several types of supplies ? Just a few comments on the relationship of the superintendent to the teacher as a factor, and the chief factor, in the educational work. It should be said first that the teacher must be given a chance for her own continuous improvement. At this point superintendents are sometimes almost helpless. After they have exhausted the local educational possi- bility, their own resources and physical energies in contributing to the growth of their teachers, a point which in these days of multiplied and diverse duties is soon reached, there is great danger that suitable oppor- tunities for improvement will not be provided unless the community and the board of education are alert and responsive to the need for teacher growth. This in large measure explains the eagerness of teachers to locate in cities and centers of culture because of their educational advantages. That extension and correspondence courses count their numbers by scores of thousands is a high compliment to the eagerness for improvement of teachers. That so many of these courses are taken not for credit but for profit is, if possible, a greater compliment. To improve instruction should not mean merely the requiring by the superintendent of greater contributions from teachers ; it should mean the furnishing of more opportunities for teacher growth so that they may have something to contribute. Which leads me to say that in this educational relationship there are many places where teachers may and should share in the responsibility for the whole enterprise and also in whatever of glory accrues. It is a mistake for superintendents to crave all the opportunities for public utterance between the schools and the community, fearful lest either may catch an intimate glimpse of the other through any other medium, for example, the teacher. Very often a wise teacher can present needs and interpret conditions and activities of an educational nature in a first hand way quite impossible for the superintendent to equal, and the one thing above all others necessary for continued interest of the public is knowledge of school activities, their purpose and achievements. Perhaps, however, the single greatest accomplishment of the teacher in educational participation is the help given in curriculum making. It is, of course, less troublesome for some one in the superintendent's office to write a course of study and impose it upon the schools-a ready-made document little likely to fit. It sometimes involves a long weary process to construct a curriculum by coöperative effort of all concerned. The latter, however, is the educational way. Such curriculum making reveals the fact that teachers more than any others, with the possible exception of an occasional thoughtful, intelligent citizen, know the desirable objectives, are most DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 875 familiar with available materials, with suitable activities, with attainable standards or degrees of possible accomplishment. It is the teacher who best knows the child's interests or capabilities, also his point of weariness and stagnation where the regimen should be changed, knows the way of approach to the understanding of the foreign child, works out the adaptation of instruction and activities for the subnormal and all other unfortunates ; it is the teacher who can reduce theories to practice and resolve psychology to performance; therefore, the teacher must always be the counselor and many times the arbiter in making the curriculum. This is difficult to manage because of the tax upon the teacher, the necessary prolongation of the enter- prise owing to the limited time available for this work after the day's teaching is done and because the best teachers sometimes find it difficult, owing to lack of experience in such work, to analyze and describe ade- quately their own teaching processes. With expert guidance, however, teachers may be, in fact must be, relied upon to work out courses of study. Curricula thus developed should be satisfactory because they are a product of those best acquainted with the child, most familiar with the materials to be used, with desirable activities and with a method of staging such activities, for the teacher knows what should fairly be expected in the way of standards, knows also the child's limitations, can watch for chances to advance standards through a new emphasis here or there, and can ward off that most to-be-dreaded issue the crystallizing of the course of study into an inflexible set of directions for educational procedure instead of a vital program for child development. Superintendents should give full credit to teachers for their contributions to the curricula, and teachers should accept no more responsibility of this sort than they are able and willing to carry. These few comments on the superintendent's relations to the teacher as a member of the official family and as a factor in the administrative and educational work of a school system are so obvious as, hardly to warrant expression. Yet to work out such relations harmoniously and profitably is a matter of some difficulty. There needs must be self-restraint on the part of the superintendent that will refrain from autocratic methods, courage that will meet fairly and firmly and resist suggestions for hasty procedure; there must be on the part of teachers a willingness to proceed thoughtfully and carefully, a willingness to evolve happy and right rela- tionships rather than manufacture those which give promise of professional advantage. There must be on the part of all an abiding conviction that superintendents, supervisors, principals, teachers, all should so regulate re- lationships as to consecrate their service to the children. 876 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HIGHER EDUCATION : NEW ADMINISTRATIVE ADJUSTMENTS LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS MINNESOTA Education is continually modifying its practice. The changes that have occurred in the last fifty years in the elementary and secondary fields have been revolutionary. A teacher of a generation ago would find himself, if he should suddenly return, hopelessly uninformed and bewildered by the vast amount of new knowledge that has been accumulated, the new methods that have been introduced, and the new practices that have been adopted. All this is as it should be. The schools cannot be expected to stand still. They could not if they wanted to, for they are society's most sensitive agent for carrying out its plans. Higher education has not been static; it too has changed, but not so much as the schools below. There is a reason for this. Institutions of higher learning have been less sensitive to public opinion than have the elementary and secondary schools. They have stood more aloof and have been more instrumental in determining their policies and programs than have the lower schools. They have maintained, and frequently with some show of vigor, that they know better what society needs and wants in the way of higher education than society itself knows. But no institution is entirely self-sufficient; no institution can entirely dissociate itself from the developing and expanding life of the times. Universities dimly and uncertainly at first, but recently more consciously, have felt the stirrings of new life and of new tendencies. Some of the proponents of the tradi- tional conception of the purposes for which universities have been estab- lished and maintained those who have regarded themselves as the cus- todians of scholarship with the first appearance of these new tendencies. fearful that change meant lowered scholarship, buckled on their armor anew for the fight to preserve their cherished programs without change Their activity has not been without its value, but it has not possessed sufficient power and strength to prevent some progress, or shall I S change from being made. What is responsible for changes in the field of higher education ? One is the insinuation of the scientific spirit into all fields of learning. Another is the new emphasis placed by psychology upon a knowledge of individual differences. Another is the discovery that society is still differentiating into new occupations and professions, and that the pressure for instruction in these fields is growing more impelling. A fourth reason is the growth in registration in colleges and universities. With the impact of these forces and sanctions following the war, university authorities began to take an inventory of aims, programs of instruction, standards of work, and administrative practices. The discussion which has not yet ended, and perhaps never will, soon developed two opposing points of view: one, the academic, which insists DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 877 upon a limitation of registration in the interest of the gifted, and the other, the public point of view which insists that the humblest person who meets the entrance requirements of the higher institutions of learning as they now exist, is entitled to his chance at higher education. One viewpoint, in other words, would admit only the mentally elect; while the other, in- fluenced no doubt by the American conception of equality of opportunity, maintains that those with the requisite preparation are entitled to their chance. The lines of demarcation between those two points of view are perfectly clear . Never before has there been any serious discord among those in higher education with reference to the number of students that should be ad- mitted. It has only been a few years since they went out in the highways and byways to persuade students to come to college. The most lurid ad- vertisements were used and the most preposterous claims of the value of a college education were made. Now all this is changed. A few presidents and individual members of many faculties have sounded a new slogan, namely, that too many students are going to college. No evidence is de- duced that a college education is any more inimical to public welfare now than it ever was. It is claimed that many of those now entering college are mentally incapable of doing satisfactory college work, and that it is better to educate a few gifted persons than to attempt to provide a college education for great masses of mediocre young men and young women. There are thousands of college graduates in this country who know that they were not endowed with unusual talent or superior ability. They had good ability, and they succeeded because they were willing to work. There is not a college president in America who could not name members of his faculty who possess no unusual ability. A distinguished member of a dis- tinguished private eastern university is reported to have said recently in conversation with one of his colleagues, "With the rules for entrance as high as they are, it is a good thing that we are on the faculty rather than applying for entrance, for we could not get in." It is conceivable, of course, that the academic world is undervaluing and overlooking the possibilities of the so-called mediocre person. The average citizen, whether he be right or wrong, still thinks so. He believes that in- tellectual progress and moral development are within the compass of higher education and possible for his own children. It is my candid opinion that in case existing institutions do not cheer- fully and willingly make provision for an increasing number of college students, that other colleges and institutions of higher learning will arise to meet the need. For years now the staffs of State institutions have en- couraged the youth of the State to believe that attendance at the university was their great opportunity and the youth have accepted these statements at their face value. They have come in response to an urgent appeal, and I say that the public will insist that the obligation implied in this appeal be fulfilled. With reference to the question of competency of the college students of 878 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION today, President Thompson, of Ohio State University, in his Founders Day address at Cornell in 1923, said, "Is it true that too many of our youth are attempting higher education? Is it true that a considerable percent- age of these young people are incompetent ? The universities appear to think so, but let me assure you that the parents do not agree with us on that issue. They respond by directing attention to the fact that many teachers in our universities are less experienced than the high-school teachers. Thev insist that inferior teaching may account for results as definitely as stupid students. They tell us that not all the responsibility is upon the student and cannot be charged to heredity. They ask that we test our processes of education as carefully as we read our examination papers. We are told that many teachers are little more than advanced students not yet parents. The fathers and mothers are inquiring why these undeveloped teachers are so infallible in their judgments as to the fitness of students to win degrees or escape the follies of the freshman year. Public sentiment proposes to make clear the responsibility of the teacher. It is obvious that we cannot escape by way of the Binet test unless it is applied all around. We cannot correct the evils due to excessive enrolment by protesting that our students are inferior. Some other method awaits our discovery." The optimum size of class for college students is a problem deserving careful study. The opinion has prevailed for many years that classes of fifteen or twenty, certainly not more than thirty, give the best results, but there is no concrete scientific evidence to support this opinion. Studies of the influence of the size of class upon attainment in the public schools have apparently revealed the very interesting fact that the size of class furnishes no index of the probable achievement of students. One critical student of educational administration in discussing this matter recently said that in- stead of spending so much time in attempting to determine the optimum- sized class we should spend more in looking for large class teachers. One of the most significant movements in the field of higher education is a movement looking to the reorganization of the materials of instruction. The general tendency in the past has been to differentiate the materials of instruction and to introduce new courses based upon attenuated segments of knowledge. The result is that universities have faced the danger of graduating their students with "split and partial minds, students whose intellectual attitudes are undisciplined and extemporaneous." A sound. systematic thoroughgoing education is really being denied many students, not through any fault of theirs but rather because of the natural expansion of subjects and the accumulation and organization of knowledge by am- bitious scholars. This splitting of the materials of education into a mul- tiplicity of subjects results, among other things, in over-emphasis upon certain rather highly specialized materials in a given field, leaving the student with a fragmentary and illy-proportioned conception of every field. It has also been attended by another evil or danger quite as unfortunate. Accompanying the separation of fragments of knowledge into compart- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 879 ments comparatively isolated there has grown up or been evolved by in- genious faculties, a vast array of regulations, rules, and devices for the improvement and recording of the scholastic standing of students. Students not fully realizing or appreciating the subtle connection between artificial systems of grading and the acquisition of an education, but recognizing fully that graduation depends upon conformity to the rules, have become seekers after credits and thinkers in terms of hours', semesters' and years' work, with the result that thoroughness of scholarship is in danger of being neglected. Two things are happening which should be wholesome correctives for this situation in so far as it applies to freshmen. One is a reorganization of the materials of instruction for freshmen. Columbia has really been the leader in this movement. Its course in contemporary civilization has served as a stimulus and a model for other universities. Here and there orientation courses and courses in "learning to think" are being introduced for freshmen. These general courses are intended to give an overview of human knowledge, to orient the students to the world of nature, and to organized society, to give them an intelligent point of view with regard to the present-day problems of society, and to furnish them with the tools and the methods for solving the question of their work in life and of their relationships and responsibilities to the present-day social and industrial organizations. A second movement calculated to insure a more systematic education is the movement to organize definite programs in terms of definite objectives. This situation has been forced by two sets of factors : ( 1) increasing pres- sure from the outside for training along specific lines for definite forms of service and (2) the insistent demand on the part of an increasing number of students that there be definite programs of study with definite objectives available for them. The vast majority of students entering college today know what they want training for. They are not willing to drift about aimlessly in a sea of liberal subjects. The traditional appeal that one should go to college to acquire culture is far less potent than it once was. The assumption that one is liberalized only by studying the so-called liberal subjects is being seriously questioned. Culture, it is maintained, is some- thing that cannot be acquired by aiming at it directly; it is, on the contrary, the most important by-product of any program of education, depending not merely upon the aims and materials contained in the program but upon the way in which the materials are presented. If one be trained adequately in law, medicine, nursing, teaching, or any other profession and as a result of his training is imbued with the ethics and spirit of his craft so that he dedicates his life primarily to service and citizenship rather than to personal gain and to the accumulation of a fortune, he has, it is maintained, all of the benefits of any liberal program of education. If this aim appears some- what ethereal, I ask, "Is it more visionary than the aim of culture based upon a knowledge of a number of fragmentary 'liberal subjects ?' " 880 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION One of the facts that has been slowly borne in upon those in adminis- trative positions in higher institutions of learning is that among the many factors that are responsible for the failure of many students in college are the following : ( 1 ) a sheer lack of intellectual ability ; (2) the absence of certain necessary moral and character qualities; (3) the failure to know what it means to work and how to work; (+) the lack of a definite ob- jective when they enter college. A knowledge of these factors, and particularly of the fourth, has con- tributed to another movement equally significant in the field of higher education and that is the movement to give more individual attention to entering students and to offer them intelligent vocational advice. This movement has not had easy sailing in all institutions, nor has there been anything like unanimous approval of it on the part of university men. There are those still on college faculties who quite sincerely believe that it is no part of the institution's business to look after the intellectual welfare of its students outside of class. They are willing that some attention be given to the social and moral welfare and to providing proper living ac- commodations for students, but that so far as studentship is concerned the student should be placed upon his "own" at once. The faculty repre- sentatives look carefully after the preservation of the traditions and the integrity of the institution. But to them the student is entitled to little time or consideration outside of class hours. Fortunately, this point of view is passing. An attitude of self-complacency and mediævalism so far as instruction is concerned will no longer be accepted. Those who tolerate their students and who regard them as a necessary evil are gradually being displacedby those who have a more human point of view. Yale has her all- university freshman year, Princeton her tutorial system, Harvard her upper classmen's advisory system, Northwestern her personnel officer, and many other institutions their advisory officers for the giving of vocational advice, and the selection and placement of students. There are at least two other matters deserving of attention that would improve the situation in higher education. One of these is the giving of more attention to the improvement of teaching. Not enough attention has been paid to this matter in the past. Instructors have been selected on the basis of their scholastic qualifications and their ability to carry on research. Promotion has depended upon ability in these respects, and it still does and should to a large extent. Contributions in the way of research have gained early recognition for the young scholar while the skillful teacher has usually had to wait until late in life to receive the recognition he deserves. Since the emphasis has not been upon the instruction act, classroom procedure and improved methods of teaching have not received the consideration or made the progress they should. Furthermore, many college instructors in the past have not welcomed, to say the least, supervision of their instruc- tion. There is much superior teaching in college circles, but no one familiar with the situation would for a moment admit that further improvement DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 881 is impossible. Nothing can have a healthier reactionary effect upon in- struction than attention on the part of the instructor to an improvement of the teaching act itself. In the future, more consideration rather than less will be paid to it. The other type of readjustment deserving consideration is the introduc- tion of courses less than four years in length. One of the fetishes in college life has been the four years' course. It has been presumed that it is a sine qua non for a college education. And yet many students of higher education have long known that many courses should be less than four years in length. College authorities have hesitated to introduce them for several reasons . One is that it is not done; it is not good form; it violates tradition. But society is growing more complex and the demands for the training of groups not hitherto served by colleges are more insistent. The discoveries of modern psychology have shown that all students should not be encouraged, because of differences in ability to attempt the longer courses. Two forces, one social and the other psychological, are forcing a considera- tion of the problem. Should greater flexibility in the matter of curricula be introduced, the newer and shorter curricula as well as the older and longer curricula should after proper advice has been given to the student be equally open to all. The choice of election should always be determined by the objectives of the students. If programs of study were mapped out in terms of well-defined objectives and students received intelligent guidance in choosing their programs, and if they were permitted to move forward at their several rates of abilities, the mastery of one unit serving as the necessary basis for attempting the next, it would be found that there would be more enthusiasm in student- ship, more intelligent discussion in class, and less artificiality in grading . Perhaps this is nothing but the idle dream of a schoolmaster. That it is heresy, I admit. That it will come true, I believe. The fact that all students do not move forward at the same rate of speed is not necessarily a sign of incompetency. Some will proceed along given lines or accomplish a given program of education more rapidly than others. The efficiency of our higher institutions of learning in the future will not be determined by the number they eliminate, important and necessary as that matter may be, but by the extent to which they guide students wisely, train them in proper habits of thinking, become interested in their indi- vidual abilities and welfare, reorganize the materials of instruction, improve their methods of teaching, introduce programs of work adapted to modern society and to the needs of students, and remain close to the people. The coming of large numbers of students to colleges and universities is not a thing to be deplored; it is a most fortunate sign. We have. I fear, been too prone to accept a European conception of scholasticism as a basis for the organization of our colleges and univer- sities. Certainly we do not wish to, even if we could, long imitate European 882 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION methods of education. Our democracy is not bound by social castes. Leadership in this country is dependent, we believe, upon differences in intellectual ability. To discover and provide training for this in every field we maintain that the door of opportunity should never be shut in the face of any citizen. The American creed is that every man should receive such education as his circumstances and ability will permit him to profit by. He is entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and the first business of our schools, elementary and high, is to make life worth living, liberty worth striving for, the pursuit of happiness something for which no man need be ashamed. In making a man it is our business to make him a good citizen and at the same time to make him good for something. Upon no subject is there such universal agreement as upon the efficacy of higher education. There has been a shift of emphasis of which many apparently are still unaware from education as a personal privilege to the belief that education is a universal right and its support a public duty, and this shift is bringing in its train a whole series of new types of administra- tive adjustments, all of which will require increased support, but all of which will mean more sympathetic consideration for the needs of the in- dividual and the demands of society. SCHOOL BOARD ORGANIZATION AND THE SUPERINTENDENT | J. W. STUDEBAKER , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DES MOINES, IOWA It cannot be denied that throughout the Nation great progress has been made in the management of schools and in school administration. I am convinced that another step in advance may now be taken if school boards and superintendents will sit down together, not always for the purpose of deciding whether terra cotta shall be substituted for cut stone or some other relatively unimportant matter, but for the purpose of facing squarely and frankly the problem of administration itself, in an effort to discover ways of improving present practice and of setting in motion a program of control and administrative procedures that will make a permanent con- tribution to the stability of the schools and the efficiency of their man- agement. Since school organization exists only in order that the work necessary to the attainment of the purposes of the schools may be done, it naturally follows that with the expanding volume of activity connected with our enlarging program of education, there must come modifications and ex- tensions of the means and methods of administration which are adapted to the changed condition. The innumerable problems in every school system which demand solution also make necessary good organization. Many hands must be put at work to solve them. They are mutually interdependent. Those who think アー DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 883 them through and work them out must be guided by common interests. The solution of any one of them cannot be completely reached without at least a partial solution of some of the others. All we want out of the maze of intricate organization of school systems is a balanced and harmonious effect on the child and the community. If there is to be a satisfactory balance and harmony of influence on the child and on the community, there must be a corresponding balance and harmony in the handling of the problems which affect this influence. The administration of any organization may be divided into four gen- eral phases. These are: ( a) Statement of aims or purposes ; ( b ) policy making; ( c) executing, operating, or managing ; and (d) checking or measuring results. A certain amount of rather incoherent planning and rough and incom- plete analysis of results is usually intermittently forced upon an administra- tion of schools by the public in general. Under these circumstances, progress is always slow and uncertain. It is possible for those upon whom the responsibilities for the administra- tion of schools devolve to center their attention upon the statement of aims, the making of complete and harmonious plans, the establishment of policies and the checking of results . Work is half finished, or at least largely done, when the aim is clearly conceived and stated. Aims must be set up at the initial attempt and with modifications they must serve always as guides in the processes of administration. The process will yield a balanced and harmonious out- come only in proportion as the aims have been established with proper balance and harmony. If the aim of teaching any one subject or exerting any one influence is out of proportion to other aims and influences, and it is administered in such a way as to secure a product in terms of its objective, then the result will be out of balance. It is conceivable that the teaching of mathematics might be emphasized to the point of excluding the develop- ment of a proper appreciation of good literature ; or the more or less con- fining academic subjects as a group might dominate and crowd out the proper attention to physical education, or one whole section of the school system, such as the secondary schools, might be benefited to such an extent that because of lack of funds or appreciation or both, there would be a corresponding decrease of opportunities in elementary schools ; or one school district in the system might be given such advantages as to make impossible even an approximation to similar advantages in another school district ; or what might be called the physical properties of a school system might be improved to the point of subtracting considerably from the efficiency of the personal service rendered the children; or the supplies and equipment pur- chased for the use of teachers and children might be purchased too much for the purpose of saving money or accommodating friends and be so ill adapted to needs as to seriously impair teaching efficiency; or a particular 88+ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION phase of some one subject might be so emphasized as to make impossible the necessary attention to other important aspects of the study, and thus have in the end a biased or lopsided view. The eternal question then in setting up aims or purposes for the school and for education, as well as for society in general, is to agree first, if possible, upon the nearest balance of pertinent aims that is conceivable and to maintain this balance as time passes . Policies are the vehicles and execution the power which carry purposes on their way to realization or to what might be called products or results Therefore, policies and methods of operation must always be determined by purposes or aims and must be equally well balanced. Policies are es- tablished to give effect to purposes and the persons responsible for their execution must be in sympathy with and have complete understanding of these purposes . Schools are established to secure results in qualities of character and citi- zenship. Fundamentally the people are not interested in the machinery. but rather in the product which the machine turns out. The educational machine is, therefore, merely a means to an end, and is never regarded by the people in general as an end in itself. Representatives of the people to serve them in accomplishing this purpose are selected as members of boards of education and, their duty is to assemble the desires of the people, organize them, translate them into terms of desirable results, establish pol- icies that will set in motion the machinery for securing these results, and then see to it that the work is done. It is not their function to do the work and it is an evidence of weakness in the organization when they are com- pelled to do so. There is such a thing as a science of school organization and administra- tion. We know that in other fields, given a certain set of conditions or combinations of elements or influences, we can be sure to get certain re sults. We have evidences of such scientific precision at many points inthe management of schools today, but I believe that we have not gone even halfway along the path which leads to the maximum degree of certainty that all of the desired results will actually be secured. The intricacies of the machine are so numerous and so delicate and are so shot through with so much of the personal equation that in the absence of a more com- plete understanding of the exact way in which relationships may be estab- lished and influences brought to bear upon problems, there is much dupli- cation of effort and clashing or neutralizing of influences as well as an enormous amount of lost motion. What is needed is a formulation of more complete and precise procedures to secure and govern a great chain of influences of persons upon persons or material, so that when the first link is made to act there will be reasonable assurance that the last one will respond. Boards of education must evolve better methods of measuring results, thus checking the efficiency of those responsible for securing them through the use of effective operating procedures. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 885 Up to this point I have shown that aims or purposes must be given care- ful study, kept in balance, and be constantly revised and made pertinent to the needs of the times; that policies to enforce action must be made ap- propriate to the purposes and be clearly framed; that attainment of the accepted purposes is possible only through such control of executive action as will effectively coördinate its relationships and keep the whole school system in balance as it moves forward; and that the final check on the efficiency of the management is by measuring its results. Aims or purposes and policies go hand in hand and together constitute the prime factors in legislation. Legislation then, together with inspec- tion of results, becomes the primary obligation of a board of education. In the performance of these two functions, board members are true rep- resentatives of the people because in the final analysis the general popula- tion also, by means of State laws, changes in the membership of school boards and by criticism of products, performs the same functions. The third phase, namely execution or managing, is not the direct re- sponsibility of a board of education. This principle is generally recog- nized and applied, because it is as impractical for boards of education to take over full responsibility for execution as it is for the people themselves. Inefficiency, involving delays, misunderstandings, duplication of effort, and discontent, frequently arise out of the fact that sufficiently sharp distinc- tions between legislation and execution are not made. In the business world in both large and small firms we find efficiency correlating very highly with the degree in which the administration is based upon a recogni- tion of these distinctions. If the people of our respective communities are to be insured against the evils of inefficiency with its concomitants, wastefulness, and exploitation of material resources and child life; if they are to have the largest assurance of a constant, effective program of education which provides well-balanced aims, policies and operating methods ; and if they are to secure complete, regular and scientific measures of the results of their systems of schools, the following basic principles of organization must be recognized and adopted: 1. The board of education should be organized as a board without standing committees and with each member on an equal basis with every other member, except as provided otherwise by law, in the degree of re- sponsibility for action. 2. The chief duty of the board is legislation . 3. The superintendent of schools should be the chief executive officer of the school system and be directly responsible to the board for the execution of its policies. 4. The executive work of the school system should be divided into several departments corresponding in general to those departments represented in each school, all department heads being directly responsible to the superin- tendent, their regular duties apart from those required by law assigned 886 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and supervised by him, and they and all other school employees, except auditors and attorneys, should be elected to positions by the board of edu- cation only upon nomination by the superintendent. 5. The superintendent should be held responsible by the board not only for the management and operation of the work in each of the several de- partments throughout the system, but also for placing before the board facts, comparisons, investigations, and reports, and making available to the board the advice on special or technical matters aside from legal questions, of those persons who in his opinion, or that of the board, are particularly qualified to furnish it so that the board will be able to reach sound judg- ments in establishing policies and approving those matters which under the existing laws must come before the board for such action . There can be no dispute on the question of the necessity of making proper distinction between legislation and execution. Neither do I see how it can be assumed that the public can be properly represented without having each board member actually on the same basis with every other member at times when the board must make decisions. With the standing committee arrangement this is not so. I believe a more representative judgment is usually made and in the long run a better feeling engendered among board members themselves when they consider and vote on reports and recommendations of the superintendent, the reports of other executives presented by him, or proposals of individual board members acting in- dependently, than when such reports or recommendations come regularly from committees of the board. The difficulties in contemplating the organization plan which I have suggested are usually found in connection with fixing responsibility for decision . No board of education and no individual connected with the management of schools can personally make all of the decisions. More decisions are made in one day by school employees in the operation of the schools than the school board makes in an entire year. The problem then is to select from these innumerable decisions the ones which the board of education has time and ability to make. And those which are made by them should be broad enough to empower others to decide the many issues of each day. I have shown that the board of education as a board should consider all questions which are of sufficient importance to require legislative action by any of them, and that each member of the board shares with every other member of the board equal responsibility for the general conduct of the schools. One of the two primary interests of the board then is the proper coördination of legislative action. Good legislative coördination requires consideration of all the essential factors of a problem. The most significant aspects of the problems of finance and schoolhouse construction or maintenance cannot be considered apart from instructional needs. In fact, these problems are so intimately related and so irrevocably inter- woven that they cannot be separated. These seemingly material factors, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 887 such as money, buildings, supplies, equipment, heat, light, water, building alterations, etc., are really the essential means to the end for which the school system exists. No board of education can be successful in securing for the public in general the end or the results desired without having under the law full control over the means to that end. If it is essential to success that a school board effect legislative coördina- tion of policies with reference to the means as well as the ends, it must necessarily follow that there is equally great need for coördination of the execution of these policies and of the handling or managing of the means which determine the ends. I do not see how this kind of executive co- ordination can be secured except by having one person who is responsible for it in the school system the same as in any other business, and since the purpose of the schools is to provide satisfactory educational outcomes, the one furnishing this unified executive direction to the organization should possess training, interests, and attitudes which will keep constantly in the foreground the real purposes of the institution always subordinating and putting in a secondary place the importance of the means. He must obviously be trained sufficiently in matters of finance and schoolhouse con- struction to be able to deal with these problems in their larger aspects as they relate themselves to the educational processes which to a large extent they determine. It is hardly to be expected that a school superintendent should have to accept responsibility for an end when he is not given neces- sary control over the means. It would be just as reasonable to expect that the same condition should obtain with a board of education and that members should be elected to boards, as is the case in some cities today, for the purpose of educating children and then be forced to rely upon city councils or boards of estimate and apportionment of funds for the money needed in conducting the program of education. On the other hand, if executive control is to be set up on the assumption that there can be separate and independent departments such as finance, buildings, and instruction, it is about as sensible to assume that a school system can properly develop and can secure satisfactory coördination of legislation by having three small policy making boards of education elected directly by the people and operat- ing independently, one of them being elected to handle financial aspects of the system, another one the building problems, and another the instructional problems. It may be said that a superintendent does not know enough about finance and schoolhouse construction and maintenance to be made the chief execu- tive of the system. If this is true, the wrong man is being held in or considered for the superintendency. But it is entirely possible for one to know enough about these problems to serve in this capacity and at the same time not know as much about them as experts. I have never known a successful school superintendent or executive in any other business who was an expert in the details of the many departments and activities rep- resented in the organization. It is fortunate when he is an expert in any of them. 888 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHAT SHALL BE THE NATION'S PART? GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF FIELD STUDIES, INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH , TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY For five years those interested in public education throughout the United States have proposed methods by which the Federal Government may con- tribute to the development of a more efficient system of public education. The bill which has been before Congress, providing a Department of Edu- cation with a Secretary in the President's Cabinet, for research and investi- gation in education, and for Federal aid for the purpose of encouraging the States to meet certain deficiencies which are commonly found throughout the Nation, has been repeatedly endorsed by this department and by State, district, and local educational organizations. During the past month hearings have been held before both the Senate and House Committees. Possibly the most striking fact in connection with these hearings was the number of laymen representing national organiza- tions who appeared in support of the measure. Twenty-one organizations, having membership running into the millions, sent their representatives to Washington to ask that Congress, through the passage of the Education Bill, take the next step in the development of our public school system. During the period that the Education Bill has been before the public, there has been developed a clearer recognition of the need for the support of a Federal agency competent to provide leadership and to undertake re- search and investigation that will be significant for the guidance of these charges with the responsibility of administering education in all of the States. We have long been accustomed to the idea of research undertaken by the Federal Government in the fields of agriculture, engineering, com merce, and industry. The benefits which have come to all of the peop'e from these activities are commonly acknowledged. Many inquiries should be undertaken in education with respect to curricula, methods of teaching and of learning, problems of organization, administration, and finance, the results of which when made available will contribute in large degree to the development of a more efficient public school system. In order that the Secretary of Education may have the benefit of the advice of those most closely in touch with the problems to be solved, the Education Bill now before Congress provides for the establishment of a National Council of Education to be composed of the State superintendents or commissioners of education, representatives from other interests in edu cation, and laymen interested in the results of education. This council. meeting annually, will be in position to propose the problems most im portant for investigation at any particular time, and will, as well, after such discussion be ready to coöperate most significantly with the Secretary of Education in the carrying forward of the investigations. The Education Bill provides in addition to all sums now made available DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 889 to the Bureau of Education and the other agencies operating in the Gov- ernment $500,000 "for the purpose of paying salaries and conducting studies and investigations" with respect to illiteracy, immigrant education, public school education, and especially rural education, physical education, includ ing health education, recreation, and sanitation, the training of teachers, higher education, and such other fields as in the judgment of the Secretary of Education may require attention and study. With a Secretary of Edu- cation in the President's Cabinet enjoying the prestige of that high office, it is reasonable to suppose that if a larger sum is needed to conduct the in- vestigations agreed upon by the Secretary of Education, his staff, and by the National Council of Education, it will be provided in the National budget. The addition of $500,000 to the $162,000 made available to the Bureau of Education during the past fiscal year would increase many fold the possibilities of nation-wide inquiries. It is not less important that the Nation recognize its obligation to aid the States in the removal of those deficiencies in our educational system existing commonly throughout the country. No one will deny that illiteracy con- stitutes a National liability, that under our form of government it is es- sential that we provide for the literacy of all our people as a basis for that education which is to develop sympathetic, intelligent, and coöperative in- dividuals ready to work with their fellows for the common good. The problem of providing for the education of immigrants is one the answer to which may determine the perpetuation of our ideals and institu- tions, or their disappearance from our society. Regardless of the fact that our immigrant population is unevenly distributed the fact remains that the problem of providing for their assimilation is of equal importance to all sections of the country. Nothing is more striking in our society than is the mobility of our population. The failure to provide trained teachers, or to give sufficient attention to physical education and health service in any part of the country constitutes a weakness which will later be felt in all parts of the country. The denial of adequate educational opportunity to the children living in the rural areas of the United States is to deny not only to these children their birthright, but to fail to provide for an intelligent citizenship which will certainly be indicated in the years which follow in the towns and cities, as well as in the country . The principle of Federal support of education has been recognized from the beginning of our history. One may well propose that our public school system outside of the thirteen original colonies was founded on the grants ofland made by the Federal Government to each of the States as it was ad- mitted to the Union. No one will deny that our colleges of agriculture and engineering owe their existence to National support. In more recent years we have seen the remarkable development of vocational education in a large measure upon the encouragement given by Federal aid. There can be no question with respect to the National significance of education. It is clear that neither learning nor ignorance can be segregated L 890 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION within the borders of any State. No State can be educationally self-sufficient. From the figures made available by the National Bureau of Economic Re- search we find that the per capita income varies from $345 in one State to $874 in another. From the investigations of the Educational Finance Inquiry it is discovered that the poorer States in some instances are spend- ing as large or a larger proportion of their income for education than are certain of the wealthy States. These facts point clearly to the soundness of those provisions of the Educational Bill which authorize appropriations to be made by Congress from taxes collected throughout the Nation to the several States in proportion to the size of the problem which they have to attack in the removal of illiteracy, the Americanization of the foreign born, the training of teachers, the development of a program of physical educa- tion, and the improvement of their rural schools. The next step forward by the Nation is clearly indicated in the passage of the Education Bill now before Congress. Lay support is being offered most generously. Professional support should be given even more actively than in the years which have passed. We of the profession recognize the need for action. It is our obligation constantly to hold up before the country the ideal of our democracy. If our Nation is to endure, it will be because we have here provided through our system of public education an opportunity for all for a maximum of individual growth and development in order that each may participate most efficiently and most ideally in the development of our common life. THE REORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS F. G. BONSER, TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The needs for the reorganization of the elementary school curriculum lie chiefly in four sources-namely : Changing conceptions of education; changing conditions of life; the early termination of the period of growth in teachers ; and certain changes in the forms of school organization. Changing conceptions of education-Three fields of development are primarily responsible for our changing conceptions of education: A be- havioristic psychology with its revelations of individual differences on the one hand, and its highly social aspects on the other; a social, democratic, behavioristic philosophy of education ; and an educational sociology dealing with objectives, methods, and controls of social behavior. These three fields, although emphasizing different aspects of education and life, are often closely related. Without attempting to trace to each respective field the influences which it has contributed, from them all we may note certain rather outstanding tendencies resulting from their development. Among these are: (a) A growing conception of education as directed, desirable activity rather than DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 891 as acquired knowledge, or of education as a matter of intrinsic or inner growth in relationship to social values rather than as something extrinsically attached or acquired. (b) A subordination of facts and processes, as such, to their use in the conduct of life. ( c) A setting up of educational ob- jectives or outcomes in terms of tangible life activities and purposes. (d) A tendency to recognize and provide for the initiative, purposeful self- direction, and self-control of pupils. (e) A tendency to substitute experi- ences in health, citizenship, and leisure activities for a mere knowledge about these as means of securing their appropriate practice. (f) The use of objectives, standards of selection and achievement rather than tradition or untested opinion. ( g) The classification of pupils into groups more nearly homogeneous in capacity than the use of physiological age alone would permit. These, and the adjustments implied by these, are some of the more important changes in our conception of education which, sooner or later, are bound to affect markedly the curriculum as well as method in our schools. Changing conditions of life-Among the changing conditions of life from which needs emerge for changes in the curriculum, these may be especially noted: 1. Changes from relatively local isolation and self-sufficiency to an almost world-wide interdependence-economic, social, and political-calling for a breadth and type of social science never before appreciated. 2. Changes from hand labor, relatively slow methods of transportation and communication, and limited means of self-provided entertainment to the extensive use of power-driven machinery, varieties of forms of rapid transportation and communication, and the use of various mechanical means of entertainment which have produced need for an almost universal work- ing and appreciative knowledge of applied physical science. 3. A growing consciousness of the problems of health, eugenics, needs for increased efficiency in the production and use of plant and animal supplies, and even the unreasoning attacks of dogmatic theology upon the demon- strated facts of organic development which have awakened us anew to the importance of biological science. 4. Changes from extensive development to intensive development with the passing of our frontier, resulting in greater congestion of population, large problems of coöperation, more frequent and necessary personal con- tacts, and more individual restraint and self-control which have given rise to needs for a more complete and practical understanding of the social conditions and demands of highly organized life. 5. An increasing consciousness among the masses of our people of a sense of personal freedom, an increasing tendency to self-assertion, and per- haps, a growing resentment against the restraints of law because of failure to see their purposes and values as the means of maintaining liberty have brought pressing new needs for education in citizenship. 6. Changes from family and community dependence upon ways and 892 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION means to be developed by individuals and local groups for their own recrea- tion and entertainment to a large dependence upon commercially provided recreational facilities, which have created new problems in education for leisure. These, and other changes of which these are typical, bring demands for training in social and applied science, and for the development of clear con- cepts of the meanings and ideals of social life altogether beyond the needs of life as it was a few generations ago. The early termination of the growth period of teachers-Teachers, like other human beings, tend to become more or less fixed in their habits of work early in life. They do not tend to continue to grow and make ad- justments in their work in response to either changing conceptions of edu- cation or changes in the conditions of life. With no corresponding changes in curricula, they go on much as they began, and to quite a degree, as they themselves were taught as children. In 1905, Dr. Bruce R. Payne made a study of elementary school cur- ricula in ten cities of the United States. He reduced to tabular form the average time allotment for each of the school subjects by grades. In 1920, Strayer and Engelhardt, in The Class Room Teacher, published a similar table for fifty American cities. The total time in minutes per week for the first six grades for each subject as presented in the two tables may be found and compared. As evidences of the content of the courses in 1905 and fifteen years later, the figures are not worth much as scientific data, yet they do show tendencies. In 1905, the total time in minutes a week in spelling was 420. In 1920, it was 585-that is, 165 minutes more. And this despite all of the work that has been done in reducing the elementary school spelling vocabulary from seven or eight thousand words required then to four or five thousand, and all of the investigations and contribu- tions resulting in improvement in methods of teaching spelling! To writ- ing, 31 minutes more per week were devoted in 1920 than in 1905. Arith- metic shows a positive gain by the fact that there were 192 minutes a week less used in 1920 than in 1905. In 1905, 17.3 per cent of all of the class- room time was given to arithmetic. The percentage had dropped to 14.6 in 1920. But with the adaptations desirable as the results of studies in the social usage of arithmetic and the improved methods of teaching, we have a right to expect a larger reduction in time. With all of the emphasis we have placed upon health studies, and all of the changes in the increased applications of both biological and physical science, we should expect a marked increase in attention to science, yet the work in elementary science, nature study, and physiology together totals but 31 minutes a week more in 1920 than in 1905. Geography, which has become of such significant importance within these fifteen years, received but ten minutes a week more in 1920 for the whole elementary school than in 1905. It is thoroughly appreciated that the implications from these figures cannot be carried very far without other data, but they do offer some indication that, until the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 893 courses of study themselves are revised to incorporate the changes derived from research studies, recognized new values by educational leaders, and implications from changed life conditions, the teaching will continue to follow closely the unchanged, written curricula. Changes in forms of school organization-A fourth factor which has oc- casioned a need for the reorganization of curricula is that of the develop- ment of the junior high school and related movements which attempt to provide for more flexible and democratic opportunities for pupils of early adolescent age. Clearly the bases of reorganization of the curriculum lie in the in- adequacies of the present curriculum to provide the content and values re- quired by the present conception of education and the present conditions of life. Of the four sources of need indicated, these are primary, the others secondary. Stating the deductions from these needs summarily, they im- pellingly indicate that the reorganized curriculum should: (a) Make pro- vision for children to engage in participating experiences through which they will form the habits, skills, attitudes, and methods of behavior consti- tuting efficient growth in the desirable activities of life itself. (b) Make provisions for the fullest possible use of questions, problems, and interests of importance and of appreciable value to the children themselves from the environment and activities in which children are participating or in which they can be led to participate with profit and satisfaction. ( c) Make provision for using the race experience, the subject matter from the sub- jects of study, needed to carry forward these activities, and for leading to interests in new activities on higher levels. (d) Make provision for the mastery of those mechanical or technical facts and processes we call the tool subjects as the motives for these become apparent through needs for them, and as capacities are sufficiently ripened for them. ( e) Make pro- vision through the form of the organization of the work to utilize all im- portant interrelationships of problems and elements of subject matter that duplication may be avoided and that the work may proceed in harmony with the laws of learning. (f) Make provision for that flexibility in standards of achievement, outcome, and promotions required by the individual dif- ferences of children and controlling factors of environment. The bases for all of these provisions lie in the actual needs of life and in the conception that education is the growth of power in the pursuit of the worthwhile activities of life through participation in them by the aid of contributing subject matter from the race experience. Provision is naturally affordedby this means for assuming responsibilities , making decisions, weigh- ing the worth of what is used in relationship to purposes, and growing in power to do, to select, and to judge values. Such work is inherently the most vital type of moral education, because it has directly to do with the qualities and values of conduct with reference to its purposes. Two forms of reorganization of the curriculum are desirable. One is that of the research type in which the most rigorous procedure of scientific 894 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION method should be employed. The other is that type of work which may be carried forward by the teaching and supervisory staff of a given school or school system. In the second type of reorganization, relatively little of the distinctively research form of work can usually be attempted, but use may be made of the findings and contributions of all who have made profitable. scientific investigations. Closely related to any form of curriculum revision are the contributions of the philosophy of education in its interpretations of the more ultimate meanings and values of life. The philosophy of education assumes no re- sponsibilities for the revision of curricula, but it does assume responsibility for deriving certain criteria or principles which constitute the purposes, objectives, and measures of value by which the content of curricula are to be judged. Every attempt to revise the curriculum involves a philosophy of education. To insure unity and consistency an explicit formulation of the philosophical point of view adopted is highly desirable. Among the kinds of scientific studies which may yield material of much value for cur- riculum revision, the following are especially needed: 1. Making surveys of life practices and experiences to find the usages and needs which it is the province of the curriculum to promote and supply. Some such surveyş have been made. 2. Making critical or analytical studies or contributions to life not yet included in curricula to evaluate their elements in terms of their use for the common improvement of life, and to reduce them to forms for school usage. Many studies may not yet be used except by specialists because they are in forms too technical for common understanding. 3. Scientifically testing promising new activities and elements of con- tent, and new forms of school practice in the selection and organization of curriculum content to determine with exactness their values in terms of results. 4. Interpreting the findings of researches in educational psychology and changing conditions of life in terms of their bearings upon the selection and organization of content for school usage. These and other similar prob- lems of research all require careful scientific planning and procedure. They may be profitably undertaken only where expert supervision is pos- sible. Results of such studies should be made available for use in the revision of curricula in all schools. In that form of reorganization which may well be carried on more or less continuously by the supervisory and teaching staff of a school or school system, the problem is largely that of finding and formulating the best principles and practices known in terms of the needs and conditions of that particular school or school system. It is a work of interpretation and adaptation, chiefly, although individual teachers or committees of teachers and supervisors may occasionally be found who may make contributions in selection and organization of much value. For most teachers, such wort contributes an opportunity and a stimulus to professional growth. It pro- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 895 vides both a motive and the occasion for continued professional study. It helps to make teachers realize that the curriculum should change and grow in the same measure that life itself is change and growth. One goal in curriculum making should be that of the development of ob- jective means for the selection and gradation of material. Perhaps we may never be able to base all selections of experiences and materials upon fully tested, objective standards. As rapidly as possible, however, we should demonstrate with as much scientific accuracy as we can every item of curriculum content which is susceptible of exact measurement. Until such objective standards are available, we have no alternative but to follow the application of the principles of those devoting their efforts to an evalua- tion of materials through their best critical judgment, together with re- sults which practical experience seems to have justified beyond any reason- able doubt. Promising variations should be encouraged and their results evaluated. By such procedure we may hope ultimately to place most forms of curriculum content upon a pragmatic basis, evaluating the work unit by unit as opportunity is afforded and as needed methods of measurement are invented. From the changing conceptions of education and the changes in life needs there are certain outstanding implications which it is worthwhile to em- phasize. The demands are for introducing life activities and experiences into the schools as parts of the curriculum and to regard and treat these as of fundamental value and importance. The demand is to use subject matter as a helpful means to the promotion of experience and not as an end in itself or as a substitute for experience. Life is made up of activities and prob- lems. These are fundamental ; subject matter is contributory. This in no way implies that we are to disregard the development of those intellectual interests which in some way become that passion for knowledge which leads to a devotion to pure scholarship, or the pursuit of the truth through scien- tific investigation or research in any field which may make its appeal. The centers of organization should be the activities which it is our pur- pose to improve and expand. From these experiences arise the needs for subject matter. Many, indeed most, of our experiences draw upon several subjects for material which helps to promote them. The organization of the curriculum should provide for the coördination of these different kinds of subject matter as they emerge from experiences requiring their use in common . We must put together the things that belong together. The or- ganization of the curriculum on a mere subject-matter basis is artificial and fails to provide for that unity found in life outside of school. We use, now arithmetic, now geography, now English, now science, in connection with the full development of many specific problems. Any system that tends to separate subjects increasingly by departmentalizing them in the elementary school, increases the artificiality of a subject organization and makes any natural form of treatment increasingly difficult. It is this in 896 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tensified artificiality of the platoon form of organization and of the indi- vidualistic, contracting system of the Dalton plan which throw them into contrast with education as a life process. These plans emphasize the mecha- nism of systems. They make for that isolation of one subject from an- other from which the present conception of education and the nature of life demand that we should escape. Tests for achievements in the me- chanical aspects of school work under such plans show high results, because they are intrinsically organized to emphasize the mechanical elements which are tested by these tests. The tool subjects are separated and isolated from the other subjects and are therefore developed out of relationship to the very life activities which it is their purpose to serve. Practically, a compromise organization between the extremes of a sub- ject matter organization and the chaotic license resulting from absence of any organization is possible and desirable. The outcomes and general con- tent rated as essential may be virtually prescribed, and yet without the slightest interference in meeting the needs of any class or pupil, without restricting the legitimate freedom of any teacher, and without preventing adjustment to any environment. In all that is fundamental and essential to an educated citizenship, from Maine to California, curricula may be "as united as the hand," yet in adjustments to local needs and conditions, "as separate as the fingers." In emphasizing the values of experience and the resulting attitudes and habits for the control of conduct, we may easily neglect to emphasize suf- ficiently the value of right ideas and the stimulating power of ideals to evoke responses of conduct. Conscience is a matter of ideas and ideals as well as of habits and attitudes. Habits are mechanical, and the great issues of life call for the weighing of values and the making of choices and de- cisions which are not mechanical. Children have a right to the help that may be given in the formation of fine attitudes and ideals from the experi- ences and teachings of the world's great leaders and prophets. It is the obligation of the school to bring helpfully to bear upon the formation of the character of pupils the influences of these ideas and ideals. To provide us with these ideals and with the principles of social behavior derived from the costly experience of the ages in relationship to the interpretation and solution of our own problems is one of the chief values of the study of history and literature. Throughout, the point I have tried to emphasize is, that we must include all important factors of life in the curriculum, and evaluate all content in terms of its use in developing power and capacity for increased participa- tion and satisfaction in life. Three factors enter in: First, the children with all of their dynamic, driving force of interests, impulses, and pre- dispositions to be tirelessly active, mentally as well as physically; second, the stimulating natural and social environment with its complex of ac- tivities, purposes, methods, and values ; and third, the race experience as reduced to generalized summaries in textual or other recorded forms. The DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 897 omission of any one of these three factors makes the curriculum partial and relatively ineffectual. All have to be brought into relationship. Child activities have to be guided; selections have to be made from environing˙ stimulations on the basis of their values; and the race experiences have to be sifted to find what will contribute to the best achievement of the desirable purpose pursued. Despite the common sense and practical character of this problem, the suggestion that we reorganize the curriculum to be more in harmony with our educational principles and the needs of life is idealistic. But I have no apology to offer on that account. One of the last recorded statements of Woodrow Wilson is that "The world is run by ideals." Our professed business is with ideals -it is to translate ideals into practice, to make them real, and to set up new and higher ideals to keep us moving forward on the great open road. REORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TO MEET MAJOR OBJECTIVES CHARLES L. SPAIN , DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DETROIT MICHIGAN Every social organization may be looked upon as an expression of the ideals and aspirations of an ever-changing social group. The school cur- riculum, the school organization, and the architectural environment in which instruction takes place are merely the objective embodiment of so- cieties, ambitions, and struggles toward some coveted goal, the resultant of many complex and contending forces which from age to age have influenced educational thought. Thus, as a result of this conflict, elementary school systems as they exist today are almost without exception the product of a wasteful process of evolution, and not the outcome of a clearly defined educational philosophy consistently worked out. Of necessity, school administrators have been and are now opportunists. Changes in organizations have been the result of compromise and of concession to ideals foreign to the purposes of education. It is only rarely that a superintendent of schools, even though he may have vision and training, is able to set forth a far-reaching educational program, rally to his support all of the educational, economic, and social forces of the community, and bring his program to successful fruition . In recent years Detroit has been among the fortunate cities which have been able officially to adopt an educational policy and carry it through. An important part of this policy has been the reorganization of the elementary schools. In the process of this readjustment the traditional grammar school, which has come down to us with slight modifications from the year 1846, has given place to a special form of the platoon or work-study-play school. So rapidly has this transformation taken place that the number of 898 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION platoon schools has increased from two in 1918 to seventy-five in 1924. It has involved the erection of 17 new buildings, the remodeling of 40 old 'buildings, and the reorganization of 17 buildings without architectural change. Over 80,831 children are now enrolled in schools of the new type. This ambitious effort at reconstruction was not undertaken primarily for economic reasons. It has been a deliberate attempt to set up a type of elementary school organization that shall accord in largest measure with advanced educational thought and at the same time not depart so radically from traditional modes of procedure, as to make it unacceptable to the present generation of teachers and to the public whose children must be taught. It still remains for us to appraise this organization in terms of the ac- cepted major objectives of education. Perhaps all will agree that one of the fundamental aims is health. Schools are constantly undertaking greater responsibilities for the physical well-being of the children. The platoon school with its gymnasiums, playrooms, lunch rooms, and clinics, together with its auditorium instruction in health, hygiene, and safe living is better organized to care for this phase of instruction than schools of the tradi- tional type, because it has more adequate facilities and a group of specialists who concern themselves specifically with the problem of the child's physical welfare. The adoption of the platoon organization implies the erection of buildings which assure to the children ample health facilities. Possibly in the mind of the average citizen, the acquisition of the essential knowledges and skills, the three R's is still the most important aim of elementary instruction. Many educators believe, and I think rightly so, that the fundamentals occupy time and place in the curriculum out of all proportion to their social value. Nevertheless, a superintendent of a city school system would be foolhardy indeed who would frankly advocate a new school organization in which the three R's were relegated to aninferior place. The elementary school still must be able to give pupils control of the basic skills. The platoon schools as developed in Detroit realize this objective in an effective way. Measurement results obtained over a period of five years prove that the product of the platoon schools excels that ob- tained in the traditional schools. If the most important objective is held to be training for citizenship the newer form of organization, through the medium of its instruction in his- tory, civics, and literature supplemented by its auditorium activities, its library, its civic clubs, and its pupil participation in school affairs has at work a group of effective influences which make directly for the develop- ment of responsible intelligent citizens. 1 If the desired objective is preparation for a vocation or for worthy home life, the platoon school through its domestic art and science rooms, shops, and constructive activities in connection with school projects goes as far an elementary school properly may go in testing aptitude and in develop- ing tastes which may later find expression in the more formal work of the junior high school. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 899 The Detroit educational program does not provide for specialized voca- tional training in the elementary schools. Contrary to the opinion which obtains in some quarters, the platoon school places no undue emphasis on vocational instruction, and certainly does not train pupils in such a way as to unfit them for the more lucrative and responsible places in society. If the cherished aim is to prepare children to spend their leisure time worthily, it may be said that the platoon school is so organized as to secure to every pupil a daily program in which those aspects of education which make for culture shall be emphasized. The art, music, and literature rooms, the library, and the auditorium offer an abundance of experiences which stimulate the child's imagination and develop in him interests and enthusiasms for things which are worth while. If the aim is ethical training, it may be asserted that this particular kind of school is on the whole a most effective agency for the development of those habits and attitudes which underlie strong character, because it appeals to so many phases of a child's nature, arouses a many-sided interest, stimu- lates purposeful activity, and requires so much from pupils in the way of self-control and self-direction . In recent years a new conception of the aim of education has been evolved. It is held that in the daily life of the individual a combination of the rational and emotional processes results in the formation of purposes and gives rise to activities designed to achieve these purposes. Viewed in this way, the aim of education may be defined as the process of helping children to help themselves-To form even more worthy purposes ; to achieve those purposes even more efficiently. In the light of these objectives, the curricu- lum is no longer conceived in terms of subject matter, but rather in terms of a series of purposeful activities. In the work of instruction purposing and " achievement of felt purposes" on the part of pupils is the chief end. In this scheme of education knowledges and skills as such are brought into proper relation to life activities. Assuming that we accept purposing and the realizing of purposes as a major objective in education, how does the new form of organization lend itself to the realization of this objective? The platoon school is a departmentalized school. At the very outset we run athwart the claims of the chief proponents of the project method of instruction that : ( a) To carry on a project by the use of special teachers would be almost impossible ; (b) that project work cannot be broken up on a program basis with a certain time allotted to each phase ; (c) that even if a time arrangement were possible it would be impossible to unify the work among a number of teachers so that each would use that which the others had helped to develop and at the same time avoid waste; (d) that to carry on successfully project teaching we must return to the single teacher plan of organization; (e) that the work of the elementary school is not of sufficient difficulty to require specialists; (f) that it is by no means unreasonable to expect a teacher to be prepared for that breadth and in- tensity of work representing all of the larger activities of life which it is 900 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION reasonable to expect children to experience before they are thirteen years of age. This is a formidable array of assumptions. If true, they would indicate that the platoon school and the use of the project method are entirely incompatible. Let us examine these claims critically in the light of prac- tical experience. The platoon school accepts departmentalization in school organization as an established fact. Society more and more is depending upon specialists, and the social fabric is set upon this basis. As the school is or should be merely a reflection of social needs and ideals, whether expressed in terms of subject matter or of life activities, it is perfectly natural that a more com- plex society should make necessary a more complex curriculum and that the school should meet the situation as society has met it by the use of specialists. There is no present indication that society is going to face about in its evolution and become simple again. In this day when we seek to make school life a cross-section of social life there is likewise no indication that the school will meet its problems in a different way from that used in the great life outside of school. Therefore, the platoon school not only accepts departmentalization as the established order but makes it contribute to the realization of present-day objectives. The socialization of school work would seem to suggest that the method of carrying on projects in school should approximate as nearly as possible the manner in which projects are carried on outside of school. Certainly the realization of his spontaneous purposes in out of school life takes a child to a wide variety of places and brings him into contact with a large number of different specialists. He goes to these specialists because they have information or because they can give him aid or direction which he needs. In the same way in the realization of his projects in school, it is reasonable to send him to various people in the school who may have special knowledge and training which fit them to help him to help himself. In fact it would seem that a child who must receive all of its stimulation and guidance from one teacher would be laboring under a serious handicap. Purposing is closely related to the emotions. It is a direct outgrowth of the perception of values. A child who in the pursuit of his purpose comes into contact with a number of enthusiastic, stimulating personalities will realize more fully the purpose he has in mind, and will be awakened to a greater variety of new purposeful activities than will a child who must receive all of his inspiration from one teacher whose enthusiasms are of necessity limited. The problem of unifying the efforts of various teachers as related to one pupil or one group of pupils is not a difficult problem. The essential and unifying factor as far as the experience of the individual child or group of children is concerned is the purpose, the dominating inner urge. If aboy who would construct and fly a Japanese kite pursues his aim through the library, the applied art room, and the manual arts room, he can obtain just that information and direction which pertain to the purpose in hand. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 901 The platoon school lends itself to both group and individual projects. Classes move from one department to another as a unit, so that a class project may be carried out in any or all departments at any time. Projects may originate in any department and the responsibility for the final checking of the results devolves upon the teacher under whom the project originates As amatter of actual practice projects, both individual and group, are going on in various departments at all times. To such an extent is this true that there is growing up naturally and spontaneously the very type of unity of aim and purpose which the opponents of the platoon school declare to be impossible. In a socialized school group projects are the more important. In fact, all individual projects should arise from the purposing of the group and the results attained should be made available to the group as a whole. Indi- vidual projects are confined largely to those undertakings which cannot conveniently be carried on by a group. These projects include chiefly the development of individual skills or the acquisition of control over the processes involved in making things. A boy who purposes to improve his speed and accuracy in penmanship is undertaking an individual project. He makes use of the technique now available which enables him to improve his skill and measure the results of his efforts. The home room teacher gives most of the instruction in the three R's, and it is under her direc- tion that projects of this type originate and are carried out. If a boy wishes to make a kiddy-car for his little brother, he is undertaking a project in which the group cannot well participate and he must take advantage of the technique provided in the manual arts department to realize his purpose. The auditorium is being developed not only as a means of connecting school life with social life, but as an agency for the correlation and integra- tion of the child's whole school experience. Projects which are being worked out here are pretentious and may involve an entire grade or the entire school. To attempt to answer the question, "Why, from what place, and for what purpose immigrants come to America?" sets up a project which may well bring into coöperative activity every department of the school and the results finally may be presented in dramatic form in the auditorium by the entire school. In considering the reorganization of the elementary schools of a large city in harmony with advanced educational ideals, certain practical considera- tions must be kept in mind: (1) That of the entire body of teachers, the percentage who have a clear conception of the meaning of the project method and the ability to put it into practice in the schoolroom is small ; (2) that of those who do have a clear conception, the number who are working under conditions favorable to this kind of teaching is still smaller. (3) that a large percentage of the projects of which we hear do not repre- sent the spontaneous purposing of pupils but rather the purposing of teachers to which the pupils tacitly assent; (4) that a very great majority of teachers and principals still think of the curriculum in terms of subject matter to be learned rather than in terms of purposeful activities to be performed; (5 ) 902. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that the great majority of the public whose children attend the schools are still thinking of education in terms of the three R's; (6) that the public, however, in an increasing degree is coming to recognize auditoriums, libraries, and gymnasiums as desirable adjuncts to a school and to approve of the activities which go on in these departments ; (7) that the present attitude of the public mind is such that appropriating bodies do not look with favor on educational innovations which call for increased expendi- tures of money. In the light of these facts, what shall be the educational program of the administrator of a city school system who wishes to reorganize his schools in harmony with the principles of modern educational philosophy and at the same time is unwilling to increase expenditures or deviate so far from the recognized modes of procedure as to make his innovations unacceptable to the teachers or principals or to the public? Detroit's answer to this ques- tion is the platoon school. Through the instrumentality of this plan of organization a large city school system has been within a period of less than six years practically revolutionized. It is believed that the platoon school is the best solution of the problem which confronts the large city, ( 1) because it does not break radically with the past, all of the teachers and all of the physical assets of the old schools are utilized at increased value in the new ; (2) because through its modern facilities and through the nature of its organization it can realize the major objectives of education more effectively than the tradi- tional school; (3) because it holds abundant hope for the future. It is sufficiently flexible to be readily readjusted to meet changing ideals and methods . If the day arrives, as many of us hope that it may, when the old curricu- lum of subject-matter shall give place to a new one of guided life activities. the platoon school will readily adapt itself to the new demands. Surely the varied activities found in this school today will be even more essential when all pupils are seeking aid in the realization of projects. The library, the art, music, science, cooking, sewing and manual arts rooms, the gym- nasium and playrooms will all continue to be service stations where special- ized information and direction may be available to the purposeful child. In that day there will be a shifting of values. When the fundamental skills can be taught largely as individual projects and incidental to the perform- ance of life activities, the work of the home- room teacher may become somewhat less formalized, but she will continue to exercise the same func- tion which she is called upon to exercise today. (4) Finally, the platoon organization solves the problem of reorganiza- tion, not only because it is educationally sound, but because it provides for the children more hours of instruction, better facilities, and a better bal- anced curriculum at a reasonable cost. In an attempt at reorganization our realization must lag far behind our ideals. In these days when the results of scientific research are rapidly DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 903 breaking down traditions and developing new and more rational points of view, it is not to be expected that any form of organization will stand for a long period without readjustment. The platoon school is not the last word in education; it is only the next step, but it is a long step in the direc- tion of progress and worthwhile achievements. HOW SHALL WE SELECT THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY The curriculum question is not so simple as to some it seems. Before discussing the selection of subject-matter some prior questions must be raised. Subject-matter and curriculum are so intimately related to the educative process, as this is in turn related to life, that we must bring these relationships into the open before we can know how to select subject- matter or arrange a curriculum.¹ My thesis today is that we must not start with subject-matter foremost in mind; for subject-matter is primarily means, not primarily end. We must start contrariwise with life itself and its present expansion as our keynote. Present expansion at one and the same time provides best for learning, gives edge and keenness to present living, and promises best for later living. In this matter of education there are two radically opposed positions, now seldom or never found clear cut, or 100 per cent pure. The one (the older) says : Start with the detailed constituents of adult life. Have chil- dren learn these as separate things and hold them then in the storehouse of the mind until they can later be combined into life as occasion shall demand. When 100 per cent pure, this position means : Preparation for adult life only; that the elemental details are learned in relative isolation; that cold storage is necessary to keep them; and that at best we hope for their later combination into life. The other (my thesis) says : Start with life. Stay typically within life. The school is to be a sample of wholesome social life. Then what is learned is learned in a living situation and so has a better chance to be learned; being learned in life connections it connects better with other learning to make an all-round character, and has a better 1It should be noted here that the time allotted for this paper did not allow a consideration of all the factors involved. In pa ticular those relating to practicability are in the main ignored. Not that these are negligible. Far from it, many are most insistent. The practitioner in steering his course must take into account not only such considerations as those here urged, but all other pertinent factors, such as prejudices of pat ons, money costs, existing text-books, fitness of teachers. His decision must be the best course, all pertinent factors considered. But although all factors are thus cast together into the crucible of consideration from which must come the decision, there remains to the administrator this capital difference between the aims here set up and the difficulties that would hinder their realization. These aims, if admitted as sound, must constitute the administrator's aim and so form the end of his endeavors, while these difficulties must be accepted by him as difficulties to be reduced in power so that they may interfere as little as possible with the realization of life as here discussed. 904 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION chance of transfer to other life situations. The first position begins with lifeless details, and hopes they will later be combined into life. The second begins with life, stays in life, and seeks to miprove details within the life process. My emphasis, accordingly, is on the general topic of the morning, the major objectives. The selection of subject-matter should follow in the light of these. What are the major objectives ? Answers will differ ac- cording as people differ on life, and on the educative process. We differ mostly on the educative process, which with its relation to life becomes accordingly the principal consideration of this paper. What, accordingly, of life and its expansion ? Life is, properly and de- sirably, a process, a stream, continually (if not continuously) enlarged and enriched. Each present experience must grow out of the preceding and lead into the succeeding. With each succeeding step in time should come an advance in meanings, in richness of content, in control over the process. Thus the babe, the young child, the older child, the adolescent, the young adult, the older adult, should normally and properly illustrate these ad- vances. In this process learning inherently enters. Meanings and better control are learned, that is learning constitutes the steps forward and up- ward toward richer content and more effective control. Such steps for- ward and upward become then the aim of education and its reason for being. Let us analyze the life process more closely. Each experience should mean advance along three lines, or better in three aspects: first, in better outlook upon and insight into life and its possibilities. Let us call this the growing outlook and insight. From the working of this come the data for better decisions : Does one see better what to do ? Second, in the grow- ing disposition to act according to outlook and insight. This will mean many specific attitudes and appreciations. Let us call these the growing attitudes to fit the growing outlook and insight. From these come life's decisions : Will one decide according to insight ? Third, increase in instru- mental power to effect what is chosen according to the growing outlook and insight. This increase will be in both knowledge and skills. By a pardonable extension of meaning we call this the growing technique of con- trol. The life process is thus healthy and proper when there is continual (preferably continuous) and simultaneous growth along these three lines: Does one see what to do ? Will he do it ? Can he do it ? See, will, can- these three constitute the major lines of growth. Before passing, two remarks are pertinent. First, growth along these three lines constitutes life objectives. Second, this growth is essentially learning, and to be best learned all three must be learned simultaneously. All things considered, not even technique can be well learned in isolation. Let us now by contrast consider certain objections to the older ("ex- trinsic" ) notion of the educative process. The first weakness of this scheme is that assignment to be specific (so as to hold the learner account- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 905 able) assumes that the child learns only one thing at a time, and that this can be assigned. The first assumption is always false, the second often so. The child is always learning many things simultaneously, and not all of them can be assigned. Particularly is the child always learning such matters as attitudes toward the subject at hand, the teacher, the school, toward continuing in school, toward himself as worthy of respect in this line of work. He is always learning in some degree the acceptance (or rejection) of responsibility for his own present learning, for the success of the group enterprise, for order in the room. Now such attitudes are very important character traits, in the end and aggregate probably more im- portant than the subject-matter specifically studied. The practice of these accompanying traits, in good or bad form, is going on all the while, is in fact inevitable, cannot be ignored. But the assignment-penalty scheme does in intent ignore them, and so tends to have them learned in bad form. The factor of non-assignability is so important that we may wisely dwell on it. Taking all such simultaneous learning together, we find at least three groups, the non-assignable, the partly assignable, the easily assignable. The non-assignable group includes especially attitudes and appreciations, which constitute perhaps the finest aspects of human character. In dealing with these the assignment-under-penalty scheme absolutely breaks down and does positive damage. The partly assignable group includes especially certain formulated problems and matters of outward moral conformity. The formulated problems are assignable if mechanical enough, but the fact of formulation in itself means that much is already lost. The "natural setting" is gone and with it the chance for the best and most practical think- ing. Matters of outward moral conformity can be demanded but cannot be assigned for practice in advance of the situations actually demanding them. Even so, however, the spirit is not assignable, because it cannot be tested. So again assignment-under-penalty fails. It cannot deal with natural setting or with inner spirit. The real world of affairs is closed to it. The third group of the easily assignable includes skills, "facts," and formulated statements for memorizing . Here the assignment-under- penalty scheme fairly revels, but it gets these too often at the expense of the spirit, and the natural setting connections. No wonder that for a cen- tury the shift has been away from mere assignment and testing. The natural result of such a system is to reduce the curriculum content to what can be assigned and tested, with consequent loss of much of the finest in life and character. The children suffer in yet other ways. Always to study under assign- ment-and-penalty tends to reduce the learning of children to what will "get by," oftentimes to mere cramming, at times to pretending, and with some even to cheating. To live always on a basis of "getting by" is in- herently degrading so far as concerns morality, and is wasteful so far as concerns learning. We conclude thus against the old that in the degree that learning is ex 906 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION trinsic, imposed from above, assigned and tested under penalty, in like degree does the school give its effectual attention to mere skills, "facts," memorized statements, and mere outward moral conformity. In like de- gree it must lose and even destroy matters of the spirit and the natural setting connections. Again it is no wonder that the shift is now definitely away from the "extrinsic" toward the "intrinsic." What now shall we say of the intrinsic position? It looks inwardly at the learning process and outwardly at the life value of what is learned. In the matter of learning it asserts, first, that taking the whole situation into account, that is, considering all simultaneous learning effects, subject- matter is as a rule best learned as and because it is needed in some enterprise already and otherwise accepted and now under way. It asserts, second, that attendant learnings (attitudes, appreciations, and the like) are best built, if not only built, in connection with such enterprises. This second proposition, far-reaching as it is, from exigencies of space will have to be ac- cepted here without discussion. The first proposition is now best observed in out-of-school learning, say a child first learning to lace his shoes, or a man driving a new type car. In each instance study and learn are clearly in- herent and intrinsic in the life process. And the sign and test of learning is: Does the boy lace his shoes? Does the man drive the car? Again space forbids discussion.¹ We conclude that learning must, as a rule, be intrinsic if all learning effects are to be properly conserved. And what of the value of what is learned ? Consider again the stream of life and its enrichment. Does one see better what to do? Can one better do it ? Will one more likely do it? From this we get the test of value: What effect has the learning on the stream of life, to enrich it, and to increase control over it ? Or better, ( 1 ) What broader and better outlook and insight result? Does one now see better what to do ? (2) What increase of disposition to act according to what is seen? What attitudes and appreciations result ? Will one more likely choose properly? (3) What increase of instrumental power has resulted? Is one's technique better ? Can one better effect what he sees and wills ? From these consid- erations follow our resulting and inclusive thesis that the educative process is good and sound, first, in the degree that learning is intrinsic (vs. ex- trinsic) , that is, is demanded now by life and functions now to further present life; and, second, in the degree that what is learned serves to raise life continuously, here and now, to higher and richer levels. This second means increases along many lines-the ability to see what to do, the wish to do what is seen as proper, and the ability to do what is seen and willed- each improved, all better and better organized. How then shall we state the resulting objectives ? For life as a whole: That the general social life shall at all points bring to each and all together the highest feasible degree of continuous growing 1 I have discussed this and much else, of this paper in a series of articles in the Journal of Educational Method for November, 1922, and February and May, 1923 (2: 94-101,230-230 367-376) . DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 907 as already defined. The greatest of teachers said: "I came that ye might have life and have it more abundantly." Specifically for the school: That the school program shall consist exactly of such socially conditioned enterprises as shall prove in high degree ( 1 ) gripping, stirring to vigorous action ; (2) challenging to the present powers and limitations of outlook, insight, attitude, and technique, yet within reach of reasonable endeavor; (3) suitably varied, so as to bring all-round and continuous growing. Such objectives may perhaps seem to many too simple to meet the need. But granted the wise guidance of teachers who are in intelligent possession of the race experience, if such enterprises be prosecuted to their legitimate conclusions, we shall have, so far as I can now see, the most promising hope that the children will, according to their levels, use and exercise for each such enterprise the appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes, and stand- ards available in the race achievement, and so using them at this level grow best to use them in turn at the next higher level, where a like process may again be repeated. Simple? Yes, but reaching as far as the limits of child capacity and available race achievement. Objectives? Yes, for a teacher to seek gripping and challenging enterprises is to set up a precise objective, clear and definite and infinitely realizable. And what of the selection of subject-matter ? It is settled by the choice of the varied activities. Granted proper teacher guidance, the subject-matter thus inherently called for by these activities will, so far as I can now see, be for our elementary schools better chosen and better taught than on any other scheme hitherto proposed. In particular, the finer character aspects and the finer subject- matter reaches will not as now tend to be lost. Before closing, it seems wise to consider certain miscellaneous questions : Will the scheme work ? Can it be done ? It will work. Pre-school family education is on this basis now. Prac- tically all effective moral education is on this basis now. Most out -of-school learning (the most practical and essential sort) is on this basis now. All good kindergartens are run pretty largely on this basis. Our most success- ful seminary courses are run on this basis. Extra-curricula activities are largely on this basis. All school work for a century has been moving away from the extrinsic toward the intrinsic basis . But, you ask, will it work in the ordinary school ? Yes. Read Sander- son of Oundle. In the main this was his scheme. Read Collings, An Experiment with a Project Curriculum, and see how a country school, ten miles from the railroad, got the ordinary school subjects better than other schools about and even better than United States "norms," as these were measured by the best available standard tests . But better than school subjects, Sanderson and Collings both got attitudes and outlook in astonish- ing degree. Read and see. It has worked. It can work. Can all teachers be trusted to work it? Not now. But some can now , 908 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION more could with practice and encouragement. Some possibly never could. Following, however, such greater opportunities, a better type of teacher would surely be attracted into the profession. Are there then to be no minimum essentials ? I do not myself so hold, but I would severely restrict these in both amount and use. Among such we could easily agree upon the English language (for our country ) , read- ing, writing, and a little (very little) arithmetic. And it is no yielding of essential theory to accept these ; unless these be got, little and only one-sided growing is possible. But I should wish considerable latitude as to when they should be got. There are, of course, many other essential outcomes to be worked for all the time, truth-telling for example, but, as technically defined, I should not call such minimum essentials . What about a common body of knowledge and attitudes necessary for social integration ? In my judgment this would be better got than now. As matters now stand we assign knowledge and ignore attitudes, and so lose both in too great part. If we seek both in right relationship to each other, we can improve over what now obtains. Has this point of view no place for the expert ? It most assuredly has, but the expert must serve, directly or indirectly, as teacher of teachers, not as an autocrat. We cannot hand out detailed curricula from above. That effort is wrong. The effect is bad. The teacher will more than now need to know and understand content, values, and processes. More, not less, expert knowledge will be called for and utilized. What is our present duty as administrators ? Face all pertinent facts, even if they require inconvenient adjustments. Study the educative process and its relation to the enhancement of life. Stop the slavish worship of one-sided objectives. Break as fast as feasibly possible the thraldom of teacher and pupil to the fixed, detailed, autocratic course of study. En- courage those able and willing to break away at once. Base the curriculum on activities as fast as is feasibly possible. Guide rather than oppose the manifest trend of democratic development . THE RELATION OF SUPERVISION TO THE ATTAINMENT OF THE MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF ELEMENTARY EDUCA- TION FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA There is no final and conclusive agreement as to just what the objectives of elementary education are, neither is there a clear line of demarcation between the objectives of elementary education and those of secondary educa- tion. The education of a citizen is a continuous process lasting a lifetime. and, for the purpose of this discussion, it is unnecessary to go into any hair- splitting discussion of the differences between the objectives of elementary DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 909 and secondary education. But in order to have a practical conception of conceded objectives clearly before our attention as we think of the play of supervision upon the problem of the attainment of these objectives, I should like to quote four of the best and most generally recognized statements of what our system of education of our youth should attempt to attain: STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION CLARENCE D. KINGSLEY, CHAIRMAN 1. Health. 2. Command of the fundamental processes. 3. Worthy home membership . 4. Vocation. 4 5. Citizenship. 6. Worthy use of leisure. 7. Ethical character. DR. FRANKLIN BOBBITT'S STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES FOR HIS CURRICULUM MAKING EXPERIMENT IN THE LOS ANGELES HIGH SCHOOLS 1. Social intercommunication, mainly language . 2. The development and maintenance of one's physical powers. 3. Unspecialized practical labors . 4. The labors of one's calling. 5. The activities of the efficient citizen. 6. Activities involved in one's general social relationships and behavior. 7. Leisure occupations, recreation and amusements . 8. The development and maintenance of one's mental efficiency. 9. Religious activities. 10. Parental activities, the upbringing of children and the maintenance of home life. DR. ALEXANDER INGLIS' CLASSIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1. The preparation of the individual as a prospective citizen and co- óperating member of society-the social- civic aim. 2. The preparation of the individual as a prospective worker and pro- ducer-the economic-vocational aim. 3. The preparation of the individual for those activities which, while primarily involving individual action and the utilization of leisure time, are of great importance to society-the individualistic-avocational aim. 910 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION DR. F. G. BONSER'S STATEMENT OF THE AIMS OF EDUCATION 1. Health-maintaining life and keeping well. 2. Practical efficiency-using the tools and conventions of civilized life and the technique of a vocation . 3. Citizenship-coöperation in the regulative processes of social control and civic and social enterprises. 4. Recreation using leisure time for enjoyment and enrichment of the higher life. Any attempt to harmonize these statements of the objectives of education is entirely beside the purpose of this discussion. The common element in them, that of thorough preparation for complete, happy living and useful, contributive citizenship, is generally accepted by the American people and by the teaching profession. Another element has been added by the modern trend of American life. It is coming to be more and more the recognized objective of education, especially public school education, to make this thorough training for citizenship universal. It is therefore as much an objective of education to hold that all children through the period of youth, no matter what their social heritage, economic environment, racial char- acteristics and handicaps and mental equipment unless totally deficient, should receive this thorough and complete training for citizenship, as it is to hold that specified qualities must be present if the training of a single individual is complete. In our system of American life the school is unquestionably the major agent in the attainment of these objectives. Home life and other life con- tacts play a tremendous part, but the school is the directly controllable agent that attempts to level the defects in the work and results of all other educational agencies. The school does its work largely through the pro- cesses of class instruction, although the extra-curricular activities accom- plish much. Whatever affects classroom instruction in a large degree affects the attainment of these objectives. If we would guide or influence the work of the school in the attainment of its aims, in the main it must be done through the classroom teacher. ( Supervision is on the face of it the work done by certain officers of the school other than regular classroom teachers to influence, guide and improve instruction. In its earlier evolutionary stage, it was called and was inspec- tion-a checking of the performance of a hired employee against specific directions and requirements by a representative of the employing authority. In a modern and progressive school it has developed to be a totally different procedure far removed in its conception and purpose from the earlier idea of it. A teacher is no longer merely a hired employee doing the routine work of a drillmaster, but the State's official representative-a friend and leader of its youth. The supervisor is no longer a time and performance checker, but a friend and leader of teachers a teacher-helper. His prin- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 911 cipal work is to distribute and make universal the best things that are done by teachers anywhere, to bring to bear on the problems of the teacher the foremost philosophy of method and educational processes, to inspire teachers to fine living and professional growth, to encourage them to be interested in and to participate in the creative function of curriculum making. /Theoretically the function of supervision-teacher helping-is vested in the superintendent as the final responsible professional authority in the school system. The people and their legally chosen representatives hold the chief executive of the schools responsible for organization and results./ If the system of instruction is good, he, as the representative of the schools, should be the official recipient of the credit. If it is poor, he should be blamed and held responsible-all provided, of course, he is given time, funds and adequate authority with which to carry out his policies. /Representing the head office of the school system in each school or unit of organization is a principal. Like the superintendent, he is both an ad- ministrative and supervisory officer. He is administrator and executive-in- chief in his school, the direct representative of the superintendent and the responsible officer of the school not only for the organization and operation of the school, but for the instructional system and its results even in the most technical and specialized work His supremacy of authority in his school should be recognized by all of the officers of the school system, in- cluding the superintendent and the supervisors. To overstep this line of demarcation means to topple the pyramid of authority which is the frame- work of control for the entire system and wholly essential to good adminis- tration. The assumption of the authority of the principal in his school by another and supposedly higher officer is a sin against the fundamental prin- ciples of all school administration. It injures the work of the school and to the extent to which such authority is removed the responsibility for results is removed. The principal must have complete authority in his school and must be held responsible for the results of its work. / The work of the superintendent in guiding and influencing instruction can no longer be done in person in any large measure. The development of large and complex school systems in our cities and other units of political organization makes it physically impossible for a superintendent to do much personal supervision of instruction. In comparatively small school systems only is it possible for him to do this. The broadening of the curriculum and scope of activities make it technically impossible for the superintend- ent to give expert advice and guidance in all lines. The effective superin- tendent influences instruction by control and direction of general policies and through especially equipped and chosen officers of the schools selected for assistance in the technique of instruction. To these the superintendent delegates authority to do what he finds it physically and technically im- possible to do himself. These are the special supervisors-teacher-helpers- with full power of the superintendent to supervise and help in instruction . In no sense are they administrative officers except when specially delegated 912 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to perform a specific administrative task by the superintendent's office. The line of administrative and executive authority within the school system extends directly from superintendent to principal. The supervisor has no authority normally to command or to direct the principal. The supervisor is the special technical advisor of the principal just as he is of the superin- tendent. Within the school the supervisor's services are at the disposal of the principal. He becomes the expert and technical delegate to the teachers of the school. A wise principal makes full use of these helpers. They are his intimate consultants and friends. The wise supervisor offers his services to the principal of the school in which he works and becomes his counselor and advisor. Outstanding conflicts of authority between supervisor and principal all come from failure to recognize the necessity of the observance of this simple but fundamental relationship. When corrections should be made in administrative arrangements and policies of principals affecting the work of the special supervisor and which may be in violation of the policies of the schools, they must be made by administrative order of the superin- tendent and not of the supervisor. The work of supervision is carried on by this triumvirate-the superin- tendent, the principal, the supervisor. The superintendent possesses su- preme administrative and supervisory authority under the people or their representatives. The principal is the direct representative of the superin- tendent as chief administrative and chief supervisory officer in his school. The supervisor is the specialized expert of the superintendent in a given technical field of the school system or a segment of it and the same for the principal within his school. Each one has a specific contribution to make to the work of instruction : the superintendent by control of general policies and by efficient organization and general and comparative knowledge of the practices of other school systems and of educational progress: the principal by his personal contacts, natural leadership of his teachers and intimate knowledge of the best work and methods within his school and also by his zeal for a knowledge of general educational progress; the supervisor by his special preparation and equipment, by his comparative knowledge of the work of other teachers and schools within the system by specific study of the philosophy of his special subject. How does the work of this triumvirate-the supervisor, the principal, and the superintendent-function in the attainment of the objectives mentioned above ? Mainly in its influence upon three vital elements in the success of teachers-namely, method, curriculum content, and the viewpoint and professional growth of the teacher. Wherein does supervisionby affecting these elements in teaching success tend to accomplish these goals? These goals, let me repeat, are all characteristics or abilities of the individual . In their highest and best form in a single individual they constitute the ideal citizen. To develop them as highly in each and all individuals as their capacities will permit is the aim and end of education. It is the busi- ness of the public schools to make these qualities as universal as possible. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 913 The national job in education is to make as good citizens as possible out of twenty-five million American youth and thirteen million aliens . An army of three-quarters of a million teachers is working at this job. Half of these have no training whatsoever; of the other half only a compara- tively small fraction has expert training, and a large proportion of this has the viewpoint of academic knowledge only. To meet this tremendous situation nothing short of expert service can hope to be effective. In the best organized and equipped school systems where 90 per cent of the teach- ers are trained academically and professionally it is a highly specialized task to classify the children into groups or grades according to their mental levels and develop a method of teaching them which will best fit each such group. It is another highly specialized undertaking to handle the Americanization problem so that the work really Americanizes and develops good citizens. To do both of these in such a manner as to carry out the purposes of the school and yet obviate the ever ready public criticism re- quires not only expert supervision but little short of diplomatic genius. The goal of universal education of our youth and our foreign elements for good citizenship is wholly impossible of realization without expert super- vision. It is almost as important in the field we call the fundamental and aca- demic subjects. The ordinary activities of the school-the study period, the recitation class, the laboratory class, the shop, physical education class, the extra-curricular projects are the school's agents for attaining these goals . These activities continue, led, stimulated, and guided by teachers-teach- ers who carry heavy loads, handle many students, give out much of their vitality each day. To carry on these processes effectively, they have need to grow in service, need to develop the most skillful technique of method, need to live full rich lives themselves, need to have a vision of the ultimate processes of education in a democracy, the purpose of the public schools and their connection with it, need to develop the habit of participation and con- tribution to the substance and material of the process. More concretely they need: ( 1 ) Skillful technique of instruction ; ( 2) inspiration to pro- fessional growth; and (3) a creative participation in the curriculum de- velopment of the school system. To minister to these needs of teachers is the highest and most profes- sional aim of expert supervision. It is the antithesis of inspection. It is the work only of the sympathetic wisely understanding teacher-helper. / How may he do this? By being a teacher himself and understanding teachers. Where there is no understanding, no mutual confidence, there can be no supervision only hostile checking and inspection. He will in- stinctively use the natural approach. He will get acquainted. He will enter naturally into the work of the teacher and into each recitation or study situation. He will never show authority, never criticize destructively, never humiliate. He will always accept the view of the teacher as being ashonest and sincere as his own and will give it always full credit. He will 914 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION establish his authority by means of the teacher's confidence in him and desire for his help. He will be perfectly frank if criticism is necessary. He will take both principal and teacher into his confidence in a get-together conference. He will seek to inspire his teachers with his vision of what the schools are for, what teaching is and what the teacher should be. He will naturally have definite plans for supervision, such as the use of the demonstration lesson, observation projects, and exhibit libraries. He will have many personal conferences and a few meetings. He will sometimes teach, many times observe. He will sometimes talk, more often listen, and he will always hear the teacher's whole story. He will praise sincerely; he will recognize merit; he will give teachers much credit, taking little or none himself. He will always give especial attention to the weak teacher and to the beginner. He will encourage teachers to contribute to the course of study and to work on course of study committees. He will realize that a sense of participation in the larger policies of the school system coming through contributions to the curriculum will be a stimulating and ex- hilarating influence in the teacher's mental growth. Self-realization is living. Teachers have not had enough of it. They should know it is their part to help in formulating the vital and fundamental activities that are the working materials for the attainment of the objectives of education. Therefore, he will always stimulate and use the creative impulse of his teaching corps and make it bear rich fruit in the formulating of the cur- riculum of the school system. In this role the supervisor is at his best and makes his greatest contribution toward the attainment of the ends of education. By what sign may the supervisor-teacher-helper-know that he is realizing his purposes in supervision ? If I were a supervisor I should ask myself these questions periodically: Do I have a happy professional-minded growing body of teachers ? Do I have a satisfied coöperative clientele of principals who look to me as their indispensable advisor and helper in the work of their schools ? Does the head administrative office regard me and my work as indispensable? Is the public coming to give a larger p'ace to the recognition of my work within the school system ? If I could have as a supervisor full consciousness of a satisfactory answer to each of these questions, I should feel that I were doing my bit toward the attainment of the major objectives of education. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 915 SPECIAL TOPIC GROUPS CHARACTER EDUCATION JEREMIAH E. BURKE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , BOSTON MASSACHUSETTS, CHAIRMAN TRAINING IN CHARACTER AND FOR CITIZENSHIP THE SCHOOL A Training GroUND-The great teachers have differed little in their interpretation of the objectives of education. Invariably and authoritatively they have insisted that the training of the child should be symmetrical. They have never advocated an intellectual aristocracy . They realized that intellectuality in itself is insufficient; that it must be- come crowned and dominated by spiritual forces. Unquestionably they exalted intellectual training; likewise the education of the emotions, im- pulses, desires, and instincts; but paramount to all these, in a position of supreme importance, they placed the spiritual growth and development of the child. In all discussion of character and citizenship development in our schools , tribute should be paid to the army of noble and devoted teachers who dur- ing all these years consciously or unconsciously have been leading their pupils upward to a vision of the higher life. Their labors have not gone un- rewarded. An intelligent American democracy acknowledges its indebted- ness and rises up to call them blessed. The school has ever taught respon- sibility and accountability. Every master's office is a juvenile court wherein is dispensed justice with mercy, and where respect for law and obedience to authority are inculcated and exemplified. From every classroom radiates the illuminating personality of the teacher. She rebukes charitably, re- wards meritoriously, advises justly, rules wisely. And in every ideal class- room there is present what Froebel saw so clearly in his dream, a third entity above and superior to teacher and pupils the eternally right and the eternally just-in the presence of which teachers and pupils alike rever- ently bow.-Jeremiah E. Burke, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Massa- chusetts. THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL-The senior high school course in citizen- ship aims to bring out clearly the nature of the social inheritance and its great significance in human progress, both social and individual. It leads the pupil to appreciate his dependence upon humanity as a whole and there- fore to sense his obligation to humanity. This conception of the solidarity of the human race, of its achievements and future possibilities, may become to youth a most inspiring ideal, a great impelling force to social service. It lifts youth above the narrow individualism of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; it gives him vision beyond any selfish or partisan interest; it provides a point of view from which he may grasp the laws of social progress and identify himself with the great life of humanity. 916 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thus social duties become moral opportunities; social service, a coveted privilege ; wealth, knowledge, vocational efficiency, physical and intel- lectual power, all becomes means of returning to humanity something of permanent value in discharge of the debt each individual owes to his fel- lows. This conception of justice and moral obligation is the foundation of the course in citizenship and the guiding principle in the solution of social problems. Milton Bennion, Dean, School of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. THE OBLIGATIONS OF CITIZENSHIP- There is an even more dangerous and insidious revolt than the one against knowledge. It is the disregard for law. Before the war we knew that new moral standards were re- quired. Since the war the need of new moral standards has become more imperative. When men elected or appointed to high office betray a public trust in the interest of personal gain we have an illustration of a lack of moral responsibility. When innocent men are made sacrificial offerings on the altar of bitter political partisanship, we have an illustration of a lack of moral responsibility. When men sell the necessities of life so that the public becomes the victim of profiteering, we have an illustration of a lack of moral responsibility. When individuals or groups encourage the viola- tion of law, we have an illustration of the lack of moral responsibility. No country can long exist half law-abiding and half law-disregarding. The people are being destroyed because of a lack of knowledge as truly as in Haman's time. New gateways to sin have been opened up. Fresh social parasites have been let in upon us. The battle cries of conscience of yes- terday do not thrill the youth of the present generation. A new class of social Puritans must be reared and trained to deal with the problems of the present generation. Citizenship now, as never before, calls for intellectu- ality touched with emotion, for a sympathetic understanding colored with idealism, for a rational consideration of the problems of democracy actuated and motivated by a keen sense of moral obligation. Truly, these are peril- ous times. The foundations of civilization are as yet insecure and citizen- ship in a true sense is still something to be attained.-Lotus D. Coffman, President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, THE VALUE OF EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES-The all-embracing characteristic that makes our individual adult citizens assets to our Nation is the spirit of service. This, when practically expressed in his activity for the public welfare, means that the citizen, without thought of personal reward, seizes upon and even creates opportunities to make his city, his State, and his Nation better because he has lived in it. The private interest of such a citizen is subordinated to his desire to render truly patriotic serv- ice. The spirit of service must be made conscious to our pupils if their extra-curricular activities are to be used as agencies for exalting public service above private profit. This is best done when every individual achievement is weighed and honored according to its effect upon the student DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 917 body and the purposes and good name of the school. In one high school which emphasizes the character building value of extra-curricular activities this ideal of service is kept prominently before the student body. At the beginning of each term the new pupils coming from forty-five different elementary schools are gathered in the auditorium of this school. The purposes of the school are briefly and simply outlined to them. They are acquainted with the opportunities for student activities afforded by the school, and each is urged to consider the particular talent, scholastic, athletic, or social, that he possesses. He is reminded that through that talent he can perpetuate and extend the traditions of the school as a democratic com- munity in which the motto is each for all and all for each. He is im- pressed with the fact that when he graduates four years later he will be asked in what way the school has become better because of his presence.- Francis H. J. Paul, Principal, De Witt Clinton High School, New York City. THE RIGHT SPIRIT-Character and good citizenship are in a large meas- ure theby-products of the school, but they are the by-products of everything done in the school. The fact that two and two always make four builds character as a by-product. It gives the child something that is always dependable. Two and two make four wherever the child finds this prob- lem, whether it be in the city or in the country, the child has found in the school something fixed, something dependable. The juggling of figures to get the answer-as too much of our problem solving is-is immoral and leads toward bad citizenship. It is training children to get by with it, and this leads toward the life of a crook. Working for just the answer leads to the philosophy "If I can put it over, it is right"-a false philosophy of life. Let the child be so taught that he sees the great underlying principles ofhis problems, then their solution becomes easy, and the answer takes care of itself. We have overlooked the fact that the answer is the last thing in the solution. All the teaching belongs back in the problem, and the answer is only the result of the processes that have taken place prior. Let the answer be used only as the proof of the solution. -Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, North Carolina. PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION DAVID B. CORSON , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , NEWARK NEW JERSEY, CHAIRMAN HEALTH EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS-The complexity of modern life and the scientific data about correct living requires training in the art of living if life is to be preserved. The significant fact about a healthy life is that it depends upon what the individual does, how he lives, and this roots back into one's training and mental equipment. A person is 918 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION endowed with a variety of inherited tendencies that are unsuited to the complex life of the present day ; he has acquired a variety of habits of living that do not conform to healthful living, and he is ignorant of the ways of correct living, as the science of health in recent years has discovered. The only way to redirect inherited tendencies, establish correct habits, and eradicate ignorance is through education. The accomplishment of these tasks and the prolongation of life depend upon education, and this is the function of the school. If the school fully awakes to modern needs, if the school uses its full opportunity, it can make itself respected and felt as a power in the conservation of human life and the promotion of human wel- fare.-E. George Payne, Professor of Education, New York University, New York City. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL UNFITNESS IN CHILDREN-Investigations in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in Dartmouth College reveal that the families which furnish students for higher institutions of learning are not less in need of care and of higher standards than are others. Qne of the most striking outcomes of investigation concerning the causes of this condition is the fact that it is not poverty and lack of food that have brought this state about. Often there is more underweight among the so-called better classes of society than is found in poorer homes. The great majority of cases of malnutrition are due to one or more of the fol- lowing causes, arranged in the order of their importance: Physical de- fects, especially obstructions to breathing; lack of home control-the various conditions which are coming to be considered under mental hygiene; over- fatigue; improper food habits and food; improper health habits. An ade- quate physical growth examination, accompanied by a social and amental ex- amination, will reveal the causes and point out the means by which these causes can be removed and the child or young person be brought to a normal state of physical fitness. To accomplish this calls for a coördination of four available forces, no one of which can accomplish the task. These are the forces of the home, the school, medical care, and the child's own interest. William R. P. Emerson, Professor of Pediatrics, Tufts College Boston, Massachusetts. VISUAL INSTRUCTION IN EDUCATION H. B. WILSON , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CHAIRMAN THE VALUE OF VISUAL AIDS IN EDUCATION - The effectiveness of mo- tion pictures has undoubtedly been overestimated in comparison with slides, stereographs, pictures, and demonstrations. Motion pictures have a distinctive part to play. This is the representation of motion in those case- in which it is necessary for the pupil to understand the motion and in DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 919 which he cannot well understand it through his imagination or from his previous experience. Motion pictures which contain materials similar to those shown in slides, stereoscopes, and so on, are no more effective than are these other forms of presentation, and motion pictures which invade the realm of instruction by means of language are inferior to oral lecture by the teacher. The personal influence of the teacher is a factor in presenta- tion by means of language which cannot be overlooked without sacrifice. An over-emphasis upon motion pictures or upon other forms of visual presentation runs some danger of overlooking the large part which activity, either intellectual or bodily activity, has to play in the education of the child. We have attempted in recent years to reduce mere passive receptivity as a condition of learning. We must be careful that we do not emphasize this type of learning as a consequence of the introduction of visual education.- Frank N. Freeman, Professor of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. VISUAL AIDS-Have visual aids sufficient educative value to deserve be- ing made a part of our established teaching technique ? This problem was investigated experimentally in Public School 62 ( Manhattan) of New York City in the winter of 1921. An experiment was conducted in which approximately six hundred seventh-grade children participated and in which these four methods of instruction were compared in effectiveness : ( 1 ) Being instructed orally by the regular classroom teacher; (2) studying the same lesson from the printed page; (3) learning the lesson as it was projected upon the motion-picture screen ; and (4) viewing the screen while the ex- perimenter made oral comments to direct attention and guide observation. The experiment was conducted in accordance with the requirements of the best in modern experimental technique, and it was repeated to the point of statistical reliability. That is, the pupils were divided into four groups, equal in grade progress and mental maturity. The subject matter of the lesson was common to all four methods of instruction, and four successive lessons were used in rotation. A special test was devised which measured both verbal and pictorial impressions with equal fairness, and all results were converted from raw scores into units of the standard deviation from the average of the entire experimental group. The results were as follows: Being instructed orally, 48.62 points ; study- ing the printed page, 49.22; viewing the screen, 50.34 ; and viewing the screen under oral guidance, 52.55.-Joseph J. Weber, Head of Department of Secondary Education, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas . VISUAL INSTRUCTION IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM-As to cost, I am im- pressed by the fact that we have never taken visual education serious'y ; that we have puttered along with it; that it has been supplied out of ladies' aid safety funds and what not. If we are convinced sufficiently of its value, why not consider an appropriation for visual instruction in the same way that we would consider an appropriation for teachers' salaries or for 920 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the maintenance of buildings ? Let us suppose that, whenever a building is constructed, along with the items of landscaping and interior decoration, there should be written in five thousand dollars for visual equipment. We have in Cleveland covering the materials, the operating and distributing equipment, an investment of about $12,300. Our operating service per month is $642. The total number of lessons provided for November was 1263. The Cleveland Art Museum is serving classes from various parts of the city daily. We provide two teachers for the art museum and one in the natural history museum, and we are planning to supply a teacher for the historical museum . These are the central points to which classes are being constantly sent. I have no doubt there is a hundred thousand dollars' investment as a minimum in material for visual instruction in our schools. I would not be at all surprised if the records showed three times that amount for material, including maps, globes, charts, pictures, stereo- scopes, slides , motion pictures, and models.-R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. VISUAL INSTRUCTION IN A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM-The first compre- hensive plan in New York State for creating and circulating a collection of lantern slides and photographic prints primarily for the use of classroom teachers was formed in 1911 after a fire in the State Capitol had totally destroyed the accumulations of previous years. The present annual appro- priation for additions that is, for negatives and for the making of slides and prints is $15,000. The expenditure for salaries of fourteen employees. printing, postage, transportation, etc., ' aggregates something like $25,000 more. About 15,000 negatives have been acquired and 250,000 slides be- sides a large number of mounted prints are available for circulation. On these there is practically no depreciation. They do not wear out; few be- come obsolete. Institutions and organizations that use them replace what loss there may be incident to use. Aplan of organization has been estab- lished, the rules of service are known, the collection grows year by year.- A. W. Abrams, Director of Visual Instruction, State Department of Edu- cation, Albany, N. Y. VALUE OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION-As to the value of visual instruction. we have no hesitancy in saying that it has never been fully appreciated. We admit that, for years untold, certain phases of it have been practiced to lay the foundation for communication through language in some form, but we have never worked, to the limit of its possibility, the field of visual in- struction. To throw light upon all subjects required in the curriculum-in other words, to illustrate is a prime notion underlying visual instruction. More and more are publishers seeing the advantage of profusely illustrating their textbooks. Illustrated works are in greater and greater demand, because it has been found that ideas can thus be given more quickly and more efficiently than in any other way. Illustrated periodicals are the most popular. The same is true of advertising in the business world. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 921 No one has made an adequate, scientific survey of the intrinsic value of visual methods. Some beginnings have been made, but they have been meager. On the other hand, no sane instructor denies the pronounced im- provement in results where intelligent use is made of visual materials in the teaching process.-Dudley Grant Hays, Director Visual Instruction, Chicago, Illinois. MATERIAL FOR VISUAL INSTRUCTION-Of all visual material, the mo- tion picture holds first place without a challenge. It shows life in action from the unfolding of a tiny flower to the mass action of the battalion ; the graceful flight of the bird and the ponderous lift of the mighty crane. At the present time, the catalogue of instructional films is ameager one. The scenario maker has ever in mind a situation that will catch the public fancy; the educator requires a scene true to facts. The scenario writer plays upon the emotions. The educator tries to influence the judgment, to develop discriminating thought and fine appreciation of the best in life. To make a picture function educationally, more must be done than merely to throw it on the screen. The teacher must first have prepared the pupils for the seeing process, must have pointed out what to look for and how to find it. The imagination of the teacher must interpret this material for the child. She must first see the significance of speeding spindles in the cotton fields, or of life on the plains where the sheep are herded, and out yonder in the marts of the world. She must vision the seagoing ships loosened from their moorings to carry cargoes that mean life, happiness, and health to the nations; must see in the pictures of the art gallery an expression of beauty transfigured by the dream of the artist, and in the tiny egg must see that marvel of life that thus far has tran- scended all efforts of man to understand. After all, even visual instruc- tion falls short of results without teacher prescience and power.-Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, California. VISUAL AIDS-The unavailability of these principal visual aids, the slide and the film, constitutes the chief impediment to progress in visual in- struction. Many States and municipalities have the foundation for fine slide collections, but they suffer for lack of funds. For both films and slides reliance must still be placed largely upon commercial sources, and the difficulty there lies in divorcing the commercial producer from the sales- man's attitude of having "the perfect product," and bringing him to ap- preciate and meet the teacher's needs. One urgent demand for improvement is the removal of hampering legal restrictions upon the use of non-inflammable motion picture film. But we are making progress in that direction. The day is coming, and we shall hasten it, when a teacher anywhere in the United States may show edu- cational films in a simple projector that a child could operate, without the necessity of a booth, a licensed operator, and compliance with a half dozen other restrictive regulations. -Ernest L. Crandall, Director of Lectures and Visual Instruction, New York City. 922 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION VOCATIONAL AND PART- TIME EDUCATION WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH PENNSYLVANIA, CHAIRMAN THE SUPERINTENDENT'S RESPONSIBILITY IN DETERMINING AND CO- ORDINATING THE MAJOR POLICIES OF VOCATIONAL AND PART-TIME EDU- CATION-The official prerequisites for sound policy development in the matter of vocational education include: Recognition of the necessary, dis- tinctive and legitimate functions of vocational education and the aggres- sive assumption officially of the responsibility for its promotion, develop- ment, and organization as an integral part of the public educational sys- tem; provision of suitable and adequate facilities to enable vocational edu- cation properly to render its distinctive type of service ; maintenance of the integrity of vocational education by encouraging and assisting it to evolve its own policies out of its own experience and by safeguarding it from dis- tortion by policies borrowed from other educational fields; official appre- ciation of the fact that the fundamental requirements for the healthy growth of vocational education policies are not cold indifference but sym- pathetic attention; not careless neglect but patient cultivation; not pruning and restriction but stimulation and room for expansion; not hasty judg- ment but generous opportunity to produce results; not narrow condemna- tion but broad understanding; not fear of their encroachments but welcome to their services. In other words, positive policy building should be the chief official concern rather than negative policy determination.-E. С. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Buffalo, New York. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AS AN ESSENTIAL ADJUNCT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION-The vocational guidance movement has been retarded by numerous misconceptions regarding its purposes and achievements, which misconceptions it is desirable to replace with general agreement as to its place in the public-school system. When reconstructed so as to constitute a valuable adjunct of vocational education, vocational guidance will be- come an essential in public education. Whether or not so-called vocational education is actually "vocational" must be determined by a study of its results rather than by a statement of its proposed objectives. Vocational education is "vocational" only when it is taken by an individual who will make specific vocational use of the information or training secured. It is an adult proposition, the founda- tions of which can and should be laid by the public schools. It does not supplant general education, but supplements it. The most effective school work that can be done in this field consists in developing vocational inter- ests and vocational intelligence, through courses with a vocational content, to the end that the young person may become a permanent and interested student of the occupation into which he goes. Frank M. Leavitt, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 923 IMMIGRANT EDUCATION A. B. MEREDITH, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT CHAIRMAN IMMIGRANT EDUCATION GROUP-The meeting was introduced by Dr. Meredith as chairman. The Place of Immigrant Education in a Demo- cratic School System was taken by Superintendent William McAndrew, of Chicago, recently elected president of the Department of Superintendence, who said in part : "What is public education for? For the benefit of the Nation. The edu- cation of the adult and the child is equally important. When will school officials realize this and install adjustable equipment in school buildings for * * such instruction ? Third-floor instruction must cease. * The people who are gaining the control of this country of ours should be given * * * the best education. The majority of those voting at our eastern * * * elections are the first and second generation foreign-born. Which should be easier of access, citizenship or college ? Which is the easiest to obtain ?" Superintendent Kelley, of Binghamton, New York, described the work already done in that progressive city. Following a brief discussion on na- tional immigration policies, he said in part: "It is an all-year-round job with * * * advertising in all forms and the coöperation of all people. The teachers are recruited if possible from the married teachers untired by day school work. We are highly organized with a supervisor, recruiting of- ficer, course of study, socialization, and many contacts between native and *** foreign-born. We have special arrangements for immigrant women. * * * Their neglect in most cities is a tragedy. Signed certificates of proficiency are present and accepted by the court judges in place of a natu- ralization examination." Dr. George E. Smith, supervisor of extension work in Buffalo, said in connection with the work in that city: "The important thing is to get the * * * immigrant into school for which personal contact is essential. Fifty home teachers canvass their foreign-born friends before the fall * * * opening, and all employers and churches coöperate. Only the best teachers should be used, having the proper sympathy, training, offering practical instruction, and with the definite objective of giving interest, desire, and will. Our schools are organized not as immigrant schools but * * * schools for the people. The immigrant can express himself ⚫through pageantry." Professor John J. Mahoney, of Boston, speaking on the future of im- migrant education in the United States, said: "I can only guess as to the * future. * * The hindrances are in (a) Ill-advised and unscientific immigration bills; (b) the possible control of immigrant education by the Bureau of Naturalization, U. S. Department of Labor ; and (c) political influences for retrenchment. We should agree to work for (1) Adequate 924 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State plans in every State having this problem; (2) skilled community leadership ( a job for the colleges ) ; ( 3 ) better instruction and more of it; (4) better teaching everywhere of the spirit of citizenship; and (5) Federal leadership. Reporting for the Committee on Federal Legislation and Leadership, its chairman, Superintendent Harvey S. Gruver, of Lynn, Massachusetts, presented the following resolutions, herewith outlined, after reviewing the pending Congressional bills : " Resolved 1. Immigrant Education is a public educational function at public expense. 2. It affects the welfare of all the people and the cost should be divided between the community, the State, and the U. S. Government . 3. Federal leadership should be provided by the U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation only or as it may later be extended. 4. Under any such U. S. Bureau, State and local educational authority must be safeguarded. 5. Standard minimum requirements should be sought in citizenship courses by all public school systems, and certificates of the completion of such courses should be accepted as educational qualifications for U. S. citizenship. 6. We are opposed to compulsory naturalization. Proper encourage- ment should be given to aliens that they may seek to be citizens. 7. We oppose the compulsory registration of aliens." The above reso- lutions were adopted. Mrs. Nina J. Beglinger, of Detroit, reporting for Superintendent Cody of that city, chairman of the Committee on State Legislation and Leader- ship, said after reviewing present State laws and plans: "State legislation is of three types at present : ( a ) The 50-50 plan of dividing the expense equally between the town and State; (b) that supported by local tax; and (c) the self-supporting type. "Ohio is the only State attempting the last plan with indifferent success. In all cases the quality of instruction offered determines the success . The first plan standardizes, stabilizes, and offers consistently good instruction. The second plan of local support creates a wide diversity in the quality of work without any central guidance. "The third plan depends too much upon the prosperity of foreign-born people. It may not exist, and there are other difficulties. The committee favored all present legislation that developed specialized instruction and eliminated illiteracy. The public must be aroused to remove adult illiter- acy. " The above report was accepted. Robert C. Deming, Secretary, De- partment of Immigrant Education, Hartford, Connecticut. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 925 THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY FRANK CODY , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , DETROIT MICHIGAN, CHAIRMAN PARENT, TEACHER, AND SCHOOL-Among the important historic forces which have tended to bring parent and teacher closer together in the edu- cation of the child are: the change three generations ago from private to public schools ; the ever-increasing freedom of women ; the transfer of industrial training from the home to the school; the spread of social science; the ever-changing aspects of education brought about by a change from teaching the book to teaching the child; the growth of scientific adminis- tration; and the World War. These seven historic forces have crystallized in the following: the neighborhood gatherings in our schoolhouses, which began two generations ago; the school exhibit; the social center; the parent- teacher association; and the various forms of school publicity, including especially the modern school survey; the recent school bulletin; and pub- licity received by the school through the modern luncheon club. As a direct result of these historic movements and their tangible outcomes, we have an American public that is slowly turning to and relying upon the school as its greatest hope of the future and its most immediate means for composing the present social and industrial unrest. Through the close coöperation of parent and teacher, the Nation has brought up its masses to accomplish big things in public thought, public will, and public hap- piness.-M. E. Moore, Superintendent of Schools, Beaumont, Texas . CITY SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITY SERVICE-The fact that children are required by law to attend schools does not mean that people will accord to the schools that just measure of support which is desired, unless they are intelligently informed of the work of the schools. In the main the newspapers, except for cases of factional strife, give- to the schools a very generous measure of publicity. It is unfortunate that seme papers, through misinformation, occasionally attack the school au- thorities and criticize policies concerning which they have meager and in- correct information. School publications play a most important part in informing the public concerning the work of the schools. When possible it has been found very advisable to send these publications to the homes. If this is not possible a bulletin issued to the teachers has the result of making them intelligently informed concerning the work of the schools. Where funds will permit, publications describing the work of special departments are particularly valuable.-Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio . A RURAL SCHOOL COMMUNITY PROGRAM-Wisconsin is carrying out a rural community program that plans to reach, in one way or another, every 926 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION home. The following major agencies are being employed to further this program : 1. Each county has one or more rural supervising teachers who are paid by a State fund raised by direct taxation. If more than 125 teachers are under the county superintendent's charge, he is entitled to two supervisors. Beside acting as classroom supervisors, they explain such subjects as con- solidation, the junior high school, and stir up local desire to have an ef- ficient school . 2. The School Board Convention has been employed for more than ten years. Once each year the State pays the school board officers $+ per day to come to a central place and participate in a varied program for educa- tional progress. The rural schools are usually closed. 3. In every rural school, agriculture is taught in grades VII and VIII and domestic science and manual training are given State aid in the two- room schools and high schools. Closely connected with these courses are the Boys' and Girls' Clubs supervised by the College of Agriculture. 4. Many counties employ a county agent who acts as organizer for these clubs besides coöperating with all who teach agriculture. The county agent assists the county superintendent and the supervising teacher in pro- moting agricultural experiments which unite school and home. 5. The Extension Division of the University of Wisconsin gives help in debates and discussions, and through its home-study courses in a great variety of subjects that are also taught regularly in the several colleges. Another extensive service is rendered through the Recreational Institutes held by the Departments of Physical Education and Music of the Univer- sity in coöperation with the various county superintendents throughout the State. 6. The Home Demonstration Department of the College of Agriculture maintains a Teachers' Camp at the State Fair for the women supervising teachers who at this time are given a course of lectures in animal husbandry and farm machinery by specialists . 7. The College of Agriculture furnishes quantities of bulletins and pamphlets for the agricultural work in the schools and sends speakers into rural communities whenever possible. 8. The Free Traveling Library Commission of Wisconsin furnishes libraries to rural communities for one year at a time and sends free of charge one or more books or pamphlets to any resident of the State on any subject which can be found in the University Library, the Legislative Ref- erence Library, or its own extensive collection. 9. A recent law requires thirty minutes of physical education, including instruction in physiology and hygiene, but exclusive of recesses in every school in the State. The county nurse coöperates in formulating all school health programs. The Health Crusade is a part of many county health movements and the State Board of Health maintains the Child Welfare Traveling Clinic. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 927 10. Wisconsin is unique in maintaining a system of rural county nor- mals for the training of teachers for the one and two-room schools. At present those attending these schools are for the most part high-school graduates. 11. One man in the State department gives his entire time to consolida- tion, but the progress has been slow in spite of excellent work done by the University, by the extensive parent-teachers' organization, and other allied agencies. 12. In common with the rest of the States, Wisconsin has startling in- equalities . One district in Wisconsin pays $.78 on each $1000 for educa- tion. Another district in the State pays $12.80 on each $ 1000 for school purposes. Mabell G. Bush, State Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Mad- ison, Wisconsin. CITY, COUNTY, AND STATE GROUPS SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF POPULATION BELOW 5000 JOHN D. WHITTIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SOUTH HAMILTON MASSACHUSETTS, CHAIRMAN Differences of the Curriculum of Rural Elementary Schools for Grades One to Six and with Those for Similar Grades in City Schools-The purpose of elementary education is to provide the fullest socialized growth in the child and through this growth to integrate society. The curriculum consists of the materials of instruction, how to teach them, and how to organize the classroom so as to secure the best results. The differences between the curriculum for the first six grades of the rural school and similar grades of the city school are those that arise from the environment, local experiences, the educational resources of the community, and certain limitations of rural teachers and school organization. These differences are (a) The approach to new materials of the instruction. (b) The edu- cational resources of the community must be organized and utilized for instruction. ( c) The curriculum for the rural school must treat the ma- terials of instruction and the methods of teaching in greater detail than is found in the curriculum for the city school. (d) The curriculum for the rural school again must vary in its directions for effective classroom or- ganization. The daily program, taking care of individual differences, utiliz- ing the time of pupils at their seats, alternation of subjects, combination of classes, and the like-all require different procedure from that found in the city school. The rural curriculum should vary, therefore, in approach, in utilizing local educational resources. There are some who would build the rural curriculum around agriculture, vocational efficiency, the production of food, keeping the child in the country, ideal rural citizenship, and the like. 928 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It is true that food must be produced, that many will continue to live in the country, that vocational efficiency is necessary, that country life is attractive-but all or singly these are narrow restricted aims for elementary education and cannot prevail in a democracy. John M. Foote, State Rural School Supervisor, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Discussion-In the first six years of the public school course, we have a two-fold endeavor-first, to develop in the child those habits, attitudes, appreciations, and ideals that are fundamental to good citizenship, and second, to equip him with fundamental knowledge that will enable him to proceed readily and naturally toward the objectives of secondary educa- tion. It is a misguided policy to attempt to intrude into the elementary school curriculum any instruction of a specifically vocational nature, such as agriculture. Such instruction is foreign to the purpose of elementary education and it places an added burden upon the rural school, already in too many cases seriously burdened by untrained and inexperienced teachers and poor equipment. The elementary school, whether in city or country, should be true to its primary purpose; and the rural elementary school to its primary purpose, not by attempting to teach agriculture, but by giving to rural children a more complete mastery of the fundamentals of education.-Burr F. Jones, State Supervisor of Elementary Education, Boston, Massachusetts . Training of Teachers-If there is any teacher who needs special train- ing, whose daily task requires a broad scholarship, it is the teacher of the many graded one-room school and of the two or three graded small village school. The list of subjects to be taught and duties to be performed by such a teacher are reading, arithmetic, writing, language, grammar, geography, history, civics, nature study, physiology and hygiene, physical training, elementary agriculture, manual training, domestic science, draw- ing, music-and, in addition, the teacher must be a leader in the com- munity, an active member of the Grange or other local society, a teacher in the Sunday School, and a cheerful attendant upon teachers' meetings, in- stitutes, etc. At first glance it would seem as if the minimum institutional training to meet such requirements would include surely a full four years ' course in a normal school and a post-graduate course in a school of social service. Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Education, Augusta, Maine. Teacher Training-Among the many duties of the superintendent, no work is of more importance than the training of teachers in active service. The salaries paid are not large enough to attract and retain normal gradu- ates of experience. The results of a questionnaire sent to sixteen teachers, representing as many systems, asked for criticism of supervision as ex- perienced by them: Fault is found with work but no definite directions for improvement; no constructive criticism given; teachers are compelled to attend teachers' meetings where often no definite help is obtained; teachers DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 929 are not allowed to put into practice any new methods or show any initiative or individuality; the course of study is not satisfactory ; nothing is done to promote professional growth; no means of getting in touch with new lit- erature on education. -Florence M. Wellman, Superintendent of Schools, Brattleboro, Vermont. Definite Program Needed-The profession has passed through a series of experiments in training teachers in service. We have tried to transfer method from books into practice with little success. We have employed experts to tell teachers what not to do, with direful results. We have coerced teachers by the use of would-be standard tests to do something some- how. Finally, in despair we have reversed the old adage and said, "Do as I do, not as I say." The demonstration lesson is probably the most effective method of train- ing teachers in service. She who sees a fellow teacher do the work she is engaged in, in a better and more effective way gets inspiration therefrom, learns a better method, sees her faults in the light of her compeers' successes , perchance sees her success in light of another's faults, gathers subtle devices, and does the following day better teaching because of what she has seen.- Charles A. Philhower, Superintendent of Schools, Westfield, New Jersey. Curriculum of the Standard Four-year High School-The curriculum of theAmerican high school is of great moment in view of two facts-costs and extensions of the subjects offered. In so far as the cost item is in- volved, the enrolments in many of the schools falling under the classifica- tion given above are such that increases in subjects will greatly increase the instructional per capita. In our State the following table expresses the variation in the cost element : Enrolments in Average Average Number Average number Average Average cities and towns of enrol- ofunit number instructional instructional having population of per per capita schools ment courses of 5000 or less teachers capita per subject taught Under 100 41 74 13.8 5.4 $104.23 $7.55 100-199 60 145 17.5 9 93.86 5.36 200-299 19 237 17.8 13.1 81.93 4.60 300-500 7 341 19. 17.2 77.92 4.10 From this table it is apparent that there is a high correlation between per capita costs and enrolment. The conclusion is that high costs can best be met through decrease in the number of high schools and a resultant in- crease in the enrolment per high school.-E. E. Ramsey, State High-School Inspector, Indianapolis, Indiana. Curriculum-The Junior-Senior High School-Since we can travel in only one direction at a time, we believe that a single definite objective should be accepted as the fundamental purpose of the junior high-school organiza 930 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tion. The junior high school should be of an exploratory nature and the arousal of the life career motive the most important outcome of this process. Adefinite place must be made in the program of studies for these forms of exploration. Our school must be democratic. The junior high school must exist for all of the children of all the people. The school must serve its community first of all, and above everything else this is an especially vital need in country communities and in small cities. It is right and reasonable to expect a large portion of our high-school pupils to find their cares in their home community. By thus acknowledging our responsibility and obli- gation to the community which supports the school we shall be able to serve better the interest of the pupils themselves. Election of courses should follow exploration and not precede it. Work must be of an extensive nature rather than intensive. Exploration of necessity implies educational guidance. The gap between the elementary and junior high schools must be a safe and easy transfer. The course is planned to include only the minimum essentials and is unquestionably the maximum load for three competent full-time teachers, as shown in the following table : Semester Grade Grade Grade 7 I II 8 9 CONSTANTS : ハン 555 5553 5 5 English...... Social Studies . 5 5 53425 434 Mathematics . 4 33 General Science .. Physical Education and Hygiene . 4 41 4 Practical Arts..... Study of Occupations . ELECTIVES : Occupational Studies for Boys ... 10 10- 10 Occupational Studies for Girls ... 10 10 10 Foreign Languages . 5 5 5 Mathematics . 5 ArtStudies . 1 1 1 1 Music... 1 1 1 1 Each pupil to carry per week.. 29-31 28-34 28-3425-30 When it is possible to employ one or more additional teachers, this course can be enriched by adding general courses in home economics, industrial and manual arts , commercial subjects ; and mechanical drawing, art and design, music, study of nations . In the social studies some modification from the desirable plan has been necessary. In mathematics we are committed to courses of the composite or general type for grades seven and eight. In general science we are try- ing to follow the recommendations of the Commission on the Reorganiza- tion of Secondary Education in Bulletin 1920, No. 26, of the Bureau of Education. Three full periods per week are devoted to physical education. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 931 The practical arts offered in the first semester of seventh grade receives two periods a week. The study of occupations, which is a constant in the first semester of grade seven, is intended to serve as the "survey of the world's work." At the end of the first semester pupils who seem to be destined for occupations of the professional group elect a foreign language and begin preparation for college. The occupational studies for boys begin with the second semester of grade seven and call for two periods a day. Oppor- tunity is given in grade nine for special study in some occupational activity, such as agriculture, building trades, mechanical, general metal work, and commercial. Occupational studies for girls begin with the second semester of the seventh grade and are elective. Continuing through the eighth grade the work should be in units dealing with the following: foods, clothing, the house, home care of the sick, family finances, care and rearing of children, and so on. It will be possible to offer only one foreign language in a three-teacher junior high school. In several schools the number of pupils electing foreign language has been too small to justify the organization of a class. It is anticipated that all of grade nine, and part of the work of the eighth grade, will be accepted for credit toward college admission. It is suggested that the minimum requirement for promotion from junior high school be seventy-five year periods. Students should be admitted to senior high school without condition upon promotion from junior high school with at least tour units of credit.-W. L. Spencer, State Supervisor of Secondary Edu- cation, Montgomery, Alabama. Coördination of Educational Units for Maximum Efficiency-In the general administration of schools it has been found advisable to coördinate the various units. The phases of control that relate to the principalship and to supervision are markedly different. There are many places where it is feasible to employ one person capable of managing both the elementary and the high school. When the work is so coördinated it will attract quali- fied persons, because the character of the task, as well as the increased salary, will challenge ambitious people. In place of two mediocre persons the smaller cities could, with less expense, obtain one person who would be a real educational leader in the community. In respect to subject matter there are great chasms between various educational units. There can be no claim to efficiency when two units in a school system fail to utilize the results of each other's efforts. The estab- lishment of the junior high school has been the direct outcome because of the lack of coördination between the elementary and high school. One step that may be taken as a remedy is to eliminate the extensive review that now operates in the last year of the elementary school.-M. B. Hillegas , Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 932 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF POPULATION BETWEEN 5000 AND 10,000 J. A. SEXSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, STERLING COLORADO , CHAIRMAN WHAT SERVICE THE SCHOOL SYSTEM SHALL RENDER IN THE SMALL COMMUNITY-Small school systems could do many worthwhile things if the superintendents in these villages and small cities were only trained well enough to have the vision and to know how to go at their problems. The key lies in the study of the local community and the local school system. Every superintendent in a small city should make a very careful survey of the assets, liabilities, and needs of the community he serves. In this survey should be included a study of such general conditions as the char- acter of the population, the relation between the school population and total population, the geography of the city, including the location of build- ings. The financial condition of the district should be carefully con- sidered. What is the real wealth behind each dollar spent for school maintenance ? What is the population per capita cost of schools? This study should be followed by a careful survey of the school system itself, including the school plant, the teaching staff, the organization and administration of the schools, the salary schedule, the attendance, classifica- tion, acceleration, and retardation of pupils. The efficiency of instruction should be measured, and careful consideration ought to be given to the course of study to ascertain if the fundamental aims indicated by it are in harmony with those generally accepted. These and many other facts will need to be brought to light. A careful analysis of the facts of the survey should be made in the light of the present aims of education. This will lead to a determination of what things can be and ought to be done for the improvement of the schools and the community. Once these goals are set up the superintendent should begin a systematic campaign of publicity and education to sell these goals to teachers, board members, and the community at large. -C. R. Gates, Superintendent of Schools, Grand Island, Nebraska. THE NEW SCIENCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLICITY-No organization is safe today which depends upon public support which does not carry on an intelligent educational program in acquainting the public with its work and problems . In general there are four principles which should be kept in mind in all publicity work. First, publicity should tell the truth. Second, it is not safe to try to convince the public that any system is perfect. An over-statement of virtues or a failure publicly to recognize deficiencies are alike unwise.. Third, the attention of the public should be called to the work of the schools and problems of education and not the superintendent or the board of education. Fourth, a sound publicity recognizes various groups and interests in the community. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 933 The skilful publicity director recognizes and is able to use certain counter publicity devices in emergencies-devices which are particularly useful to the superintendent in replying to attacks and criticism directed towards the work of the school.-P. R. Spencer, Superintendent of Schools, St. Cloud, Minnesota . Notable Progress in Administration in Cities with a Population Between 5000 and 10,000-There are many small cities who administer their schools as efficiently as any of the large cities while there are some large cities whose schools are as poorly administered as many of the small ones . Efficiency is a ratio between the value of a product and the cost of produc- tion and whether it is high or low depends, not upon the absolute, but the relative size of its factors. The reason why many large school systems are so well administered is because they recruit their administrators from the smaller cities, where there are as many factors and functions to deal with, and yet the very smallness of the situation compels the administrator to do all the details of the job. Not many years ago when there were just as many factors as now, there were fewer functions known to be performed. As these functions have been recognized, the larger cities have attempted their performance first in most instances, but as time has gone on the small city administrator has more and more shouldered the responsibilities which are his. One of the most hopeful signs of notable progress is the recognition of the school as one of the most important factors of community life, helping in the solution of problems, and the schools have recognized their ability and are willing to have it used. In the agricultural districts people go to the agriculture department of the high school for assistance. In the mining communities application is made to the chemistry department for assays . In many communities the courts apply to the school psychologist for in- . telligence tests and advice before committing delinquents to State institu- tions.-J. J. Early, Superintendent of Schools, Sheridan, Wyoming . Selecting New Materials-Agreeing on the objectives for the educa- tional program, schoolmen all over the country have set themselves to work to bring courses of study for the various subjects into line with these objectives . From Maine to California reports from superintendents and principals show that they are busy removing from the curricula of the schools material that has no value in present-day American situations . Material which in their judgment can make a more positive contribution to American educational objectives is then being inserted into courses of study as fast as the really essential can be extricated from the tangled mass of materials suggested by school heads, teachers, professional, industrial, and civic organizations . As a basis for selecting what is essential in the light of American educa- tional objectives, the following standards are proposed : Does the proposed material establish or strengthen habits of child or adult citizenship ? Does 934 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the proposed material encourage desirable ideals of high ethical, moral, or religious nature and secure a mental attitude in keeping with the right social relations ? Does the proposed material give practice in a skill used in home, industrial, or recreational life ? Does the proposed material con- tribute to the growing of healthy boys and girls? Does the proposed ma- terial contain facts which are really fundamental; that is, are these facts used in industry or the home, do these facts contribute to a fuller enjoy- ment of recreational life, do they rationalize proposed habits of health or citizenship ? Does the proposed material promote the formation of desir- able mental attitudes, appreciations, tastes, and prejudices ?-Will French, Superintendent of Schools, Winfield, Kansas . The Selection of Essentials by Job Analysis of Life Activities Involving the Particular Subject-Analysis of life activities to determine essentials in our school curricula is a method destined to wider use in the future. It simply means that the many jobs of our complex life, whether they be the correct usage of the mother tongue or the proper selection of food and clothing, shall be divided into many component parts, that a careful study be made of these parts, and that a curriculum be formulated that will con- tain those things only that are essential in giving our future citizens, the pupils, a most efficient living. The technique of scientific curriculum mak- ing has been but little developed to date. It lags behind most other fields of education , such as testing, measuring, school building, and accounting. This is illogical. The curriculum is the foundation of our whole educa- tional fabric. If it is weak, vague, and ill-defined, then the best scientific- ally developed methods in other fields will be of little avail. The aim of education has changed within recent years toward social efficiency. Our curricula have to a great extent failed to keep abreast this new conception. Perhaps the outstanding reason for this is the fact that the experts who have formulated our curricula have failed to take into consideration the activities of the mass of people but have formed the cur- ricula from ideals only. Ideals cannot be abstracted from activities. They must be concrete in action in order to function. Today our leaders are beginning to tell us that to prepare a curriculum based upon ideals as well as activities we must study life activities as we find them and from this study discover what is needed to formulate a vitalized curriculum. Quoting from one only, Bobbit states: "Human life consists of a variety of specific activities. It is possible to discover what these are for the different classes. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and ade- quately for these specific activities." Many other outstanding leaders may be quoted in the same manner. There are several distinct steps in the re- organization of a course in any subject. First, determine the objectives of the course. Next analyze the "job." This can be done by several means, introspection, actually working on the job to find needs, questionnaire, or personal interview. After the job has been analyzed and divided intowork- able units, selection must be made as to which items go into the curriculum DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 935 andwhich must be left for the home and the world outside of school. This may be done by taking majority opinion or the opinion of experts. The final step is to determine proper grading of the material which is to make up curriculum. This is best done by joint use of the three principles-in- terest, use, and difficulty. At this time, of all times, when the enemies of public schools are oppos- ing the advancement of education with all their might, it behooves edu- cators to keep abreast of the modern aims and methods of education so that opponents may not use the lethargy of the schoolmen as a weapon against the schools. The modern trend is toward utility in education. From the limited evidence at hand scientific study, as job analysis, is found to be the most sound basis of curriculum formation. Will it not be greatly to the advantage of the schools to give this modern step a fair and impartial trial ?-R. W. Kretsinger, Superintendent of Schools, Franklin, Nebraska . The Selection of Essentials by an Analysis of the Ideals Desirable in Every Individual-The ideal of coöperative service must permeate every subject, and opportunity should be given in the schools for pupils to prac- tice this principle without which our democracy cannot survive. In bring- ing to pass this recommendation the following steps are advocated : We must be willing to have our work judged by our ability to instill desirable ideals in our school systems and to have these ideals become firmly fixed in the minds of the children. We shall need to rate teachers largely on their ability to inspire such ideals. Our scale makers can render valuable service by readily completing their studies in methods of measuring char- acter traits. We may demand that our colleges shall make the moral factor at least equal to the mental and physical in choosing college entrants. Our survey makers can produce more accurate studies of all agencies tend- ing toward desirable ideals. Our records and reports must be revised to show that we have changed our basis of rating, that we are putting first things first and are at last saying our real job is to inspire in the youth ofAmerica the ideals of the founders of our great democracy. Such ideals cannot be fixed by the formal material in the course of study, but must be made available for practice in purposeful activities in the school and in the community. Although the pessimist is abroad in the land today preaching that democracy is a failure, those who administer our public schools know that our democracy rests on a firm foundation when the ideals of its found- ers are firmly implanted in the minds of the boys and girls of our land.— H. W. Langworthy, Superintendent of Schools, Oneida, New York . The Organization of Curriculum Materials for Instruction Purposes- It is impossible to conceive of a curriculum revision that does not provide for individual differences in ability. The extensive use of intelligence tests throughout the country has taught us definitely that among a large group of school children there will be found some who are distinctly feeble-minded and others who belong to the genius or near-genius type, and that between 936 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION these extremes are groups of children of all degrees of mental ability or capacity. The schools in the past have been guilty of prescribing the same set formula of educational treatment for all children. The same work has been required of the near idiot and the genius, with the result that those who are feeble-minded or dull have failed repeatedly because the work we have prescribed they have been incapable of performing. On the other hand the tasks assigned the genius have been so simple that children of this type have progressed from grade to grade without effort and with the re- sult that their minds have grown slow and their brains flabby through lack ofexercise. Following the use of intelligence tests, many school systems have been re- organized and ability groupings have been effected. In many places where this splendid step has been taken, differentiated curricula have not been provided. Provision is usually made for different rates of progress but too frequently all children are required ultimately to complete the same course.-H. M. Corning, Superintendent of Schools, Trinidad, Colorado. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF POPULATION BETIVEEN 10,000 AND 25,000 WALTER R. SIDERS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, POCATELLO , IDAHO CHAIRMAN Some Uses and Abuses of Intelligence Tests-The developing of the test- ing programs of the past decade leading to the diagnosis of individual cases, in the material with which we have to deal, will no doubt stand out in the future as the distinctive contribution of the present century to education. We are gradually winning our way to a school organization that will fit the needs of our democracy. The individual is coming into his own through a differential psychology, which singles him out and enables the teacher to meet the requirements of his growth, rather than to force him into a pace that will slow him down to mediocrity, or require a pace for which he has not been equipped. The dangers in this are the dangers common to all reforms a swing to the opposite extreme, or ill-advised action on the basis of false premises or half truths. The extreme of individual instruc- tion would cause as great loss from the social standpoint as it might gain from the standpoint of individual development. The attempt in some quarters to reclassify on the basis of intelligence alone is just as fallacious. There are many other factors besides intelligence in deciding just where in the organization a child may be able to do the best work. Whatever we do we must avoid any system that develops intellectual caste, pigeon-holes cer- tain individuals as unfit because we do not fully understand them, or takes away the stimulus of ambition. The road to achievement by dint of ex- traordinary effort in the face of the handicap of slow mentality must be left open. Not only do we compare his mental age and his chronological DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 937 age, but we find his age in arithmetic, in reading, in spelling, averaging these into an educational age or ability to achieve in fundamental subjects of the curriculum. The teacher's ranking is also used, and the pupils are given a rating in accordance with her estimate independently of any test. From this we derive what is called the "pedagogical age." Then the pro- motion age is found by averaging the mental age, the pedagogical, and the educational. Having adopted this plan of diagnosis, we are using the data in a number of ways adapted to different situations in different school communities : Opportunity rooms for children needing special attention, reporting back to regular rooms for other work, double promotions, changed groupings in accordance with promotion age, enriched suggestive courses provided within room groups for brighter pupils, with emphasis upon minimum essentials for the slow.-J. H. Risley, Superintendent of Schools, Pueblo, Colorado . The Beverly Industrial School-An Indication of the Trend in Educa- tion-A part-time, coöperative, regular trade extension school for training machinists. The board of control consists of the mayor, ex-officio, one representative from the coöperating industry, the chairman of the school committee, and four members appointed by him. The superintendent of schools is elected annually to act as secretary and executive officer. Stu- dents are admitted after an examination and investigation by the principal of the Industrial School. The academic scholarship of candidates is not the determining factor. He may have failed in the grade schools, but he will succeed in this school because the appeal of this type of education is strong and brings out the best there is in any boy who is at all qualified for work with machines of precision. The school accommodates seventy boys. They are grouped in two divisions, which alternate between the school and the factory of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation. The sessions are six hours, five days per week, 8 to 12 A.M. and 1 to 3 P.M. The shop runs eight hours per day, 8 to 12 A.M., 1 to 5 P.M. , except Saturday afternoon. The school year is fifty weeks; two weeks for vacation. The faculty consists of a director who supervises all work, a science instructor, two machinist instructors, and a shop foreman. All of these men were skilled machinists before they were offered positions in the school. In the schoolroom there is a discussion of "shop topics" and the drawing from memory of parts made in the factory. The principles that are in- volved in these experiences furnish the basis for the related work in the schoolroom. Subjects and parts of subjects are taught when the experience in the shop shows the pupil the need for them. These subjects include : Mathematics, drawing, science, English, hygiene, and civics. The length ofthe course depends inpart upon the ability and effort of the pupil. There is small initial expense in starting a school on this plan; little investment in machines or supplies; the school is relieved of the problem of finding work for the boys; the product is sold as soon as produced; the school offers training in making commercial products in a commercial way 938 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION under the best of shop conditions; the boy is paid in proportion to the amount he produces ; his incentive is that his work is to be put to real use; the machinist instructor follows his group from shop to school; the in- struction given in related work at the school meets a real need that is realized by the pupil; only those subjects or parts of subjects that function in the machinists' trade or in good citizenship are taught. The school is distinctly a public school, open to any boys who have the requisite qualifica- tions. The presence of a representative of the coöperating company on the governing board has proved a valuable asset. There is no exploitation of the boy for the benefit of the industry; the boy is certain to secure a good position in the factory after graduation. -S. H. Chace, Superintendent of Schools, Beverly, Massachusetts. Teaching Foreigners to Speak English-The teaching of our language to non-English-speaking children is a problem in large cities. If these chil- dren could be placed in an environment for all their day in which they could be forced to think and to talk in our language, the work of teaching them English would be comparatively simple. But this is generally im- possible. They are in school but a few hours of the day. At home they think and talk and hear only their native tongue. Their parents and many times their older brothers and sisters do not know the English language, and if they do know anything of it, they speak it only when compelled to do so. They have their own churches and their own newspapers. They can do all their shopping at stores where they can speak their own language. Instead of being compelled to learn English in order to get work, they find employers ready to employ foremen who can talk to them in their own language. The efforts of the school to Americanize the children of aliens are not given proper encouragement by the State and by the employers of labor. These children should be segregated from English-speaking chil- dren for the first two or three years of their school course. We need the aid of the State. There are too many people in this great country who are unmindful of the danger of permitting alien communities to continue as alien, too many who are asleep to the menace of 1400 news- papers published in forty foreign languages. These papers are generally our greatest menace because they help to keep their readers alien in thought, language, and ideals. There are too many employers of labor who for the sake of cheap labor put the dollar above American institutions, and their own private gain above the future greatness of this Nation. The State must pass laws to enforce school attendance on all children, forcing them to remain in school until at least the elements of a common-school education have been attained, regardless of age. The State must enforce laws against child labor and make it impossible for workers to get jobs unless they know our language. The Federal Government must give aid. It has no moral right to admit these aliens, and then calmly say that the work of Americanizing them be- longs only to the State. Such provisions as are contained in the Sterling DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 939 Reed Bill now before Congress for Federal aid to the States in the removal of illiteracy and the work of Americanization should become law. C. E. Rose, Superintendent of Schools, Tucson, Arizona. Keeping Things Checked Up-There is need for checking up all along the line. Progress and improvement have been the result where investiga- tions have been made and the results used with judgment. It is of no value to collect statistics because some one else has done it and simply for comparing the results in one school system with those of another. The conditions are different in nearly every case and the conclusions that can be drawn differ with the people who make and use the statistics. The statistics in your school system can be of use to you and that should be the only reason for collection and tabulation. The most important reasons for making any sort of research, checking up, are to be found in the improve- ment of the curriculum and the teaching force. Yet these items are less often found in the published results of surveys and are not among the items discovered most frequently in the duties of the organizations charged with such work. Take one of the most common forms of tabulations, that of age and grade distribution, which serves to show the retarded and the advanced pupils as well. For comparison from year to year such tables are useful. But they are of little use to the schools themselves unless the re- sults are shown to the teachers, and the people who are called retarded or are recorded as more able brought to light as real individuals and their individual needs studied as well. This leads directly to the formation of special classes where they are needed and to special and individual help to pupils where the investigation has shown there is a lack.-E. B. Sellew, Superintendent of Schools, Middletown, Connecticut. A Method of Curriculum Making-Most of the curricula now in use were written with the "scissors and paste" method that is, printed courses are gathered from many cities and are injected into a local curriculum in such part as they seem to fit. Experiences alone count in the education of children and a curriculum is the series of experiences which any individual has. The social needs of the community, with which the children in school should become acquainted and which carry with the different communities in the Nation, are the real objectives of our educational program. In order to arrive at the social needs of a community it is necessary to make an analysis of the community in order to find out such items as : The population and wealth of the city, the number and kind of manufacturing plants, the total value of all products manufactured in a year, the railroad facilities, the numbers and kinds of industrial workers, clerks, salesmen, and other similar groups who live in the community ; the kind of abilities and peculiar capacities the workers ought to possess in order to fill their places efficiently; the recreational and civic needs of these workers. Teach- ers will not find it especially difficult to analyze most, if not all, of the 940 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION abilities required in particular callings. From these special capacities we can find the subjects which prepare and develop the abilities required for different workers. The two most important abilities are the ability to take directions and the ability to give directions. The failure to develop these two particular abilities can be traced to the fact that the school cannot break away from that traditional attitude which compels it to center upon the remembering of facts rather than upon the giving of experiences. Teachers trained in drilling children on information sometimes find it rather difficult to get this newer point of view.-H. D. Fillers, Superin- tendent of Schools, Corsicana, Texas . Vocational Education in Small Cities-The American public school sys- tem is developing into three principal units : An elementary school consisting of a kindergarten and six grades, a junior high school of three grades, and a senior high school of three grades; to these may be added a fourth unit, the adult evening school. The elementary school will teach what is es- sential for all American children, regardless of race, sex, social status, or possible future vocation. The junior high school will give the pupil an opportunity to ascertain what his own interests, aptitudes, and abilities are. The senior high school is coming to be a school for all the children of all the people. The demands can no longer be satisfied by offering a college preparatory course for the four or five per cent of children who will go into the professions. Stronger comes the demand that the high school in- troduce subjects of a vocational nature. There is also a demand for an adult evening school which will offer such courses as may enable men and women of the community to get short, intensive training in subjects of im- mediate interest to them . The future wage earner is to be not only a producer but also a con- sumer and a citizen, therefore the school program cannot train for voca- tional efficiency only and neglect the other ingredients of social efficiency. The small community needs to study its needs very carefully and center upon the activities which are common to a number of the occupations of the community. It must train for vocations in the local and the adjacent com- munities. Vocational education in junior high school should rarely be at- tempted in small cities. The place for intensive vocational education is the senior high school. Cities of from ten to twenty-five thousand population will usually find a strong demand for adult evening courses.-C. R. Gates, Superintendent of Schools, Grand Island, Nebraska. Art in the Public Schools Related to Life-Americans are not intelligent consumers ; our idea of value is to a large extent determined by price. Too many of us fail to recognize that value is determined by relationship and use. A harmonious whole, a pleasing effect produced by the relationship of one thing to another, is what makes for real value in clothing, in house furnishing, and in architecture. The public schools should recognize the need for training our boys and girls to appreciate the value of art as it DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 941 applies to our everyday life in the home and in the community. The schools should raise the standard of taste and the knowledge of the proper use and relationship of one thing to another. Our schools at the present time are offering courses in art, home-making, and the manual arts through which this type of training can most effectively be given. Enough time in the schools is given to these courses to produce the results which we desire, yet they are failing to develop these desired qualities. In two respects a decided change and improvement is needed. In the first place our chief objective in these courses at the present time is a de- velopment of skill, the ability to draw, to make a dress, or construct a chair. To a large extent our work consists in copying, in following directions, and in reproducing models. Each individual does as every other individual in the class. Real appreciation of art, dress, furniture making, printing, and interior decoration can only be achieved with the giving of individual prob- lems. The student must plan, construct, and design his problem with ref- erence to use and its effect with relation to other things with which it is to be associated. The relationship of art to the dress, to the chair, and to the design, must be the product of the child's own thought and study.-P. R. Spencer, Superintendent of Schools, St. Cloud, Minnesota. Developing the Individual-In spite of an insistent public demand that we train our children for a more efficient participation in life activities, American education as a whole is still operating on the factory plan, with too little attention paid to the needs and capacities of the individual child. Our schools are in the "milk-teeth" stage of development; the work of the average child is too soft and lacks the depth of concentration which makes for vigorous character development. There is next to no opportunity for any social division of labor. There is no opportunity for each child to work out something specifically his own, which he may contribute to the common stock, while he, in turn, participates in the productions of others. All are set to do exactly the same work and turn out the same products. In the schools of Shaker Heights we are adapting some of the technique used in prescribing for the needs of the individual. In the files of the Principal's office, each pupil has a folder which contains all data referring to his case : a personal history card, psychological and educational record card, medical report, test papers, attendance, and correspondence. These files are valuable in supplementing the teacher's judgment of the individual requirements of pupils. An effort is being made to scrap useless material of the traditional curricu- lum. Recitation periods in the grades are becoming laboratory periods, followed by group discussions. Rooms are equipped with a study table containing reference material, which is constantly in use by the children . Each child is treated as an individual member of society, with certain definite responsibilities which he is expected to carry. Children must be producers, even in the classroom. In order to produce they must be trained in certain definite habits and skills, thoroughly taught 942 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION at the period of development when efficiency will be greatest. Concur- rently with this training there must come an individual growth in the funda- mentals of character and personality so that the product will be an efficient, independent social organism when he takes his place in the world.-C. B. Cornell, Superintendent of Shaker Heights Schools, Cleveland, Ohio . The Validity and Future of the 6-3-3 Plan-We think of the first six grades as the period in which to acquire the tool subjects, the essential fundamentals, and to develop the common interests. Grades 7-8-9 are thought of as the time for exploration, preparation, and guidance, a period which belongs to secondary education. We think of grades 10-11-12 as the period of specialization, a time for more thorough concentration and con- tinuity leading to and in most cases including a year of junior college work. Comparative education tells us that our 6-3-3 plan is according to the best practice of foreign nations. The history of American education clearly makes the point that our 8-4 plan was an historical accident. According to the faith of Horace Mann and other pioneers, this elementary school has well served the purpose of the Nation. The advent of science and manufacturing, the great changes in industry, agriculture, business, travel, and communication and the re- sultant complex social organization of today demand a new content in the curriculum. The automobile is no longer a luxury, but a common business necessity, and electricity finds a place in every home and business. So, the old order must change and give place to social science, science, and the practical arts. The chief competitors of the 6-3-3 plan are the traditional 8-4, the 6-2-4, and the 6-6 plans. Many systems with the 8-4 plan have introduced de- partmental work, subject promotion, and various other measures to bolster up the old regime, but these measures do not give variety, flexibility, and the new social contacts of the junior high school, and generally are lacking, in the new type of curriculum content. The 6-2-4 plan is often used wher there is a lack of proper buildings and equipment for the 6-3-3 plan. The 6-6 plan is subject to the weakness of having two schools in one. One principal must be a specialist in two fields, and he usually has a special in- terest in only one, and that is ordinarily the high school. A valid reason for the adoption of the 6-3-3 plan is the effort to relieve the excessive congestion of the elementary grades and the high school. The try-out period for early adolescents has its best correlative in the 6-3-3 plan. The exploratory period covers grades 7-8, variety and flexi- bility occur, the transition is made, and differentiation and guidance is ac- complished in grades 8-9 .-D . W. Horton, Superintendent of Schools, Logansport, Indiana. Experience with a Single Salary Schedule-A single salary schedule adapted to conditions existing in Beloit, Wisconsin, was formulated and recommended by Superintendent Converse, and adopted by the School Board April 6, 1920, effective for the school year 1920-21. It is still DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 943 in operation, and except that it does not provide as generous salaries as in many other cities of the same class, has proved satisfactory to all concerned. The single salary schedule is based chiefly on the factors of educational preparation, training, and successful experience, and is a scheme to demon- strate to the public and the teachers that the elementary grade children need as broadly educated and as richly cultured teachers as do high school pupils ; that the elementary school teaching position should be as highly regarded as the high-school teaching position; and finally, that only equal or equiva- lent preparation which is recognized by equal salaries will bring about this improved condition . The single salary schedule does not distinguish the department, but the teacher's educational preparation, and so stimulates to further preparation. This means at least periodical advanced study and improvement while in the service. If a supplementary provision be made which refunds to teachers the average amount spent by them in summer school study, it has been proved that teachers respond with regularity and satisfaction. The single salary schedule is constructive in principle and is practical . If well drawn, not complicated, and is carefully administered, it is an aid in teacher improvement while in service. It tends to unify the teaching force and to insure greater stability. It is more impersonal than the ordi- nary schedule. It deals justly with newly employed teachers, and protects those already in the force. It emphasizes in the minds of school boards and public the preparation and training that is necessary to become a success- ful teacher. By stimulating improvement in the education and culture of the teacher it should prove a real aid in raising the social status of teachers. Such a schedule, thoroughly established, will go far to maintain itself- that is, to help stave off the pressure for reduced taxation for schools.- Frank E. Converse, Superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wisconsin. The Humanizing of the Grade-School Curriculum-The objectives of the teacher are thought and expressed in terms of outcomes of life. The statements of these objectives may not be the best that could be made. They undoubtedly are not. The objectives that have been set up may be subject to vast improvement. In any case, they are human objectives. The atmosphere of the classroom thus becomes a human atmosphere where a teacher is living with boys and girls because of his own experience and training and because of his familiarity with the experiences of the race as handed to us in the form of subject-matter. He is endeavoring to make richer lives of the young people with whom he is working. The subjects are mere tools. The children themselves are made to realize the goals toward which they are striving. They may not understand these in exactly the terms in which they are stated for the teacher, but they do comprehend why they are doing certain things. They are developing ideals and attitudes by having ideals and attitudes held up before them. They are strengthening the rules 944 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of reason and of intelligence by exercise of their intellects.-E. M. Sipple, Superintendent of Schools, Burlington, Iowa. The School Superintendent as a Salesman of Education-If we are to be, in the best sense of the term, worthy salesmen of education we must to a greater degree emerge from our long-time isolation, our pitiful go-it-alone- ness, our timidity to talk about our work. We must consider public edu- cation as the leading business of our community. We must understand that the public, which furnishes the capital and the materials of the business, is entitled to a full knowledge of the undertaking. This information must be furnished, not in the phrases of pedagogy so familiar to us, but in plain everyday English . There are two general phases or divisions of the subject. First, the per- sonal attributes of the superintendent who aspires to real distinction as a salesman, and second, the method of accomplishment. With respect to the personal side, an ideal superintendent must have a thorough knowledge of his job. To sound general scholarship should be added detailed study of school administration, budget making, mass psychology production and consumption, curriculum making, economy of time, cost accounting, and methods of appraisal. The distinguished scholar without this other train- ing is poorly equipped for salesmanship . The ideal superintendent must have a firm belief and abiding joy in his work. Selling education is a life calling not a stepping-stone to some other occupation . When ordinary classroom teaching is also on this same abid- ing basis a long step toward real professional stability will have been taken. None can stand at the head of a school system if his heart is elsewhere than in his work. The ideal superintendent must have absolute and unwavering squareness and honesty of purpose. There can be nothing of the opportunist here. This business of ours can not satisfactorily endure unless based on mutual confidence and respect.-B. J. Merriam, Superintendent of Schools, Fra- mingham, Massachusetts . SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF POPULATION BE- TWEEN 25,000 AND 50,000 JOHN F. GANNON , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , PITTSFIELD, MASSACHU- SETTS , CHAIRMAN Powers and Duties of the City Superintendent-At least six things de- termine the powers and duties of city superintendents of schools : ( 1 ) State laws, (2) written rules and regulations of State and local boards, (3) local. State, and National customs, practices, and precedents of the office, (4) the personnel of each particular board, (5) the personality of each particu- lar superintendent, and (6 ) the ever-present necessity of meeting and DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 945 solving new problems as the school system grows in size and expands in function. Most cities, towns, villages, and rural communities employing a so-called superintendent of schools are, for the most part, a law unto themselves . The theory prevails that the schools are of, by, and for the locality. There is, with rare exception, little idea of education as a function of the State. State laws defining the powers and duties of superintendents are almost unheard of. In fact, many superintendents do not seem to think that such laws are either necessary or possible. It is so easy to become so absorbed in the local situation as to lose or never gain a broad perspective. Within the past year, I had the privilege of engaging in a State-wide survey of city schools in a certain commonwealth . I asked every superintendent what he thought of a State law that would define the powers and duties of the superintendent of schools. The question was treated with indifference . They thought such a law either impractical, impossible, or unnecessary. And yet, such a law is neither impractical, impossible, or unnecessary . Such a law is timely and will advance the profession of superintendency more rapidly than almost any other measure.-E. E. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools, Flint, Michigan. Powers and Duties-The superintendent of schools ought to be the leader in educational thought and practice in his community. But his other duties require an enormous amount of time and are a great drain upon his physical and mental strength . In order that he may not neglect the super- vision of instruction altogether while administering the finances and me- chanics of education, the superintendent should keep in mind : ( 1) It is the superintendent's duty to organize his supervisory and administrative staff in such manner that he may hold it definitely responsible for much of the direct supervision. ( 2) The superintendent should be the prolific source of suggestive problems in methods. (3) He should encourage his teachers to study the materials of instruction. (4) He should encourage the scien- tific study of education. ( 5) A salary schedule, which will encourage teachers to study, should be formulated. (6) The superintendent should create a sufficiently harmonious, personal, and human relationship with his teachers that he can advise with them as to their needs, and the studies they should pursue to equip them better for their work. (7) A superintendent should encourage work well done, and use it as an example to others. (8) The superintendent should bend every effort to make it easy for the new teacher to adjust herself. The superintendent should do as much personal visiting of teachers as is humanly possible. He should hold general educational meetings with his teachers as often as he can. More important than all he should fire his principals and supervisors with an enthusiasm for professional study. To this end there is no better plan to be carried out, with adaptations to local settings and plans of administrative organization, than that of weekly staff meetings for the thorough study and discussion of the multitudinous edu 946 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cational and social problems. Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, New Jersey. Duties of the Superintendent-Another important service allied to the selection of teachers is the dismissal of those who are not up to the standard of the system in which they serve. No real school man desires to be an autocrat. In the main the superintendent is much more concerned with the problem of securing for, and retaining in, the system superior teachers than he is with searching out some teachers to dismiss. Yet all who have had experience know that in the teaching profession as in all others "Some are called who are not chosen." Shall the schools be burdened for years to come with the unfit because forsooth that is the line of least resistance for the executive officer ? Boards of education should give the superin- tendent who has shown good judgment a free hand in building up the corps of teachers by the process of elimination. Many are crying for tenure for teachers in these days. In Ohio, boards of education may elect the superintendent for five years and the teachers for four years, and yet we have a movement on for indefinite tenure after a comparatively brief service. The tenure now provided in Ohio is all that anybody can reasonably ask. On account of the scarcity of good teach- ers there are many unfit who are now retained in the profession even though executives know their retention is not in the best interests of the children. Then, too, the scheme of permanent tenure is hardly in accord with American practices. All of our people officials with the exception of a few judges must come back to the people for an accounting at the end of a certain stated period, and I know of no reason why this practice should not be followed in the teaching profession. The effect of such tenure upon rural schools would be so obviously bad as to require no comment. Boards of education and executive officers will do well to oppose such a scheme. The competent are sure to take care of themselves and permanent tenure should not be given to the mediocre and incompetent. Darrell Joyce, Superintendent of School, Hamilton, Ohio. Spelling, a Vital Factor in the Curriculum-Our chief failure in the teaching of spelling has been the abandonment of the work at the very stage when the keystone should have been placed in the arch. Therefore, we should arrange for a mature, deliberate, and thoughtful study of spelling in the high school. We must build upon the students' past experience, taking advantage of what has been learned. We forget to tell the boy who spells anatomy with three a's that his word was right all but one letter. We eternally "mark down" instead of teaching constructively. We should point out first the error, then the cause of the error, then the remedy. This mature study of spelling, including the laws which underlie it, the variations from these laws, and the twin words which are always causing trouble is infinitely interesting. It even fascinates adults who care to re- view spelling in the sense of"getting a new view." Such study on the part DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 947 of teachers would illuminate the teaching of spelling, while a frank intro- duction of the mature and reasonable study of words in the Junior High School and the high-school curriculum would solve the problems which we now constantly deplore. If the years have not thus far brought success, we must challenge our methods and not be content with "marking down" students who misspell. -Sarah Louise Arnold, Dean Emerita, Simmons College, Lincoln, Massachusetts. Qualities to be Possessed by a Superintendent of Schools-1. He must possess a philosophy of education, founded on sound defensible principles. 2. He must not be an educational opportunist; his actions must not be governed by caprice or expediency; he must not yield to the temptation of ephemeral popularity. 3. He must be a thorough student-must know his work and have faith in it. He must have breadth of vision. No narrow specialist, he must survey and encompass the entire field of education. 4. He must think in large units; must have a genius for organization ; must "sense" administration . 5. He must be sanely progressive, but not influenced by every passing novelty in education. 6. He must be supremely judicial-must learn to weigh, to deliberate, and to judge dispassionately " according to the law and the evidence" upon all problems that arise. 7. He must cultivate the power of suspended judgment. 8. He must be a man of idealism and of inspiration . He must be con- spicuously American. 9. He must be democratic, not aristocratic, realizing all the time that he is a servant of the people and a teacher of democratic sentiment and demo- cratic simplicity. 10. He must respect the honest opinions of teachers and of other citizens, even though these opinions are radically opposed to his own. 11. He must possess the elements of leadership. The wise administrator does not attempt to drive he leads. Through his own worthiness and adherence to principle he must win the confidence of fellow citizens and fellow craftsmen. 12. He must stand, and stand alone if need be, in defense of what he believes to be right. At the same time, he must have the courage to admit that he may be wrong. 13. The superintendent of schools must be preeminently just in all his relations-genuinely sincere and inherently honest.-J. E. Burke, Superin- tendent of Schools, Boston, Massachusetts. Comparison of the 6-3-3 Plan and the 6-4-2 Plan-A junior high school will minister to normal pupils of all sorts from the onset of pubescence until they have been adjusted to work in a higher school or are ready to leave school for wage-earning. It will help each pupil discover his own capacities, limitations, interests, and aptitudes. It will provide adequate 948 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION guidance, develop proper study habits, and offer preliminary training for all who are capable of entering higher schools and financially able to go on. It will retain to the compulsory school attendance age those who must soon enter wage-earning groups, provide exploratory courses to discover their aptitudes and interests and train them, so far as possible, to be most productive in the economic life of the country. It will provide rather elementary work in English for recent immigrants, and review courses for such students as need more work in fundamental tool subjects. It will provide a curriculum of studies and activities designed (a) to develop in each pupil a high sense of values that he may work out for himself " a philosophy of life" ; (b) to train each pupil in proper care of his personal health and an insistence upon high standards of public sanitation ; (c) to make him intelligent and interested in the proper discharge of his duties as a citizen in a democracy. William J. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools, Fresno, California. Merit Ratings of Teachers-For nearly five years a teacher rating sheet was used in Schenectady, which gave 25 points to personality, 27 to pro- fessional equipment, 33 to teaching ability, including results, 9 to health, 3 to housekeeping, and 3 to interest in community life. This was quite an elaborate scheme in which each of 3 of the main items and 24 sub-items were graded on a scale of 10, resulting in a rating by the principal in a numerical figure-a per cent, which was subsequently corrected by the city average correction figure. This system worked fairly well. The fault lay in the rating sheet-too complicated, too difficult to estimate in exact figures. A year ago a new rating sheet even more elaborate in naming the items to be taken into consideration for rating, though giving to them no definite numerical values and giving the final rating in letters was em- ployed. Over six hundred teachers have been rated annually for nearly six years. As a result, the poor and medium teachers have been weeded out, the lazy, indifferent, and the slow teachers have been spurred on to higher endeavor. The industrious high-grade teachers have reached their maxi- mum sooner. It is probable, also, that many of the nervous, high-strung, earnest, and efficient workers have become over-excited, have been worried and thereby reduced in value both to the schools and themselves by rating. Any system of rating, to be successful, must gain the accomplishment of its ends with the least possible disturbance.-E. R. Whitney, Superintendent of Schools, Schenectady, New York. The Value of Teacher Organizations-When the superintendent fails to sanction a major organization of his teachers, either by sullen disapprobation or friendly neutrality, they are likely to drift away as a free-lance organiza- tion. This is the type of teacher organization that frequently does more harm than good. Usually they become dominated by highly emotional, in- competent leaders and gradually degenerate into a morbid attitude of un- friendly criticism and general lack of function. The disadvantages which DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 949 the superintendent reaps from this attitude toward an organized body of his teachers are likely to be: first, the realization of a restless, gossipy, and highly unstable condition among his teachers; second, a noticeable lowering of efficiency and morale throughout the school system; third, far too many teachers are discharged at the request of the superintendent and too many resign of their own volition. There seems to be no positive cause for the "bled-out" condition of the school system ; one only senses strongly the absence of sympathy, coöperation, and joint activity between the superin- tendent and his teachers.-J. W. Thalman, Superintendent of Schools, St. Joseph, Missouri. Safety Teaching in Our Schools-The National Safety Council is the National organization that is devoted to the development of safety. Its work has been up to recently largely in the industrial field, but with the partial solution of that problem the public safety problem has come into view as particularly pressing. The key to the problem is unquestionably ⚫ educational. The main features of the teaching technique have been de- veloped and have been in operation in enough schools for a sufficient length of time to show that the plan has been worked out along essentially right lines. A number of good books dealing with the subject are in existence. While there is much still to be done in the development of detail and perhaps of fundamental principles and in checking all this up, the pre- eminent need today is the actual getting of the work into the schools. The National Safety Council.is solving this problem by encouraging the forma- tion of demonstration centers . A demonstration center is a school that is not only willing to put in safety education-or it may be one that has already had it in operation-but it agrees to prepare a special demonstration on a given date for the benefit of other schools in the region, and to be ready from time to time as the need may arise to show how the work is done . Last year, during only a limited part of the school year, eleven such demonstration centers were organized; these reached about 1600 teachers outside of these centers themselves. This year, with a field secretary giving her whole time to the work, it should be only a few years before the United States will from this point of view be pretty well organized that is, it will be possible for any school that desires to put in the work to visit some school in the vicinity where the work is being carried on.-Albert W. Whitney , Chairman, Education Section, National Safety Council, New York City . SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF POPULATION BE- TWEEN 50,000 AND 200,000 HENRY C. JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , SAN DIEGO, CALI- FORNIA , CHAIRMAN Curriculum Practice-Curriculum revision cannot be carried on without some cost to the school system. Most of the necessary expense will fall under the following heads : ( 1 ) Provision for substitutes for committee 950 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION members when out of their classroom. (2) Clerical help, mimeograph work and clerical supplies. ( 3 ) Reference material for the various com- mittees. (4) Photographs, cuts and the printing and binding of the finished work. (5) Fees to specialists in various lines who are brought in to discuss phases of the curriculum before the staff. An estimate of the total cost should be made in advance and included in the budget. Expendi ture under this allowance should be made on the requisition of the general chairman. A research department can add much to the efficiency of such an under- taking if it is charged with the tasks it is best fitted to perform. The formulation of educational objectives and the selection and organization of subject-matter is not the work for a research department, as it is known in our cities today. It can, however, render an important service by setting up objective standards of achievement, by collecting and interpreting data, by testing present and proposed methods and materials of instruction. It would seem then that the director of research should properly be attached, to the general chairman as a sort of staff officer to be assigned to work in any field as needed.-J. H. Bentley, Former Superintendent of Schools, Duluth, Minnesota. Improved Methods of Supervision-The principal must be recognized as the chief supervisory officer in a school system. Upon him devolves the responsibility for knowing intimately the pupils in his own school and the problems involved in their classification, grading, and promotion. The great mass of the pupils should be divided into groups of somewhat equal ability in order to save pupil time and teacher energy. Children of superior capacity and children requiring special attention, because of physical or mental makeup, must be studied individually by the principal . These things he will accomplish through a first-hand study of children and in inspiring and training his teachers not only in child study or in the psychology of learning processes but in analyzing courses of study and in adapting such courses of study to particular schools. Such responsibility means that more attention must be paid to the training of principals. Teachers who have served long and faithfully in a school system are to be promoted to principalships only when they manifest the special qualities fitting them for the principalship. The principalship is a profession in it- self; and the salary made high enough to attract the best men and women. Further than this supervision will be improved by providing more assist- ant superintendents and directors of primary, kindergarten, and junior high-school groups, putting school systems somewhat on a par with success- ful business enterprises in the size of their supervisory staffs. -W. J. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools, Fresno, California. Reorganizing Secondary Education-It is a mistake to maintain an elabo rate elective system in the junior school. Aside from the basic studies of English, social science, general mathematics, health education, music, and DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 951 some fine arts work, every subject should be regarded as an exploratory or try-out subject with failure in it practically an impossibility. An elective system defeats this purpose. If a child elects a subject he automatically shuts himself out of certain fields of information . Up to the present such secondary work as has been done in the junior school is that of the senior school except in diluted form. Few schools have developed real junior courses in the foreign languages or in other subjects, mathematics being a possible exception. Certainly it is the universal custom to do in the ninth year what has always been done in the ninth year of the traditional four-year high school with the result that whatever freedom has been practiced in the seventh and eighth grades, it has been given up in toto in the ninth grade. The three-year junior school has never been able to operate as a single unit. One spirit prevails in the seventh and eighth grades and an entirely different one in the ninth grade. Evident as this is in the curriculum, it is even more apparent that while teachers without aca- demic degrees may teach seventh and eighth-grade children, none but college graduates are permitted to teach ninth-grade children.-Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, New Jersey. Secondary School Reorganization- Many of the "so-called" failures of students are only symptoms of underlying causes. The causes may be in the school system as well as in the student himself. To temporize with the symptoms without attempting to determine and to remove the causes will never materially reduce pupil-waste. Hence effective personnel service requires more than the suffixing of experts to the administrative staff. There must follow far-visioned internal reorganization of courses of study, technique of instruction, and the methods of administration if a satisfactory individual-pupil accounting is to be made. The foundation of a scientific technique of individual accounting within the school is a system of testing and recording which makes available for study in connection with pupil-progress factual information of a significant character . On or before the date of admission to the secondary school a careful inventory should be made of the pupil's educational status. This should include mental examination, the results of achievement tests cover- ing range of information and skill in fundamental processes, physical measurements, medical examination, physical and health history, evaluation of personal qualities, and previous pedagogical records which indicate special abilities , disabilities, and interests as revealed in the previous school contacts of the pupil.-W.C. Reavis, Principal University of Chicago High School, Chicago, Illinois. Making the High School a Social Institution-The plans for any new school building probably originate in the office of the superintendent of schools. There are two important steps for a superintendent to take in making up his program. First, he should determine the educational policies upon which the high 952 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION school is to be conducted.. If he adopts the seven principles set forth by the Committee on Reorganization of Secondary Education, it will ma- terially affect the building. These principles are worthy home membership, health, vocational training, worthy use of leisure, command of fundamental processes, training in citizenship and character. The principle of health education vitally affects the structure of the building. It means a study of lighting, ventilating, and heating of the building, the number and kind of toilets, the installation of proper gymnasium facilities and clinical rooms . The other principles affect the building as vitally as this one. The policy of the board of education with reference to evening schools and the use of the building as a community center should also be carefully considered. The second step is for the superintendent to make a survey of school building needs. This survey should predict the growth of the high-school population over a period of years ; determine whether the new building shall be a senior, six-year, or traditional high school; determine the number of classrooms, laboratories, etc., which will be needed; and determine the type and needs of the community to be met. -Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. The High School Building-In order to be concrete in this discussion I am showing you a high-school building which was built in recognition of the fact that boys and girls should be enabled in this building to receive that training which would prepare them to do well for themselves, to serve the community in which they live, to live amicably with their associates, and to do that type of life work that would be especially adapted to them and would call forth their best powers and abilities. This building provides for health training in that careful attention is given to the provision of quarters for the school nurses and registrar. Two large gymnasiums, one for boys and one for girls, are in constant use from 8:30 A.M. to 5:10 P.M. A swimming pool is provided. Provision is made for recreation in the open air on the roof of the A division of the building. The grounds east of this building give ample space for all sorts of games and plays. There are over 2800 pupils at present taking physical training. Every pupil who attends this school tåkes a definite course of study in citizenship training. While it is called a technical high school, the most important subject taught is citizenship, and probably the second most im- portant English. How to spend one's leisure time is a problem of society. The features that train for this purpose especially are the library and read- ing rooms. In the departments of stenography, typewriting, shop work, auto mechanics, electricity, telegraph, carpentry, mechanical drawing, archi- tecture, and salesmanship, most modern facilities have been provided. In the household arts department more than 1000 girls are taking work.- J. H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebraska. Budget Planning-A recent achievement in budget planning which grew out of the keener realization by schoolmen of its imperative necessity has DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 953 been to make it a continuous process throughout the year. It must be the business of some one person or bureau to gather and compile essential statis- tical data all-the-year-around or else the budget can not be properly planned. Rightly regarded, the planning of the budget is not just a single operation to be performed at any one time in the year, but is rather a cycle of operations. The budget is to school financial policy what the steering wheel is to the automobile. Very little pressure is necessary for proper guidance of the automobile, but unwavering attention is essential. Such constant attention budget planning is now receiving. Another recent achievement in planning the budget is the more exact definition and classification of budget items. This is well illustrated in the "Uniform School Accounting Report," prepared by the joint com- mittee representing the Bureau of Education, the Department of Superin- tendence, the National Association of School Business Officials and the Inter-City Conference. Another achievement in budget planning is the requirement that all ad- ministrative heads whose decisions affect the amount of expenditures shall submit written estimates.-О. С. Pratt, Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Washington. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF POPULATION ABOVE 200,000 HERBERT S. WEET, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER , NEW YORK CHAIRMAN Better Trained Teachers-The matters of vital concern to teachers are of vital concern to the efficiency of the school. If we could secure an honest cross section of the teachers' sentiment throughout this country, undoubtedly, we should find teachers are interested in adequate salaries, desirable working conditions, and helpful supervision; that they desire to be provided with the tools with which to work and with helpful and in- spirational leadership. These are not problems for a Bureau of Research. They are the direct responsibility of the superintendent of schools, to the extent that the superintendent can meet these legitimate demands and in the degree that he can safeguard his future supply of teachers he will secure for his city the improvement in professional service for which everyone is looking. Each city presents its own problem. In the last few years, in Buffalo , we have more than doubled our salary scale. We have defined the business of supervisors as to commend intelligently that which is good, and con- structively and sympathetically to criticize that which is weak. We have exalted the elementary school principal as the keystone of our supervisory system. We have succeeded in partially emancipating deputy superintend- ents from desk work so that they may spend a considerable part of their time in the schools. We have sought to have no class with more than 954 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION thirty-five pupils. We have provided every pupil from the fourth grade up with a dictionary. Our textbooks have been selected by the teachers who must use them. We have endeavored to establish traditions among the staff of coöperation and loyalty to the service.-E. C. Hartwell, Super- intendent of Schools, Buffalo, New York. Better Organized Curricula-Dead material can be found in practically any course offered in the academic subjects taught in our elementary and secondary schools. The existence of such dead matter means a great finan- cial loss to the country. If ten per cent of the subject-matter does not possess educative value in terms of life situations which will confront our boys and girls, then we may assume that the ten per cent of the energies of teachers and pupils expended in the study of such dead matter is wasted. We estimated that, considering the factor of teachers' salaries alone, we might be wasting $300,000 of the people's money annually in Denver through the use of materials of instruction devoid of educative value. An estimate of ten per cent of dead material in our present-day curricula is probably very conservative. Studies would indicate that a closer approxi- mation would be twenty to forty per cent in some of the subjects consid- ered of prime importance. It is needless to point out that the financial loss is of little importance compared to the educational loss. We have no right to waste ten per cent of the time of boys and girls-to deny them the growth in power to cope with life situations that comes from the use of materials whose educative values are most significant.-Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colorado. Possible Economies Through Organization-To conduct schools on a cheap basis results in a waste of the money of the taxpayer. The most wasteful elements in our public-school teaching are the recitation and the attempt to force all children, regardless of their wide differences of ability, through the same course of study in the same length of time. These two are closely related. The class recitation is a waste of the time of both child and teacher. It is primarily an attempt to test children on what they are supposed to have studied. A class of 30 children in a 30-minute recitation period can average one minute apiece reciting. What are they doing the other 29 minutes? They are listening to other children tell either what they already know or what they should be working out for themselves. This time is wasted. It occupies nearly half of every child's school day. It is possible to eliminate this waste. The science of education has ad- vanced sufficiently far for us to know how to test each child accurately. The recitation at the best gives a few smattering samples of the children's knowledge and skill. Scientifically prepared tests given at frequent inter- vals will show exactly what each child knows, wherein his weakness lies. Tests occupy about four per cent of the time consumed by recitations.- C. W. Washburne, Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka, Illinois. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 955 A Longer School Year-Suggested economies through a longer school year need most careful examination before acceptance. A recapitulation of the reasons for such a conclusion includes : a study of the argument that two years or even a large part of two years may be saved elementary pupils by the all-year plan; the fact that the all-year plan sends too many imma- ture and inadequately prepared pupils into the high schools where they are apt to fail. In addition to immaturity the children are of foreign parent- age and have handicaps other than lack of development. Consideration of the bilingual difficulty and the underprivileged lives which are the lot of a very large number makes it more reasonable to give these children an all- year school of two terms each instead of one of four. Such a plan is fol- lowed in the vocational and crippled classes where there is a strong motive operating to secure earnest work. Children in elementary schools should be educated without any artificial incentive to make time in reaching high schools. Time to assimilate what has been learned is a desirable element in the education of young children. That being true, there is no adequate basis for all-year schools other than for Americanization. In that field they are successful. But that does not open a vista of possible economies in a financial way. The longer school year does not lend itself to the prac- tice of economy as has been theoretically assumed by those who do not know. David B. Corson, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, New Jersey. Economies in Instruction-We shall now discuss the item of instruction, where savings are expected to be made. Reduction of teachers' salaries would be the immediate way in which this saving could be effected, and with reduced salaries the public would, unquestionably, face a reduction in the quality of service. This might be questioned by the layman, but any one familiar with the present state of teaching efficiency will immediately answer that there is much greater reason for an increase in salary to gain increased efficiency than there is for a decrease in salary to meet the public demand. Cold cash will not purchase high-powered instruction. If sal- aries were reduced, it may be argued that teachers, having adopted the pro- fession, would be obliged to remain in it. That is true, but the surplus of service is all that counts, and with a reduction in salary the surplus of service would be turned into a deficit. It is our judgment that the public would not favor a reduction in salaries, even if proposed by the board of education or school management.-R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS CHARLES E. DICKEY , SUPERINTENDENT OF ALLEGHENY COUNTY SCHOOLS PITTSBURGH , PENNSYLVANIA, CHAIRMAN The Superintendent's Relation to His Principals-Supervision of schools is often a failure. It is a failure if the program is characterized merely by 956 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION individual direction and leadership. It may be and usually is a success if characterized by definiteness and organized leadership in which supervisors, principals, and teachers intelligently coöperate. Supervision is training teachers in service. This is true regardless of whether teachers have normal training or not . The amount of training merely determines the point at which training in service shall begin. The principal on the one hand is the building representative of the super- intendent; on the other of the teacher. He is, therefore, in an important, and at the same time delicate, position. Through him the superintendent must arouse enthusiasm and inspire the teaching corps. Much can be done in this way to keep the morale of the teaching corps on a high plane. Through the principal the superintendent must see that each teacher has her room properly organized, a good daily program of studies, and makes proper application of the course of study. He is responsible for determin- ing the tone and spirit of the school. But probably more important is the provision for training teachers in service. This must be done by a careful study and application of the most important schoolroom factors, too often neglected or rather superficially treated by our normal schools and colleges, such as lesson planning, directing the study of pupils, lesson assignment, proper use of questions, proper use of textbooks, development of initiative, motivating the work of the schools, individual differences, and how to use standard tests and measurements.—A . G. Yawberg, Superin- tendent of Cuyahoga County Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. The County Superintendent's Relation to His Teachers-To me the most vital contact of all we have with the teacher is that which we get in visiting her school. We get her poise, her personality, the response she gets from her pupils, her organization, her technique. The visit to the school tells the whole story. We must not forget that our visit to the young teacher is a most trying time for her. Visitors are not frequent, and she is not at all sure of her pupils' responses . We need to give her time to show any piece of work she wishes to put on. I like to know the plans and the aims and then cover them casually when I talk to the chil- dren. It may be bad language on the playground, poor school attendance. poor study habits, a distaste for the health work to be done. Whatever it is, if I can cover it in a constructive way, it may give that lonely little teacher an encouraging lift. There must be the inspection of equipment. building, grounds. There must be a checking of the plans offered at In- stitute. We cannot expect each teacher to do everything but we expect them all to do certain required things, and then to choose other projects that fit their particular district, and carry the work through to comple- tion.- Fern Kennedy, Superintendent of Redwood County Schools, Red- wood Falls, Minnesota. The Superintendent's Relation to His School Directors-The relation- ship between a school board and a superintendent should be more like that existing between a board of bank directors and a cashier. These bank DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 957 directors represent the composite judgment of the stockholders and assume in part some of the responsibilities of administration. The more intricate and technical part of bank administration is left to the cashier and his subordinates . The directors of the bank review the policy of the ex- ecutive officer and keep check upon any rash policies that might endanger the welfare of the depositors or stockholders of the institution. The superintendent of the schools, while he is professionally trained and while he has within his power the direction of the technique in school ad- ministration-the employment and placement of teachers, the prescribing of method, the purchase of books, the elaboration of courses, the holding of institutes and teachers' meetings, and of certain detailed requirements tend- ing towards the professional growth of his teachers-must have some check placed upon him so that his professional judgment may not run bias to the ability of his districts to meet the obligations incident to his policy. If he acts with prudence and lays his policies before his school board as a cashier might lay his policy before a board of directors and allows them to think through and to exchange judgments in reference to his policy, there will be no possibility of inflicting upon a community service beyond their ability to pay.-M. S. Bentz, Superintendent of Cambrian County Schools, Ebensburg, Pennsylvania. Visiting Schools-The effectiveness of the visit of the superintendent will depend almost entirely upon the definiteness of his schedule of visits , the degree to which his visit is known in advance by the citizens of the dis- tricts which he will visit, the proposals that he has to offer, and the sanity with which he supports his proposals. The visit of the superintendent should not be one of an official inspector. It should be one of an educa- tional crusader. It is impossible for the superintendent of the average county inAmerica to supervise the schools. Too many of the visits of the county superintendents of America are made without plan or purpose other than to fulfill the requirement of the law. The weather is good today and the road is fine so we make a long trip, visit as many schools as possible. We glance at the light, we sense the heat, we frown at the blackboard, we smile at the teacher, we greet the children, and hasten out to the next school. The next day the weather is bad, the roads are less easily traveled than the day before. We make a short trip, repeat the performance of the day before. The visits have been made, we have sensed in a vague way the situation, but we have left no real impress upon the school. We "saw the school as it really was" and we left it in the same sad state unaffected for the better as a result of our visit .-M. S. Pittman, Director of Rural Education, Ypsilanti, Michigan . Evening Schools in Our Rural Communities-For years we have de- luded ourselves with the pleasant little fiction that "America is the melting pot ofthe nations," that we may pour in millions of English, Swedish, Rus- sians, Germans, and Greeks, and overnight, by some necromancy or some 958 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION little understood alchemy, these millions are transmuted into the gold of American citizenship, loyal to the American flag, obedient to American laws, and inspired by American ideals. Not until the World War awoke us with a shock did we realize that literally millions of German people had come to America with the distinct purpose of converting this country to the "Kultur of Germany"; and congregated in a homogeneous community and guided by a foreign press, they were in America but not of America. Then indeed we became for the first time aware that this was true not alone of Germany, but of many another people; that while probably no other nation carried on a definite program of propaganda, by the completeness of our neglect we had permitted to grow up within our borders a multitude of groups which while probably not actively hostile to our Nation, yet felt no impulse to become ideal Americans . It was the realization of this condition re-enforced by the conviction that no one ignorant of American institutions, customs, and ideals is likely to become a vigorous and vital American citizen, that led us to give atten- tion to a type of education which has become known by the fitting title of Americanization. Now, more effort is made in all the schools to instil into the minds of children of both native and foreign birth those principles of American government which make intelligent and worthy American citizens. Lillia E. Johnson, Superintendent of Eau Claire County Schools, Eau Claire, Wisconsin. : School Administration in St. Louis County-St. Louis County is the largest, richest, and one of the most northerly in Minnesota. It is larger than the combined areas of Connecticut and Rhode Island and about two- thirds the size of New Jersey, New Hampshire, Vermont, or Massachu- setts. Its valuation is $375,000,000 as compared with $425,767,020 for the entire State of Montana. It has a population of 225,000 of whom 110,000 are in Duluth ; 85,000 in the Iron Country, and 30,000 scattered throughout the rest of the county, which is devoted to farming, grazing, and cut-over lands. There is one large special school district, thirteen large independent districts situated on the Mesaba and Vermilion Iron Ranges, twenty-two common school districts, and the large county district which comprises one hundred twenty Congressional townships. For the last fifteen years, the trend in organization and development has been toward the larger school unit. This form of district has much to commend itself over the small district units. Its schools are generally stronger, more uniform, more easily directed, less wasteful, better housed, better equipped, and better taught. The 220 rural teachers employed by the county board of edu- cation in the 167 schools of this large unorganized territory have a better chance for advancement as they can be placed directly on their merits, and promoted accordingly.-C. H. Barnes, Superintendent of St. Louis County Schools, Duluth, Minnesota. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 959 Leadership-Personnel is a difficult thing to define. And it is more difficult to meet a challenge if one makes an assertion concerning the per- sonnel of a teaching force. Yet, in Montgomery County, we think that one of the best contributions that we have made to education is in this very indefinable something we call personnel. It is at least reassuring to note that casual visitors to the county remark upon it. As evidence of it we may mention that the teachers have registered one hundred per cent in the Alabama Education Association for six consecutive years and that they registered one hundred per cent in the National Education Association the only time that they have been called upon to do so. Or it may be noted that only fourteen of one hundred ten teachers hold lower than a first grade certificate or better ; that all have had training equivalent to gradua- tion from a four-year high school or better; that they are in overwhelming numbers graduates of normal schools ; that more than three-fourths of those who teach in high schools are graduates of colleges or universities ; that inpoint of character and culture they are the equals of the best teachers to be found in any system of city schools.-A . F. Harman, County Super- intendent of Education, Montgomery County, Alabama. A County-Wide Program of Extra-Curricula Activities-This is an in- tensely pragmatic age. It is a day of applied science, utilitarian religion, practical psychology, laboratory education. The modern schoolmaster is interested more in the act of expression than the process of impression. It pleases him better to see an exhibition of righteous conduct than to hear a rehearsal of fine precepts. A well-thought-out program of extra-curricular activities does much toward making abstract facts of the textbooks avail- able for use. Dry and tedious tasks of the classroom become interesting and worthwhile the moment they are linked up with a desirable purpose. Ordinary physical training is pure drudgery, while football practice holds enthusiasm for an hour at a time. English composition is a bore, but stu- dents sit up nights to write articles for the school paper or formulate argu- ments for an inter-school debate. What interest has a lesson in singing without an operetta in prospect ? What appeal has a class in oratory unless there is an approaching speaking contest ? The superintendent who sup- plements the formal school curricula by related outside projects is certain to be pleased with the transformation of many a timid theorist into a cap- able and confident workman. In Portage County, Ohio, we have been experimenting for the last eight years on a scheme of extra-curricular events on a county-wide basis . We do not claim that ours is the best or only plan; but it is a practical working plan, heartily approved and supported by every one of our twenty- three consolidated schools.40. E. Pore, Superintendent of Portage County Schools, Ravenna, Ohio. 960 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STATE SUPERINTENDENTS AND COMMISSIONERS J. M. MC CONNELL, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION , ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA CHAIRMAN Modern Education-The world is in confusion today and the cause of this great unrest is that we have all wealth and all knowledge and all science, but our social ideals and reactions are still those of the clan; our economics is little different from that of the cave dweller with his kitchen middens ; and our personal and national codes of ethics are scarcely in ad- vance of the codes of our forbears who fled before the glaciers. Most certainly the modern school must teach every high-school student a sociology which will fit him to live harmoniously in the complex society which machinery has brought us. We must have an economics that will mean for all skilled production, thrifty distribution, careful expenditureand wise investment. It must teach an ethics not of the books but of the soul, not of the past but of today, not of the dead but of the living. It must not leave physics and chemistry and mechanics untaught, but it must aid the humanity of today to catch up with civilization.-E. W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, New Hampshire. State School Support-During the last decade there has been a tendency for the State to recognize the weakness and inefficiency of any school system which depends entirely upon local initiative and local financial ability to support the public schools. The States are beginning to revise their school administrative and school taxing laws so as to give more prominence to the county and to assume more responsibility by the State itself; however, as late as 1920, the expenditure for education by counties and districts was four times as much per capita as the amount expended by the States. The State should furnish the major portion of school support. "Wealth should be taxed where it is located and the money spent where the children live." The support should be adequate and stable; it should have its sources mainly fixed in the constitution so that a desirable minimum will be beyond the power of rival interests to encroach upon by legislative action. If a local district does not have high enough ideals in matters of public education, the safety of this republic requires the State to assume the re- sponsibility. Quoting from Honorable Herbert Hoover: "The first ideal of our democracy is to maintain a State where each individual will have an equality of opportunity to take that position in the community to which his intelligence, ability, and ambitions entitle him."-S. M. N. Marrs, State Superintendent of Education, Austin, Texas. State and Local Support-Ninety-nine districts in the State of Montana heeded no special district levy last year for the support of their schools ; 588 districts had levies of 15 mills or more. The idea ofdistributing State revenues secured from the whole State only to certain districts most in need is not readily acceptable to the rank and file of legislators or of voters. Injustices in the distribution of State aid in States where districts carrying DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 961 the heaviest burdens locally do not receive as much State and county as- sistance as other districts in better financial condition, furnish strong arguments against increased State support of schools until such time as in- equalities within counties can be more satisfactorily adjusted. -May Trumper, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin. Principles Underlying School Support-The principles underlying the selection of sources and the distribution of funds for school support in Delaware are as follows : ( 1 ) The State owes an equal educational op- portunity to all of her boys and girls; (2) financing public education is a State rather than a local duty; (3) the total tangible property of the State and its total adult population should contribute to the support of the public schools, and at the same rate; (4) incomes above a certain minimum, rep- resenting the ability of individuals to contribute to the future stability of the government which makes them possible, should bear a reasonable share of the expense of public education; (5) any community desiring to provide more expensive educational advantages for its children has a right to levy upon itself additional taxes to provide for the same; and (6) as far as the State is concerned, the educational needs of its districts, and not their ability to pay, are the proper basis for the distribution of funds available for public education.-H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public In- struction, Dover, Delaware. Department of Visual Education OFFICERS President-H. B. WILSON, Superintendent of Schools . Berkeley, California - President-A. W. ABRAMS, State Department of Education Vice ...Albany, New York Secretary-DUDLEY GRANT HAYS, Director of Visual Education, City Schools .. Chicago, Illinois The Department of Visual Education was organized at the Oakland-San Fran- cisco Convention in July, 1923. See Addresses and Proceedings of 1923, page 85-A. Tuesday Afternoon, July 1, 1924 Illustrations of the Technique of Using Visual Aids in Classroom Instruction THE RELATION OF VISUAL AIDS TO EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Laura Zirbes, Lincoln School, Teachers College, New York City. THE VALUE OF MOVING PICTURES AS AN AID TO TEACHING LANGUAGES AND CITIZEN- SHIP TO ADULT FOREIGNERS Maud E. Aiton, Director of Americanization, Public Schools, Washington, D. C. THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN THE USE OF VISUAL AIDS A. G. Balcom, Newark Public Schools, Newark, N. J. VISUAL IMAGERY IN GEOGRAPHY ILLUSTRATED BY BLACKBOARD DEMONSTRATIONS W. W. Atwood, President, Clark University, Worcester, Mass . DISCUSSION LED BY A. W. Abrams, Director of Visual Instruction, Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Thursday Afternoon, July 3 VOCAL SOLOS : "The Nile" ( Levoux) " Spring Song" ( Weil) , with violin obligato by Charles Griffith, Newark, N. J. Laura Bryant, Supervisor of Music, Ithaca, N. Y. MAKING THE HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS REAL TO CHILDREN Eleanor B. Watson, Public Schools, Peoria, III. HOW TO REACH THE MASSES WITH HEALTH EDUCATION C. Ward Crampton, M. D., National Chairman, Physical Education, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, New York City. CORTICAL VISUAL PROCESSES AND THEIR EDUCATION Walter B. Swift, Emerson College of Oratory, Boston, Mass . YALE HISTORICAL FILMS Nathaniel W. Stephenson, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DISCUSSION LED BY Dudley Grant Hays, Director, Visual Instruction, City Schools, Chicago, III. The officers elected for the coming year are as follows : President, Ernest Cran- dall, Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools, New York City ; l'ice- President, Dudley Grant Hays, Director Visual Instruction, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill.; Secretary and Treasurer, A. W. Abrams , Chief of the Visual Instruction Division of New York State University, Albany, N. Y. These officers, together with A. G. Balcom, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N. J .; and H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Berkeley, Calif., constitute the Executive Committee. [963] 964 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE RELATION OF VISUAL AIDS TO EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES LAURA ZIRBES , LINCOLN SCHOOL , TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Investigation and experiment in the field of visual education have al- ready produced a beneficially critical attitude on the part of those who have seen the results. The next step is the careful experimental evaluation of specific types of visual materials and techniques as means to the attainment of definite educational objectives. I have selected a number of illustrative incidents which embody definite educational objectives in the light of which visual aids assume their only legitimate educational significance . The accumulation of meanings is a major objective of education. Its significance begins at birth. Even unguided visual experience adds daily to the young child's stock of meanings. But mere seeing does not inevitably lead to increased and enriched stock of meanings. There must be adequate provision for interpretation and reaction on the part of the learner. First- hand experiences do not suffice. The judicious use of concrete visual ap- proximations to experience satisfies the curiosity and interest of the child, provides the raw material or basis for thought and growth. The educa- tional value can be secured without overstimulation and sophistication, which often result when other considerations are uppermost. In a certain school, a fifth-grade class was interested in the wild life of its own State. One child claimed that there were now no wild animals in the State except birds. Another insisted that there were many varieties. At this point the teacher suggested that the State conservation department might be consulted. As a result of correspondence a set of 53 slides was received, each picturing a specimen of wild animal life known to exist in the State. While slides were being shown, the children asked numerous questions as to the exact habits and habitation of the animals . A number of pupils referred to their State maps and expressed surprise when the legends which accompanied the slides told of the distribution and the abundance of wild life in what is considered a densely populated section. One of the children wondered whether the abundance of wild life was not injurious to crops. Another suggested that some animals stole and ate chickens . Another said that some animals help the farmers. After some discussion the class decided that each pupil should look up one animal with this question in mind and make a report. In the course of these reports an interest in the insect pests of the State was developed, which in turn led to related activities during the school year and the sum- mer vacation. The stock of new meanings acquired as a direct consequence of the wild animal slides would have been quite out of the question without the use of some visual aids. The slides were appropriately colored, and this was one feature which made them superior to other types of visual DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 965 presentation for this purpose. But the subservience of the slides to the educational objectives conditioned the other values. A similar set of animal slides was shown to a first-grade class. When the picture of the squirrel was shown, a number of children attempted to relate personal experiences. The teacher told them to save their stories for another time, as there were many pictures to be seen. The children subsided, but when the picture of the wild rabbit was shown, another flood of tales seemed to be forthcoming. The teacher threatened to stop showing the pictures unless the children kept their stories to themselves . Thinking that the repression was aimed only at stories, some pupils asked what the names of unknown animals were. With considerable uncertainity the teacher attempted to answer. When one child knew better than she did, and ventured a remark, his contribution was passed by, and attention was turned to the next picture. The children began to get results. Two of those who had been most interested were soon teasing each other and creating disturbance. Others were distracted. The slides followed each other more rapidly as the teacher noted these conditions, but all were shown. The children returned to their room in a great hurry late for lunch. They were told to eat without speaking to make up for lost time. This situation furnishes a vivid contrast to that previously cited. Op- portunities for response were cut off. Overstimulation was carried to a dangerous extreme. Connections with past experiences were neglected and questions were inadequately answered. No new stock of interests, meanings, or activities grew out of this experience. The use of one or two pictures related to pupil interests, with adequate opportunity for exchang- ing ideas and sharing experiences, would not have conflicted with educa- tional objectives, and would assuredly have yielded educative values. The range of educational objectives is wide. Brief instances must suffice to show how educational consideration must affect the selection and use of visual aids. Abstract ideas are notably difficult for immature students. History and civics texts are full of such abstract terms . What provision do text book writers make for clarifying concepts and ideas upon which the comprehension and assimilation of their texts depend? Repro- duction of photographs of individuals are numerous, but they contribute nothing to the vividness of such terms as industrial revolution, currency reform, or urbanization. For the elucidation of the last mentioned idea a series of simple black and white maps has proved its effectiveness and also certain new materials which are now being experimentally evaluated. Picture stories and sharply contrasted scenes are used to show the changes brought about by successive inventions and improvements. Dr. Daniel Knowlton has found that students get a realization of abstract and difficult ideas by attempting to set them forth in original cartoons. Others have found allegories and cartoons helpful, even when not original. Another type of visual presentation makes for a surer grasp and realiza- tion of significant numerical relationships too often concealed in uninterest 966 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing statistics. In this connection the educational possibilities of bar and line graphs have not been adequately appreciated. From a questionnaire used in experimentation with such visual aids, Dr. Rugg has found ample ground for increasing their use. Another educational objective is the organization of ideas in a manner which promotes recall and fixes certain significant relationships for later use. If a diagrammatic sketch is made in the course of explanation by the instructor, each phase of an intricate process or series of relationships becomes evident. The use of numerals in the key to the finished diagram fixes sequence. The diagram must eliminate all irrelevance and require no intricate draughtsmanship. The reproduction of the diagram from the key can then be required, and furnishes an excellent test which shows both students and teachers to what extent the material has been mastered or requires review or additional study. This idea has been used ex- perimentally by Mr. Charles Finley, of New York City, in teaching general science and biology. He found that diagrams could be reproduced at will by practically all students who had mastered this, and that stu- dents could answer test questions by recalling diagrams without actually reproducing them . Pageants, plays, and movies practically contribute to the recreation and appreciation of historical episodes. Stereographs, with their three dimensional effect, are particularly conducive to the grasp of geographical material in which accurate imagery conditions comprehension. The stereograph is also helpful in providing students of languages cor- rect notions of ideas represented by a given vocabulary. Unadaptable teachers who find stereographs poorly suited to mass methods will miss the opportunity which stereographs offer for provision for individual differences and individual responses in the light of which modern psychology criticizes mass methods . Visual aids may not receive the uncritical acclaim which was accorded them some years ago. What is more significant is the fact that they are receiving that careful critical evaluation as a result of which really signif- icant values will eventually receive due consideration in the educational budget and program. THE VALUE OF MOVING PICTURES AS AN AID TO TEACHING LANGUAGES AND CITIZENSHIP TO ADULT FOREIGNERS MAUDE E. AITON, PRINCIPAL, AMERICANIZATION WORK, PUBLIC SCHOOLS WASHINGTON, D. C. It is generally being conceded that the motion picture is one of the greatest factors in the education of the youth of today. Whether that education is to be for weal or for woe depends largely upon the educators themselves. DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 967 Joseph J. Weber, of the University of Texas, has undoubtedly made one of the most scientific investigations into the value of the moving picture as a visual aid in teaching in the grades that has yet been made. In the general conclusions of the report given of "Comparative Effectiveness of Visual Aids" we learn: (a) that the averages of the Film Lecture presenta- tion are almost invariably higher than any of the other three methods ; (b) when measuring the effectiveness of a pictorial presentation against a verbal presentation, both verbal and pictorial tests should be made; ( c) the subtitles of pictures can be made the basis for a middle-ground test in comparing the effectiveness of verbal pictorial methods ; (d) since in a verbal test the pictorial impression must be translated into verbal imagery by the examinees, it is remarkable to find that the "Film Alone" is almost as effective as either " Study" or the "Teacher" ; and ( e) a pictorial presenta- tion compared with a verbal presentation, has a manifestly greater influence upon choice by at least two per cent. Summarily stated, Experiment D. tends to establish the validity of com- bining words with pictures in teaching. Therefore the biggest task in the field of visual instruction now is the actual elaboration of a specific methodology. Further, William C. Bagley, Professor of Education in Columbia Uni- versity, says "Concreteness in Education" "Effective teaching depends very largely upon the ability to choose just the right details that will force home the important lessons; to provide an abundance of concreteness at just the right point. The teacher who is really an artist in the work of teaching must know both how and where to make the important details stand out sharp and clear-how and where to place the emphasis. Maps, diagrams, models, and pictures may be made most serviceable means to this end. But they are most useful only when they accurately portray typical situations. Illustrations in the best modern textbooks are usually well selected from the point of view of their accuracy as a rule they represent typical situa- tions. The approach of reality, however, is much more closely realized by pictures projected through a stereopticon, by moving pictures, and by stereographs." Dr. John J. Tigert, U. S. Commissioner of Education, in a hearingbe- fore the Federal Trade Commission, said, "I believe that in our problem of Americanization, which is one of the greatest educational problems that we have, the motion picture is going to be one of the most useful means of handling that problem. Through the use of the motion picture people of any race and speaking any kind of language can very readily comprehend what America is, what its institutions are, what its history has been, what its traditions are, and what the ideals of the American people are." Asurvey of the Americanization problem, the concrete lessons given, the methodology developed, and the reproductions from groups of adult students, webelieve, will show the value of the motion picture in our particular work. The great problem of Americanization work is to aid the adult foreigner 968 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in his economic, social, and spiritual adjustments to the new life, and to interpret for him the best of American ideals. This means real assimilation. The first need for such adjustments is a common language. The second need is a definite knowledge of the country and its institutions. The third need is to know the definite contribution each individual has to offer and . aid him in making the right contacts, thus adding to the enrichment of our civilization. Our conclusions were that these three steps, which lead to the ultimate goal of our work, should also be the tests of each moving- picture lesson. 1. Is the English language being definitely and directly taught? 2. Is information of actual value being given ? 3. Is the student making a definite contribution to this lesson ? An adverse criticism of a student only three months in America, given after our first trial lesson, so aided us in our work that it is well worth quoting. "My opinion about learning English with moving pictures is not favorable. I think it is very good to use a picture for a moral, but to learn the language, I think it is not useful; because when we use words and sentences together, we must make a story of them. To understand a moving picture we must follow more the pictures than the words, because the words alone are not significant. For instance, when we go to see a moving picture, we don't look out on the words, but on the picture, and each wise man will take a moral of every picture ; but he will not take a grammar lesson of it. For a single instance never a teacher taught grammar with pictures." ( Signed) A. VERBEECK. We analyzed this criticism and talked with many students. The con- clusions reached were, first, information could be given easily by the motion-picture lesson; second, language instruction, the first need of the foreign student, was far more difficult. No student must feel that we were losing valuable time and depriving him of the opportunity to learn English by showing a moving picture. Before giving the initial picture which brought forth the foregoing criticism, we had attempted to meet the needs of the student by careful preparation, but we now saw that the preparation stressed information instead of making the teaching of English the first objective. Hence our chief problem became, " Is the moving picture an aid in teaching the English language?" The future pictures to be given were carefully reviewed, all "titles" noted, the picture vocabulary listed, and reference reading for teachers made available. A preparatory lesson in the classroom was decided upon; but more important than all this was our discussion which centered around these two thoughts : How can the student be made an active instead of a passive participant in the picture lesson ? and How can we pull back the non-English-speaking student's mind from his native language while he is looking at a motion picture ? How can we make him keenly alert, not only in the picture and its story, but in the English ofthe picture? DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 969 Briefly, our conclusions were these : The film should be short, 1000 feet. There should be a preparatory lesson in which the titles should be ex- plained or partially explained. In other words, the language of the picture was given, so that the student group would be accustomed to the language sounds. The student should be encouraged to ask questions, to talk, to say as the picture was shown, "I don't understand," "What is that ?" "Why ?" After one showing of the picture there should be a period of discussion, questions, and explanations. The picture should be shown again, the students reading, explaining to one another and noting particular points brought out in the discussion. After the picture has been shown, a letter telling of the picture should be written by the student. I will quote from another letter received from the same student after the moving pictures had been used for seven weeks : When I first saw the pictures, I thought in my own language and, of course, with Flemish and French words in my mind ; I could not then have place enough for English. When I made this remark, Mrs Kiernan used the middle course ; she let me speak and speak, and English words were obliged to come; Flemish and French were obliged to stay. ( The solution was, "to speak and speak in English.") The students' letters which followed the trial lessons will give in their own words their reaction to this method. For ourselves, we felt that we had solved the first problem, Are we teaching English ? The second problem is, "Is information of actual value to the adult foreigner being given?" Let us define "actual value." The vast field that the motion picture opens to the educator is dazzling. Any picture may be used as suggested for teaching the English language; but to choose information of actual value to the foreigner means discrimination, a keen sense of needs and interests of the foreign group, the ability on the part ofthe educator to visualize the type of picture to which the foreign student may contribute something. In choosing we have tried to keep in mind the adjustments that are being made-economic, social, spiritual. What are the American customs and institutions which the foreigner most needs to aid in these adjustments ? On the other hand, what pictures may we use? We public school teachers with no money for experimental work? We have tried to give information the background for which is common to all, and hence have chosen films from the Department of Agriculture, that great human department of the government which is so near to the primal wants of man. Our group of students come from the four quarters ofthe globe, but farming and food are universal. To even city dwellers from Rome, Constantinople, Petrograd, and Paris, such pictures make America less unapproachable than life in our big cities often does. Hence, in the experimental work done, we have used, with two exceptions, Agricultural Department films, covering a variety of subjects. In all, over 100 lessons, using approximately 40 films, have been given. "Uncle Sam, World Champion Farmer, " took us to many parts 970 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the United States. Agricultural processes were noted and compared. To the foreigner who had only known America through New York, Philadelphia, or Washington, this information is of "actual value." "Keeping Out Bad Foods" shows how a specific Government bureau functions in executing a single law. It shows one of the general welfare acts; it makes government of personal value. If we keep our purpose clearly before us, we shall not go astray in our choice, and the foreign group itself can give the best suggestions. "What do you want to know that the moving pictures can tell?" The answers will always cover cultural, industrial, and economic subjects. We must again remind ourselves, in the decision as to what is of value, that the student must be an active participant and not a passive recipient. The foreign adult must work with us in our program of our picture lessons. Many Federal departments have films to offer. Together we must choose. The third question which must be asked to test the value of the lesson is, "What is the student's contribution ?" Unexpected results have come to us. We gave a series of pictures to teach the foreigner. As usual in our work we have received as much or more than we have given. Every picture we have shown has made the group eager to tell of how this process is carried on in his native land. The English is broken, but words are searched for, so that we all may know, and hence the lesson becomes a composite, with the United States leading in showing the most scientific ways. Out of the contributions and at times even more interesting grew the teaching of correlated subjects at the closing of our lessons. American poems, folk songs, have been thrown on the screen and learned at a time when their meaning was clearly understood because of the picture that had been shown. Songs, music, and poems that the picture has suggested, and that the student has given to the group, have been a real cultural contribution. Quoting from Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus of Harvard Uni- versity, in his "Introduction to Visual Education"- "The process differs entirely from looking passively at moving pictures for an hour or two. That looking yields little more than a transitory entertainment, for it cultivates neither the memory nor the power of correct description. Impressions succeed each other so rapidly that few are fixed in the memory, and the spectator is not called on for any mental effort of his own." We have endeavored to avoid this objection to the motion picture through participation. This inquiry should include fatigue tests of the eye as well as examinations for determining the accuracy and amount DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 971 learned from the picture screen in comparison with results from the best oral instruction. These are points which we are planning to carefully in- vestigate. After a year's experimental work we are planning further in- vestigations by keeping careful records of actual accomplishments, a report of which will be made later. THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN THE USE OF VISUAL AIDS A. G. BALCOM , ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NEWARK, NEW JERSEY The human element in the teaching process-In evaluating the work of schools which it has been my privilege to know intimately there comes vividly to mind one which surpasses all the rest in the character of instruc- tion given, in the simplicity and effectiveness of organization, in the unanimity of purpose that pervades the teaching corps, in the mutual feel- ing of respect and confidence of teacher and pupil, and in the impulses and aspirations kindled in the minds and hearts of the pupils to make the most of themselves. The principal of this school is a scholarly man supremely devoted to the task of making the instruction of his school as vital and far-reaching as possible. He possesses a keen discernment of the essentials of subject-matter and how best these may be effectively taught. He is so modest that he is seldom willing to tell of his work by pen or speech . There is in the school an exceptionally strong corps of teachers who have been selected by reason of their love and understanding of children and who have been trained to go to the depth of subject-matter and to test fully every teaching device worthy to be placed in the hands of an efficient teacher. If you were to visit this school and go through the classes, you would receive a cordial greeting from teachers and pupils. You would be im- pressed that the ideal classroom is the happiest place on earth. You would note how the pupils responded to the directions of the teachers, and how they strove to receive a smile of approval from their teachers. You would see that nothing was done for the pupil that he could be reasonably expected to do for himself, and that the atmosphere of the classroom was conducive to good thinking and right action on the part of the pupils. You would be impressed as never before with those factors which are the outward evidences of the teacher's personality-namely, self-possession, the well modulated voice, the flash of the eye that sees trouble before it starts, and the facial expression which disapproves at one moment and rejoices the next. Those of us who are in constant touch with classroom conditions, realize 972 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that teaching devices, however excellent in themselves, must be understood by our teachers if they are to function vitally in the teaching process, and that graphic presentation of a subject requires the touch of a resourceful and sympathetic teacher in follow-up work to complete the lesson, to round it out, to clinch the important facts involved and to inspire the pupils to further study of the subject through their own initiative. Therefore, the dominant element in education is the teacher, and the only justification for the existence of machinery and organization outside of the classroom, is to make the teacher's work more efficient. The use of visual aids in the classroom-The use of visual aids in the classroom and auditorium will become effective in so far as teachers are trained to realize the relative value of the different types of picture illustra- tions and their effect upon the child mind. The teacher who has an appreciation of good photography as applied to slides and films and some knowledge of how this is obtained, is likely to become interested in using these aids in her teaching. The teacher who has been taught to operate a stereopticon and to adjust its several parts to the end of maximum screen efficiency, is likely to use one in her work. The teacher who has made a study of and has learned to operate a motion picture projector will want to use films in connection with her teaching. Above all, teachers who realize how circumscribed in their touch with the world the average child is, and that the eye has not been appealed to in proportion to its importance among the organs of sense in the teaching process, will want to employ such methods of presentation as will give their teaching the stamp. of realism . Training received in normal schools and colleges-Believing that the most important factor in the use of visual aids in teaching is the prepara- tion of teachers, I became interested in knowing what institutions through- out the country, where teachers are trained, were doing along this line. Therefore, about five months ago I sent the following questionnaire to 146 normal schools and colleges of the country, representing 43 States: 1. Are you using slides? If so, to what extent and in connection with what subjects ? 2. Do your students receive instruction on the teaching value of the slide? 3. What is the source of supply of your slides ? 4. How many stereopticons has your school that are regularly used? 5. Are your students taught the mechanism of a stereopticon ? What percentage of your graduates are able to operate one ? 6. Do you use films for instructional purposes ? In connection with what subjects ? 7. Do you rent or purchase films ? From whom ? 8. Do your students receive instruction on how best to use a film for teaching purposes ? 9. What type of motion picture projectors are in use in your school? Are they satisfactory ? 10. What percentage of your students are trained to operate these projectors The number of answers received was 82, representing 39 States. Number using slides was 71. Number where students are taught teaching value DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 973 of the slide was 44. Number where students are taught mechanism of stereopticon and how to operate one, 31. Number where films are used, 39. Number where students are taught the teaching value of the film, 12. Number where students are taught to operate machines, 5 . The answers are significant in that they show that much needs to be done in our normal schools and colleges in order that their graduates shall be trained to use visual aids in the classroom. Only about half of the institutions give any training in the teaching value of the slide; and less than half (31 out of 82) give training in the mechanism of a stereopticon and how to operate one. Less than half ( 39 out of 82) report that films are used. A still smaller percentage ( 12 out of 82) give instruction on the teaching value of the film; and only five report giving any training in how to operate a motion-picture machine. Out of twenty-seven replies received from a group of States classed as North Central States, there were 25 reported as using slides; and 15 where students are taught the teaching value of the slide; 10 where students are taught the mechanism of the stereopticon and how to operate one ; 16 where films are used; 8 where students are taught the teaching value of the film; and 4 where students are taught to operate machines. The schools located in this section of the country and the States farther west report the greatest progress in preparing teachers to use films and slides. The individual schools that have been the most progressive in this field of work are: The Cleveland School of Education, and State Teachers College, San Francisco, Calif. The individual States that have been most progressive through their departments of public instruction are Michigan and New York, the latter particularly in its slide service. Three schools of Michigan-namely, Central Michigan Normal School at Mt. Pleasant, Western State Normal School at Kalamazoo, and State Normal College at Ypsilanti-report progressive work in training how to use films and how to operate motion-picture projectors through coöperation with the State Department. How aid in preparing teachers to use visual aids-In stressing the im- portance of teacher training in the use of visual aids the fundamental pur- poses of pictorial illustration should be broadly considered. In my judgment such a training involves a greater use of the blackboard, and more skill in thehandling of chalk; the acquirement of ability to use to the fullest extent charts, maps, and graphs ; a study of the pictures that appear in the text- books in use by the pupils; a collection of pictures cut from newspapers, magazines, and discarded books that illustrate topics under consideration ; cooperation with the local library and museum in communities where these exist in the use of exhibits, charts, pictures, and other material; full con- sideration of the possibilities in the use of the stereograph to develop keen- ness of observation, initiative, and self expression; a study of the slide and recognition of the many uses to which it may be put in illustrating subject- matter; and a study of the film, the youngest member in the family of visual 974 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION aids, and by virtue of the motion involved in its representation giving a stamp of reality to the subject illustrated (where motion prevails) that cannot be given by other means . These all have a place as a means of illustration and should receive attention in teacher training. I am convinced that the mechanical side of the stereopticon and motion picture projector has been a considerable barrier to the use of slides and films. I recall my experience in going from school to school in Newark and meeting groups of teachers for the purpose of teaching them how to operate a stereopticon and care for the same, and how this has greatly increased the use of slides in those schools. The problem of operating standard professional machines in school buildings for instructional purposes is an educational one and should be solved in an educational way through training of principals and teachers as operators. In my own city this work of operating machines in the schools is handled by my department, which has the approval of the Board of Education and the Bureau of Fire Risks and Combustibles. The department has available for those who wish to qualify to operate projectors, standard professional and portable, typewritten directions covering the essential things to know about the mechanism of a projector, how to operate it, what to do in case of an emergency, the mending and care of films, and the laws and regula- tions governing the same. An applicant is given experience in threading and running the projector under competent direction, and then takes a written examination. If both are found satisfactory, the applicant is given a permit to operate a projector in the schools for instructional purposes. This policy has been conducive to a minimum wear on film and good care of equipment. The hazard of the film, even the inflammable, has been greatly exaggerated, so that over rigid and in some cases ridiculous laws have been passed with no discrimination between conditions that obtain when a popular audience views a feature film and when an instruc- tional film is shown in the classroom or auditorium. It is claimed that the chief hazard involved in the use of the film comes from the possibility of a panic ensuing when something goes wrong. There is a vast difference between the control of pupils in a classroom or audi- torium and that of a popular audience. The modern projector with its safety devices and acetate film makes it possible to operate in classroom or auditorium without fireproof booth, and it is hoped in time will result in doing away with iron-clad laws which in some instances now make it im- possible to use instructional films in schools. In conclusion, let me say that we should sound the note from the house- tops and along the by-ways of having teachers trained in the use of visual aids in normal schools and colleges, in summer schools and in evening and day classes formed for this purpose in city school systems. We should use every effort to give publicity to visual instruction in educational gatherings and in newspapers and magazines. Lastly, that in so far as the individual classroom teacher becomes imbued and equipped to do this work will its success be assured. DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 975 VISUAL IMAGERY IN GEOGRAPHY-ABSTRACT WALLACE W. ATWOOD, PRESIDENT, CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS The laboratory for the student of geography is out-of-doors. The study in a broad sense is a nature study. Man is seen adjusting himself to an ever-changing environment. Primitive peoples make that adjustment almost helplessly. They are virtually controlled by the geographic factors in their environment. For their building material, for their foods, and for their clothing, they look to the natural resources that are easily available. In a more complex society man overcomes somewhat the difficulties put in his way by geographic factors, but each time he does so it is at an additional expense . In the end he must adjust himself to his environ- ment. The development of domestic and foreign trade, the development of international relations, are resultants due largely to man's effort to find a market for his surplus material and to secure in exchange articles produced in other geographic regions. The new geography becomes therefore a study of the great drama of civilization. It is in a sense a study of actually living, moving, pictures ; and vivid imagery is absolutely essential. Nothing has more forcefully impressed upon me our dependence upon methods for visual instruction than the study which I have recently made to improve the teaching of geography to the blind. Their misfortune handicaps them perhaps more in the study of geography than in any other of the branches of study com- monly followed in our public schools. I now believe that we depend upon the help of the eye for fully ninety per cent of our imagery in the teaching of geography. A properly selected picture deserves careful study. It may serve as the basis for an entire lesson. The art of reading maps is of the greatest significance and that art should be developed until the comparative map study becomes an integral part of every course of study. Concrete objects from a museum are often very helpful. Handwork by the students and handwork at the blackboard while a lesson is proceeding are also very effective. The picture that grows as the discussion develops has an appeal of its own. When it is completed it may be quickly erased; while it is growing it has a remarkable power of holding the attention of all those in the class on one thing at a time. It is perhaps but a diagram, but the power of emphasis which comes through a well-made diagram is difficult to equal with spoken words. The power of emphasis which comes with the perspective drawing is even greater, so that the actual working up of drawings while the lesson is proceeding is an art that teachers of geography should develop. We might err by trying to use too many pictures, or too many maps, or too many drawings in a single lesson, but we are almost certain to commit a serious error or fall far short of the greatest possibilities in a lesson on geography if we attempt to give that lesson without some special means for producing vivid visual imagery. 976 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MAKING THE HIGHWAYS AND BY-WAYS REAL TO CHILDREN ELEANOR B. WATSON, PEORIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PEORIA, ILLINOIS Twenty-five years ago geography, as taught, was chiefly descriptive. We are now in a period of human geography, regional geography, and visualized geography. It is with the last mentioned that we are chiefly concerned in this department. One of our famous geographers has said, "Geography more than many other studies depends upon the imagination of children for appreciation of its facts." For instance, it demands that they visualize the Rhine River with its castles, Paris with its magnificent streets and palaces, the Ruhr region with its smoke stacks, the cotton belt of the South, the corn belt of the North, and the grand scenery in our national parks. But the imagination cannot create outright. It can only reassemble items out of what has been experienced, or build up pictures of distant situations and conditions out of such related elements as are already well known. A child can visualize the above-mentioned things only to the extent that he has become acquainted with rivers, streets, palaces , manufacturing regions, farms, and fine views. Success in geography rests entirely upon this foundation of past experiences. Textbooks in geography have never sufficiently provided for this foundation. They have not to any great extent recalled and refined first-hand experiences of children and carefully put these together so as to arrive at others. They have always pre-supposed this foundation rather than supplied it. When we have made the highways and by-ways of the world real to children, we shall have put them in the attitude of wanting to know more about their daily studies in geography. Children by nature use well their keen powers of observation. If this quality is rightly directed, what a medium of education is there ! There is much concrete objective material that serves as excellent aids in geography teaching. Exhibits that are put out by many of the State universities and industrial concerns throughout the country-maps, pictures, stereographs, and lantern slides are all to be highly commended. The child beginning the study of geography needs to visualize most of what he learns the first year. How much more he appreciates a map when he has measured the schoolyard and made a plan of it from his own experi- ence! How much more he appreciates what is meant by people obtaining their shelter when he has watched a house in course of construction ! The student who can go through a steel mill and watch the iron from the time it goes into the furnace as pig iron until it comes out as a steel rod or a nail has a much greater appreciation of the place iron takes in the life of man . We cannot all take our pupils to the steel mill, or the cotton mill, or to the coffee plantation, or to the rubber regions, so we need to bring these various places to the children; and it is with stereographs and lantern DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 977 slides that I have been able to do this best. Through the use of these we can take the children to the most remote places of interest. No text or verbal description can give to the child such clear, strong concepts of sea coasts, deserts, miners going into a slope mine, the spinning- room of a cotton factory, the Grand Canyon, and countless other things, as does the stereograph . No set of artificial conditions set up in the recita- tion room can contribute so much to spontaneous self-expression and class discussion as can the lantern slide when properly prepared for. If a class is studying the industries of the New England States, and the one to discuss it studies the stereographs showing these industries thoroughly with the aim in view of explaining to his classmates what he has learned of the industries, the pouring-in process would be eliminated; the child would be doing his own thinking, using his eyes, and teaching others, while he, himself, is learning. In using all visual aids two things are of fundamental importance : ( 1 ) Teachers must have a clear conception of the definite relationship of the visual aids in use to the subject-matter in the curriculum; and ( 2) They should have a definite conception of how the various types of visual aids available, each in its own peculiar way, help most in attaining desirable educational objectives. Most of the stereographs and lantern slide sets put out by various com- panies have excellent reference systems-the reference chapters on geography, for instance, outlined in detail, and references given by number to the stereographs or slides that are definitely helpful in developing various phases of the subject. The use of the stereograph is essentially an individual matter. It is a very vivid representation, and one that makes a very strong impression on the pupil especially when it is definitely related to the subject the child is studying. One of my children exclaimed when looking at a stereograph showing cacao pods, "Why, Miss Watson, we could walk right out under those trees and pick the pods ! " That is the kind of reaction one gets when using stereographs. The idea of space could be no clearer-the pods stand out just as if they could be picked by reaching out. When I look around in this room, I know there is space that I can reach out into- when I look at the stereograph, I know I can't reach out into it, but the effect on me is the same . Children will unconsciously project themselves into the place represented to such an extent that they will for the time forget their immediate bodily surroundings. They may forget a descrip-. tion given in a textbook, but they will always remember the landscapes impressed upon them through the stereoscope window. The stereograph cannot be replaced by the slide or the film in this respect. Neither can it be used for the entire group at once as easily as can the slide. Hence, we use the stereograph as an aid to study, just as we use a reference book or the individual experiment in the laboratory. Many teachers are reluctant to use stereographs for the reason that they are not 978 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION sure of how to use them. I hope I may in the few moments allotted to me be able to make some helpful suggestions along this line. Where formal study periods exist the stereograph may pass from hand to hand just as a specimen might be passed, each pupil looking in turn while the rest of the class is busy with the preparation of the lesson. One beginning the use of the stereograph is very apt to make the mistake of wanting to use too many at once. I made that mistake, and when I found the children bewildered, I studied the situation, and decided that I was giving them too many. In a class of twenty-four three stereographs are as many as can be studied at one time with satisfactory results. The teacher should select the three to be studied as having some definite bearing on the lesson assigned for the day. These three are part of the assignment. In this individual study each child will get his own reaction, and probably no two will get the same. This is not a bad thing, for the class will have gained much by the contributions made by the various members. Aclass of twenty-four is apt to be arranged in three rows, and each row can be held responsible for one stereograph. Three stereographs may thus be studied systematically during a regular study period. Another method of handling them is to turn two or three minutes of the recitation over to the study of a stereograph. Have one pupil pass down the aisle, letting each pupil look through the scope for two or three seconds . While he is showing this stereograph, have him tell in his own words what he has read from the back of the card (he having studied this previously) . When all the class have seen the picture, one is then ready for the socialized recitation, where the teacher is only the director and the pupils the actors. It is well to keep the stereograph handy, for when pupils become interested in telling what they see, differences of opinion are apt to arise, and the stereograph may be needed to settle the discussion. Athird method is to pass the stereoscopes to all in one row, giving each one in the class a stereograph. The row with the stereoscopes will study their stereographs through the scopes for about one minute, when they will take the stereographs out of the scopes and pass the scopes to the pupils across the aisle, while they continue to study their stereographs with the naked eye and to read carefully the text on the back. In this way each pupil gets from five to eight minutes' study of the scene upon which he is to recite. In this time he can get a wealth of information and an intensely real impression. It is certainly desirable that the oral recitation should be strengthened, and in this method the child will learn that he must express himself in his daily recitations in correct English that it is an essential part of his recitation. Preparation of the lesson is individual on the pupil's part. When they depend on printed matter entirely their ideas are often hazy, and the stereographs will clear them up-not only that, they help interpret the text; they add new ideas; they create genuine enthusiasm for the lesson being studied. They should not be studied hurriedly. A picture should DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 979 be studied not merely to know what is there, but rather to communicate the results to others, and by doing this a sense of what is valuable is kept alive and exercised, and one is much more discriminating in consequence. In schools where the studying is done in the library or study hall the stereograph can be handled just as the reference book is. Each pupil makes his own use of it as the need develops in the preparation of the lesson. In some cases specific assignments are made to certain pupils to prepare the particular phases of the subject best presented by some certain stereograph . In all cases the stereograph is handled from the individual point of view, always having in mind its value as a stimulant to comprehensive reading in lesson preparation . When a definite section of the text has been covered, a review is needed ; and here is where the lantern slide will give most effective results . Whereas, the stereograph is a tool for individual lesson preparation, the lantern slide is used for recitation and group work. Its most effective func- tion is in the possibility of using it for recalling and summarizing the in- dividual work done with the stereograph. If the slide is used without this very effective individual preparation, it becomes primarily a source of in- formation subject to the interpretation of the teacher. Lantern slides may be used sometimes to cover rapidly a certain body of subject matter taken up for the first time, but it is not so highly valuable in that it does not give occasion for pupil self-expression afforded by the former method of procedure. When a group of lantern slides duplicating stereographs previously used is made the occasion of recalling the subject-matter covered the preceding ten days or two weeks, there results an entirely socialized recitation full of possibilities of spontaneity and interest. These review recitations with lantern slides should always if possible be a room activity. I like to use lantern slides in connection with the stereographs, and by the time eight or ten have been studied, every detail will have been seen. If the same view seen in the stereograph is thrown on the screen, the child's memory brings to him all the fine details of the stereograph. There will be differences of opinion in the class, and each pupil will want to give his own ideas. The ideal situation is to have a set of stereographs and a duplicate set of lantern slides. Such an equipment is a splendid medium for bringing out the timid child. Children like to do what they know how to do. As soon as the timid child stands before his class once, and makes a recitation about a picture, he is ready to do it again and again. When he has learned to talk a minute, he has progressed much. To have children anxious to do that sort of thing is worth a great deal. I am so anxious that my geography class shall not be like the cat the boy found a perfectly good cat, but a dead one that I use every visual aid I can get. Pictures are a very important educational agency. They may be made a very interesting, accurate, and effective means of expressing ideas and 980 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION material facts. Editors, publishers, and advertisers have long since dis- covered the commercial value of pictures. Not many advertisements are without pictures. Many full-page advertisements devote all but a few inches to pictures. Business men know the value of an appeal to the eye. Teachers can well afford to follow their example in teaching many things in geography. Pictures appeal. They touch the fundamentals of teaching. They command attention; hold it, and give a strong stimulus. Five minutes with the eyes open are worth more than pages of written explanations. Most of the geographies are filled with a wonderful assortment of pictures, and many a lesson can be taught by studying and discussing them and using the material of the printed page for reference only. Any method of visualizing class instruction carried on systematically will not only clear up hazy ideas in the minds of the children, but will also promote an increased teaching efficiency among teachers who are reluctant to adopt new teaching methods. Of all studies that are taken up in school, there is none that deals more with the realities of life than does the study of geography. Here is a great opportunity afforded the teacher for making the school a real place for real boys and real girls. Here is a chance to break up the idea of instruction by the authority of the teacher handed down to a mass of uninterested children proceeding in lock-step fashion through a world of geographical facts. We teachers of geography are most fortunate in having such a wealth of material made available for our use ; let us not neglect our opportunity. HOW TO REACH THE MASSES WITH HEALTH EDUCATION C. WARD CRAMPTON, M. D. , NATIONAL CHAIRMAN OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS The field of education is not restricted to the schools. Men and women of every age beyond the years of the school are in need of information on the subject of health. The average man is probably not more than 65 per cent efficient. The annual loss from preventative disability, deficiency, and disease in the United States may be calculated at upwards of seven hundred and fifty millions of dollars. The need of education on health is not confined to the proper methods of actual prevention of disease, but it is increasingly demanded by the public on the subject of how to live a 100 per cent life. Hitherto information on the subject of superior degrees of health has been given mainly by the yellow health journals of some doubtful character and the health columns of the daily press, which, fortunately, are increas- ingly reliable. DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 981 If you wish to reach this huge mass of ninety millions, you must go where they are. A large proportion of them, probably about twenty million, will be found once or twice a week at the moving-picture house. And it is this field for the health message to which I wish to call your attention. We can, I believe, make our health message as interesting, forceful, and dramatic as the average theatrical production at least. If we are clever enough, we can compete with Douglas Fairbanks and Pola Negri. The trouble with social service work in the past is that it has not been sufficiently in sympathy with the way the people think and fail to compete with commercial and recreational interests . The devil is clever, admittedly. It only remains for us to become as clever as the devil. With this point in view, I began work in November to prepare a set of films illustrating a scientific method of taking one's morning exercise daily. The first and perhaps the greatest victory was won when I prevailed upon the Pathe Review to produce them. For the past four months I have been progressing in my direction of them in the Tec-Art Studios in New York and the Pathe Review has spent upwards of $20,000 on this work. There are seven films each devoted to a single exercise. They will be released in October or November throughout the United States. In each of these films there are several definite elements . First there is the regular moving picture feature with spectacular interest intriguing the on-looker and putting him in a semi-moron and passive mental state which is typical. This, however, illustrates and focus upon him the important points. They set forth the historical sources of the exercises in Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Assyrian, and Medieval scenes. In each film, of course, the exer- cises themselves are shown and they are also analyzed and taught. In addition, the physiological and organic effects are demonstrated by scenes from medical laboratories with scientific apparatus in action. Animated cartoons are thrown in from time to time to keep the emotions receptive. Then finally the actual scenes of the bedroom in the home with the father, mother, and child doing the exercise are shown. The message is brought home in every sense. These films are still in the making, but they have been reviewed by the officers of the National Medical Association and the National Congress of Mothers and Teachers Associations. This is a pioneer effort of putting the health gospel on the screen in competition with the regular commercial releases. If it is a success, which it promises to be, it will perhaps mark the beginning of a happy epoch in the moving picture field and in health education, where the great public at large will receive unconsciously in the guise of entertainment a powerful stimulus toward good health and happiness . 982 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION YALE HISTORICAL FILMS NATHANIEL W. STEPHENSON, YALE UNIVERSITY NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT The great popular success of the extensive history of the United States known as The Chronicles of America led to the proposal to issue a series of educational photoplays based upon these volumes. As the books were issued by the Yale University Press, it was necessary to secure the authoriza- tion of Yale University before the new venture could be launched. Only after long deliberation was this permission granted. Three arguments brought it about the fact that the general reader was losing interest in American history and might be recaptured by a true statement of it in pictorial form; that the great number of foreigners who read little in English except for recreation might be told the story of our country through the medium of their eyes; and that children were tired of the con ventional ways of presenting history. The scheme upon which this work was to be produced called for a board of editors appointed by Yale University, who have general oversight of the entire undertaking. It also called for a body of specialists to whom the text of each play was to be submitted; and the retention by what is known as the Council's Committee on Publications of Yale University of a veto not only on the text, but upon the actual pictures produced from the text. The photoplays that are being prepared by the Yale University Press are not historical diagrams. It is easy enough to render history in that way, but what is wanted at the present moment is dramatic history which will also be true history. The purpose of this undertaking is to render drama a teaching instrument; to bring the drama into the service of history. With this end in view, a series of thirty-three plays have been devised that will deal with the high spots, so to speak, of American history from Columbus to 1865 . In producing these plays the authors are limited by three very sharp restrictions. They are not to invent major characters ; nor are they to invent major incidents; and they are to preserve the actual historic time in a sequence of incidents. The greatest temptation of the dramatic author is to disregard the latter requirement. So often the historical train of events is not just what the dramatist would like to have it, and, therefore. the temptation to tamper with it, to make things happen when, for dramatic purposes they ought to happen, is very great. The editors in this case stand relentlessly behind the author, requiring him to contrive, one way of another, both to present his material in a stirring dramatic way and to do so without violating in the least the truth of history. In order to bring about this result a group of literary people, including some talented playwrights, have gone to school, as one might say, to the DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 983 photoplay, and have learned its technique sufficiently to enable them to present history in this difficult new form. Their work is overseen by Professor George P. Baker, of Harvard, who serves as dramatic adviser to the whole undertaking. A large number of historical specialists have associated themselves with this enterprise, among them John Spencer Bassett, Charles M. Andrews, Clarence W. Alvord, St. George L. Sioussat, Yates Snowdon, E. C. Barker, Allen Johnson, I. J. Cox, and others. The board of editors comprises Dr. Max Farrand, Dr. Frank Ellsworth Spauld- ing, and Dr. Nathaniel Wright Stephenson . No pains are spared in making these pictures minutely accurate. Cos- tumes are especially designed by Mr. Harry Ogden, who is the recognized authority upon this subject in the United States. Mr. Fiske Kimball, architectural expert, acts as adviser on all architectural questions and details of furniture. A comprehensive system of research checks up every detail in the rendition of manners and customs . And all the minute details of a scene are studied with unflagging patience. To illustrate: it is mentioned by many historians that the commandant of Fort Le Boeuf when Wash- ington visited the fort was blind in one eye. The research workers of The Chronicles of America have devoted long and laborious effort to determining which eye was the blind one . Few difficulties in the screening of historical subjects are greater than the effort to find actors who will resemble historical portraits. In render- ing the young Washington, who went out to the frontier at the opening of the Seven Years' War with the famous challenge to the French from Gov- ernor Dinwiddie, the producers of The Chronicles found themselves almost at a standstill. No less than 2000 candidates were investigated; nearly 100 were individually studied before one was found who would fill the bill-a young man, a very tall man, a man with blue eyes, with very marked and unusual contour of face, who was a good horseman. In order to facilitate the use of these plays, two series of pamphlets are being prepared. One will contain all the supplemental historical material that may be of use to the teacher in order to fill out completely the historical background of each play. The other series will be pedagogical. For the preparation of this series Mr. Irving B. Countryman, who is in charge of the history in the New Haven public schools, has been released from his public duties for one or two years as may prove necessary. He will conduct extensive experiments with the coöperation of a large number of schools, with a view to determining all the various ways in which motion pictures may be rendered available for classroom use. 984 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A SUMMARY OF VISUAL VIEWPOINTS DUDLEY GRANT HAYS, DIRECTOR, VISUAL INSTRUCTION, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS In opening the discussion which will mark the close of our last session and summing up some of the ideas that have been brought forward, either directly or by suggestion by the various speakers, we are reminded that the problem of a director of visual instruction is rather a complicated one. We must all be impressed with the various aspects of visual instruction as we listen to the speakers presenting special viewpoints of our work. We cannot help but be impressed with the complicated problem which we face, as it touches every phase of instruction. None of us, I believe, has any thought of advocating a separate place in the curriculum for visual instruction as a topic isolated from other phases of schoolwork. It seems that our great work is to coöperate with all and to provide the power-house which is to furnish a flood of light to shine through all subjects of the curriculum. We are not unmindful of the past, with its varied lines of visual endeavor. We acknowledge the splendid work carried on in the laboratories; first, of the colleges, then of the secondary schools, and now reaching down into the elementary school in some of its aspects. We recall also the wave of nature study enthusiasm which came to us a few years ago to put new life into geography and the method of its presentation. We are living in the present, facing all the problems that modern life demands, and some of us are pretty thoroughly impressed with the intensity of these demands in some phases in which we have to function in solving the problems of life about us . With all of these present things pressing us and the memories of the past pouring in upon us, we must construct ideals looking forward to the future development of the great work in which we are engaged. As directors of this work we must draw from the whole world illustrative material and correlate the same with all of the various subjects in the curriculum. We must make a survey and study of industries, native sources of ma- terials that go into the solving of life's problems of food, clothing, and shelter. The commerce of the world must be kept before us and our world relationships from geographical, historical, and literary viewpoints. The great growing fields of literature, history, and science must be kept in mind as we lay in the supplies of visual material to accompany the ever- changing, ever-progressing courses of study being evolved by those who are on the firing line of action in our educational institutions. We must also be alert to all of the newer phases of development in the field of projection, in order that we may serve our constituents to the best of our ability. We must keep in mind the conservation of public funds, as well as the conservation of the time in the schoolwork, and with all we must not DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION 985 forget the conservation of the eyes of the children, who are to take in through them the knowledge of the world by the picturization route. In addition to these things, we must see to it that as much of our influence as we can bring to bear shall be turned along the line of construc- tive legislation, in order that none of those intrusted to our care shall be cheated out of their birthright of the very best education possible for use to give them. We must also not forget that our great aim should be the greatest service to all, instead of special favors to a chosen few, who may be actuated in their persuasive endeavors to find an outlet for products in which they are especially interested. We should also be alert to the idea of capitalizing our opportunities in the way of help that can be obtained from constructive educational organizations, such as parent-teacher organizations, commercial clubs, welfare organizations and various phases of public service. We have yet done but little on the whole to capitalize opportunities lying at our doors in the way of using public theaters, where ideal condi- tions obtain for projection and where the presentation of some of the more recent educational products can be shown to greatest advantage in mass gatherings. We urged broad-gauged teamwork to bring about the greatest good to all of our people, and yet we must be on our guard that we are not worked too strenuously by those overstressed with commercial ambitions to put something over which we in our sane moments believe will be detrimental to the great forward movement in which we are all engaged. We close our annual meeting this year with a feeling of much satisfac- tion at the progress that has been made during the last five years in bringing about this thing we call teamwork and becoming identified with the greatest educational organization of the world and functioning through it as a special department, through which we hope to throw more and more light upon the problem of education throughout our Nation. : Department of Vocational Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES CHICAGO MEETING OFFICERS President-JOHN N. GREER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools ...... Minneapolis, Minnesota Vice-President-J. G. COLLICOTT, Superintendent of Schools .. .. Columbus, Ohio Secretary-CARL COLVIN, State Department of Education ...... ..Springfield, Illinois The Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts was organized as the Industrial Section at Minneapolis, Minn., August, 1875. See Proceedings of 1875, page 100. The name was changed in 1890 to the Department of Industrial and Manual Training. See Proceedings of 1890, page 758. In 1899 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Training. See Proceedings of 1899, page 904. In 1909 the Department was merged with the Department of Art Educa- tion and the name was changed to the Department of Manual Training and Art Education. See Proceedings of 1909, pages 598-9. In 1913 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Arts and Vocational Education. See Proceedings of 1913, page 556. In 1914 the name was changed to the Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts. See Proceedings of 1914, page 566. This depart- ment coöperates with the National Vocational Guidance Association and with the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of the National Vocational Guidance Association for 1924-25 are: President, Edward Rynearson, Director of Vocational Guidance, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.; secretary, Anne S. Davis, Vocational Guidance Bureau, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. The president of the National Society for Vocational Education for 1924-25 is L. H. Dennis, State De- partment of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 26, 1924 AMALGAMATION OF ALL ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION- Charles A. Bennett, Editor, Industrial Education Magazine, Peoria, Ill. Harry D. Kitson, President, Vocational Guidance Association, Indiana Uni- versity, Bloomington, Ind. Alice F. Blood, President, Home Economics Association, Simmons College, Boston, Mass. L. H. Dennis, President, National Society for Vocational Education, State Depart- ment of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. Carl Colvin, State Supervisor of Vocational Agriculture, Springfield, Ill. J. G. Collicott, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. David Snedden, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. George E. Myers, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Catherine F. Dodd, Inter-Collegiate Vocational Guidance Association, Washing- ton, D. C. Lucy S. Silke, Director, Art Education, Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill . [987] 988 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 27, 1924 Joint Meeting with the National Society for the Study of Education This meeting was a discussion of Part II, Section II, of the Twenty-Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, prepared under the chairmanship of A. H. Edgerton, entitled "Vocational Guidance and Vocational Education." PRESENT TRENDS AND FRIENDLY ENEMIES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION- A. H. Edgerton, Supervisor of Vocational Information and Guidance, Teachers College and the Lincoln School, Columbia University, New York City. PROVISIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS- Howard L. Briggs, Director of Vocational Education, Cleveland, Ohio. WHAT IS THE PLACE OF ANALYSIS IN VOCATIONAL CURRICULUM-BUILDING ?- Harry D. Kitson, Professor of Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., and President, National Vocational Guidance Association. HOW DOES THE INSTRUCTION IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS PROVIDE FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ? Robert H. Rodgers, Specialist in Industrial Education and Teacher-Training, Public Schools , Milwaukee, Wis . WHAT IS THE FUTURE OUTLOOK FOR VOCATIONAL INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES ?- K. G. Smith, State Supervisor of Industrial Education, Lansing, Mich. DISCUSSION- J. G. Collicott, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Erwin E. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools, Flint, Mich. The following resolution was passed : Whereas the efforts of the various agencies interested in vocational education heretofore have not been coördinated : THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that we commend Chairman John N. Greer for call- ing this meeting, which represents a forward step in coöperation, Whereas at the California meeting of this body in 1923 a resolution was passed urging coöperation of the various associations there represented : THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that this body approve the plan now proposed for a Council for Vocational Education to be composed of representatives of the National Society for Vocational Education, the Vocation Education Association of the Middle West, the National Vocational Guidance Association, the American Home Economics Association, and such other associations as the Council may invite to join; and, BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that it is our desire that said Council work out the details of a closer coöperation of these organizations for the purpose of furthering the interests of vocational education throughout the country by suggesting plans for legislation (state and national) ; publicity; research, and conventions ; and BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that it is our desire that this Council be the means whereby these various societies come into closer association with the National Education Association, and that this Council take over the program of the Depart- ment of Vocational Education at the winter meeting of the Department of Superintendence. (Signed) K. G. SMITH . HARRY D. KITSON . LEWIS GUSTAFSON. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 989 THE AMALGAMATION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS—ABSTRACT CHARLES A. BENNETT, EDITOR, THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION MAGAZINE, PEORIA, ILLINOIS It is desirable, from many points of view, to bring together into one great National scheme all the various organizations devoted to vocational educa- ' tion and the practical arts. Local organizations should coöperate in build- ing up regional associations such as the Vocational Education Association of the Middle West . There should be several such regional organizations in this country. One should be located in the east, one in the southeast, another in the southwest, and one on the Pacific coast. These regional associations should send representatives to a central or National council which should carry for- ward research studies and promotional work and issue the publications of the organization. For this purpose an adequate office staff should be main- tained. The organization might constitute a department of the National Education Association. In that case, the office of the central council should be at the headquarters of the National Education Association in Wash- ington. The advantages of this plan would be that it would stimulate activity in this field of education; it would place the responsibility for the develop- ment of any territory in the hands of the regional association of that terri- tory; it would provide a fair basis for representation ; and it would not overburden the members of the central council with details of programs of conventions which could be done better by local organizations . AMALGAMATION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS -ABSTRACT GEORGE E. MYERS, PROFESSOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION , UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN At present there are three organizations more or less National in scope, and one large middle west organization concerned in vocational education. These should be amalgamated into one organization affiliated with the National Education Association, and should hold its meetings at the same time and place. Vocational education must have a strong National organization rec- ognized by vocational education workers and the public generally as the one organization of the country that stands for our cause. Its member- hip should be well distributed among the various States and should include a large proportion of those engaged in vocational education activities. It 990 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION must be so organized and so conducted as to make its members feel that they are a part of, and not distinct from, the great body of American edu- cators. It must hold its meetings under such conditions that, on the one hand, school administrators and others engaged in general education ac- tivities will find it convenient to attend, and, on the other hand, so that voca- tional education people will find it convenient to attend National meetings devoted to other phases of education. THE AMALGAMATION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS CARL COLVIN, STATE SUPERVISOR OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS The resolution being discussed this afternoon is as it was offered at the San Francisco meeting and reads as follows : Moved that it is the sense of this meeting that the time has arrived for an amalgamation of all organizations interested in vocational education, and further that it is the sense of this meeting that such amalgamation should take the form of a working relationship with the National Education Association. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss only the latter part of this resolu- tion: "that such amalgamation should take the form of a working relation- ship with the National Education Association," and to point out at least one possible working relationship. With the idea of amalgamation of all vocational education organizations, I am in sympathy. The impetus given to education in this country by the tremendous impact of the National Education Association stands as an unanswerable argument in favor of a strong National organization. At the last meeting of the Association of State Directors of Vocational Educa- tion, the question of changing the time of the meeting of that association and the National Society for Vocational Education to a time just prior to the meeting of the Department of Superintendence was discussed. At that time there seemed to be only one formidable objection to the proposal. A num- ber of the state directors said it would not be possible for so many representa- tives of vocational education to attend the meeting of the National society if the meeting were held at a time when other educational workers were attending the meeting of the department of superintendence. There seemed to be much indefinite discussion on this point at that time. We have since addressed a letter to State superintendents of public instruction and have received definite replies from 42 States. Only two replies indicate a distinct objection to holding the meeting just before the meeting of the depart- ment of superintendence, although nine State superintendents indicate that the attendance of vocational education reperesentatives would be somewhat less than it would be under the present plan. In two or three of these DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 991 States the difference would be not more than one person. On the other hand, in nearly all instances, superintendents indicate that the attendance would be larger because many people not directly connected with depart- ments of vocational education would attend the meetings of the National society. It appears therefore that the following conclusions are justified from the correspondence with State superintendents of public instruction. 1. Attendance at the vocational education meeting would be greatly increased if the meeting were held just prior to the meeting of the depart- ment of superintendence. 2. In only a few instances would the number of vocational education representatives be decreased. 3. The letters indicate a distinct prejudice in favor of the plan because it would give an opportunity for school administrators to attend these meetings. 4. The letters from State executives show a keen interest in the voca- tional education program. Before this question is finally settled, some facts growing out of our experience during the past decade should be recognized and some other questions should be settled. There has been a tendency to build up an organization separate and distinct from the general educational organizations which in my judgment is inimical to the best interests of the education program of the Nation and the States. School administrators, who are as truly responsible for pro- grams in vocational education as they are for programs in other educational fields, have not attended vocational education meetings. This situation is undesirable. Vocational education leaders need the direction and guidance of those who have the whole education program in charge. The latter would no doubt enjoy a direct contact with bodies of vocational education people. That there are too many organizations dealing with the various phases of vocational education is a common observation from within and without the ranks. The expense of effort, time, and money would be lessened by a combina- tion of meetings. Another suggestion should be made at this time. If a working relationship can be evolved with the National Education Associa- tion, whether the time and place of meeting is changed or not, a secretary representing vocational education's interests should be placed in the general offices of the National Education Association at Washington. The National society previous to this year has maintained an office and secretarial force in New York City. A department within the National Education Associa- tion should be represented under the big tent. Thus 500 educators would profit from the impacts of all educational forces and perhaps add some force to the impact which is being given to universal education. Aworking relationship with the National Education Association involv 992 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing the suggestions made in these notes should not only make the efforts of vocational education leaders more effective, but should at the same time increase the interest in general education, and make it possible for more teachers to attend the meetings, read the journals, and boost education. PRESENT TRENDS AND FRIENDLY ENEMIES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION-ABSTRACT A. H. EDGERTON, TEACHERS COLLEGE AND LINCOLN SCHOOL COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY A full account of Mr. Edgerton's discussion will be found in Chapter I of Section II in Part II, of the Twenty-third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. In a large number of the specific vocational courses investigated it was found that the clear-cut needs of those desirious of preparing themselves for direct entrance into definite occupational pursuits, or of continuing their supplementary training, have resulted in noteworthy improvements. The most important of these closely related instructional provisions, especially in those schools where diagnosis in the form of analysis and investigation has received adequate attention, may be stated briefly as follows : 1. Increased emphasis upon determining well defined needs and objectives for offering the various units in question. 2. Practical analysis for selecting the particular skills and knowledge which might well be acquired in order to meet these needs and objectives. 3. Greater interest in evaluating these teachable elements for the pur- pose of weighing values as to the general order and time when each unit might be most effectively taught. 4. More care in planning each unit in terms of the specific needs and standards for the class, group, and individual, and in relation to the other units of instruction. 5. Better procedure for choosing the most suitable methods and devices for presenting the selected units in keeping with the above considerations. 6. Improved attitude toward checking up and testing the different per- sons in training to ascertain how fully the instruction has succeeded in realizing the subjective and objective standards. In the case of the all-day schools there is more or less recognition of the problem of training workers and prospective workers for profitable employ- ment. A few cities have extended this service to include coöperation with industry for the purpose of helping it to prepare its own workers. In the cases of part-time and evening schools, these findings imply that school officials can ill afford to neglect the continued extension of all legit- imate forms of educational service which would appreciably assist large numbers of young workers and adults who have definitely left our regular day schools, but who frequently are far too inadequately equipped, either as effective workmen or as worthy citizens. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 993 PROVISIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS HOWARD L. BRIGGS , DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CLEVELAND, OHIO During the present period of criticism concerning all things educational, it behooves one, before proposing an education program for a large school system, to have definite objectives backed by adequate data relative to the actual vocational training needs of the community in question. Unfortunately our interpretation of current pedagogical philosophy depends entirely upon the color of the glasses through which it is viewed. We have the historical group advocating a renaissance of all things classical, we have the psychologist, the sociologist, the economist, and the pedagog, all with pet sovereign panaceas for educational ills. A new element is demanding consideration. In the past the business man was bewildered by the barrage of terminologists and philosophies presented by the educator. Today, through the medium of scientific management applied to industry, he has learned to analyze the other fellow's job as well as his own and he does not hesitate to rush in where angels have feared to tread and challenges the school man in his own sacred temple, and demands definite information relative to dividends upon tax monies expended. Educational statisticians are honestly and sincerely attempting to secure data concerning the needs of industry, but, due to their lack of contact with the environment of the industrial worker and their long-distance method of approach by the questionnaire, some decidedly absurd con- clusions have been reached. In response to the question : "How many of your operatives are skilled ?" the foreman may answer : "All," and the engineer may answer : "None." It all depends upon the one who receives the questionnaire. Education is a business proposition. The business man is demanding tangible assets for the taxes expended. He knows little of psychology and cares not for the theoretical, academic, sociological, and pedagogical philos- ophies involved. When he hires a boy or hires a college graduate, he judges the school's efficiency by the quality of the product received, and his judg- ments are based strictly upon one self-evident factor, namely, can the boy or man hired deliver the goods ? The business man is not always fair in his judgments of the school product. A man who cannot manage a family of two children expects a school teacher with forty to turn out a perfect product, and expects the schools to overcome faults and characteristics which can be blamed upon Father Adam only . Recent books of misinformation of the type of Arthur Pound's " Iron Man," compiled by writers after superficial contacts with industry, have caused no end of misconceptions relative to the necessities for the vocational training of our youth. Although the "iron man" is a reality, and machines 994 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION are in operation enabling the moron to earn a living upon a piece-work basis, the major factor must not be lost sight of, namely, that we are requir- ing a constantly increasing number of highly skilled tool and die makers to design, produce, set up and repair the "iron man" in order that the moron may be a producing economic factor in the social group with which he works. This is evidenced by the training for skilled mechanics set up in such highly organized production centers as Flint, Michigan, and the fact that the Ford plant has found it necessary to establish a trade school for the training of skilled workers We_can_no_longer import them from abroad. The public is taxed for the vocational training of our professional groups a r i n g r a n ce nto he bove nstitutions ertainly ur conomic in our State universities, in addition to the four-year high school course pre- o r n t d p f e i t a i . C o e needs justify expenditures of public funds for the part-time training of apprentices during the high school period, because the public is the ultimate consumer of goods produced by pupils so trained. At the same time, we furnish the worker with enough information to enable him to interpret intelligently the environment in which he lives, moves, and has his being. the greater portion of his waking hours. If We are then faced with the problem of training two groups for industry: The boy of mediocre mental capacity for the operation of the "iron man"machine. Our greatest turnover is with this type. He is the first to be released during depressions. The moron should be trained horizon- tally to perform successfully the simpler mechanical operations involved in any job upon which he may enter according to the opportunities for place- ment and the economic demands of the community in which he works. We have the skilled mechanic who sets up, designs, makes, and repairs the various mechanisms used by the other fellow. This boy must be highly skilled and should be trained in a trade school, the major portion of his training being upon a part-time basis in order that the work may be defi- nitely trade extension, so that the boy will be enabled to practice the things that he learns under actual working conditions and in a truly industrial environment. I believe that no trade school course should be set up on a day trade basis, unless a definite agreement has been reached with committees repre- senting the industry in question, in order that the boy may be guaranteed definite placement under apprenticeship agreements as early as possible. The pupil should be placed upon part-time training as soon as he has mas- tered the fundamental operations of the industry into which he will enter. We have our non-production man in industry, such as the technical draftsman, chemical laboratory assistant, etc., who can be adequately pre- pared through a three-year senior technical high school course. We have the engineer in industry who must be a graduate of an engineer- ing college and may be prepared for that training through the technical high school. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 995 We have but touched the possibilities in the way of vocational education. All education is cultural in so far as it prepares one for true life apprecia- tions in the consumption of the world's goods. Consumption of goods is not merely a physical process: it is a mental one. The industrial worker, surrounded by moving machinery, if properly trained, gains supreme satisfac- tion through the interpretation of that which is going on about him. The informational content in all fields, both vocational and avocational, is reach- ing such tremendous proportions that no man can cling to the old philos- ophy that all men should have the same basis for culture. The artist or the musician must of necessity be a specialist in order that he may, in a life- time, master the information of the field in which he works and it is by mastering this information that he is able to interpret his environment to his own satisfaction, and to produce for the satisfaction of others. Vocational training and cultural training are inseparable, notwithstand- ingDr. Snedden to the contrary. One cannot function without the other. We must all be producers in order that we may be consumers. No one cares to dream upon Mount Olympus with the gods in terms of the glories of the past. If Rome had looked to Adam for all of her culture, some of our classical friends would not be looking to Rome today. May we, through vocational training, conducted upon such broad lines that its cul- tural aspects may not be forgotten, build up a technical perfection and an informational content so decidedly worth while that those of the future who feel that all things cultural are of the past, may look to us as the exponents of the cultural era. WHAT IS THE PLACE OF ANALYSIS IN FOCATIONAL CURRICULUM-BUILDING—ABSTRACT HARRY D. KITSON, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE ASSO- CIATION , PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY BLOOMINGTON , INDIANA Thoughtful educators realize that effective learning cannot be left to the hazards of chance, or in psychological terms, trial and error. Itmust be directed. How to know what directions to give is in all fields of instruc- tion the most vexatious question. The answer is, analyze. In the case of the so-called vocational subjects, the analysis is called vocational analysis ; occupational analysis ; job analysis. Regardless of the nomenclature employed, the process consists of dissecting avocation and describing its component elements. As usually carried on, the analysis is largely a qualitative matter, consist- ing of observation and verbal description of what the expert worker does. With this technique a number of valuable analyses have been made in print- ing, tile setting, and the metal trades. Useful as it is, however, this tech- nique of analysis should be improved in several important respects; it should 996 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION be more minute, quantitative, and thus more accurate. In short, the tech- nique of scientific psychology is probably the best guide tool to use. Afew models are available consisting of analytic studies that have been made in telegraphy, typewriting, and proofreading. Some idea of the refinements that are possible may be gained from the fact that in the analysis of the last mentioned occupations, photographs have been made of the eye-move- ments made by expert proof-readers, showing movements in terms of fiftieth of a second. After the activities involved in a vocation have been thoroughly an- alyzed-a complete analysis of any vocation is naturally a very lengthy pro- cedure-the results may be cast together in such a way that a learner in the vocation may see exactly what he must attain. The results are arranged in the form of lessons, the most favorable units of which are determined by experiment. It is only through experimentation according to the methods of exact science that the acquirements of vocational skill can be elevated from the plane of wasteful undirected learning to that of the effective directed learning which is demanded by the modern ideals of the scientific study of education. HOW DOES THE INSTRUCTION IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS PROVIDE FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES? ROBERT H. RODGERS , BUREAU OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER TRAINING MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN The discussion of this subject will be limited to the problem of instruc- tion as found in the part-time or continuation school. It should not be inferred from this approach that it is the only field in vocational education in which individual instruction is being used. The fact that large numbers of boys and girls are in attendance at part- time schools is indicative to a pertinent degree that the instruction offered in the full-time school under the older methods has not been entirely suc- cessful. Is it rational to draw the conclusion that the status of these chil- dren, approaching maturity, observant and alert to all the activities in the community about them, their personal ambitions and desires giving vent to individual expression, points to a real necessity for a general overhaul- ing of classroom methods and the placing the emphasis on the individual needs? Further, is it not rational to assume that children in the continuation school are less homogeneous than the children in the full-time school; that there are greater differencies in chronological age and physical condition; mental age and ability to learn, school experiences, kinds of employment; home conditions and environment, irregular periods of entrance to con- tinuation school, interest and aptitudes that all these conditions pointing to the imperative necessity for individual guidance and assistance ? DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 997 The grade completed as the basis of classification-The grade completed in a school is not a safe basis for the classification of pupils in the continua- tion school. The wide variance of standards on the part of teachers in grading makes this unreliable and therefore not desirable for general use in the continuation school . Employment as the basis of classification-Occupations in which children are employed that have educational and promotional opportunities, offer one of the most effective bases for classification. This method will group children of similar major interests and provide a form of motivation that will insure progress. Tests and mental measurements-These devices are being used very effectively to determine certain distinct abilities. The application of this scientific method is doing much to secure a homogeneity of classes, and as a resultant more effective teaching. Summary-Mental tests, measurements, the previous school record, and the use of occupational information are invaluable agencies in the problem of classification. Added refinements and perfected technique in the use of these agencies still leave with us the problem of the individual with his multiplicity of interests, desires, ambitions, and special aptitudes. The occupation as a partial source of subject matter-A major portion of the subject matter may be very effectively developed from the various occupational fields. This subject matter will embrace not only the manual aspect but also the fundamental phases of English, civics, hygiene, math- ematics, history, economics, drawing, and design. A natural correlation should be effected wherever it is practicable. This method of approach to the interests of the working child brings to their attention the fact that the instruction in a continuation school is very different from the in- struction in the full-time organization. Individual needs of the working children-Attention has been called to the range of variability existing among the pupils of every continuation school. In the face of this situation, can we continue to ignore that each child needs assistance in his place of employment; that each needs in vary- ing degrees assistance and help in matters of health education, use and appreciation of the English language, use of the simple mathematical computations and a working knowledge of civic and social duties and re- sponsibilities ? Any assumption that all children need the same instruction at the same time in any continuation school is a fallacy and absolutely without a pedagogical foundation of any kind. The interest factor in continuation school instruction-The majority of children in attendance upon part-time schools have left the full-time classes at the earliest possible legal age. A fundamental reason for this vast elimination is essentially one of interest . If the full-time organiza- tion failed to a large degree to secure the interest of the adolescent boy and girl, is it wise to proceed along similar lines in organizing and offering instruction in the newer field? Have we not had one of the most vivid 998 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION illustrations of what mass instruction will accomplish ? Are we going to follow the method that we know was successful in eliminating pupils, or are we going to attempt to profit by the experience of the full-time school, and develop subject matter and a method of instruction that are primarily and fundamentally based on individual needs and interests ? Non-adaptability of the present text material-Existing texts and ref- erence materials are not adaptable in their present organization for the most effective use in continuation school classes. The material itself is entirely reliable, as far as it goes, but is not in the form that sets the part- time pupil at work, holds him to it and is immediately usable in a civic, social, or economic way. The subject matter in the continuation schools cannot be the same formal material that is offered in the full-time schools. Many of the children left those schools for the avowed purpose of avoiding the existing type of subject matter and the existing methods of teaching it. The young wage earner's employment and his immediate surroundings should be the source from which much of the subject matter taught in the continuation school will be drawn. This source will provide material that possesses interest and a very large measure of immediate usefulness. Few textbooks have been prepared to provide this kind of instruction, and consequently it means the preparation of much new material or a rearrangement of existing printed material. The distribution of pupils in classes according to ability-Every educa- tional study ever conducted to determine the achievement and progress of pupils in school subjects has shown that within each class there is a group- ing that follows approximately a normal distribution curve. This varia- tion is absolutely disregarded in many classrooms, and the common practice of offering instruction to the class as a whole is followed. Under this method from one-fourth to one-third of the students are not receiving the instruction from which they will derive the greatest profit. In a continuation school the range of variability is accentuated many degrees. It is only necessary to recall the predominating individual dif- ferences previously mentioned to gain an idea of the actual situation con- fronting every continuation school teacher. Teachers in full-time classes may be able to disregard the twenty to thirty per cent of their pupils be cause it is the traditional procedure, but it cannot be sanctioned in any continuation school. Every hour spent by a pupil in a continuation school classroom should be a full sixty minutes of profitable and appreciated edu- cational progress . Public funds are provided, schools established, and teachers employed for the distinct purpose of preparing the individual to meet his daily re sponsibilities in a democratic society. This means that the individual is the unit for whom the organized instruction should be prepared. This standard will require that each teacher know the facts concerning each pupil, and on that basis prepare and offer the instruction that is needed DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 999 to bring the student in closer accord with the civic, social, and economic demands that he is called upon to meet. This means that each pupil's deficiencies are being lessened, his aptitudes are being developed, his desir- able interests encouraged, and, in general, right habits are being firmly established. Under this method of instruction the pupil realizes the presence of the personal element. His identity is not submerged and lost in the mass. With this realization of individuality comes a consciousness of the value of the instruction, an interest in the subject matter because it touches him, and finally the self-activity that results in development and growth. Mass instruction, involving the use of the spraying process, has not brought this about. Is it still desirable to employ exclusively the method that is known to have failed with many, or is it timely to consider such modifications of our methods as will more nearly serve all? Defining the unit method instruction-The factors and conditions con- fronting the teacher in a continuation school have been presented some- what in detail. The limitations of certain methods and the non-adapt- ability of others have also been developed. This immediately leads to a consideration of what methods can be employed that will assist in meeting the instructional demands of the continuation school. These instructional demands are neither fancied nor remote but decidedly in our midst and must be solved. Face to face with this insistent demand that the instruc- tion in our continuation school classes shall be more effective than that offered in full-time classes, the unit instruction method of teaching was evolved. The unit instruction sheet is distinctly a teaching agency to supplement the efforts of the teacher, and in no case should it be used to supplant the instructor. It is one unit of a body of organized teaching material that has been prepared for pupils to use under conditions that will insure the greatest amount of directed individual progress . It is specifically an agency that provides educational work for the pupils according to their varying abilities and interests for the duration of a class period. It is a means of attaining "self education through purposeful activity." The unit instruction idea and the unit instruction sheet are not presented as new ideas. The entire plan in one form or another has been a part of good educational practice for a great many years. The form under dis- cussion is a composite development and represents the best of the instruc- tionmethods employed by the correspondence schools, the best practice used in school science laboratories involving the use of manuals, and the idea of the factory job sheet. A fusion of certain elements of all three plans, together with an observance of pedagogical principles, resulted in the present idea of the unit instruction sheet. The unit instruction sheet idea is not a device but distinctly a method of teaching. Neither is it a teacher's lesson plan, but an assignment of selected educational problems to be placed in the hands of the pupil for solution. 1000 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Under this method of teaching, every boy and girl progresses as rapidly as ability will permit. The teacher does not find it necessary to have re- course to that "marking time" device, the supplementary assignment. It is not asserted that all group or class discussion will disappear under this plan, but whenever it is used the teacher should be certain that each mem- ber of the class or group will receive full benefit. Using this standard in a critical way will almost entirely eliminate the present form of class teaching. Essential aspects of unit instruction method-The unit instruction sheet in the student's assignment of work. A most important factor on each sheet is the statement of the objective of the unit. It must be so worded in the language of the pupil and in such a clear and concise manner that it is readily comprehended and results in the taking up of the assignment with- out loss of time. All assignments placed on the sheets must also be very specific and care- fully worded. Students should not find it necessary to ask questions con- cerning any problem. The assignments should be of such a nature and in such form as to result not only in doing but also in thinking. An observa- tion of this principle will eliminate any tendency to prepare factory job sheets. First instruction sheets placed in the hands of students may properly be rather specific but succeeding sheets should be so prepared as to require the student to assume the responsibility for working out his own procedure. Teachers should not permit students to guess at procedure, but should always be available to render the necessary assistance. Assignments to sources of information in text and reference material should be a part of every unit instruction sheet. Responsibility of the teacher-The unit instruction sheet is specifically for the purpose of supplementing the efforts of the teacher, thus freeing him to render greater assistance to individual members of the class. The sheets cannot be distributed to students in an indiscriminate manner, but should be allotted on the basis of their individual needs which have been very care- fully ascertained at some previous period. Meeting the need of individual pupils does not mean the preparation of individual sets of instructional material in every case, or even in the majority of the cases . The classifica- tion of pupils into groups on the basis of individual needs will enable the teacher to rotate sheets successfully. Following the distribution the teacher then has the problem of individual teaching, close follow-up of each student, careful checking of results, and a recording of accomplishment. Securing interest and self-activity-The interests of the individual pupil are the basis of his educational progress. A pertinent and proper question is, Do we get the interest of the individual pupil when problems are dis- cussed that do not touch his life, that are too far advanced or too elemen- tary ? Inability of the pupil to see and appreciate the value of the daily instruction in terms of his own situation means ineffectual instruction. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1001 Students are most interested when they are at work upon their own per- sonal problems, and this is especially true when these problems are presented to them in the form of challenges that set them upon their mettle. The pupil attains to knowledge, not by having it forced upon him, but by taking it of his own volition. He should be constantly encouraged to instruct himself and to work independently. The teacher is the coöperator and remover of unsurmountable difficulties only, and should be resolutely en- deavoring to render his services unnecessary. This is especially applicable to all of the instruction offered in a continuation school or class . Accepting the most basic of the principles of teaching, that interest is the compelling personal force that sets the individual at work, and that it is only through self-activity that individual growth and development are brought about, how may the presence of class instruction that reaches only apart of any class be justified as an effective method of teaching? The organization of the instructional material for continuation school students on the basis discussed, and the use of the unit instruction sheet method are resulting in appreciable interest and progress on the part of individual students. It must be recalled that this progress is being made with young people who were returned to school by compulsory school laws after having left the full-time school because of waning interest. The question should be raised, are we in accord that it is the business of the continuation school to provide such instruction as will permit each indi- vidual pupil to progress as rapidly as he is able, and that four or eight hours of attendance upon classes shall be a full 240 or 480 minutes of needed and usable instruction. If this objective is accepted, will the results of many scientific studies also be accepted that show that within every class there is a distribution of ability and achievement that follows approximately a normal distribution curve? If this condition exists in the full-time classes, it is known that the diversity is much more extended in the continuation school classes. In the face of this existing diversity in the continuation school, is it rational to assume that instructional material prepared for the use of a class will be fully beneficial to all ? Or are the conditions being viewed frankly and recognition given to the fact that the class method will probably reach less than fifty per cent of the pupils, and the remaining members will receive little or nothing? It is not physically nor mentally possible for any teacher to give the needed help, encouragement, and assistance to an individual pupil through the class method. Further, is it reasonable to expect, under classroom conditions where only a limited number of the pupils profit or are even touched, that interest followed by self-activity will prevail? All educational progress is con- ditioned by these two factors, interest and self-activity. Teachers, supervisors, and directors in continuation school work have no alternative. They must provide a type of organization, a kind of subject matter, and a method of teaching that will result in needed and desirable changes in each boy and girl in attendance upon continuation school classes . 1002 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The unit instruction method is being advocated and strongly urged for use in continuation school classes because it provides an educational task for each child according to his or her needs. It provides assignments closely associated with his interests, provides needed and appreciated work for the full time of each day, and permits of progress according to individual ability. This method removes all hampering restrictions, and the child establishes his own stride in his own pathway. It is but a recognition that the boy or girl is the unit of instruction. THE FUTURE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION-ABSTRACT K. G. SMITH, STATE SUPERVISOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION LANSING, MICHIGAN Industrial education is the most difficult field of education at the present time. It presents a real challenge to the educator. Some educators prefer to solve it by letting it alone. No problem was ever solved that way. In Michigan, 645,000 persons ten years of age and over are engaged in manufacturing and in mechanical industries. This is seventeen times as many as are engaged in professions. Our school enrolment shows 139,000 in grades seven, eight, and nine, and 62,000 in grades ten, eleven, and twelve, and 11,500 in continuation schools with the upper age limit at seventeen years. There are 14,000 high school graduates each year. As Governor Pinchot has pointed out, the big job of education lies in the elementary grades and differentiated courses of the junior high school. PROPOSALS MADE 1. Give general education only. This does not solve the problem. 2. Help boys in junior high school to make an intelligent inventory of their capacities and opportunities. This is a step in the right direction. 3. Offer definite trade industrial courses in the ninth and tenth grades. This is satisfactory under certain conditions . 4. Offer trade industrial courses in the senior high school. This is not satisfactory, for senior high school boys do not enter industry by that road. Technical industrial courses are needed in the senior high school. Co- öperative courses are very satisfactory in the senior high school. 5. Organize a separate vocational school. Such a school should be run on an all-day, part-time, and evening basis and should be an opportunity school for employed persons or those who expect soon to enter employment. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 1. Pay more attention to developing industrial education in cooperation with industry, and recognize the educational value of employment. 2. Get teachers who are familiar with the social and economic as well as technical problems of workers . DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1003 3. Take a greater interest in the instructional responsibilities of foremen, and in training on the job as a part of public education. 4. Offer graduate work in collegiate institutions in vocational education as a recognized field of education in order to train for leadership. Lack of sympathetic leadership is the greatest single obstacle at the present time. 5. Recognize frankly that many boys will go into industry rather than to college, and act accordingly. Compulsory full-time general education can be overdone. 6. Develop adult education by means of evening schools. Wisconsin is an example of what a live university extension division can do in aiding this movement. 7. Develop apprenticeship and a parallel school program, recognizing frankly that this kind of education offers real opportunity suited to the needs of many boys. 8. Coöperate whole-heartedly in all lines of education, and learn to say "both-and" rather than " either-or." Aphilosophy of education which teaches that we must find happiness and satisfaction entirely outside of our life work is false. A vocation may be looked upon as the means whereby a man squeezes a living from an unwill- ing and crabbed world, or as the means whereby he renders his greatest service to his community. Industrial education teaches the second view- point and is education for service and happiness . Just criticism has been made that industrial courses do not lead to occupa- tions for which training has been given. We can and must meet such criticism, and correct the situation. If we have missed our mark it will do no good to remove the target and shoot at random. We cannot expect to achieve results to the same degree as schools of law, medicine, and engi- neering. The criticism that industrial education funds are not spent for teaching industrial subjects is misleading. The growth of the continuation school is not a sign of misspent funds. THE RELATION OF GENERAL TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION DAVID SNEDDEN , TEACHERS COLLEGE , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY The primary purpose of the American academy, and of the lately evolved high school has undoubtedly been to give general rather than vocational education, even though for many years we were deluded by the hope that the "disciplinary" studies would give the mental training essential to all kinds of success in health and vocation, in love and war, in culture and civism. Two other delusions yet persist in much of our unanalyzed educational 1004 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION theory. One is that somehow there can be some general education that is valuable for any and all vocations. The other, a much more modern one, is that vocations or even a vocation can be so taught as to produce large amounts of culture or of civism . Now anything like common sense analysis of the vocations that are actually practiced up and down our streets, in our minds and forests, on farms and on shipboard, and throughout our offices and places of merchan- dising will show that there are few studies ordinarily belonging to the first six grades that are essential to all of these vocations and certainly no studies beyond the first six grades that are applicable to any considerable number. The barest of abilities to read, to add and multiply, and to write are all that are needed generally. It is part of academic mythology that English gram- mar or manual training or geography or algebra or French or history or drawing play a part in any but a few vocations. General education must always find its real justifications, not in its contributions, direct or indirect, to vocational proficiencies, but in its expected and proved contributions to good civism, personal culture, and health conservation. Probably we owe to Dr. Dewey's pedagogy and philosophy, more than to any other modern source, at least, the notion that vocational and cultural (or, more broadly, liberal) education should be unified. Dr. Dewey greatly enriched our theory of education by his insistence on the large part properly to be played in cultural education by the practical arts experiences and par- ticipations accessible to the capacities and deep-rooted interests of childhood and youth. I find ample justification in his theories for even far more ample and varied courses in industrial, agricultural, household, and commercial arts than we yet possess in even our most progressive schools. Provided, always, that we do not expect from, or design to extract from, such liberalizing courses the specific vocational proficiencies demanded by modern life and which, as far as I can see, only apprenticeship and other guided educational participations in specialized productive work can pro- duce. I do not find anywhere in Dr. Dewey's writings evidence that he has attempted to consider the conditions necessary to efficient vocational training suited to modern needs. The modern world divides and again subdivides its vocations; and in most cases it so refines upon standards of achievement within each that the time, ability, and intensive training re- quired for a specialty are greater than were once required for the whole vocation. It is now more difficult to fit oneself to be a poultry-grower than a general farmer; to be a hotel cook than a housekeeper; to be a locomotive engineer than to be a stage driver ; to be a drill press operator than to be a country blacksmith; to be a lawyer's stenographer than to be a grocer's clerk. No modern program of vocational education can safely be promoted except in recognition of these facts, to which, of course, there are occasional exceptions, as in every other field of generalization. Now the full and broad learning of any one of the thousand vocations found in any modern city does contribute something, not only to what may DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1005 properly be called the culture of an individual, but to his civism as well. But that must inevitably be not only a small part, but a diminishing part as well not only because of the progressive specialization of vocational production, but no less because of the parallel widenings of the fields of cultural utilization and civic comprehension and action open to each and every one of us. We specialize production, but we render more inclusive utilization. In Chicago A makes a living as a motorman on the elevated. We can accept that he is a trained, safe, and progressive motorman, no less so than the dentist B in the same city. If A and B have come through proper means of vocational training, each knows much about the broader aspects of his vocation; that is, each has certain amounts of vocational culture and voca- tional civism as accompaniments of vocational proficiency. But for neither motorman nor dentist do such factors of vocational cul- ture and civism amount to more than one or two per cent of the culture or civism which each should possess. Public libraries and markets, news- papers and theaters, high schools and street associations, democratic govern- ment and travel, have opened, both to A and to B, cultural and civic oppor- tunities such as corresponding workers have known in no previous epoch. For a few cents they can purchase the choicest of the world's literature. The morning newspaper puts them in touch with the making of yesterday's history all over the world. Chicago's markets bring to their doors the foods and fabrics of producers in all regions. Music and pictures, drama and science are theirs for the asking. They can, if they will, easily give their voices and their votes to the making of municipal, State, National, and international policies. Culturally, they live in a world almost with- out boundaries; civically, they can serve coöperatively in all common- wealths. But vocationally, each works in a small niche of the world's work, since experience proves that only so can he best serve himself and his fellows. For any given man a first class cultural education can contribute a trifle to vocational proficiency, but usually that is all. A first class vocational education can contribute a trifle to cultural mastery, but usually that is all. Each type has its own major objectives and it is very doubtful if these can be realized synchronously. 1006 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES WASHINGTON MEETING OFFICERS President-JOHN N. GREER, Assistant Superintendent ........... .Minneapolis, Minnesota Vice-President J. G. COLLICOTT, Superintendent of Schools Columbus , Ohio Secretary-CARL COLVIN, State Department of Education . ..Springfield, Illinois FIRST SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 1, 1924 The Public School and Apprenticeship Training With Special Reference to the Building Trades THE ADMINISTRATION OF A STATE PROGRAM OF APPRENTICE TRAINING IN THE BUILD- ING TRADES- L. H. Dennis, State Director of Vocational Education, Harrisburg, Pa. EMPLOYEES' INTEREST IN APPRENTICE TRAINING IN THE BUILDING TRADES- Edward F. Kloter, International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Wash- ington, D. C. FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY, WHAT CAN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS DO TO DIRECT YOUTH TOWARD THIS FIELD ?- D. Knickerbacker Boyd, Architect, Philadelphia, Pa. THE AMERICAN CONSTRUCTION COUNCIL AND ITS INTEREST IN APPRENTICE TRAINING Dwight T. Hoopingarner, Executive Secretary, American Construction Council, New York City. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION- L. H. Dennis, Chairman. SECOND SESSION -THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1924 THE COOPERATION OF THE FEDERAL BOARD WITH THE STATES IN CARRYING OUT A PROGRAM OF APPRENTICE TRAINING IN THE BUILDING TRADES- G. A. McGarvey, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. С. THE INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING NEEDED BY A PARTICULAR BUILDING TRADE AND HOW THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS CAN ASSIST IN THE PROGRAM- Oscar Reum, Contracting Plasterers International Association, Chicago, Ill. HOW THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS CAN HELP THE GENERAL CONTRACTOR IN HIS APPRENTICE- SHIP TRAINING PROGRAM- D. H. Sawyer, Associated General Contractors, Washington, D. С. WHAT THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS CAN DO IN AN APPRENTICE TRAINING PROGRAM- Charles W. Sylvester, Director, Vocational Education, Baltimore, Md. FORESTRY AS A TOOL IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION- M. C. Merrill, Director of Forestry Publications, Washington, D. C. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1007 THE ADMINISTRATION OF A STATE PROGRAM OF APPRENTICE TRAINING IN THE BUILDING TRADES L. H. DENNIS , STATE DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA It is unquestionably the function of the public school system, through its State department of education, to foster, encourage, promote, and supervise the training of its youth. To bring about the proper coördination between industry and the schools in the development of an industrial training pro- gram, it will be necessary to develop some plan whereby industry and the schools may together determine desirable standards and conditions govern- ing apprenticeship training. Such a plan might involve the appointment of State advisory committees representing any trade, craft, or business to which minors are apprenticed. Such committees in some cases should represent agroup of related trades. These State committees would act in an advisory capacity, the actual administration and supervision being delegated to the State department of education . In approaching this problem, we must be aware of the complex series of factors, causes, and influences involving the very structure of our economic and social life. We can expect but little success in the building up of ef- fective apprenticeship unless we are cognizant of the merits and faults of the apprenticeship system that prevailed in the early days. We must examine into the economic and social factors which led to the decadence of this once effective system. We must appreciate the effect of the rise of the factory system in this country bringing with it the great diversity and division of labor. We must not be unmindful of the fact that the later years of the whole apprenticeship witnessed the divesting of the work of our youth of those experiences having much educational value, and that this has con- tributed materially to the feeling against child labor. However, this child labor antagonism has been carried so far in some instances as to create the impression among our people that it is morally wrong for our youth to soil their hands with the everyday work of life, and that the correct thing to do is to shun work and to secure an education so that it will be unneces- sary to participate in the ordinary labor or work in which, as a people, we are immersed. This extreme mental attitude of our people, stimulated largely by some of our social workers and some of our educators, has pro- duced a veritable blight upon our economic life, as fatal as the blight that robs the potato of its virility.. Furthermore it is infecting our whole social system with a form of moral dry rot that is breaking down the very fiber ofour National life. The new apprenticeship system must be built not upon the needs of our economic life alone, but rather must it be predicated upon the needs of the prospective worker as he faces the task of adjusting himself to society and ofpreparing himself to take his place side by side with the others who in this day and age are doing the work of the world. We must appreciate 1008 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION that apprenticeship is a preparation for life as well as for earning a living. (practical ( One ofeffect the most desirable effects of a State apprenticeship would be its in bringing about a social recognition of the dignity of labor. There has been too much shouting from the housetops relative to this and too little of a real effort to place training for honest labor on a par with training for the so-called white collar jobs. It should be clearly understood that any apprenticeship scheme planned along the lines indicated herein calls for a permanent, long-time, continuous program instead of being based upon temporary emergency conditions. Such a scheme must be flexible enough in its actual operation to adjust itself to the varying industrial conditions of prosperous and stringent times. In such a program, there should be no intention, whatever, to train more of the youth of our country for any trade or group of trades than can be normally and readily assimilated into that trade. The apprenticeship must be open to those now already at work at their trades who desire to improve and to develop a genuine craftsmanship . Habits of work are as fundamental to success and happiness in life as any other habits that we can inculcate into the minds and hearts of the 1 rising generation. The world is today suffering from the desire of our ☐ people to get away from work. How to get by seems to be the slogan of the hour. The world is paying vast sums for the time of its workers, but in many cases gets little service. We have little hope and prospect of de- veloping a wholesome attitude toward work and a sincere pride in genuine craftsmanship on the part of our youth of today unless we very deliberately incorporate into our otherwise excellent educational system those oppor- tunities for work under work conditions that will weave into the very fabric of our youth the necessary and fundamental habit of work. OUR NATIONAL CONSTRUCTION PROGRAM AND ITS NEED OF MECHANICS D. H. SAWYER, SECRETARY, ASSOCIATED GENERAL CONTRACTORS OF AMERICA, WASHINGTON , D. C. The aroused interest of educational officials during the past few years but more particularly the more recent months, in the proper training of boys in the details of building construction and the preparation of courses of study; the securing of the necessary personnel and funds and the solicita- tion of students to take up the work, as well as all matters affecting the general problem, should be founded on economic considerations. Full ap preciation should be attached to the necessity which for the moment exists for a larger number of building mechanics, as well as the probable per manence of the demand. Hence, the question arises, "Is the program now in process of development one which will further extend the education facilities of the country and start students on a career justified by the experi DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1009 ence of the past, the conditions as they exist today, and by a forecast into the future?" It is not fair to the boy to lead him to believe that a promis- ing future awaits him in the building industry, if such a future cannot be thoroughly established. Likewise it is unfair to ask those who support the schools to give their time and money to new processes of education if the need for these is temporary and the acute situation of today can be more satisfactorily met through other means of relief. For the moment let us consider a picture of the construction industry as it exists, in order that we may become acquainted with the scope of this business, its probable permanence in the National life, as well as problems which face it which might influence the training of apprentices. Contracting today, for purposes of distinction, is split into four general groups, namely, building, such as office structures, hotels, monumental, edifices, educational facilities, industrial plants, and housing accommoda- tions ; public works, which comprehend such developments as vehicular tun- > nels, subways, canals, irrigation, power stations, sewer and water improve- ments; highways, which include traffic arteries of cities, counties, and States, and railways, such as new lines, revisions of grade and line, terminal and station developments. The building program of 1923 totaled about seven billion dollars, which figure establishes this great business as second only to agriculture, and is 1 almost wholly an addition to the permanent wealth of the country. No search has been made of records through past decades to determine the relative rank of construction in relation to other businesses of the country, but it is known that, steadily and rapidly, construction work has become more and more a factor in American life. As civilization becomes more complex and our desires more insistant, a tendency is established to require additional facilities which will meet such ever increasing demands. For illustration : Twenty years ago the farmer, as well as those who lived in the cities, was satisfied with the ordinary roads constructed of native soil, but with the coming of the automobile and the firmer determination of the rural inhabitant to avail himself of the opportunities of the city, the improvement of the highways of the country, starting in an experimental way, has finally become a fixed policy in every State in the Union, until the road construction of the country last year cost very nearly one billion dollars. This enormous program, startling in its extent, shows no signs of pausing, but every evidence is to the effect that the impetus already gained will be continued until virtually all the high- ways of the country will be hard surfaced. Likewise, we were satisfied a few years ago for children to attend school in bare and unsanitary build- ings, and today we find the educational plants among the finest structures in the country, with highly perfected facilities. The war caused a stoppage of all building work, and the deficit not balanced off as yet, is estimated to be between one and two years, which cannot be attained at once but must be stretched over several years to come. 1010 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Again, if you contemplate any structure which has been built within the past few years, great as it may be, you will find a larger enterprise already in contemplation which is destined to relegate the first to second place and this competitive desire to increase and improve has become not only a ten- dency of the people, but a challenge to their ingenuity and resourcefulness to build larger and ever better. It is difficult to imagine any reaction that may occur in the Nation which will upset this growing desire to surround ourselves with the very best or anything that might transpire which will dampen the ardor and ingenuity of those who plan for our necessities and conveniences . Virtually all other classes of businesses are component parts of the con- struction industry as, for instance, engineers, architects, accountants, con- tractors, subcontractors, material people, banks, mortgage houses, real estate, labor, equipment concerns and transportation systems, and on account of this vast interlocking of interests, it has become one of the chief barom- eters in rating the condition of National business life. It is difficult to believe that the demands of the American people for con- struction will grow less, and it seems to be the mature judgment of those who are entitled to express an opinion that the National construction pro- gram will hold its own with other lines, and that its volume will probably show no signs of decrease except as it is influenced by the periodic reactions which from time to time visit us. The construction industry must rely upon the three big M's which typify Men, Money, and Materials. Money for legitimate improvement enterprises has generally been plentiful, and today it is possible to acquire funds in large amounts for purposes of construction. The inventive genius of the country leads the whole world in the development of materials and equipment of construction, and the resourcefulness of manufacturers has by no means reached its limit. The prime difficulty which contractors have faced for the past few years has not related as particularly to money and materials as it has to the supply of personnel necessary to man improvement works. There has been a serious shortage of building mechanics virtually throughout the country, and this condition has affected the speed with which enterprises can be completed and likewise has increased the cost. The remedial measures necessary to overcome this difficulty are of great concern to contractors and all other factors playing a part in the construction program. It is recalled that, for years past, the ports of the United States have been open to the peoples of the world to come and work and live with us, but this inflow of new life has been greatly curtailed by recent legislative acts, which permit a very restricted number of immigrants to reach our shores. Great num- bers of these foreign people found their way into the construction industry and formed a new blood which was necessary to meet an ever enlarging program, but as this source of supply has been very largely dried up, it be- comes necessary, if construction is to continue, that other sources be de DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1011 veloped. The manufacturers of the country have been quick to observe the situation, and every effort is being made to increase the production of labor-saving devices and employment of materials which will reduce the manual labor of installation. As indicating the problem which exists, Table 1 is given below showing the shortage of building artisans throughout the country in the summer of 1923 . TABLE 1.-SHORTAGE OF BUILDING MECHANICS IN JUNE, 1923 New N.Y. & South East West South Rocky Pacific Av- Artisans England Pa. Eastern Central Central West Mount Coast erage Bricklayers 51% 39% 32% 44% 42% 29% 55 % 23% 39% Carpenters .. 15% 3% 3% 42% 13% .... .... 16% 25% Cement finishers .... 28% 20 % 40% 14% .... 14 % .... 29% Electricians 22% 59% .... .... 21 % Engineers 11 % .... 1 % 1% .... 3% Hod carriers ... 3 % 52 % 62% .... 31 % Labor, common.. 14% 14% 14% 18 % 5 % 3% .... 12 % Lathers 23% 22% 67 % 58 % 50% 17% 27% 57% Masons 27% 24% 80 % .... 25% .... 50 % Painters .. 33 % 28 % 20% 75 % .... 47 % Plasterers 67% 50% 53 % 64% 50 % .... 50% 26% 54% Plumbers 7% 37% 38 % .... ... .... 5% 28% Sheet metal workers .......... 35% 37 % 67% 9% ... 20% 11% 47% Steam fitters ..... .... 5% 35 % 47% 34% .... .... 33% Structural iron workers 30% 12% 9% 16% 40 % 14% Percentage is the ratio of men short to total requirements. Shortage for entire country is 23 per cent. TABLE 2.- SUPPLY OF BUILDING MECHANICS ( CENSUS OF 1920 ) 1920 1910 Brick and stone masons . 131,257 169,387 Carpenters 887,208 810,082 Cement finishers . 7,621 7,030 Electricians 212,945 120,155 Painters, glaziers and varnishers (building) 248,394 273,060 Paperhangers 18,338 24,780 Plasterers 38,249 47,676 Plumbers and gas and steam fitters . 206,715 148,304 Roofers and slaters . 11,378 14,078 Stonecutters 22,096 35,726 Structural ironworkers ( building) 18,836 11,427 Coppersmiths 5,232 3.410 Tinsmiths and sheet metal workers . 69,725 56,399 Laborers, building, general and not specified . 608,075 853,679 2,486,069 2,575,163 As further emphasizing the conditions as they exist, Table 2 is given which has been abstracted from the census of the United States. This latter table indicates that there was an actual decrease in the number of mechanics in the ten-year period from 1910 to 1920. The causes which 1012 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION produced this deficiency are of moment and are possible of explanation, but are not necessary for the purposes of this discussion except to convey a full appreciation of the serious condition which exists in the industry, and to adduce tangible evidence of something which must be corrected. It is believed from the statement made above that opportunity presents itself in the industry for boys who wish to prepare themselves for this character of work. The construction operations afford outdoor work under healthy and sanitary conditions which even in their improved con- dition today are ever being bettered. Building operations in years past in some particulars have been dangerous to life and health, but today such control is being exercised over construction that it is as safe as almost any other pursuit which a man can follow. For example, the National Safety Council is a Nation-wide organization making studies of improved con- ditions which are destined to protect life and limb, and contractors and others the country over are harmonizing their efforts with that organiza- tion to protect the workers . One handicap that has existed in the building industry has been the short working season which afforded a considerable amount of idle time unless a man engaged in some other pursuit during the lax periods. Studies under the direction of the Department of Commerce have been made to lengthen the construction season, and at this time we find work available for mechan- ics virtually throughout the whole year. There was a time when a man who worked with his hands received immoderately low wages, but through increasing recognition of the im portant part which he plays in life, as well as through his associating himself with those who have his particular interests in view, his wages today are lucrative, and not only in accord with the advance in the cost of living, but a considerable amount above this. We feel that success and advancement lie within the man and not in the vocation which he chooses to follow. The average skilled mechanic in the building trade of twenty-five years of age makes a yearly income as large, if not larger, than that of any young man of similar age in any other trade or profession. There have been countless men in the construction industry who have risen from carpenters, bricklayers, ironworkers, and laborers to foremen, superintendents, general managers, and finally to the head of a business of their own. The need for more labor and the necessity for securing a larger ratio of apprentices are recognized, but there has not yet been a definite National program mapped out to take care of the situation. Independent efforts have been made by numerous general contractors and local agencies to form trade schools and take apprentices into construction actually in progress. but these efforts have not been unified, although some results have been obtained in many sections of the country. What is actually necessary is a definite plan which comprehends the National problem and standardize its solution. Construction and all business which hinges upon it will wel DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1013 come any plan which the Nation's educators can offer for the training of young men to fit them for useful places in the industry, and you may be assured of the whole-hearted and unselfish support of the contractors of the country in your efforts to study and determine the most effective solu- tion of this interesting problem. FORESTRY AS A TOOL IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION— ABSTRACT M. C. MERRILL, DIRECTOR OF FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS, FOREST SERVICE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE , WASHINGTON , D. C. Tomorrow the tolling bells all over the fair land of America will cele- brate our political independence, but we are plunging recklessly and speedily to the time when a forest-barren land will be forced to hear the death knell of our economic progress and freedom, unless we drastically mend our wooden ways. There must be immediate educational action to help avert a timber famine, and educators must pay more attention to forestry as one of the corner stones of America's economic structure . For- estry is a definite and important tool in vocational education. Is America to maintain her position of economic leadership in the world, or is she not ? If she is, the time has come when we must universally give more serious and more effective educational attention to our rapidly dwindling forest resources. The startling facts of our timber situation should make us stop, look, and listen for the dangers ahead. The United States is consuming twenty- five billion cubic feet of timber a year-two-fifths of the entire consump- tion of the world and growing only six billion cubic feet in the same period. That unbalanced ratio is sending us straight and fast into a tim- ber famine. In fact we have already arrived at the boundaries of that gaunt and desolate condition. Every year we are cutting the timber on ten million acres of forest land, an area one-third the size of Louisiana. In spite of our rapidly decreasing supplies of wood, forest fires are yearly burning over forest lands equal in size to a strip 10 miles wide from Washington to Kansas City. Eighty per cent of these forest fires are caused by human carelessness. There are throughout the country eighty-one million idle acres of barren land that was once covered with forests and is not suitable for farm crops an area as large as the total land area of the ten States of Rhode Island, Delaware, Connecticut, New Jersey, Massachusetts, New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Maryland, West Virginia, South Carolina, and half of Ohio. We are deplorably wasting each year in preventable losses about seven billion board feet of lumber, an amount which requires 170 million acres to grow an area as large as the entire State of Texas or the combined 1014 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION land area of Minnesota, Kansas, Missouri, and Indiana. A few more National extravagances like these and we shall have covered this whole country with these sorry comparisons . "Well, we should worry " is the common complacent attitude, for "American ingenuity will find substitutes for wood." Yes, substitutes for wood are being found, and yet the facts show that our timber demands are increasing all the time. Would you believe that more wood is now used in houses than before concrete came into use, or that in railway car con- struction more wood is now used than before the advent of the steel car? Substitution may help but never entirely fill the timber bill. There are two important ways in which forestry may be used in voca- tional education. First, forest planting projects for school or community woodlots, groves, or forests, and their proper care and management for both landscape beauty and commercial profit ; second, study and application by manual training classes of proper use of woods and their complete utilization to avoid wastage in wood-using industries and the building trades. Teachers of vocational education have a golden opportunity to correlate their work with the increasingly insistent demands for attention to this National problem, and many are already planning their projects accord- ingly. In this important program the United States Forest Service stands ready and anxious to render assistance to educators everywhere, as it is already doing in thousands of cases . i -- THE FOURTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Delegates who attended the Sixty-second annual meeting of the National Education Asso- ciation in Washington, D. C., June 29-July 4, 1924. It will be observed that some of the delegates failed to register their positions. ALABAMA Rosenberry, Ethel, Phoenix Teachers Asso- Abercrombie, J. W. , Ex-officio ( State Su- ciation, 760 East Pierce, Phoenix. perintendent) , Montgomery. Slavens, Jean, Tucson Teachers Association , Bandman, C. G., Principal, Woodlawn High 908 East Fourth Street, Tucson. School , Alabama Education Association, ARKANSAS First Avenue and 56th Street, Birmingham. Bentley, B. E. , Principal, Jefferson County De Neler, Emmie, Women Teachers Associa- Teachers Association, Republic. tion of Little Rock, 3101 West IIth Street, Bradford, Lula, Supervisor, Primary Work, Little Rock. Birmingham Teachers Association, 1412 Griffey, Annie G. , Ex-officio ( State Director) , North 32d Street, Birmingham. 800 Louisiana Street, Little Rock. Brown, Charles A. , Associate Superintendent Hall , R. C. , Arkansas Educational Associa- of Schools, Birmingham. tion, Superintendent of Schools, Little Dowling, H. G. , Superintendent, Cullman Rock. County Schools , Secretary, Alabama Edu- Henderson, D. T. , Arkansas Educational As- cation Association, Cullman. sociation, County Court House, Little Hodges, P. W. , Secretary, Division Teacher Rock. Training Certification and Placement, Hill , A. B. , Ex-officio ( State Superintendent), Alabama Education Association, Mont- Little Rock . gomery. Nobles , Mollie, Arkansas Educational Asso- MacKenzie, Lois, Principal, Elementary ciation, English. School, Birmingham Teacners Association, Pitts, Gertrude , Women Teachers Associa- Birmingham. tion of Little Rock , Pfeifer School, Little Munro, P. M. , Principal, High School, Ala- Rock. bama Education Association , Selma. Starkey, Elizabeth, Arkansas Educational Ragan, Winifred, Head of Commercial De- Association, Pine Bluff. partment, Phillips High School , Birming- CALIFORNIA nam Teachers Association, Biraning..am. Shackelford, E. M. , President, State Normal Artz, Etta Ooley, Los Angeles City Teach- School, Alabama Teachers Association, ers Club, 834 West Sixth Street, Los Troy. Angeles. Tidwell, Flora, Grade Teacher, Wylam Atkinson, Agnes , Fresno City Council of School, Birmingham Teachers Association , Education, 2627 M Street, Fresno. Birmingham. Avery, Eunice, Teacher, Grade Teachers As- Williams, J. D. , Principal, Woodlawn, sociation, 4318 19th Street, San Francisco. Scoool, Birmingham Teacners Association, Barbour, Marion V. , Chico Teachers Club , Birmingham. 4938 Third Street, Chico. ALASKA Barrows , Jeannette, Berkeley Teachers Asso- Henderson, Lester D. , Ex-officio ( State ciation, 1345 Arch Street, Berkeley. Director) , Commissioner of Education, Boardman, Helen H., Santa Clara Teachers Juneau. Association, 475 Embarcadero Road, Palo Alto. Keller, William K. , Alaska Education Asso- Brenneman, Elsa, Clendale City Teachers ciation, Juneau. Club, 22252 West Fourteenth Street, Los ARIZONA Angeles. Brown, Clara S. , Arizona State Teachers Broadwell, Laurine, Los Angeles High Association, State Normal School, Tenpe. School Teachers Association, Los Angeles. Carpenter, Mary E. , Arizona State Teachers Bryson, Jennie E., Alameda County Teachers Association, Tempe. Association, 2426 Bancroft Way, Alameda. Case, C. O. , Ex-officio (State Superintend- Cagney, W. J. , California Teachers Associa- ent), Phoenix. tion, Hollister. Fenton, Norman, Arizona State Teachers Caldwell, Mrs. Olive E., Long Beach City Association, State Normal School, Tempe. Teachers Club, 1092 East 17th Street, File, Viola, Tucson Teachers Association, Long Beach. Zuni Court No. 1, Tucson. Camper, Charles H., California Teachers As- Foster, Elizabeth, Globe Teachers Associa- sociation, Superintendent of Schools, Chico. tion, P. O. Box 883 , Globe. Cravens, Mary R. , California Teachers Asso- Grau, Miriam, Assistant to Superintendent ciation, 1823 H Street, Sacramento. in Phoenix, Arizona State Teachers Asso- Cauch, F. R. , Oakland Teachers Association , ciation. Mesa . 2316 Valdez Street, Oakland. Hendrix, H. E. , Superintendent of Schools , Chamberlain, A. H. , Secretary, California Arizona State Teachers Association, Mesa. State Teachers Association, 933 Phelan Martin, S. H. , Superintendent of Schools, Building, San Francisco. Prescott Education Association, Prescott. Chaney, S. M. , California Teachers Associa- Matthews , Mrs. A. J. , State Normal School, tion, Willows. Tempe. Chenoweth, L. E., California Teachers As- Matthews, A. J. , Ex-officio ( State Director) , sociation , Bakersfield. President, State Normal School, Tempe. Clayton, W. M. , Santa Ana City Teachers Reynolds, Mrs. Kate, Arizona State Teach- League, 403 So. Broadway, Santa Ana. ers Association, 75 Pennington Street , Cloud, Roy W. , California Teachers Associa- Tucson. tion, Redwood City. Robinson, Merna B., Arizona State Teachers Coale, N. O. , California Teachers Associa- Association , Box 334, Morenci . tion, Mendocino City. [ 1015] 1016 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Colbert, Gail, California Teachers Associa- Association, Ioro Delaware Street, tion, 2642 Second Street , San Diego . Berkeley. Cotrel, Edna, San Francisco Grade Teachers Iversen, Ida Christine, California Teachers Association, Teacher, 3240 Clay Street, San Association, 215½ So. Catalina Street, Los Francisco. Angeles. Cranston, J. A. , California Teachers Asso- Jacobson , Jeannette, California Teachers ciation, Santa Ana. Association, 1334 Kellam Avenue, Los Crase, Mrs. Drucie, Berkeley Teachers Asso- Angeles. ciation, 336 Olive Avenue, Berkeley. Johnson, Beth, San Diego Teachers Associa- Dacre, Emma L. , San Francisco Grade tion, 4366 Maryland Avenue, San Diego. Teachers Association , Teacher, 45 Henry Kelly, Effa M. , Pomona City Teachers Club, Street, San Francisco. 750 N. Garey Street, Pomona. Davis, Cecil M., California Teachers Asso- Keppel, Mark, Superintendent, Los Angeles ciation, Santa Cruz. County Schools , California Teachers Asso- Dillon, Alice, Oakland School Womens Club , ciation, Los Angeles. 1428 Jackson Street, Oakland. Klugel, Isabelle, San Diego Teachers Asso- Duncan, Glee, Long Beach City Teachers ciation, San Diego Hotel, San Diego. Club, 429 East Seventeenth Street, Long Knight, Emma, San Bernardino City Teach- Beach. ers Club , San Bernardino. Dunlevy, William P., Ex-officio (State Di- Krauss, Louise H. , California Teachers Asso- rector) , 2924 Ash Street, San Diego. ciation, 115 Palm Avenue, San Francisco. Dupuy, E. G. , San Francisco High School Kuehny, M. S. , Principal, Principals' Club Teachers Association, 822 Merchants Ex- of Los Angeles Elementary Schools. 703 change Building, San Francisco. North Jackson Street, Glendale. Ellis, Evangeline, Fresno City Council of Lang, Mamie B. , California Teachers Asso- Education, John Muir School, Fresno. ciation, Red Bluff. Fraser, Anna, Oakland Teachers Association , Le May, Dorothy, San Francisco Grade 822 Alma Avenue, Oakland. Teachers Association , Teacher, 231 15th Friedrich, Mary, Oakland School Womens Avenue, San Francisco. Club, 100 Ninth Street, Oakland. Little, Mrs. Isabel, California Teachers As Frost, Blanche, Alameda Grade Teachers sociation , 311 East Bishop, Santa Ana. Club , Teacher, 2044 Santa Clara Avenue, McDermott, Louise, San Francisco Grade Alameda. Teachers Association, Teacher, 1180 Fulton, Theodore, Los Angeles High School Guerrero Street, San Francisco. Teachers Association, 2226 Baltimore McLean, Mrs. Fannie, Alameda County Avenue, Alhambra. Teachers Association, 1829 Bancroft Way, Garrison, Dora L. , Los Angeles City Teach- Berkeley. ers Club , 1416 Third Avenue, Los Angeles. Mack, Mrs. A. C. , California Teachers Asso- Glazier, Marcella, San Francisco High School ciation, Lincoln School, Bakersfield. Teachers Association , 3367 17th Street, Martin, A. H. , Long Beach City Teachers San Francisco. Club, Eliot Street, Long Beach. Goggin, William A. , Long Beach City Teach- Massey, Herbert N., Alameda County Teach- ers Club , 315½ Temple Street, Long ers Association, 2610 Milvia Street, Beach. Berkeley. Grabill, Gladys B., Los Angeles City Teach- Muller, Josephine E. , Los Angeles City ers Club, 724 West 60th Street, Los Teachers Club, 3203 Arvia Street, Los Angeles. Angeles. Gridley, E. G.. California Teachers Associa- Mitchell, R. P. , California Teachers Associa tion, Roosevelt High School , Oakland. tion, Santa Ana. Gwinn, J. M.. Superintendent of Schools, Mooney, Mary F. , Ex-officio ( Vice Presi- California Teachers Association , City Hall , dent) , Vice- Principal, Washington School. San Francisco. San Francisco. Haigh, Anne B., San Francisco Grade Teach- Morrison , Florence, Oakland Teachers Asso- ers Association, Teacher, 1431 Fifteenth ciation, 1704 Filbert Street, Oakland. Avenue, San Francisco. Miller, E. E. , Oakland Teachers Associa- Halliday, Florence , Oakland Teachers Asso- tion, 3909 Linwood Street, Oakland. ciation, 550 24th Street, Oakland. Newton , Willis T. , Los Angeles High Hancock , Joseph E.. Santa Clara County School Teachers Association, Los Angeles. Teachers Association , 532 So. Ninth Norton, Alice, California Teachers Associa- Street, San Jose. tion, Hampton Court Apartments, 378 Golden Gate Avenue, San Francisco. Hausett, Elizabeth E. , Teacher, San Fran- cisco Grade Teachers Association , 136 Oakley, Agnes, Long Beach City Teachers Frederick Street, San Francisco. Club, 2229 Lime Avenue, Long Beach. Henrich, A. Zella, Alameda County Teachers Ostrom, Mrs. Ivy D., Principal, San Fran- Association, 2311 Rose Terrace, Berkeley. cisco School Principals' Association, 2040 Steiner Street, San Francisco . Hiles, Leta Severance, California Teachers As- Perkins, Mrs. Josephine, Santa Barbara sociation, 804 Cooper Arms , Long Beach. County Teachers Association, 1443 Eighth Holliday, Mrs. Viviene C. , Principal, San Avenue , Oakland . Diego Principals Club, 1904 First Street, Phelps, Ethel D., Los Angeles High School San Diego . Teachers Association , 3140 San Marino, Holway, Elsie M., South Pasadena Teachers Los Angeles. Club. 1321 Marengo Avenue, South Raybold, Irving, California Teachers Asso- Pasadena. ciation, 4524 Fountain Avenue, Los Hunter, Fred M., Ex-officio (Life Director), Angeles. Superintendent of Schools , Oakland. , Mrs. Georgia, Alameda County Reilly Hutchings, Raymond R. , Santa Barbara City Teachers Association, 2500 Woolsey Teachers Club , University Club of Santa Street, Berkeley. Barbara, Santa Barbara. Reilly, Mary Jane, Berkeley Teachers Asso- Irwin, Sue, Alameda County Educational ciation, 2610 Derby Street, Berkeley. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1017 Reinhard, C. J. , Principals' Club of Los COLORADO Angeles Elementary Schools, R. F. D. 1, Box 1245 , Glendale. Ammons, Annie J. , Teacher, Denver Class- Robinson, J. A. , Alameda County Teachers room Teachers Association, 1340 Race Association, 397 Adams Street , Oakland. Street, Denver. Rosendahl, Fannie, The Fresno City Coun- Anderson, Anna V. , Classroom Teacher, cil of Education, 1047 Mildreda Avenue, Colorado Education Association , 3635 Fresno. Williams Street , Denver. Ross , H. H. , San Diego Teachers Associa- Ballou, Mrs. Allen, Teacher, Canon City tion, Point Loma, San Diego. Teachers Organization, Canon City. Roy, Essie M., Los Angeles City Teachers Benning, Marian, Teacher, Longmont Teach- Club, 1612 Sixth Avenue, Los Angeles. ers Club, 415 Coffman Street, Longmont. Russell , N. Ella, Santa Barbara County Boreing, Maude, Teacher, Pueblo Educa- Teachers Association, 203 East Flora , tional Association, District 1, Main Hotel, Stockton. Pueblo. Sandifur, Claude W., California Teachers Bradford, Mrs. Mary C. C. , Ex-officio Association, Box 108 , East 83rd Street, (State Superintendent) , 1735 Bellaire Hollywood. Street, Denver. Shafer, Harry, California Teachers Associa- Brennickl, Pearl M. , Teacher, Colorado tion, 716 Security Building, Los Angeles . Springs Federation of Teachers, 2215 West Shafer, Ina, California Teachers Associa- Colorado Avenue; Colorado Springs . tion. 3954 Eighth Street, San Diego. Brown, G. E., Superintendent of Schools, Shannon, Marguerite, Santa Clara County Colorado Education Association, Greeley. Teachers Association, 29 Mayellen Ave- Casey, C. C. , Superintendent of Schools , nue, San Jose. Colorado Education Association , Long- Shaw, Albert M., California Teachers Asso- mont. ciation, 2833 Estara Avenue, Los Angeles. Cash, E. C. , Teacher, Pueblo Teachers Asso- Shelton, Lulu A. , California Teachers Asso- ciation, Box 38, Pueblo . ciation, 574 61st Street, Oakland. Ecker, Emma B. , Teacher, Denver Class- Small, Pearl M. , The Fresno City Council room Teachers Association, 3652 Alcott of Education, 804 Palm Avenue, Fresno. Street, Denver. Smart, Ruth Adair, Long Beach City Teach- Ellison, J. W. , Principal, Gilpin School, ers Club, 429 East 17th Street, Long Colorado Education Association, 5300 Beach. West 41st Street, Denver. Spencer, Edith, Los Angeles High School Force, Anna L. , Principal, Lincoln School, Teachers Association , 531 North Ard- 216 Sherman Street, Denver. more, Los Angeles. Frasier, George W. , President, Colorado Stuckey, W. L. , California Teachers Asso- State Teachers College, 1906 11th Avenue, ciation, 632 East Irvington Avenue, Greeley. Huntington Park. Gavin, Mae F. , Teacher, Denver Classroom Sutton, J. R. , Oakland Teachers Associa- Teachers Association, 1465 Winona Court, tion, 710 McKinley Street, Oakland. Denver. Tanner, W. G., Los Angeles High School Girault, Mrs. T. L. , Principal, Colorado Teachers Association, 5878 Denver Ave- Education Association , Sterling. nue, Los Angeles . Griffith, Emily, Principal, Opportunity Utt, J. H. , Stockton Elementary Teachers School, Colorado Education Association, Association, 33 West Harding Way, 1524 Fillmore Street, Denver. Stockton, Hamilton, Jessie M. , Principal, Morey Junior Utter, J. P. , Solano Teachers Club, Masonic High School , Principals' and Directors ' Club, Vallejo. Association , 1055 Lincoln Street, Denver. Wackermann , Theodora, San Diego Teachers Hirons, W. G. , Principal, High School , Association, 1152 22nd Street, San Diego. Colorado Education Association, Grand Wade, May C. , California Teachers Associa- Junction. tion, 2400 Durant Avenue, Berkeley. Huntington, Alice G., Teacher, Denver Class- Walton, Thomas A. , San Diego Teachers room Teachers Association, 1347 High Association, 2526 Pamo Avenue, San Street, Denver. Diego. Krusen, Alma, Teacher, Denver Classroom Welday, Samuel, Santa Barbara Teachers Teachers Association, 995 Corona Apart- Association, 1826 De La Vina Street, ments No. 6, Denver. Santa Barbara. Leise, May, Teacher, Morgan County Teach- Welty, H. O., Oakland Teachers Associa- ers Association, Brush. tion. 4309 Gilbert Street, Oakland. Lort, Martha, Teacher, Denver Classroom Weyman, Vivian, Stockton Elementary Teachers Association, 2375 East Missis- Teachers Association, 1231 North Monroe sippi , Denver. Street, Stockton. McArthur, Anna P. , Teacher, Denver Class- Whellis , Dorothy R. , Los Angeles City room Teachers Association, 2126 Vine Teachers Club , 651 West 36th Street, Los Street, Denver. Angeles. McBreen , Barbara, Teacher, Denver Class- White, Edna A. , Oakland School Women's room Teachers Association, 3915 King Club, 148 Ronada Court, Piedmont. Street, Denver. Morris, Mary E., Principal, Columbian Wilson, H. B. , Superintendent of Schools, School , Colorado Education Association, California Teachers Association , Berkeley. 1661 Harrison Street, Denver. Woods, Glenn , Oakland Teachers Associa- Murphy, Marie D. , Teacher, Denver Class- tion, 277 Park View Terrace, Oakland. room Teachers Association , 1618 Pennsyl- Woolley, Mrs. Eva Mae, Pasadena Teachers vania, Denver. Association, 747 Howard Place, Pasadena. Newlon, Jesse H., Superintendent of Schools, Yerge, Clyde S., California Teachers Asso- Colorado Education Association, Adminis- ciation, 1836 Los Lunas Street, Pasadena. tration Building, Denver. 1018 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Parker, Frances E. , Teacher, Denver Class- Shilling, Robert E., Superintendent of room Teachers Association , 1600 Emer- Schools, President, Delaware State Educa- son Street, Denver. tion Association, Milford. Peers, Katherine E. , Teacher, Boulder Teach- Wagner, M. Channing, Principal, High ers Club, 2116 15th Street, Boulder. School, Delaware State Education Associa Read, Faye, Teacher, Pueblo Grade Teach- tion, Wilmington. ers Association, District 20, 1425 Vernon Ward, David A. , Superintendent of Schools, Avenue, Pueblo. Delaware State Education Association, Redford, Helen D., Teacher, Denver Class- Wilmington. room Teachers Association, 207 S. Gilpin, Yerger, W. K., Superintendent, A. I. du Denver. Pont Special School District, Delaware Riedel, F. A., Teacher, Greeley Teachers State Education Association, 707 Rodney Association, City Schools, Greeley. Street, Wilmington. Rote, Orville W. , Superintendent of Schools, Arapahoe County Teachers Association, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Littleton. Shute, William C. , Principal, Wyman School , Baker, Miss S., The High School Teachers Colorado Education Association , Denver. Association of the District of Columbia, Smith , H. B. , Ex-officio (State Director) , Central High School, Washington. Secretary, Colorado Education Associa- Ballou , F. W. , Ex-officio, Superintendent of tion, 520 Commonwealth Building, Den- Schools , Washington. ver. Clark, E. A. , Columbian Education Associa- Starr, Lelah C., Teacher, Denver Class- tion, 1915 Second Street, Northwest, Wash- room Teachers Association, 218 South ington. Clarkson Street, Denver. Crabtree, J. W. , Ex-officio ( Secretary of N. Stockton, Roscoe K. , Principal, Bryant Ε. Α .) , 1201 16th Street, Washington. School, Denver Teachers Club , 1842 Vine Davis , Adelaide, Education Association of Street, Denver. the District of Columbia, Ludlow School, Tirey, R. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Washington. Colorado Education Association , La Junta. Ely, Selden M., Educational Association of Wharton, Eleanor A. , Teacher, Colorado the District of Columbia, Gales School, Springs Federation of Teachers, Colorado Washington. Springs. . English, Harry, Ex-officio (State Director), Wilson, J. H. , Superintendent of Schools, Board of Examiners, Franklin Building, Colorado Education Association, Rocky Washington. Ford. Finegan, Thomas E. , Ex-officio (Board of CONNECTICUT Trustees) , 350 Madison Avenue, New York City. Grosvenor, Edith L. , Education Association Collins, Mary, Teacher, New Haven Teach- of the District of Columbia, The Iowa, ers League, 41 Fifth Street, New Haven. Washington. Cortright, E. Everett, Superintendent of Grant, Lucas M. , Columbian Education Schools, Connecticut State Teachers Asso- Association, 1738 15th Street, Northwest, ciation, 610 Colorado Avenue, Bridgeport. Washington. Keene, Ida B. , Teacher, Connecticut State Netherland, Rosa Stokes, Columbian Educa- Teachers Association, Wilton Road, West- tion Association, 613 Third Street, North- port. east, Washington. Kelly, Mary E., Teacher, Connecticut State Taylor, Miss O. , The High School Teachers Teachers Association, 519 High Street, Association of the District of Columbia, Middletown . Eastern High School , Washington. Knight, Mrs. Gertrude, Teacher, East Hart- Tigert, John J., Ex-officio (Life Director), ford Teachers Association , Burnside. United States Commissioner of Education, Lord, Miss, Teacher, Connecticut State Washington. Teachers Association , Willimantic. Wilkinson, Garnet C., Columbian Educa- Merchant, Caroline, Principal, Connecticut tion Association, 406 U Street, Northwest, State Teachers Association, 145 Lenox Washington. Street, New Haven. Williams, Charl Ormond, Ex-officio (Life Meredith, A. B. , Ex-officio ( State Commis- Director) , 1201 16th Street, Northwest, sioner of Education) , Hartford. Washington. Moody, Wilfred H., Principal, New Haven Teachers League, 287 West Elm Street, FLORIDA New Haven. Smith, Miss M., Principal, Connecticut State Cawthon, W. S., Ex-officio (State Superin- Teachers Association, Hebron. tendent of Public Instruction) , Tallahassee Spoor, K. Gertrude, Teacher, Stratford Evans , R. M. , Principal, High School, Fior Teachers Association, 1137 West Broad ida Education Association, Quincy. Street, Stratford. Gullett, B. D., Superintendent of Manatee Sterling, Grace, Supervisor, Connecticut County Schools , Manatee County Educa State Teachers Association , 59 East Eaton tional Association, Bradentown. Street, Bridgeport. Johnson, A. B. , Superintendent of Orange Swett, H. D. , Principal, Connecticut State County Schools , Orange County Teach Teachers Association, West Hartford. ers Association, Box 271, Orlando. Marks, George W., Superintendent of Voltma DELAWARE County Schools, Florida Education Asso- ciation, DeLand. Holloway, H. V., Ex-officio ( State Direc- Turner, R. L. , State Rural School Inspector. tor) , State Superintendent of Public In- Florida Education Association, Tallahassee struction, Dover. Wilder, Mrs. M. G., Visiting Teacher, Fiss Hydorn, M. L. , Principal , Delaware State ida Education Association, Box 1074. St Education Association, Frederica. Petersburg. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1019 GEORGIA Benson, Lucy A. , Assistant Principal, Asso- Cleveland, A. G. , Georgia Education Asso- ciation of Assistants to Principals of Chi- ciation, 119 North Ashley, Valdosta . cago, 6943 Stewart Avenue, Chicago. Sutton, Willis A. , Superintendent of Schools, Berninger, Harriett, High School Principal, Georgia Education Association, 99 Drewry Illinois State Teachers Association, Allen- dale. Street, Atlanta. HAWAII Blair, Francis G. , Ex-officio, ( State Super- intendent) , Springfield. Givens, W. E. , Ex-officio (State Director) , Boling, Caroline, Illinois State Teachers Superintendent Public Instruction, Hono- Association, DeLand. Julu. Boyer, Eolia, Teacher, Illinois State Teach- Hiserman , Mrs. Helen, Hawaii Education ers Association, 442 North Ith Street, Association, 1634 Bingham Street, Hono- East St. Louis. lulu. Boyer, E. L. , Principal, Lake Shore Divi- Horner, Eugene, Hawaii Education Associa- sion of the Illinois State Teachers Associa- tion, Hilo. tion, 29 McEldowney, Chicago Heights. Johnson, M. Louise, Hawaii Education Asso- Bright, Harold, Superintendent of Clark ciation , Lihue, Kauai. County Schools, Illinois State Teachers King, Helen B. , Oahu Teachers Association, Association, Marshall. Honolulu. Buehler, Jessie E. , Teacher, Illinois State King, Mrs. Mabel, Hawaii Education Asso- Teachers Association, 6141 Dorchester ciation, 2256 Kalia Road, Honolulu. Avenue, Chicago. Sheldon, Mrs. Louise, Kauai Education Asso- Calhoun, Ida C. , Teacher, Illinois State ciation, Kapaa, Kauai. Teachers Association , 6325 Kenwood Ave- Wakefield, Mrs. Martha, Hawaii Education nue, Chicago. Association, Hilo. Corwin , Beulah , Kindergarten Teacher, Wells, H. M., Maui Teachers Association, Illinois State Teachers Association , 4474 Hamakuapoko, Maui . Oakenwald Avenue, Chicago. Wist, Mrs. Blanche C. , Oahu Teachers Asso- Deaton, Eula W. , Dean, Illinois State Teach- ciation, 2128 Oahu Avenue, Honolulu. ers Association , 126 South Harvey Ave- Wist, B. O., Oahu Teachers Association, nue, Oak Park . 2128 Oahu Avenue, Honolulu. De Laney, Nellie M., County Teacher, Lake IDAHO Shore Division of the Illinois State Teach- Breckenridge, J. L. , Superintendent of ers Association, Waukegan. Schools , Idaho State Teachers Associa- Downey, Elzy F. , Teacher, Illinois State tion, Coeur d'Alene. Teachers Association, 26 North Waller Brock, C. D. , Superintendent of Schools , Avenue, Chicago . Idaho State Teachers Association , Wallace. Dutton, Mary E. , Teacher, Illinois State Groke, Nellie, Teacher, Pocatello Educational Teachers Association , 430 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago . Association, Pocatello High School, Poca- Earnest, W. W., Superintendent of Schools, tello. Jenifer, Joel, Superintendent of Schools, Champaign Teachers Association, 307 North Idaho State Teachers Association, Lewis- McKinley Avenue, Champaign. ton. Ege, Mrs. Louise N. , Illinois State Teachers Laidlaw, L. E., Teacher, Idaho State Teach- Association, 4927 Washington Boulevard, Chicago. ers Association, Wallace. Ely, Rose, Illinois State Teachers Associa- Russum, Elizabeth, Ex-officio ( State Direc- tor) , State Superintendent of Schools , tion, 934 North Boulevard, Oak Park. Boise. Farr, Allan C. , Illinois State Teachers Asso- Siders, Walter R. , Ex-officio ( Executive ciation, 4164 West 24th Street, Chicago. Committee N. E. A. ) , Superintendent of Farrell, Mary , Illinois State Teachers Asso- Schools , Pocatello. ciation, 4931 Washington Boulevard, Chi- cago. Snyder , R. H. , Superintendent of Schools , Ford, Mrs. Jessie C. , Principal , The Rock- Idaho State Teachers Association, Idaho Fails. ford Teachers Club , Ellis School, Rock- ford. ILLINOIS Fuhrman, Mrs. Mabel, Principal, Rock Is- Abbe, Mary W. , Principal, Illinois State land County Teachers Club, 2415 Sixth Teachers Association, 6619 LaFayette Ave- Avenue, Moline. nue, Chicago. Harden, Anna I., Teacher, Illinois State Abramson, Mrs. Amalia E. , Teacher, Illinois Teachers Association , 1543 Sherwin Ave- State Teachers Association, 7635 Sanga- nue, Chicago . mon Street, Chicago . Harden, Frances E. , Teacher, Illinois State Andrews, Maritelva, Teacher, Lake Shore Teachers Association, 1534 Sherwin Ave- Division of the Illinois State Teachers nue, Chicago . Association, Maywood. Hayes, John, Illinois State Teachers Asso- Babcock, Mrs. Minnie P. , Supervisor of ciation, 122 North University, Peoria. French, Joliet Township High School Hays , D. Grant, Director Visual Education, Teachers Association , 416 Richards Street, National Academy of Visual Instruction, Joliet. Chicago. Bean, Estella, Teacher, East St. Louis Grade Hult, Lydia, Teacher, Rock Island County Teachers Fellowship Society, 617 North Teachers Club, Longfellow School , Rock 13th, East St. Louis. Island. Beers, George A. , Illinois State Teachers Huston, W. F. , Illinois State Teachers Asso- Association , 3925 Van Buren Street, Chi- ciation, Cambridge. cago. Johnson, Roy H. , Superintendent of Dewitt Bell, Mrs. E. R. , Assistant Superintendent, County Schools, Illinois State Teachers Lake Shore Division of the Illinois State Association , Clinton. Teachers Association, 105 South Brainard Joiner, C. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Avenue, La Grange. Illinois State Teachers Association, Le Roy. 1020 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kenney, Mary L. , Teacher, Illinois State Robson, Mary, Teacher, Illinois State Teach- Teachers Association, 5919 Midway Park, ers Association, 1108 East 65th Street, Chicago. Chicago. Kinsey, Mrs. May O. , Teacher, Illinois Scully, Susan, Teacher, Illinois State Teach- State Teachers Association, 5452 Calumet ers Association, 7630 Cornell Avenue, Chi- Avenue, Chicago. cago. Knickerbocker, Harriet, Teacher, Illinois Silas , Paul, Superintendent of Schools, Black- State Teachers Association, 4927 Lake hawk Division of the Illinois State Teach- Park Avenue, Chicago. ers Association, Silvis. Krueger, Alma, Waukegan Township Sec- Sloan, Percy H. , District Supervisor of Art, ondary School, 121 Willson Avenue, Wau- Illinois State Teachers Association, 1307 kegan. North California Avenue, Chicago. Leonard, Veronica L., Teacher, Chicago Di- Smith, Ernest A. , Superintendent of Schools, vision of the Illinois State Teachers Asso- Lake Shore Division of Illinois State ciation, 6364 Ingleside Avenue, Chicago. Teachers Association , 1323 Hinman Ave- Livingston, Mary B., Principal, Illinois State nue, Evanston. Teachers Association, 1368 East 54th Smith, George O., Superintendent of Schools, Street, Chicago. Illinois State Teachers Association, Prince- Lodge, Anna L., Teacher, Illinois State ton. Teachers Association , 5804 Race Avenue, Smith, Robert R., Teacher, Illinois State Chicago. Teachers Association, 5719 San Francisco McBride, Marguerite, Teacher, Chicago Di- Avenue, Chicago. vision of the Illinois State Teachers Asso- Stevens , Mrs. N. H. , High School Teacher, ciation, 6044 Stony Island Avenue, Chi- 436 North Main Street, Rockford. cago. Storm, H. C. , Superintendent of Schools, McCredie, Emma, Teacher, Illinois State Illinois State Teachers Association, Batavia. Teachers Association, 124 West Marquette Sullivan , Ella C. , District Superintendent of Place, Chicago. Schools , Illinois State Teachers Associa McCroskey, Sophronia, Joliet Teachers Fed- tion, 5349 Sheridan Road, Chicago. eration, 115 Illinois Street, Joliet. Taylor, Ruth, Teacher, Illinois State Teach- Marberry, J. O. , Principal, Illinois State ers Association, Lowrie School, Elgin. Teachers Association , 409 South First Tehan, Kate, Teacher, Illinois State Teach- Street, Rockford. ers Association, 214 East 59th Street, Chi- Moore, Robert C. , Ex-officio, ( Representing cago. Illinois State Teachers Association-Life Thomas, Sarah L., Teacher, High School, Director) , Carlinville. Ex-officio, ( State Director) , 4or Kishwau- Morgan, W. P. , President, State Teachers kee Street, Rockford. College, Illinois State Teachers Associa- Thomas , Cora E. , East St. Louis Grade tion, Macomb. Teachers Fellowship Society, East St. Mull, Cora E. , Teacher, Chicago Teachers Louis. League, 4151 Berkeley Avenue, Chicago. Tuggle, L. A. , Superintendent of Vermilion Murphy, Elizabeth W. , Assistant Superin- County Schools, Illinois State Teachers tendent, Chicago Division of the Illinois Association, Danville. State Teachers Association, Chicago. Walker, Alice E. , High School Teacher, The Murphy, Margaret, Principal, Illinois State Rockford Teachers Club, Rockford. Teachers Association, 823 South Locust Weedman, Otto, South Central Division of Street, Carlinville. Illinois Teachers Association , 2060 North Nutting, E. P. , Blackhawk Division of the Edward Street, Decatur. Illinois State Teachers Association, Moline. White, Arilla, Teacher, McKinley School, Olmsted, Mrs. Josephine B. , Teacher, Illinois Rock Island County Teachers Club, Rock State Teachers Association, 2621 North Island. Sawyer Avenue, Chicago. Wolaver, Florence, Junior High School Owen, William B., Ex-officio ( Life Direc- Teacher, Lake Shore Division Illinois tor) , President, Chicago Normal College, State Teachers Association, 1734 Orring- Chicago. ton Avenue, Evanston. Parker, Leonora, Teacher, East St. Louis Zimmerman, Alyda, Teacher, Pekin Teach- Teachers Association, 745 North 23d Street, ers Club, 519 Catherine Street, Pekin. East St. Louis . Pass , Winifred, Blackhawk Division of Illin- INDIANA ois State Teachers Association , Moline. Pesta, Rose A. , Principal, Chicago Princi- pals' Club, Windermere Hotel, Chicago. Aley, Robert J., Ex-officio, (Life Director), President, Butler College, Indianapolis. Powell, Margaret, Teacher, Illinois State Teachers Association, 1215 Winona Ave- Armstrong, T. W. , The Indiana State Teach- nue, Chicago. ers Association, Delphi. Power, Nellie G., Teacher, Illinois State Baptist, Leona, Hammond City Teachers Teachers Association, 3213 Altgeld Street, Association, 32 Ruth Street, Apartment 3C, Hammond. Chicago. Preple, Blanche F. , Teacher, Illinois TS. Barck, Matilda A., Hammond City Teachers State Teachers Association, 6377 Stewart Association, 538 East State Street, Ham- mond. Avenue, Chicago. Pruitt, Edgar C., Superintendent of Sanga- Garrettson, Walter, The Indiana State Teach- mon County Schools, School Masters' Club ers Association, 8or North 14 % Street, Terre Haute. of Illinois, Springfield. Rathbun, Helen M., Teacher, Chicago Henn, Hallie, Federation of Evansville Pab- Teachers League, 5026 Blackstone Avenue, lic School Teachers, 1211 East Delaware Chicago. Street, Evansville, Reither, Tillie, Teacher, Illinois State Teach- Hines, L. N., President, Indiana State Nor- ers Association, High School, East St. mal School, Faculty Club of Indiana Statz Louis. Normal School, Terre Haute. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1021 Huffman , Helen, The Indiana State Teach- Iowa State Teachers Association , Bloom- ers Association, Anderson. field. McAdams, Emily, The Indiana State Teach- Overmyer, J. F., Superintendent of Schools, ers Association, 21 South Arlington Ave- Iowa State Teachers Association, Algona. nue, Indianapolis. Paul, Mary E., Teacher, Cedar Rapids Grade Miller, Charles F., The Indiana State Teach- Teachers Association, 340 Second Avenue, ers Association, Goshen. West, Cedar Rapids. Mitchell, Gertrude, Federation of Muncie Prouty, Edith, Iowa State Teachers Associa- Public School Teachers, 419 South Jeffer- tion, 208 Turley Avenue, Council Bluffs . son Street, Muncie. Pye, Charles F. , Secretary, Iowa State Teach- Myer, A. M. , The Indiana State Teachers ers Association, 505 Youngerman Build- Association, Oxford. ing, Des Moines. Peters, Louise, Local Federation , 14 Davis Roberts, Thomas R. , Ex-officio , (State Di- Flats, Terre Haute. rector) , Superintendent of Schools , Inde- Plummer, Margaret, The Indiana State pendence. Teachers Association, Wabash. Secrist, Lulu B., Superintendent of Linn Roudebush, Roy, The Indiana State Teachers County Schools, Iowa State Teachers Asso- Association, Greenfield. ciation, Marion. Rupp . R. G., Hammond City Teachers Asso- Seerley, H. H., President, State Teachers ciation, 241 Lewis Street, Hammond. College, Iowa State Teachers Association, Scott. Alice Jean, South Bend City Teachers Cedar Falls . Association , 110 North William, South Sipple, E. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Bend. Burlington Teachers Association, 309-310 Smith, H. Lester, Ex-officio , ( State Direc- Iowa State Bank Building , Burlington. tor) , Dean, School of Education, Indiana Smith, Calla, Sioux City Teachers Club , 1125 University, Bloomington . Paxton, Sioux City. White, Grace, Des Moines Teachers Federa- IOWA tion, 1310 40th Street, Des Moines. Andrews, Harry, Superintendent of Schools, KANSAS Iowa State Teachers Association , Grimes . Ary. Lester C. , Superintendent of Schools, Darnell , A. M. , Kansas State Teachers Asso- Iowa State Teachers Association, Cherokee. ciation, Topeka High School, Topeka. Beebe, Grace, Superintendent of Bremer Frye, Maggie, Du Bois Teachers Club , 2030 County Schools, Iowa State Teachers Asso- North Sixth Street, Kansas City. ciation, Waverly. Gordon, Virgil, The Fort Scott Teachers Clevenger, T. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Club, 6ro West Fifth Street, Fort Scott. Iowa State Teachers Association, Waverly. Johnson, Clara, Kansas State Teachers Asso- Crow, Jane, Fort Dodge Teachers Federa- . ciation, 1509 Clay Street, Topeka. tion. Fort Dodge. Kesselring, Bert, Kansas State Teachers Crowell, Deanna, Sioux City Teachers Club , Association , Topeka. 300 Ida Apartments , Sioux City. Lesher, Louise, City Teachers Club , 310 East. Mary, The Clinton Teachers Federa- East Park Street, Pittsburg. tion, 539 Tenth Avenue , Clinton. Nelson, Mary, Principals and Supervisors Kansas City Association, Broadlands Field, Edith, Council Bluffs Teachers Club, Washington Apartment, Council Bluffs. Hotel, Kansas City. Finch, Bertha, Administration Club of the Oliverson, Minnie J. , High School Teachers Sioux City Schools, 3900 Sixth Avenue, Club of Kansas City, 315 North 17th Sioux City. Street, Kansas City. Griffith, Martha E. , Cedar Rapids Grade Rowe, Harriet, Kansas City Grade Teachers Teachers Association, 1509 East Avenue, Club , 553 Washington Boulevard, Kansas Cedar Rapids. City. Hardin, Nannie M. , Council Bluffs Teachers Simcox, Mabel, Junior High School Club, 2925 Flora, Kansas City. Club , 903 Fifth Avenue, Council Bluffs . Stout, A. J. , Kansas State Teachers Associa- Hills, May A. , Superintendent of Dallas tion, 1614 Jewell Avenue, Topeka. County Schools, Iowa State Teachers Asso- Weaver, Margaret, Teacher, Kansas City ciation , Adel . Grade Teachers Club, 2010 West 38th Ireland, Maud, Des Moines Teachers Federa- Street, Kansas City. tion, 2415 Drake Park Avenue, Des Moines. KENTUCKY Johnson, Anna, Superintendent of Webster County Schools , Iowa State Teachers Asso- Breckenridge, Elizabeth , Principal, Normal ciation, Fort Dodge. School, Kentucky Education Association, Louisville. Logan, Emma C. , Scott County Teachers Association, 811 Grand Court, Davenport. Button, F. C., President, Morehead Normal Lord, Mary A., Iowa State Teachers Associa- School, Kentucky Education Association, Morehead. tion, 1801 Pierce Street, Sioux City. Gates, G. Edna. Principal, Owensboro Teach- MacDowell , Mrs. L. S. , Elementary Teach- ers Association, 603 Frederica Street, ers Club, Keokuk. Owensboro . McBride, Sarah, Iowa State Teachers Asso- Keith, Charles A. , Head, History Depart- ciation, 1002 Des Moines Street, Des Moines. ment Eastern State Normal School, Presi- dent, Kentucky Education Association , McEwen, Janette, Iowa State Teachers Asso- Richmond. ciation, Sigourney. Rhoads , McHenry. ( State Superintendent) , March, Lucile, Sioux City Teachers Club , Kentucky Education Association , Frank- 300 Ida Apartments, Sioux City. fort. Olson, Mabel, Sioux City Teachers Club , Stewart, Mrs. Cora Wilson, Ex-officio, Washington School, Sioux City. (Executive Committee) , Chairman, Illiter- Ostergard, H., Superintendent of Schools , acy Commission, Frankfort. 1022 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Stutz, Elsa, Teacher, Louisville Educational Trickey, Harold, Maine Teachers Associa- Association , 1409 Highland Avenue, Louis- tion, Bangor. ville. Wadsworth, Mrs. Laura, Maine Teachers Weibel, Elise, Principal, Louisville Princi- Association, 33 High Street, Camden. pals' Club , 2210 Sherwood, Louisville. Weed, C. A. , York County Teachers Associa- Williams, R. E. , Ex-officio , (State Director) , tion, Biddeford. Secretary, Kentucky Education Associa- Williams, Leon N., Portland Teachers Asso- tion, 319-320 Starks Building, Louisville. ciation, 77 Mackworth Street, Portland. LOUISIANA MARYLAND Bell, Annie T., Teacher, Louisiana State Uni- Burdick, William, Ex-officio, ( State Direc- versity, Louisiana Teachers Association, tor) , State Supervisor of Physical Educa- Baton Rouge. tion, 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore. Doerr, Loretta R. , Ex-officio, (State Direc- Lankford, Alma, Teacher, Maryland State tor) , Supervisory Principal, 1323 North Teachers Association, Salisbury. Rampart, New Orleans. Pyle, Thomas W. , Supervisor of Montgomery Farrar, Joseph , Principal , Louisiana Teach- County High Schools, Montgomery County ers Association, Morgan City. Teachers Association, Poolesville. Griffith , P. H. , Secretary, Louisiana Teach- Robinson, Louis C. , Superintendent of Kent егз Association, 1916 America Street, County Schools, Maryland State Teachers Baton Rouge. Association, Chestertown. Patton, John S. , Louisiana Teachers Associa- Schleederbert, George W., Teacher, Balti- tion, Superintendent, Claiborne Parish more County Teachers Association, 3707 Schools , Homer. Edmonson Avenue, Baltimore. Roy, V. L. , President, Louisiana State Nor- Unger, S. H. , Superintendent of Carroll mal College, Natchitoches. County Schools , Maryland State Teachers Association, Westminster. MAINE Weglein, David E., First Assistant Baltimore City Schools, Maryland State Teachers Benner, Mrs. Crace, Maine Teachers Associa- Association, Madison and Lafayette Ave tion, Camden. nues, Baltimore. Clark, W. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Hancock County Teachers Association , MASSACHUSETTS Southwest Harbor. Coombs, F. M. , Franklin County Teachers Alger, Lucia, Somerville Teachers Associa- Association , Rangeley. tion, 163 Summer Street, Somerville. Dearing, Gladys , Cumberland County Teach- Anderson, Mabel J. , Massachusetts Teachers ers Association, 96 Brown Street, South Federation, 39 Somerset Street, Boston. Portland. Arnold, Melville A. , Massachusetts Teachers Foster, Harry A. , Maine Teachers Associa- Federation, 29 Walnut Street, Everett. tion, Skowhegan. Barnard, Florence, Brookline Teachers Club, Hale, Florence H. , Ex-officio , ( Vice Presi- 45 Mason Terrace, Brookline. dent) , State Agent for Rural Education, Batson, Bertha R. , Massachusetts Teachers State House, Augusta. Federation, 162 Warren Avenue, Brock- Hall, William D., Maine Teachers Associa- ton. tion, Castine. Campbell , Gilman H. , Norfolk County Teach- Heald, F. H. B., Cumberland County Teach- ers Association, Needham. ers Association, Scarboro. Chevalier, Ada E. , Massachusetts Teachers Johnson, Perle, Maine Teachers Association , Federation, Pierce School, Brookline. Southwest Harbor. Dame, Elizabeth B. , Massachusetts Teachers Jordan, Nellie W., Maine Teachers Associa- Federation, 3 Parkview Avenue, Lowell. tion, Gorham. Dockham, Alice C., Chelsea Teachers Asso- Marr, W. M. , Maine Teachers Association, ciation, 20 Lawrence Street, Chelsea. Millinocket. Hatch, Alice, Beverly Teachers Association, Pillsbury, Rose, Maine Teachers Associa- 515 Cabot Street, Beverly. tion, Belfast Road, Camden. Hawes, Martha J., Massachusetts Teachers Potter, Sarah, Maine Teachers Association, Federation, 21 Fairmont Avenue, East Lisbon Falls. Weymouth. Preble, Sanford E., Aroostook County Teach- Hegan, Clara G. , Somerville Teachers Club, ers Association of Maine, Presque Isle. 100 School Street, Somerville. Rideout, Walter J. , Piscataquis County Holman, Hilda, Cambridge Teachers Club, Teachers Association of Maine, Dover- Webster School, Cambridge. Foxcroft. Hopkins , Bertha J., Massachusetts Teachers Rockwood, Emily, Washington County Federation, 656 Pleasant Street, Worcester. Teachers Association, Calais. Howell, Clarence E. , The New Bedford Spearin, Mrs. Gladys, Mapleton-Washburn Teachers Association , 166 William Street, District Union Teachers Association, Wash- New Bedford. burn. Jewett, Edith R., Malden Teachers Associa- Spiller, Mrs. Harriet M. , Androscoggin tion, 12 Florence Street, Malden. County Teachers Association, Mechanic Kelly, Katherine, Massachusetts Teachers Falls. Federation, 434 Fletcher Street, Lowell Taylor, Josiah W. , Ex-officio, (State Direc- Kimball, Caroline, Massachusetts Teachers tor), State Agent for Secondary Educa- Federation , 39 Jackson Street, East Lynn tion, State House, Augusta. Lampson, Ruby B., Massachusetts Teachers Thomas , Augustus O. , Ex-officio (State Federation, 93 High Street, Brockton. Superintendent), Augusta. Lynch , John E. , Massachusetts Teachers Thompson, J. B. , Union Superintendent of Federation, Stoneland Road, Worcester. Schools, Aroostook County Teachers Asso- McSkimmon, Mary, Ex-officio, (State Direc- ciation of Maine, Washburn. tor) , Principal, Pierce School, Brookline DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1023 Mellish, Anne A. , Boston Teachers Club, 59 Teachers Club , 235 Lafayette Avenue Monument Avenue, Charlestown. Northeast, Grand Rapids. Nelson, Elizabeth, Massachusetts Teachers Lamoreaux, Blanche , Teacher , Grand Rapids Federation, 51 Essex Street, Cliftondale. Teachers Club, 2046 Michigan Street O'Connor, Mary, Massachusetts Teachers Northeast, Grand Rapids . Federation, 158 Highland Street, Taunton. McDonald, Jessie, Teacher, Grand Rapids O'Neil, Mary Elizabeth, Watertown Teach- Teachers Club , 438 Eastern Avenue South- ers Association , 16 Chestnut Street, Water- east, Grand Rapids . town McKenny, Charles, President, Michigan Palmer, Helen M., Haverhill Teachers Asso- State Normal College , Ypsilanti. ciation, 55 Park Street, Haverhill. Marsh , Lettie, Mrs., Teacher , West Leonard Peyton, Alice V. , Massachusetts Teachers School , Grand Rapids Teachers Club, Federation, 70 Hancock Street, Stoneham. Grand Rapids . Pierce, Adelaide, Chelsea Teachers Associa- Matthews , Stella, Teacher , Detroit Teachers tion, 20 Lawrence Street, Chelsea. Association, 2400 Central Avenue, Detroit. Rideout, Gertrude, Massachusetts Teachers Merrill, John, Teacher , Michigan State Federation, 2 Winthrop Street, Concord. Teachers Association, 1526 Garland Ave- Smith, Flora M., Middlesex County Teachers nue, Detroit . Association, Newton High School, Newton- Moore , Hazel, Teacher , Hazel Park Teach- ville. ers Club , 187 Vester, Ferndale . Smith, Maria, Massachusetts Teachers Fed- Neilson, Emma , Teacher , Michigan State eration, 51 Essex Street, Cliftondale. Teachers Association, 1832 West Grand Smith, Payson , Ex- officio , (State Commis- Boulevard, Detroit. sioner of Education) , Boston. Quackenbush, E. J., Teacher, Highland Park Stark, Mary, Boston Teachers Club , ΙΟΙ Teachers Association, Angell School, High- Carver Road, Newton Highlands. land Park. Stockbridge, Julia, Everett Teachers Club , Renkes, Nora, Teacher, Detroit Teachers 10 Orchard Street, Everett. Association, Thirkell School , Detroit. Sullivan, Julia E., Boston Teachers Club , 9 Rodda, Mrs. Anna B. , Teacher, Detroit Marian Street, Charlestown. Teachers Association, 5009 Second Boule- Trowbridge, Amelia, Melrose Teachers Club , vard, Detroit. 216 West Foster Street, Melrose. Rodda, Ruth, Teacher, Moore School, De- Whipple, F. L. , Massachusetts Teachers troit Teachers Association, Detroit. Federation, 61 Maple Street, East Lynn. Rouse, Jessie, Teacher, Saginaw E. S. , Wilson, Guy M. , Boston University School Teachers Club, 2503 South Washington ofEducation, Pine Street, Wellesley Hills. Avenue, Saginaw. Winship, A. E. , Massachusetts Teachers Rouse, Kittie N. , Teacher, Saginaw E. S. , Federation, 6 Beacon Street, Boston. Teachers Club, 2503 South Washington Woodward, Annie C., Massachusetts Teach- Avenue, Saginaw. ers Federation, 144 School Street, Somer- Schaefer, Marie, Teacher, Grand Rapids ville. Teachers Club, 841 Wealthy Street, South- east, Grand Rapids. MICHIGAN Stark, Eveline, Teacher, Michigan State Teachers Association, 503 Monroe, Ann Barrett, Flossie, Teacher, Michigan State Arbor. Teachers Association, Flint. Stevenson , Mrs. Carlie A. , Teacher, Muskegon Blackman, Ruth M., Teacher, Hazel Park Teachers Club, 150 Lake Shore Drive, Teachers Club, R. R. 7, Box 626, Royal Muskegon. Oak. Waltz, Margaret, Teacher, Detroit Teachers Cameron, E. T. , Secretary, Michigan State Association, Craft School, Detroit. Teachers Association, 809 Prudden Build- Wells, Minnie, Teacher, Detroit Teachers ing, Lansing. Association , Craft School, Detroit. Cody, Frank, Superintendent of Schools, Whitney, Gladys M. , Teacher, Michigan Michigan State Teachers Association, De- State Teachers Association, 419 James troit. Avenue, Southeast, Grand Rapids. Curtis, George, Superintendent of Schools, Michigan State Teachers Association, MINNESOTA Alpena. Duncan. Hilda, Teacher, Michigan State Bank, A. M. , Superintendent of Schools, Teachers Association, Flint. Minnesota Education Association, Park Edwards, Mrs. Jennie H., Teacher, Detroit Rapids. Teachers Association, Thirkell School, Barron, Caroline K. , Teacher, Lincoln Detroit. Junior High School, Minneapolis Division Ellsworth, F. E. , Superintendent, Training ofMinnesota Education Association, Min- School, Western State Normal, Michigan neapolis. State Teachers Association , Kalamazoo. Buchanan, Anabel, Minneapolis Division of Fink, Mrs. Jessie M. , Teacher, Michigan Minnesota Education Association, City State Teachers Association, Principal, Hall, Minneapolis. Christensen , Etta O. , Minnesota Education Palmer School, Grand Rapids. Fuller, Hester T., Teacher, Sault Ste. Marie, Association, Amery, Wisconsin. Clancy, A. W. , Minnesota Bookmen's De- Michigan Chapter of N. E. A., 412 Carrie partment, Minnesota Education Associa- Street, Sault Ste. Marie. tion, 502 Globe Building , Minneapolis . Goodrich, Lloyd, State Inspector of High Doherty, Agnes E. , Ex- officio (Board of Schools, Michigan State Teachers Associa- Trustees) , 2078 Summit Avenue, St. Paul. tion. Lansing. Fitzpatrick, Lucy, Minneapolis Division of Goodrich, Rena L. , Teacher, Michigan State Minnesota Education Association, Leam- Teachers Association, Allegan. ington Hotel, Minneapolis. Green, May, Teacher , Adrian Teachers Club, Fitzpatrick, Mae, Grade Teachers' Section 513 East Front Street, Adrian. of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Jones, Anna S. , Teacher, Grand Rapids Leamington Hotel, Minneapolis. 1024 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Missouri State Teachers Association, Flenniken , F. O. , Minnesota Education As- Kirksville. sociation, Glyndon. Cummins , Nelle, Teacher, Kansas City Fobes, M. P., Superintendent of Schools , Teachers Club, 3128 Wabash, Kansas City. Southwestern Division Minnesota Educa- Denning . R. L. , Teacher, Missouri State tion Association , Northfield. Teachers Association , 2508 Taraon, St Gallagher, Mary, Minnesota Education As- sociation , St. Cloud. Joseph. College Professor, Faller, Alice, Teacher, Sedalia Community Gildemeister, Theda, Teachers Association, 921 West 6th Street, Minnesota Education Association , Winona. Harris, Mary C. , Teacher, Central High Sedalia. School, Minneapolis High School Teachers Farley, Madaline, Teacher, Kansas City Teachers Club , 805 East 30th Street, Association , Minneapolis . Kansas City. Hooper, Myrtle U., Teacher, Minneapolis Franklin, Daisy, Teacher, St. Joseph Teach- Grade Teachers Association , 4046 Upton Association, 1315 North 10th, St. ers Avenue South, Minneapolis . Kammaren , Abbie M. , Minneapolis Division Joseph. of Minnesota Education Association, 1208 Gilliam, Lucy, Kansas City Teachers Club, West Franklin Avenue , Minneapolis . II East 57th Terrace, Kansas City. Kechefoth , Ethel, Minneapolis Division of Lain, Nell E. , Teacher, Kansas City Teach- Minnesota Education Association , 1315 ers Club , 4518 Montgall Street, Kansas Lowry Avenue , Northeast, Minneapolis . City. Langvick , Clara, Teacher , Minneapolis Di- Lamkin, Uel W. , President, State Teachers vision of Minnesota Education Association, College, Missouri State Teachers Associa- 4711 East 45th Street, Minneapolis . tion, Maryville. McConnell, J. M. , Ex -officio (State Commis- Lee, Charles A. , Ex-officio (State Superin- sioner of Education), St. Paul. tendent) , Jefferson City. Mecker , Mary K. , Teacher , Jordan Junior Longshore, W. T. , Principal, Greenwood High School, Minneapolis Division of School, Missouri State Teachers Associa- Minnesota Education Association , Min- tion, 520 West 40th, Kansas City. Maddox, John J., Superintendent of Schools, enlis neapo . Missouri State Teachers Association, St. O'Bri , Ruth, Atlantic Gateway Association , Louis. Central High School , Duluth. Marshall, Margaret, Teacher, St. Joseph Richardson , C. R., Teacher , West High School , Minnesota Education Association, Teachers Association, 1715 Penn Street, apolis St. Joseph. Minne . Miller, May, Teacher, Kansas City Teachers Rogers , Helen L., Grade Teachers Section of the Minneapolis Teachers League, 4029 Club, 2412 East 28th Street, Kansas City. Garfield Avenue South, Minneapolis . Neal, Bert Claire, Teacher, Kansas City Scofield , Harriet , Teacher , Minneapolis Di- Teachers Club, 414 Gladstone Boulevard, vision of Minnesota Education Association , Kansas City. 3017 Park Avenue , Minneapolis . Phillips, C. A., College Professor, Commu- nity Association of Central Missouri Shephard, W. H. , Teacher , North High Teachers College, Warrensburg. School , Ex-officio ( State Director) , Min- Ray, Martha R. , Teacher, Hannibal Commu- neapolis. Teachers Association, 1004 Hill Shove, Helen, Principal, John Hay School, nity Minneapolis Principals Forum, Min- Street, Hannibal. Riddle, Annie, Teacher, Missouri State Simle y, isI.. T. , Superintendent of Schools, neapol Teachers Association , 217 North 13th Minnesota Education Association , Thief Street, St. Joseph. Sharp, Russell A., Teacher, High School, River. Missouri State Teachers Association, Kan- Tibbitts , Isabel L., Teacher, West High School, Minneapolis Division of Min- sas City. nesota Education Association , Minneapolis . Spencer, Katherine , Teacher, St. Joseph Van Dyke, J. A. , Superintendent of Schools , Teachers Association , I015 Faraon, St. Minnesota Education Association , Col- Joseph. Street, E. B. , Superintendent of Schools eraine. Central Missouri Teachers Association, Is Vaughan, James P. , Superintendent of Schools, President, Minnesota Education dependence. Thompson , Anna M. , Teacher, Missouri Association , Chisholm. State Teachers Association , Haddon Hall. Voigt, Alfreda, Teacher. Grade Teachers ers Section of the Minneapolis Teach Kansas City. Blaisdell Avenue, Min- Walker, Thomas J., Ex-officio (State Di- League, 2624 rector) , 800 Conley Street, Columbia. neapolis. uri State ic White, Effie, Atlant ay Gatew iation Assoc , White, Mabel, Teacher, Misso Central High School, Duluth. Teachers Association , 1519 Edmond Street, St. Joseph. MISSISSIPPI NEBRASKA Taylor, W. N., Secretary, Mississippi State Adams, Jennie, The Nebraska Woman's Edu- Teachers Association , Jackson . cational Club, 931 D Street, Lincoln . Clarke, Helen G. , Omaha School Forum, MISSOURI 5120 Capitol Avenue, Omaha. Cook, Curtis E., Omaha School Forum. Adams . Tillie C. , Teacher, Missouri State Woodland South High School, Omaha. Teachers Association , 3632 Ellsworth, Mary, Omaha School Forum. Street, Kansas City. Miller Park School, Omaha. Baird, Brownlee E., Principal, The Council Hampton, Mrs. Nellie, Omaha School Forum. of Negro Teachers , 2425 Montgall Avenue, Saunders School, Omaha . Kansas City. Hosman, Everett M., Secretary. Nebraska Banks, Charles, Superintendent of Schools, DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1025 State Teachers Association, 311 Fraternity Eckert, Paul Y., Superintendent of Schools , Building, Lincoln. New Jersey State Teachers Association, Kaffenberger, Gladys, Nebraska State Teach- Ocean Grove. ers Association, 1955 A Street, Lincoln. Eister, W. W. , Principal, Village School , Kaffenberger, Goldye, Nebraska State Teach- New Jersey State Teachers Association, ers Association , 1955 A Street, Lincoln. Hamburg. Kraker, Anna Lois, Omaha School Forum, Golden, Mary G. , Teacher, Burnet Street 617 South 31st Avenue, Omaha. School, Grade Teachers Organization , Lefier, M. C. , Superintendent of Schools , Newark. Ex-officio ( State Director) , Lincoln. Howard, Margarette E. , Principal, Elemen- Long, Mrs. Natalia C., Lincoln Teachers As- tary School, The Summit Teachers Asso- sociation, 1829 M Street, Lincoln. ciation, Summit. McDonald, Jeannette, Omaha School Forum, Klages, Josephine R. , Principal, Elementary 3848 Cass Street, Omaha. School, New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Martin, George E., Nebraska State Normal ciation, Camden. School and Teachers College, 932 West Larned, Ruth, Teacher, High School, Engle- 24th Street, Kearney. wood Teachers Club, Englewood. Matzen, John M., Ex-officio ( State Superin- Lawson, Manett E. , Helping Teacher, Rural tendent) , Lincoln. School, New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Monette, A. Blanche, Principal, High School , ciation, Flemington. Nebraska State Teachers Association, Lewiston. Mason, Florence S., Teacher, Grade School , Elizabeth Teachers Association, Elizabeth. Nyrop, Dora, Nebraska State Teachers As- Outwin, Harriet J., Principal, Grade School, sociation, 708 West First Street, McCook. Paterson Teachers Association, Paterson. Pickard, Anna, Omaha School Forum, Vin- Quig, Emily H., Teacher, Rural School, New ton School, Omaha. Jersey State Teachers Association, Dela- Pickard, Hattie, Omaha School Forum, ware. Lothrop School, Omaha. Remster, M. Elizabeth, Teacher, Rural Pollock, Ruth, Omaha School Forum, Miller School, New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Park School, Omaha. ciation, Alloway. Pyrtle, Ruth E., Lincoln Teachers Associa- Sargeant, Ide G., Principal, Elementary tion, McKinley High School, Lincoln. School, New Jersey State Teachers Asso- Rost, Grover, Nebraska State Teachers As- ciation, Paterson. sociation, 812 N. Wheeler, Grand Island. Schnitzer, Carrie S., Teacher, Rural School, Slade, Clara, Lincoln Teachers Association, New Jersey State Teachers Association, 1208 D Street, Lincoln. Fairton. West, Parl, Nebraska State Teachers Asso- Shaw, Lena B., Teacher, Junior High School, ciation, Gothenburg. Junior High School Teachers Association, Wilson, Margaret, Nebraska State Teachers Jersey City. Association, 338 South 27th Street, Lin- Shurts, Lela, Teacher, Grade School , Grade coln. NEVADA Teachers Organization, Newark. Stocking, Vaughn D. , Principal, Elementary Kelly, A. L. , Nevada State Educational As- School, Faculty Public School Number sociation , Overton. One, West New York. Strahan, C. J., Assistant Commissioner of NEW HAMPSHIRE Education, Monmouth County Supervisors Round Table, Freehold. Butterfield, E. W. (Ex-officio) , State Com- Waterbury , Clara E. , Teacher, Grade School, missioner of Education, Concord. West New York Teachers Association, Flynn, Mildred M., Teacher, High School, Weehauken . Stafford County Teachers Association, Wright, Hubert A. , Teacher, High School, Dover. Hackensack Teachers Association, Bogota. Hicken, Blanche E. , Manchester Teachers Guild, West Salmon Street, Manchester. NEW MEXICO Mildram, Alice S. , Principal, Farragut Train- ing School, New Hampshire State Teach- Coe, Mrs. Louise H., Superintendent, Lin- ers Association, Portsmouth. coln County Schools, New Mexico Edu- NEW JERSEY cational Association, Carrizozo. Eckles, Isabel L., State Superintendent of Barr, Morris L. , Teacher, High School, Public Instruction, Ex-officio ( State Di- Newark Teachers Association , Newark . rector) , Santa Fe. Batten, Reeves D., Superintendent of Eckles, Mary, Principal, Training School , Schools, New Jersey State Teachers Asso- State Teachers College, New Mexico Edu- ciation, Lyndhurst. cational Association, Silver City. Chapman, Ira T., Superintendent of Schools , Lockard, Mrs. Josephine, Teacher, Raton School, Raton Teachers Association, New Jersey State Teachers Association, Raton. Elizabeth. Clarke, Ella G. , Principal, Grade School, Schmidt, Helen, Teacher, Albuquerque New Jersey State Teachers Association, Teachers Association, 610 West Coal Lakewood. Street, Albuquerque. Cornish, Hubert R., Principal, Grade School , Thomas, Mrs. A. E., Superintendent, Otero Paterson Teachers Association, Paterson. County Schools , New Mexico Educational Doughty, Effie N. , Teacher, Rural School, Association, Alamogordo. New Jersey State Teachers Association, NEW YORK Glassboro. Durell, Thomas J., Principal, Rural School, Abrams, Harriet E. , Teacher, Public School New Jersey State Teachers Association, 44, Queens, Association of Public Schools Belle Plaine. 11, 78, 80, 89, 92, Brooklyn. Dyke, Charles B., Superintendent of Schools, Allen, John, Birhamton Teachers Associa- Ex-officio ( State Director) , New Jersey tion, g Binghamton . State Teachers Association, Millburn. America er, Public School 161 , 1026 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Manhattan, Association of Public Schools Estey, Amy J. , Teacher, Public School 69, 161 , 160, 35. New York City. Queens, Association of Public Schools 1. Bagley, William C., Professor, Columbia 4, 5, 6, 84, 69, 70 and Bryant High School, University, Faculty of Teachers College, Queens. R. R. 12 , Westport, Conn. Flood, Helen L. , Teacher, Public School 55. Banning, Rebecca, Teacher, Public School Bronx, Association of Public School 55. 15. Richmond, Association of Public New York City. Schools 56 , 85 , 87, 113, 155, 178 , New Gaffney, Mrs. Edith M., Teacher, Yonkers York City. Branch of the New York State Teachers Baum, Millicent, Principal, Public School Association, 564 South Broadway, Yonkers. 101, Manhattan, Association of Public Gallup, Jackson, Principal, Rochester Teach- School 101 , New York City. ers Association, Rochester. Blake, Katherine, Principal, Public School 6, Gerety, Katherine, Teacher, Public School Manhattan, Association of Public Schools 1 , Bronx, Association of Public Schools t, 6, 53, 190, New York City. 31, 43 and Theodore Roosevelt High Blumenthal, Frances, Teacher, Public School School, New York City. 4, Bronx, Association of Public Schools Glen, Eva, Teacher, Richmond Hill High 8, 19, 32. 45, 46, 59, New York City. School, Queens, Federation of Teachers Boyd, Martha J., Teacher, Julia Richman High Association, New York City. School , Association of Julia Richman High Gunn, Ellen G. , Teacher, Public School 37, School and Public Schools 95, 107, New Bronx, Association of Public Schools 3. 9. York City. 18, 37, 52, New York City. Bradley, Clara, Teacher, Public School 108, Gutman, Hannah M. , Teacher, Public School Brooklyn , Association of Public School 108, 44, Queens, Association of Public Schools, Brooklyn. 42, 43, 44, 47, New York City. Brady, Miss S. M. , Public School Kinder- Hagen, William L. , Teacher, Mt. Vernon garten Association , 161 Willoughby Ave- Teachers Association , 361 South First tue, Brooklyn. Avenue, Mt. Vernon. Brewster, Abbie P., Teacher, Public School Herger, Margaret J., Teacher, Public School 93, Queens Association of Public School 55, Bronx, Association of Public School 57, 93, Queens. New York City. Brotzman, Mrs. Eunice, Teacher, Public Herriet, Hebe, Teacher, Public School 40, School 182, Brooklyn, Association of Pub- Bronx , Association of Public Schools 23. lic Schools 29, 46, 3, Brooklyn. 40, New York City. Cagliardi, Mrs. Evangeline, Teacher, Public Horn, Mary A., Principal, Public School 44. School 40, Manhattan, Association of Pub- Queens-Brooklyn Head of Departments lic Schools 10, 54, 179 and New York Association , New York City. Model School, New York City. Johnson, Katherine C., Teacher, Public Carls, Mrs. Rufina, Principal , Public School School 154, Brooklyn, Association of Pub- 42, Manhattan, Teachers Association, New lic Schools 82, 107 , 136 , 154, 172, Brooklyn. York City. Jones, Olive M., Principal, Public School Colburn, Jessie B., Principal, Public School 120, Ex-officio ( President N. E. A.), New 96, Manhattan, Association of Public York City. School 96, New York City. Kallino, Miss Jo , Teacher, Public School 188 Conway, Mary M. , Principal, Public School G, Manhattan, Association of Public 15, Richmond, Association of Public Schools 121 , 171 , 83, 172, New York City. Schools 21 , 26, and Curtis High School, Kaplan, Fannie, Teacher, Public School 73. New York City. Brooklyn , Association of Public School 73, Cort, Ambrose, Principal, Public School 73 , Brooklyn. Brooklyn, Ex-officio (State Director) , Kelley, Frank B., Teacher, De Witt Clinton Brooklyn. High School, Association of De Witt Crandall, Ernest L. , Director, Lecture Bu- Clinton High School, New York City. reau, Visual Instruction Association of Kent, Pansy E. , Teacher, Binghamton America, New York City. Teachers Association, 23 Dennison Avenue, Davison, Amy D. , Teacher, Erasmus Hall Binghamton. High School, Brooklyn Association of Kester, Julia, Teacher, Public School 96, Public School 109, Brooklyn. Manhattan, Association of Public Schools Davison, George M., Principal, Public School 17, 51 , 58, 84, 141, 166, New York City. 109, Brooklyn Teachers Association, King, Mrs. Florence I. , Teacher, Public Brooklyn. School 128, Brooklyn , Association of Pub- De La Mater, Mrs. Florence, Teacher, Pub- lic Schools 128, 80, Brooklyn. lic School 111 , Queens , Association of Kleine, Lillian E. , Teacher, Public School Public Schools, 20, 22, 23 , 94, Flushing 182, Brooklyn, Association of Public High School and Parental School , Schools 182 , 149, Brooklyn. Brooklyn. Knox, Margaret, Principal, Public School 15, Doherty, Loretta A. , Teacher, Manual Train- Manhattan, Association of District 5, New ing High School, Association of Public York City. Schools 119 , 120, 139, 179 and Manual Lasher, William R., Teacher, Erasmus Hall Training High School, Brooklyn. High School, High School Teachers Asso- Donnelly, Margaret, Teacher, Public School ciation, Brooklyn. 143, Brooklyn , Association of Teachers of Laufer, Mrs. I. B. , Teacher, Public School 7th, 8th and gth year, Brooklyn. 19, Manhattan, Association of Pubic Donohue, Mrs. M. C. , Principal, Public Schools 40, 19 and Manual Training School 4. Manhattan, Association of Pub- School for Girls, New York City. lic Schools 12, 22, 34, 88, 110, 4, New Lavers, Mary E. , Teacher, Drawing, Asso- York City. ciation of Public Schools 43, 68, 157, 101, Eddy, George E. , Teacher, East High School, 46, New York City. Rochester Teachers Association, Rochester. Lawrence, Mrs. Amelia P., Teacher, Pubic Egbert, Marion D. , Teacher, Public School School 40, Bronx, Association of Distric 115. Manhattan, Association of Public 20 Bronx and Public School 48, New Yots Schools 90, 115, New York City. City. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1027 Leavenworth , Elizabeth, Teacher, Public 73, Brooklyn, Association of Public Schools School 189, Brooklyn, Association of Pub- 164, 186, 192, Brooklyn. lic Schools 66, 114, 115 , Brooklyn. Vincent, John, New Rochelle Teachers Asso- Lindquist, Margaret, Teacher, Morris High ciation, 31 Summit Avenue, New Rochelle. School, Association of Morris High School, Wewster, Harriet U., Teacher, Public School New York City. 9, Richmond, Association of Public Schools McCauley, Elizabeth, Teacher, Public School 1 , 2, 3 , 6, 9, 12, 14, New York City. 3, Manhattan, Association of Public Wilson, Martha M. , Principal, Public School chools 3, 16, New York City. 127, Manhattan, Association of Public MacVay, Anna T., Teacher, Wadleigh High Schools 87 , 93 , 127, New York City. School, Manhattan, Association of Wad- Woodruff , Mrs. Charlotte, Teacher, Public leigh High School, New York Teacher school 19 , Manhattan, Association of Pub- Training School, Public School 165 , New lic Schools 38, 108, 114, 177, 61 , New York York City. City. Milligan, Annette W., Teacher, Mt. Vernon Wright, Grace I. , 234 East 34th Street, New Teachers Association, 20 Park Avenue, York City. Mt. Vernon. Nell, Edith M. , Teacher, Public School 55, NORTH CAROLINA Bronx, Association of Public School 44, New York City. Allen, A. T. , Ex- officio, (State Superintend- New, May A. , Teacher, Public School 13 , ent, Public Instruction) , Department of Kichmond, Association of District 48, New Luacation, Raleigh. York City. Camp, Cordelia, Rural School Supervisor, Newton, Margaret N., Teacher, Public Forsyth County, North Carolina Educa- School 74, Manhattan, Association of Pub . uon Association, Winston- Salem. lic Schools 27, 49, 70, 74, 76, 82, 116, 183 Harrelson, Miss P. V. , Dean, Davenport and High School of Commerce, New York College, North Carolina Education Asso- City. ciation, Cherryville. O'Brien, Margaret, Teacher, Girls High Joyner, James Y. , Ex-officio, (Life Director) , School , Association of Boys High School , La Grange. Girls High School and Public School 83, Smitin, H. B. , Superintendent of Schools , Brooklyn. North Carolina Education Association, Newbern. Orr, Ella J. , Teacher, Washington Irving High School, Association of Washington Warren, Jule B. , Secretary, North Carolina Irving High School, New York City. Education Association, Kaleigh. Peixotto, Mrs. B., Principal, Public School Wright, Robert H., President, East Carolina 96, Queens Teacners Association, Brooklyn. Teachers College, Ex-omcio, ( State Direc- Pettebone, Anna R. , Teacher, Public School tor) , Greenville. 120, Manhattan, Association of District 2, NORTH DAKOTA New York City. Prestopino, Christopher J. , Teacher, Public Allen , C. E. , President, State Teachers Col- School 184, Manhattan, Association of Pub- lege, North Dakota Education Association, lic School 184, New York City. Valley City. Quinn, Anna E. , Teacher, Public School 144, McCurdy, M. E., Secretary, North Dakota Brooklyn, Association of Public Schools 28, Education Association , Ex-officio, ( ১tate 35, 129, 144, 156, Brooklyn. Director ) , Washburn. Rabenort, William, Principal, Public School Mertz, Etnel, Superintendent of Richmond 55, Bronx, Association of Public Schools County Schools , North Dakota Education 4, 61 , New York City. Association, Wahpeton. Ray, Rose, Teacher, Public School 145, Nagel, Paul H. , Superintendent of Schools , Brooklyn, Association of Public Schools , North Dakota Education Association, Car- 104, 105, 112, 118, 176, Brooklyn. rington. Raynor, Gilbert J. , Principal , Commercial High School, Association of Commercial Nielson, Minnie Jean, Ex- officio, ( State Su- perintendent) , bismarck. High School, Brooklyn. Walker , J. E. , Superintendent of Schools, Rhodes, Sara L., Principal, Public School 28, North Dakota Education Association, Bot- Brooklyn , New York Principals Associa- tineau. tion, New York City. Walker, Sadie, Principal, Grade School, Robinson, Emma C., Mt. Vernon Teachers Nortn Dakota Education Association, Association , 2 North Eighth Street, Mt. Fargo. Vernon. Searing, Beulah C. , Teacher, Public School, OHIO 171, Brooklyn, Association of Public School 64, Brooklyn. Ammon, Mrs. Lucy, Cleveland Teachers Shaw, Lena B. , Teacher, Public School 147, Federation, 1265 Parkwood Drive, Cleve- Brooklyn, Association of Public School land. 147 , Brooklyn. Arnold, E. J., Logan County Teachers Asso- Smith, Jean, Teacher, Public School 14, ciation, Huntsville. Yonkers Teachers Association , Yonkers. Baer, J. A. , Cuyahoga County Teachers In- Stansbury, Alice, Teacher, Public School 52, stitute, Room 22 , Old Court House, Cleve- Queens, Association of Public Schools 52, land. 46, 68, 91, 59, 64, 90 , Queens. Baldwin, Harriet, Lakewood Teachers Asso- Strayer, George D., Ex-officio, ( Life Direc- ciation, 1202 Webb Road, Lakewood. tor) , Teachers College, Columbia Univer- Bouck, Miss I. J. , Cleveland Heights Teach- sity, New York City. ers Association, Roosevelt Junior High Sumner, S. Clayton , Teacher, Syracuse School, Cleveland Heights. Teachers Association, 2331 South Salina Brainerd, Mrs. Margaret S. , Ohio State Street, Syracuse, New York. Teachers Association, Walnut Street, Mar- Tepperman, Frances, Teacher, Public School tins Ferry. 1028 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Coulter, Georgia, Bellefontaine Teachers Reynolds, Frank E. , Ex-officio (State Direc Association, 216 East Columbus, Bellefon- tor) , Columbus. taine. Stauffer, Daisy, Ohio State Teachers Asso- Dann, Lois, Columbus Teachers Federation, ciation, 206 Lawn View Avenue, Dayton. 896 Neil Avenue, Columbus. Sullivan, H. L. , Ohio State Teachers Associa Davis , J. W. , Warren City Teachers Asso- tion, 342 South Avenue, Van Wert. Ulery, C. B. , Ohio State Teachers Associa ciation, 250 Cresson Road, Warren. tion, State Department of Education, Co Dickson, Amy, Toledo Teachers Association, lumbus. 16212 Huron Street, Toledo. Earhart, Naomi, Norwood Teachers Associa- Waterhouse, C. C., Lorain Teachers Club, tion, 926 Spencer Avenue, Norwood. 414 Iowa Avenue, Lorain. Erwin, Robert L., Ohio State Teachers Asso- Wood, Ralph, Elyria City Teachers Club. ciation, 740 Sixth Street, Steubenville. High School, Elyria Wylie, Alice, Zanesville Teachers Associa Evans , W. A. , Cincinnati Teachers Associa- tion, South Zanesville. tion, Walnut Hills High School, Cin- Yost, Ella L., Ohio State Teachers Associa- cinnati. Eyler , A. L. , Cincinnati Teachers Associa- tion, Valley City. Zimmerman, Ada F. , Ohio State Teachers tion, Sherman School, Cincinnati. Association , 327 Walnut Street, Dover. Fruehauf, Belva, Ohio State Teachers Asso- ciation, 7817 Clark Avenue, Cleveland. OKLAHOMA Fulton, Mary, Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, 224 North Main Street, Bellefon- Austin, G. W. , Oklahoma Education Associa taine. tion, Chickasha. Hayes, L. E. , Cuyahoga County Teachers In- Cleveland, Rex D. , Oklahoma Education stitute, Cuyahoga County, Dover Center. Hazel, H. R. , Cleveland Teachers Federa- Association, Enid. Dean, W. A., Tulsa N. E. A. Members tion, 871 Parkwood Drive, Cleveland. Association, 2823 East Fifth Street, Tulsa Heilman, W. T. , Ohio State Teachers Asso- ciation, Normal School, Columbus. Eischeid, J. T., Oklahoma Education Asso Hibbard, Laura, Ohio State Teachers Asso- ciation, Waurika. ciation, 3335 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati. Henderson, Mary J., Muskogee City Teach- ers Association, ΙΙΟΙ West Broadway. Hinman, Harriett L., Toledo Teachers Asso- ciation, 3122 Detroit Avenue, Toledo. Muskogee. Howard, Helen, Ohio State Teachers Asso- Hixson, Mrs. Luella M., Northwestern Okla- homa Education Association, Sand Springs. ciation, Route 2, Millfield. Homberger, E. H., Northwestern Oklahoma Hussey, Mary, Lakewood Teachers Associa- Education Association District, Woodward. tion, 1302 Ladeland Avenue, Lakewood. Howell, C. M. , Secretary, Oklahoma Educa- Jones , R. G. , Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion Association, Room 101, State Capitol, tion, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland. Oklahoma City. Kiefer, R. J. , Ohio State Teachers Associa- Ives, A. L. , Oklahoma Education Associa tion,' 1024 Robbins Avenue, Niles. Leonard, A. R. , Columbus Teachers Federa- tion, Apache. tion, 364 Webber Road, Columbus. Magee, M. , Tulsa N. E. A. Members Asso- Logan, Samuel T., Cincinnati Principals ciation, 2705 East Tenth Street, Tulsa. Association, 2415 Maplewood Avenue, Cin- Mitchell, John G., Oklahoma Education Asso- cinnati. ciation, Central State Teachers College, Edmond. Losch, Adela M. , Ohio State Teachers Asso- Northcutt, Maude, Oklahoma Education ciation, 3432 East 110th Street, Cleveland. McCracken , Thomas C. , Ohio State Teach- Association, Norman. ers Association, President, Ohio Univer- Parsons, A. C., Superintendent of Schools. Ex-officio (State Director) , Oklahoma sity, Athens . City. Mathias, A. O., Cincinnati Teachers Associa- tion, Wathrow High School, Cincinnati. Pauly, Frank R. , Sand Springs Public School Matteson, I. F. , Ohio State Teachers Associa- Teachers Association , Sand Springs. tion, Findlay. OREGON Maurer, George C., Ohio State Teachers Association, 323 North Market Street, Bridges, Grace, Teacher, Couch School, Port Wooster. land Grade Teachers Association, Portland Monroe, Belle M. , Ohio State Teachers Asso- Brown, Elmer, Principal, Rose City Park ciation, 122 Atlas Street, Akron. School, Portland Principals Association. Moore, Minnie, Ohio State Teachers Asso- Portland. ciation , 131 West Second Street, Logan. Chapman, Mrs. A. L. , Oregon State Teach Moran, Pearl, Findlay Organization, 1305 ers Association, Myrtle Creek. South Maine Street, Findlay. Churchill, J. A., Ex-officio (State Superst Outcalt, Ethel, Cincinnati Teachers Associa- tendent) , Salem. tion, Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati. Davis, Anna M., Teacher, High School Phillips, J. J. , Ohio State Teachers Associa- Oregon State Teachers Association, La tion, 410 East Sixth Avenue, Lancaster . Grande. Pollock, James A. , Ohio State Teachers Asso- Dobie, Jeanette, Teacher, Woodlawn School ciation, 1024 Prospect Avenue, Toledo. Portland Grade Teachers Association, Port Pore, O. E. , Ohio State Teachers Associa- land. tion, 241 South Freedom Street, Ravenna . Ewing, Mary E. , Teacher, Domestic Science Quirk, W. A. , Cincinnati Teachers Associa- Oregon State Teachers Association, Scar tion, Dyer School, Cincinnati. poose. Rawdon, H. L. , Ohio State Teachers Asso- Hrubetz, Caroline, Teacher, High School ciation, 99 South Cedar Avenue, Oberlin. Oregon State Teachers Association, Sak Reed, Carroll R., Superintendent of Schools , Hrubetz, Frances, Teacher, High School Ex-officio ( Vice-President ) , Akron. Salem Teachers Association. Salem Reed, R. L. , Barberton Teachers Associa- Hug, George W., Superintendent of Stim tion, 611 North Third Street, Barberton. Ex-officio (State Director), Salem. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1029 Ingle, Louise M. , Teacher, Richmond School, Heinly, C. B. , Principal, High School, York PortlandGrade Teachers Association, Port- City Teachers Association, York . land. Hopper, Frank P., Superintendent, Luzerne Matlock, Agnes , Teacher, Montaville School, County Schools, Pennsylvania State Educa- Portland Grade Teachers Association, Port- tion Association, Wilkes-Barre. land. Hunt, Cornelia, Teacher, Altoona Pennsyl- Oberton, Dora D., Principal, Grade School, vania Branch of the N. E. A. , Altoona. Oregon State Teachers Association, Hood Jordan, Janet G. , Teacher, Normal School, River. Pennsylvania State Education Association, Read, Anna, Teacher, Oakley Green School, Philadelphia. Oregon State Teachers Association, Port- Kelley, James H. , Editor, Pennsylvania land. School Journal, Ex-officio (State Direc- Schroyer, O. J. , Rural Teacher, Oregon State tor) , Harrisburg. Teachers Association, Summit. Kretchman , W. H., Superintendent, Somer- Strange, A. C., Supt. of Schools, Oregon set County Schools, Pennsylvania State State Teachers Association , Astoria. Education Association, Somerset. Taylor, Grace, Teacher, Health, Salem Teach- Kunze, Emma Gertrude, Teacher, Philadel- ers Association, Salem. phia Teachers Association; 6399 Woodbine Ulen, Mary, Teacher, Holladay School, Port- Avenue, Philadelphia. land Grade Teachers Association, Portland. Landis, H. G., Teacher, Northeast High Verry, W. L., Teacher, High School, Port- School, High School Mens Association of land High School Teachers Association, Philadelphia, Philadelphia. Portland. Locke, David C. , Superintendent, Beaver County Schools, Pennsylvania State Educa- PENNSYLVANIA tion Association , Beaver. McKean, Annie, Principal, Erie Teachers App, I. D. , Superintendent Dauphin County Association, 305 West Fifth Street, Erie. Schools, Pennsylvania State Education Association , Harrisburg . McNamara, John J. , Principal, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 717 Cherokee Archibald, R. M., Superintendent of Schools, Street, Bethlehem. Pennsylvania State Education Association, McNulty, Eleanor, Teacher, Philadelphia Waynesburg. Teachers Association, 3606 Baring Street, Barclay, E. R. , Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania State Education Association, Huntington. Miller, R. Beatrice, Teacher, Philadelphia Teachers Association, 4619 Chestnut Barth, Laura, Teacher, Philadelphia Teach- Street, Philadelphia. ers Association, 2020 Frankford Avenue, Mills, Ida R. , Principal, Grade School, Ches- Philadelphia. ter Teachers Association, Chester. Becht, J. George, Ex-officio ( State Super- Montanye, Edwin Y. , Principal, Philadelphia intendent), Harrisburg. Benner, Carl O. , Principal, High School, Teachers Association, 8018 Crispin Street, Holmesburg. Pennsylvania State Education Association, Coatesville. Murphy, Lenore, Principal, Erie Teachers Association, 142 East Third Street, Erie . Brecht, Samuel K., Philadelphia Teachers Nelson, May, Teacher, Belmont School, Association, Central High School, Manor. Brown, Margaret S. , Philadelphia Teachers Philadelphia Teachers Association, Phila- Association, 6507 Lebanon Avenue, Phila- delphia. delphia. Parker, Sara, Principal, Chester Teachers Call, Agnes C. , Supervisor of Art, Chester Association, 706 Sproul Street, Chester. Teachers Association , 706 Sproul Street, Pendergast, Mary H. , Teacher, Harrisburg Chester. Teachers Institute, 918 North Sixth Street, Dickey, Charles E., Superintendent, Alle- Harrisburg. gheny County Schools, Pennsylvania State Philips, Walter, Assistant Superintendent, Education Association, Pittsburgh . Delaware County Schools, Pennsylvania State Education Association, Media. Evans, Florence, Teacher, West Philadelphia High School, Philadelphia Teachers Asso- Robb, George D., Principal, High School, ciation, Merion. Altoona Branch of the N. E. A. , Altoona. Evans , L. Olin, Teacher, Reading Teachers Seltzer, Livingston, Superintendent, Schuyl- Association , 421 North Fifth Street, Read- kill County Schools, Pennsylvania State ing. Education Association , Pottsville. Fiest, Florence, Teacher, Erie Teachers Asso- Sharrard, Kate, Supervisor, York City Teach- ciation , 460 West Seventh Street, Erie. ers Association, 312 South George Street, York. Gamble, Maude J., Principal, Harrisburg Teachers Institute, 548 Maclay Street, Sladen, Dr. , Teacher, South High School for Harrisburg. Boys, High School Mens Association of Garbrick, Clarence, Philadelphia Teachers Philadelphia, Philadelphia. Association , 419 South 47th Street, Phila- Solis- Cohen, Bertha F. , Teacher, Philadelphia delphia. Teachers Association, 1833 Pine Street, Philadelphia. Gray, Jessie, Teacher, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 1210 Fillmore Solis-Cohen, Miriam, Teacher, Philadelphia Street, Frankford. Teachers Association, 1833 Pine Street, Gress, H. E., Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania State Education Association, Stoops , R. O., Superintendent of Schools, Ex- Monessen. officio, (Vice-President) , Pennsylvania Edu- Hamilton, William R. , Teacher, West Phil- cation Association, York. adelphia High School for Boys, Philadel- Stubbs, Joseph I. , Principal, Pennsylvania phia High School Mens Association, Phil- State Education Association, West Grove. adelphia. Swain, Joseph, President Emeritus, Swarth- Heilman, Jesse F. , Principal, York City more College, Ex-officio, (Life Director) , Teachers Association, 493 Pennsylvania Swarthmore. か Avenue, York. , Grace G., Supervisor of Elementary 1030 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION School Practices , Pennsylvania State Edu- Fragin, Katherine, Teacher, Tennessee State cation Association, 1105 Allegheny Ave- Teachers Association, 1257 Central, nue, Pittsburgh. Memphis. Walker, Anna, Principal, Pennsylvania State Harned, P. L. , Ex-officio, (State Commis Education Association , 5732 Spruce Street, sioner of Education) , Nashville. Priladelphia . Huff, Annie Laurie, Superintendent of Whitmyre, W. M. , Faculty Club of the Schools, Tennessee State Teachers Asso- State Normal School of Indiana, Indiana. ciation, Pulaski. Wilson, Elizabeth, Teacher, Bradford Penn- Miles, Miss Henry, Teacher, Tennessee sylvania Teachers Association, 95 Pleasant State Teachers Association, 414 East Col- Street, Bradford. lege Street, Nashville. Wolcott, Ira S., Principal, Altoona Pennsyl- Richardson, Lillian, Teacher, Tennessee vania Branch of the N. E. A. , 704 Lex- State Teachers Association, 1114 Fifth ington Avenue, Altoona. Avenue North, Nashville. Smith, S. L. , General Field Agent. Julhas PORTO RICO Rosenwald Fund for Rural Schools, Ex- officio, (State Director) , Nashville. Liggett, Gertrude F. , Representing State Wright, R. L. , County Supervisor, Tennesse Director, San Juan. State Teachers Association, Court House Vizcarrondo, Francisco, Department of Edu- Nashville. cation of Porto Rico, San Juan. Zeigler, John S. , Superintendent of Schools, Tennessee State Teachers Association, RHODE ISLAND Chattanooga. Fenner, John K., Superintendent of Schools, TEXAS Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, Cranston. Allen, Bernice, Dallas Grade Teachers Coun- Holden, William O. , Head Commercial De- cil , 5735 Prospect Avenue, Dallas. partment, Pawtucket High School, Ex- Arrington, Mrs. Empress, El Paso Teachers officio, (State Director) , Pawtucket. Association, 1120 North El Paso, El Paso. Bastian, Mamie, Houston Teachers Associa- SOUTH CAROLINA tion, 812 Bell Avenue, Houston, Black , F. M. , Houston Teachers Associa- Johnson, D. B., President, Winthrop Nor- tion, 608 Great Southern Building, Hous- mal and Industrial College, Ex- officio, ton. (Life Director) , Rock Hill. Dennis, Leah , El Paso Teachers Association, Kinard, J. P. , Professor of Education, Win- 917 Montana, El Paso. throp Normal and Industrial College, South Dorsey, Julius, Texas State Teachers Associa- Carolina State Teachers Association , Rock tion, 1906 Bennett Avenue, Dallas. Hill. Duncan, Clyde, El Paso Teachers Associa- McGarity, W. Jay, Superintendent of Schools, tion. 1114 North Campbell, El Paso. South Carolina State Teachers Associa- Garrett, Mrs. Sadie, El Paso Teachers Asso- tion, Aiken. ciation, 619 North Ochoa, El Paso. Webber, George Harris, Superintendent of Gorbutt, Catherine, Ex-officio , (State Di- Schools , Ex-officio, ( State Director) , South rector) , D, The Wright, El Paso. Carolina Teachers Association , Beaufort. Higgins, Marguerite, The San Antonio Teachers Council , 117 Oakland Street, San SOUTH DAKOTA Antonio. Hunter, Eula F., Fort Worth Grade Téach- Cooper, Mrs. Lillie S., South Dakota Educa- ers Association, 1324 East Morphy, Fort tion Association, Tyndall. Worth. Foght, Harold W. , President, Northern Nor- Jaynes , Josie, Texas State Teachers Asso- mal and Industrial School, Ex- officio, ciation, Hughes Springs. (State Director) , Aberdeen. Johnson, Ora, The San Antonio Teachers Gammaway, Ruth M., Northern Normal and Association, 501 East Dewey Street, San Industrial School, Chamberlain. Antonio. Guhin, M. M. , South Dakota Education Asso- Jones, F. G. , Texas State Teachers Associa ciation, Pierre. tion, College of Industrial Arts, Denton. Hall, C. S., South Dakota Education Asso- McKenzie, Mary B. , Texas State Teachers ciation, Belle Fourche. Association, 210 King William Street, San McDonald, A. A. , Superintendent of Schools , Antonio. Sioux Falls Public School Teachers Asso- Marrs, S. M. N. , Ex-officio (State Superin- ciation, Sioux Falls. tendent) , Austin. Martin, Bonnio, South Dakota Education Marrs , Mrs. S. M. N. , Texas State Teachers Association, Pierre. Association, Capitol Station, Austin. Schultz, Anne Petrea, Aberdeen City Teach- Miller. Mrs. Margaret, El Paso Teachers ers Association, 17 Ninth Avenue, South- Association, 2828 Louisville, El Paso. west, Aberdeen. Nussbaum, Ida, Texas State Teachers Asso- Shaw, Fred L. , Ex-officio, ( State Superin- ciation, Bender Hotel, Houston. tendent) , Pierre. Oberholtzer, E. E., Superintendent of Steele, N. E., South Dakota Education Asso- Schools , Houston Teachers Association, ciation, Mitchell. Houston. Sunderman, Emma, South Dakota Educa- Tunnelle, Pearl, Dallas Grade Teachers Coun- tion Association, Huron. cil, 4315 Swiss Avenue, Dallas. TENNESSEE UTAH Anderson, Hal, Principal, High School, Brookings , Goldie, Salt Lake City Teachers Shelby County Teachers Association , Col- Association Louise Apartments, lierville, Salt Lal DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 1031 Fitzhugh , Winifred, Utah Educational Asso- mond Teachers, 3117 Barton Avenue, Rich- ciation, Roosevelt Junior High School, mond. Salt Lake City. McDonald, S. A., Principal, Ruffner School, Hall, Mabel, Salt Lake City Teachers Asso- Ex-officio, (State Director) , Norfolk. ciation, 1249 Whitlock Avenue, Salt Lake Moseley, Lyne, League of Richmond Teach- City. ers, 704 North Colonial Avenue, Richmond. Jensen, C. N. , State Superintendent of Pub- Old, Virginia, Teacher, Norfolk Teachers lic Instruction , Ex-officio ( State Director) , Association, 805 Redgate Avenue, Norfolk. Salt Lake City. Pullen, T. G. , Jr. , Principal, Elementary Martin, Theodore D. , Utah Educational School , Newport News Teachers Associa- Association, 317 Capitol Building, Salt tion, Hampton. Lake City. Thompson, Nannie, League of Richmond Qualtrough, Elizabeth, Utah Educational Teachers, 2204 Lamb Avenue, Richmond. Association, City Department of Schools , Walden, Caroline, Teacher, League of Rich- Salt Lake City. mond Teachers , 507 East Franklin Street, Qualtrough, Frances, Utah Educational Asso- Richmond. ciation, West High School, Salt Lake City. Swenson, John, Utah Educational Associa- VIRGIN ISLANDS tion, Provo. Wilson, Guy C. , Utah Educational Associa- Francis, Amadeo I. , Virgin Islands Educa- tion, Salt Lake City. tion Association, Frederiksted, St. Croix. Wilson, Melvin, Utah Educational Associa- tion, Payson. WASHINGTON Young, Blanche, Salt Lake Teachers Asso- ciation, 261 F Street, Salt Lake City. Burr, Margaret, Teacher, Washington Edu- cation Association, 1717 Belmont, Seattle. VERMONT Copeland, May, Teacher, Seattle Grade Teachers Club, 1628 Bellevue Avenue, Seattle. Dempsey, Clarence H., State Commissioner Dickson, Georgina, Teacher, Spokane Grade of Education, Ex-officio, Montpelier. Teachers Association, 3517 South Grade Hamilton, E. A. , Ex-officio, (State Direc- Avenue, Spokane. tor) , Vermont State Teachers Association, Elyea, Winifred, Teacher, Grade Teachers Newport. Association, 918 South Fourth, Tacoma. Jones, D. S. , Caledonia County Teachers Farrar, Mayme, Teacher, Seattle Grade Association, Newbury. Teachers Club , 3716 Densmore Avenue, Thomas, H. N. , Vermont State Teachers Seattle. Association, Johnson. Fenby, Mrs. Leah , Teacher, Grade Teachers Wilson, Theodore H., Vermont State Teach- Association, Route 1 , Box 80, Tacoma. ers Association, 5 Main Street, St. Johns- bury. Hibarger, L. Pearle, Teacher, Washington Education Association , 116 North Naches Woodruff , Caroline, Vermont State Teachers Avenue, Yakima. Association, 9 Church Street, St. Johns- Iversen, W. L., Principal, High School, bury. Washington Education Association, Pull- man. VIRGINΙΑ Jahnke, Clara L., Teacher, Ex -officio, (State Director) , 1219 Ninth Avenue, Spokane. Adair, Cornelia S. , Ex-officio , ( Treasurer of McIntosh, Belle, Teacher, Seattle Grade Ν. Ε. Α . ) , 3208 Hawthorne Avenue, Rich- Teachers Club , 5261 16th Avenue, North- mond. east, Seattle. Berger, Ruby, Teacher, Norfolk Teachers Macomber , C. W. , Principal, Spokane Educa- Association, 627 Pennsylvania Avenue, tion Association, 107 15th Avenue, Spok- Norfolk. ane. Beverly, Walter, Teacher, League of Rich- Macy, Alice, Teacher , Washington Educa- mond Teachers, 914 North 36th Street, tion Association, North 2427 Stevens Richmond. Street, Spokane. Bocock, Mrs. Nora, Virginia State Teachers Marsh , Arthur L. , Secretary, Washington Association, Staunton . Education Association, 707 Lowman Build- Brimmer, Rose L. , Teacher, Pittsylvania ing, Seattle. County Teachers Association , 119 College Olds, D. F. , Superintendent of Schools , Wash- Avenue, Danville. ington Education Association, Wapato. Brown, Bessie, Supervisor, Virginia State Patterson , Edith W. , Instructor, Normal Teachers Association , Box 573 , Roanoke. School, Cheney Unit of the N. Ε. Α. , Chandler, J. A. C. , President, William and Cheney. Mary College, Virginia State Teachers Pearsall, Deborah, Teacher, High School, Association, Williamsburg. Seattle High School Teachers League, Hamilton, Gertrude, League of Richmond Seattle. Teachers, 2918 Third Avenue, Richmond. Rouse, Elizabeth, Teacher, Washington Edu- Higgins, Allie, Teacher, League of Rich- cation Association, 212 East 80th Street, mond Teachers, 901 West Grace Street, Seattle. Richmond. Sackett, Sheldon, Principal, High School , Holt, Edith, League of Richmond Teachers, Washington Education Association, Ray- 1527 Porter Street, Richmond. mond. Jack, Mrs. A. D., Teacher, Norfolk Teachers Sayre, Mrs. Anna, Teacher, High School, Association, 36 Hardy Avenue, Norfolk. Spokane Education Association, Spokane. Johnson, G. L. H. , Superintendent of Shaw, Eleanor, Teacher, Spokane Grade Schools, Staunton Teachers Association, Teachers Association, 1501 Tenth Avenue , Staunton. Spokane. Kelley, J. J. , Jr. , Superintendent of Schools, Snodgrass , Florence M. , Teacher, Vancouver Virginia State Teachers Association, Wise. Education Association, 602 West 13th Lynn, Attie L. Teacher, League of Rich Street, Vancouver. 1032 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Soper, Edith, Teacher, Grade Teachers Asso- Gunderson, Nicholas, Wisconsin State Asso- ciation, 1024 South First Avenue, Tacoma. ciation, 412 Rusk Avenue, Sparta. Soules, Jean, Teacher, Spokane Grade Teach- Hilderbrandt, Elsie, Wisconsin Teachers ers Association, 2003 First Avenue, Association, Wausau. Spokane. Johnson, Lillia E. , Wisconsin Teachers Asso- Spencer, Mrs. Evelyn, Teacher, Washing- ciation, 402 North Oxford Avenue, Eau ton Education Association, Langley. Claire. Teague, Rhoda, Teacher, Washington Educa- Kelley, George V., Superintendent of Schools, tion Association, Route 7, Box 248, Seattle. Wisconsin Teachers Association, Prince- Wilson, Mabel V. , Teacher, Seattle Grade ton. Teachers Club, 2224 First Avenue, West, Kircher, H. W. , Wisconsin Teachers Asso- Seattle. ciation, Merrill. McCormick, Elizabeth , Wisconsin Teachers WEST VIRGINIA Association, Superior. Manthey, Clara, Milwaukee Teachers Asso- Carter, Mrs. Elizabeth, Teacher , Teachers ciation, IOI Island Avenue, Milwaukee. Club of Elkins , 118 Elm Street, Elkins . Mashek, Anna, Wisconsin Teachers Associa- Hickman, J. H., Superintendent of Schools, tion, 1240 Mississippi Street, La Crosse. Ex-officio, ( State Director) , West Vir- Menzel, Flora, Wisconsin Teachers Associa- ginia State Education Association, Hinton. tion, 356 16th Avenue, Milwaukee. Holleday, Gail H., Teacher, West Virginia Painter, Ira C. , Central Wisconsin Teachers State Education Association, 85 31st Street, Association, Wausau. Wheeling. Pearse, Carroll G. , Ex-officio, ( Life Direc- Jackson, J. A. , Superintendent of Schools, tor), 3209 Grand Avenue, Apartment C 9, West Virginia State Education Associa- Milwaukee. tion, Clarksburg. Pease, Elva, Central Wisconsin Teachers Marshall, T. Marcellus , Ex-officio , ( Life Di- Association , Medford. rector) , Stouts Mills. Peasley, Florence E. , Wisconsin Council Neffien, Myra M. , Superintendent of Mineral Administrative Women in Education, 660 County Schools, West Virginia State Edu- Putnam Street, Kenosha. cation Association , Keyser. Randall, Edward, Wisconsin Teachers Asso- Rosier , Joseph, President, Fairmont Normal ciation, Kenosha Vocational School, Keno- School, West Virginia State Education sha. Association, Fairmont.. Rosenthal, Annette, Wisconsin Teachers Rowe, Grace, Teacher, Bluefield Teachers Association, 1419 Cedar Street, Milwaukee. Association, Bluefield. Sims, John F. , President, State Normal Shurtleff, Mrs. Oliver, Teacher, West Vir- School, Ex-officio (State Director) , Stevens ginia State Education Association, Sutton. Point. Smith, R. C. , Superintendent of Schools, Stafford, Margaret, Wisconsin Teachers Asso- Morgantown Teachers Association, Mor- ciation, Oshkosh. gantown. Stangel, C. G. , Wisconsin Teachers Associa- Trent, W. W. , Superintendent of Schools, tion, 620 North Ninth Street, Manitowoc. West Virginia State Education Associa- Teter, George E., Milwaukee State Normal tion, Elkins. School Faculty , State Normal School, Wade, E. C. , Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee. West Virginia State Education Associa- Vincent, Paul M. , Central Wisconsin Teach- tion, Bluefield. ers Association , Stevens Point. WISCONSIN WYOMING Blotter, Dorothy, Western Wisconsin Teach- ers Association, 2223 Main Street, La Emmett, H. T. , Superintendent of Schools, Crosse. Wyoming State Teachers Association, Brownell, Dona, Teachers Council of Racine, Worland. 1105 Park Avenue, Racine. Geiger, Kathryn . Teacher, Basin High School, Caldwell , Jessie, The Teachers Club of La Wyoming State Teachers Association, Crosse, 612 Winnebago Street, La Crosse. Monroe. Callahan, John, Ex-officio (State Superin- Hamilton, May, Superintendent, Natrona tendent) , Madison. County Schools, Wyoming State Teachers Cody, Janet, Wisconsin Teachers Associa- Association, Casper. tion, Janesville. Harden, Flora A. , Superintendent, Sheridan Cosgrove, Katherine, Wisconsin Teachers County Schools, Wyoming State Teachers Association, 617 Seventh Street, Racine. Association, Sheridan. Delzell, J. E. , Central Wisconsin Teachers Kingsley, Mabel G. , Superintendent, Hot Association, State Normal School, Stevens Springs County Schools , State Teachers Point. Association and State Institute, Thermopo- Doudna, E. G. , Secretary, Wisconsin Teach- lis. ers Association, 611 Beaver Insurance Building, Madison. Megown, Rebecca, Principal, High School. Wyoming State Teachers Association Fruit, Ruth, Western Wisconsin Teachers Basin. Association, 212 North 14th Street, La Crosse. Morton, Katherine A., Ex-officio, (State Gallagher, Mary L. , Teachers Council of Superintendent) , Cheyenne. Racine, 1120 College Avenue, Racine. Slade, A. A., Superintendent of Schools, Ex- Gardner, Emma, Milwaukee Principals Asso- officio, ( State Director) , Casper. ciation, 678 Wilson Street, Milwaukee. Warkley, Virginia, Assistant State Director Gardner, Ethel M. , Milwaukee Teachers Wyoming State Teachers Association. Association, 356 16th Avenue, Milwaukee. Cheyenne. The Education Bill SIXTY- EIGHTH CONGRESS, H. R. 3923 AND s. 1337 Supported by more people who have given it careful consideration than any other measure ever before Congress. That is the verdict of ob- servers in Washington who have watched the progress of the Education Bill, known in this. Congress as the Sterling-Reed Bill after Senator Thomas Sterling, of South Dakota, who introduced the Bill in the Senate, and Representative Daniel A. Reed, of New York State, who is sponsoring the Bill in the House. The measure grew out of the investi- gation made by the National Education Association into the educational emergency during the war and the need for reconstruction after the war. The principles embodied in the Bill have been six times indorsed by the Department of Superintendence and five times by the National Education Association. Scores of organizations-National, State, and local-have given the measure their support after it has been discussed before gather- ings of their members and in the columns of their official magazines. The text of the Bill is here given. THE STERLING - REED BILL- INDEXED BY SECTIONS Section 1. Creates a Department of Education, with a Secretary in the President's Cabinet. Section 2. Authorizes an Assistant Secretary of Education. Section 3. Transfers the Bureau of Education to the new department. Provides for coördi- nation of existing educational work of the Federal Government as Congress may determine. Section 4. Defines powers and duties of Secretary. Section 5. Directs department to conduct research in special fields. Section 6. Authorizes appropriations for administration. Section 7. Authorizes appropriations for the removal of illiteracy. Section 8. Authorizes appropriations for Americanization. Section 9. Authorizes appropriations to equalize educational opportunity. Section 10. Authorizes appropriations for physical and health education. Section 11. Authorizes appropriations for training teachers. Section 12. How States may receive Federal aid. Section 13. State and local control guaranteed. Section 14. Relation of Secretary to State authorities. Section 15. Authorizes Secretary of Treasury to make quarterly payments to States. Section 16. Provides for reports from States. Section 17. Creates National Council on Education . Section 18. Requires Secretary of Education to make annual report to Congress. Section 19. Enacting clause. A bill to create a Department of Education, to authorize appropria- tions for the conduct of said department, to authorize the appropriation of money to encourage the States in the promotion and support of edu- cation, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby created an executive department in the Government to be called the De- partment of Education, with a Secretary of Education, who shall be the head thereof, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and who shall receive a salary of $12,000 per annum, and whose tenure of office shall be the same as that of the heads of other executive departments ; and section 158 of the Revised Statutes is hereby amended to include such department, and the pro [1033] 1034 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION visions of title 4 of the Revised Statutes, including all amendments thereto, are hereby made applicable to said department. The Secretary of Edu- cation shall cause a seal of office to be made for such department of such device as the President shall approve, and judicial notice shall be taken of said seal. SEC. 2. That there shall be in said department an Assistant Secretary of Education, to be appointed by the President, who shall receive a salary to be determined by Congress. He shall perform such duties as may be prescribed by the Secretary or required by law. There shall also be one chief clerk and a disbursing clerk and such chiefs of bureaus and clerical assistants as may from time to time be authorized by Congress. SEC. 3. That there is hereby transferred to the Department of Edu- cation the Bureau of Education, and such offices, bureaus, divisions, boards, or branches of the Government, connected with or attached to any of the executive departments or organized independently of any department, as Congress may determine should be administered by the Department of Education, and all such offices, bureaus, divisions, boards, or branches of the Government so transferred by act of Congress shall thereafter be administered by the Department of Education, as hereinafter provided. All officers, clerks, and employees employed in or by any office, bureau, division, board, or branch of the Government, transferred in accordance with the provisions of this Act to the Department of Educa- tion, shall each and all be transferred to said Department of Education at their existing grades and salaries, except where otherwise provided in this Act; and the office records and papers on file pertaining exclusively to the business of any such office, bureau, division, board, or branch of the Government so transferred, together with the furniture and equip- ment thereof, shall be transferred to said department. SEC. 4. That the Secretary of Education shall have charge in the buildings or premises occupied by or assigned to the Department of Edu- cation, of the library, furniture, fixtures, records, and other property used therein or pertaining thereto, and may expend for rental of appropriate quarters for the accommodation of the Department of Education within the District of Columbia, and for the library, furniture, equipment, and all other incidental expenses, such sums as Congress may provide from time to time . All power and authority conferred by law upon the head of any executive department, or upon any administrative board, over any officer, office, bureau, division, board or branch of the Government, transferred in accordance with the provisions of this Act to the Department of Edu- cation, shall, after such transfer, be vested in the Secretary of Education, and all business arising therefrom or pertaining thereto, and all duties performed in connection therewith shall thereafter be administeredby the Department of Education. All laws prescribing the work and defining the duties and powers of THE EDUCATION BILL 1035 the several offices, bureaus, divisions, boards, or branches of the Govern- ment, transferred in accordance with the provisions of this Act to the Department of Education, shall, in so far as the same are not in conflict with the provisions of this Act, remain in full force and effect and be administered by the Secretary of Education, to whom is hereby granted au- thority to reorganize the work of any and all of the said offices, bureaus, divisions, boards, or branches of the Government so transferred in such way as will in his judgment best accomplish the purposes of this Act. SEC. 5. That the Department of Education shall conduct studies and investigations in the field of education and report thereon. Research shall be undertaken in (a) illiteracy ; ( b) immigrant education; (c). pub- lic school education, and especially rural education; (d) physical educa- tion, including health education, recreation, and sanitation; (e) prepara- tion and supply of competent teachers for the public schools ; ( f) higher education; and in such other fields as, in the judgment of the Secretary of Education, may require attention and study. In order to carry out the provisions of this section the Secretary of Education is authorized, in the same manner as provided for appointments in other departments, to make appointments, or recommendations of ap- pointments, of educational attachés to foreign embassies, and of such in- vestigators and representatives as may be needed, subject to the appro- priations that have been made or may hereafter be made to any office, bureau, division board, or branch of the Government transferred in ac- cordance with the provisions of this Act to the Department of Education ; and where appropriations have not been made therefor the appropriation provided in section 6 of this Act shall be made available. SEC. 6. That for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, and annually thereafter, the sum of $500,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby authorized to be appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to the Department of Education, for the purpose of paying salaries and conducting studies and investigations, and paying all incidental and traveling expenses and rent where necessary, and for the purpose of enabling the Department of Education to carry out the provisions of this Act. And all appropriations which have been made and which may hereafter be made to any office, bureau, division, board, or branch of the Government, transferred in accordance with the provisions of this Act to the Department of Education, are hereby con- tinued in full force and effect, and shall be administered by the Secretary of Education in such manner as is prescribed by law. SEC. 7. In order to encourage the States to remove illiteracy $7,500,- 000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is authorized to be appro- priated annually for the instruction of illiterates fourteen years of age and over. Said sum shall be apportioned to the States which qualify under the provisions of this Act, in the proportions which their respective illiterate populations fourteen years of age and over, not including for 1036 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION eign-born illiterates, bear to such total illiterate population of the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last preceding census of the United States. All funds apportioned to a State for the removal of illiteracy shall be distributed and administered in accordance with the laws of said State in like manner as the funds provided by State and local authorities for the same purpose, and the State and local edu- cational authorities of said State shall determine the courses of study, plans, and methods for carrying out the purposes of this section within said State in accordance with the laws thereof. SEC. 8. That in order to encourage the States in the Americanization of immigrants $7,500,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is authorized to be appropriated annually to teach immigrants fourteen years of age and over to speak and read the English language and to understand and appreciate the Government of the United States and the duties of citizenship. The said sum shall be apportioned to the States which qualify under the provisions of this Act in the proportions which their respective foreign-born populations bear to the total foreign-born population of the United States, not including outlying possessions, ac- cording to the last preceding census of the United States. All funds appor- tioned to a State for the Americanization of immigrants shall be dis- tributed and administered in accordance with the laws of said State in like manner as the funds provided by State and local authorities for the same purpose, and the State and local educational authorities of said State shall determine the courses of study, plans and methods for carry- ing out the purposes of this section within said State in accordance with the laws thereof. SEC. 9. That in order to encourage the States to equalize educational opportunities $50,000,000 or so much thereof as may be necessary is authorized to be appropriated annually to be used in public elementary and secondary schools for the partial payment of teachers' salaries, for providing better instruction and extended school terms especially in rural schools and schools in sparsely settled localities, for the extension and adaptation of public libraries for educational purposes, and otherwise providing equally good educational opportunities for the children of the several States. The said sum shall be apportioned to the States which qualify under the provisions of this Act one-half in the proportions which the number of children between the ages of six and twenty-one of the respective States bears to the total number of such children in the United States, and one-half in the proportions which the number of public- school teachers employed in teaching positions in the respective States bears to the total number of public-school teachers so employed in the United States, not including outlying possessions, said apportionment to be based upon statistics collected annually by the Department of Educa- tion. All funds apportioned to a State to equalize educational oppor- tunities shall be distributed and administered in accordance with the laws THE EDUCATION BILL 1037 of said State in like manner as the funds provided by State and local authorities for the same purpose, and the State and local educational authorities of said State shall determine the courses of study, plans and methods for carrying out the purposes of this section within said State in accordance with the laws thereof : Provided, however, That the appor- tionments authorized by this section shall be made only to such States as by law provided: ( a) A legal school term of at least twenty-four weeks in each year for the benefit of all children of school age in such State; (b) A compulsory school attendance law requiring all children between the ages of seven and fourteen years to attend some school for at least twenty-four weeks in each year ; ( c) That the English language shall be the basic language of instruction in the common school branches in all schools, public and private : Provided, That apportionment may be made under the provisions of this section to a State prevented by its con- stitution from full compliance with the foregoing conditions if said con- ditions are approximated as nearly as constitutional limitations will permit. SEC. 10. That in order to encourage the States in the promotion of physical education, $20,000,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is authorized to be appropriated annually for physical education and in- struction in the principles of health and sanitation. Said sum shall be apportioned to the States which qualify under the provisions of this Act in the proportions which their respective populations bear to the total population of the United States, not including outlying possessions, accord- ing to the last preceding census of the United States. All funds appor- tioned to a State for the promotion of physical education shall be dis- tributed and administered in accordance with the laws of said State in like manner as the funds provided by State and local authorities for the same purpose, and the State and local educational authorities of said State shall determine the course of study, plans, and methods for carrying out the purposes of this section within said State in accordance with the laws thereof. SEC. 11. That in order to encourage the States in the preparation of teachers for public-school service, $15,000,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is authorized to be appropriated annually to provide and extend facilities for the improvement of teachers in service and for the more adequate preparation of prospective teachers, and to provide an increased number of trained and competent teachers by encouraging through the establishment of scholarships and otherwise a greater number of talented young persons to make adequate preparation for public-school service. The said sum shall be apportioned to the States which qualify under the provisions of this Act in the proportions which the number of public-school teachers employed in teaching positions in the respective States bear to the total number of public-school teachers so employed in the United States, not including outlying possessions, said apportionments to be based on statistics collected annually by the Department of Edu 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cation. All funds apportioned to a State for the preparation of teachers for public-school service shall be distributed and administered in accord- ance with the laws of said State in like manner as the funds provided by State and local authorities for the same purpose, and the State and local educational authorities of said State shall determine the courses of study, plans, and methods for carrying out the purposes of this section within said State in accordance with the laws thereof. SEC. 12. That in order to receive apportionment from one or more of the appropriations authorized in sections 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 of this Act a State shall by legislative enactment accept the provisions of this Act and provide for the distribution and administration of such funds as shall be apportioned to said State, and shall designate the State's chief educa- tional authority, whether a State superintendent of public instruction, a commissioner of education, a State board of education, or other legally constituted chief educational authority, to represent said State in the ad- ministration of this Act, and such authority so designated shall be recog- nized by the Secretary of Education : Provided, That in any State in which the legislature does not meet within one year after the passage of this Act, the governor of said State, in so far as he may have authority so to do, may take such action, temporarily, as is herein provided to be taken by legislative enactment in order to secure the benefits of this Act, and such action by the governor shall be recognized by the Secretary of Education for the purposes of this Act until the legislature of said State shall have met in due course and been in session sixty days. In any State accepting the provisions of this Act the State treasurer shall be designated and appointed as custodian of all funds received by said State as apportionments under the provisions of this Act, to receive and provide for the proper custody and disbursement of the same, such disbursements to be made in accordance with the legal provisions of said State. A State may accept the provisions of any one or more of the respective apportionments authorized in sections 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 of this Act, and may defer the acceptance of any one or more of said apportionments: Provided, however, That no money shall be apportioned to any State from any of the funds authorized to be appropriated by sections 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 of this Act, unless a sum at least equally as large shall be provided by said State, or by local authorities, or by both, for the same purpose: And provided further, That the sum or sums provided by the State and local authorities for the equalization of educational opportunities, for the promotion of physical education, and for the preparation of teachers shall not be less for any year than the amount provided for the same purpose for the fiscal year next preceding the acceptance of the provisions of this Act by said State : And provided further, That no money apportioned to a State under any of the provisions of this Act shall be used by any State or local authority, directly or indirectly, for the purchase, rental, erection, THE EDUCATION BILL 1039 preservation, or repair of any building or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of land, or for the payment of debts or the interest thereon. SEC. 13. That when a State shall have accepted the provisions of this Act and shall have provided for the distribution and administration of such funds as shall be apportioned to said State, and when the State's chief educational authority designated to represent said State shall so re- port in writing to the Secretary of Education, and said report shall be approved by the governor of said State, showing that said State has com- plied with the provisions of this Act with respect to any one or more of the apportionments authorized in sections 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 of this Act, and when annually thereafter a like report shall be filed with the Secre- tary of Education, approved by the governor of said State, the Secretary of Education shall apportion to said State for the ensuing fiscal year such funds as said State may be entitled to receive under the provisions of this Act, and shall certify such apportionment or apportionments to the Secretary of the Treasury : Provided, That all the educational facilities encouraged by the provisions of this Act and accepted by a State shall be organized, supervised, and administered exclusively by the legally consti- tuted State and local educational authorities of said State, and the Secre- tary of Education shall exercise no authority in relation thereto ; and this Act shall not be construed to imply Federal control of education within the States, nor to impair the freedom of the States in the conduct and management of their respective school systems . SEC. 14. That the Secretary of Education is authorized to prescribe plans for keeping accounts of the expenditures of such funds as may be apportioned to the States under the provisions of this Act and to audit such accounts. If the Secretary of Education shall determine that the apportionment or apportionments made to a State for the current fiscal year are not being expended in accordance with the provisions of this Act, he shall give notice in writing to the chief educational authority designated to represent said State, and to the governor of said State, in duplicate, stating specifically wherein said State fails to comply with the provisions of this Act. If after being so notified a State fails to comply with the provisions of this Act, the Secretary of Education shall report thereon to Congress not later than in his next annual report. If any portion of the money received by the treasurer of a State, under the provisions of this Act, for any of the purposes herein named shall, by action or contingency, be diminished or lost, the same shall be replaced by said State, and until so replaced no subsequent apportionment for such purpose shall be made to said State. If any part of the funds apportioned annually to any State for any of the purposes named in sections 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 of this Act has not been expended for such purpose, a sum equal to such unexpended part shall be deducted from the next succeed- ing annual apportionment made to said State for such purpose. SEC. 15. That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and 1040 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION directed to pay quarterly to the treasurer of each State such apportion- ment or apportionments as the Secretary of Education shall certify that said State is entitled to receive under the provisions of this Act. SEC. 16. That the chief educational authority designated to represent a State receiving any of the apportionments made under the provisions of this Act shall, not later than September 1 of each year, make a report to the Secretary of Education showing the work done in said State in carrying out the provisions of this Act during the next preceding fiscal year, and the receipts and expenditures of money apportioned to said State under the provisions of this Act. If the chief educational authority desig- nated to represent a State shall fail to report as herein provided, the Sec- retary of Education may discontinue all apportionments to said State until such report shall have been made. SEC. 17. That there is hereby created a National Council on Educa- tion to consult and advise with the Secretary of Education on subjects relating to the promotion and development of education in the United States. The Secretary of Education shall be chairman of said council, which shall be constituted as follows: ( a) The chief educational author- ity of each State designated to represent said State in the administration of this Act; (b) not to exceed twenty-five educators representing the dif- ferent interests in education, to be appointed annually by the Secretary of Education; (c) not to exceed twenty-five persons, not educators, inter- ested in the results of education from the standpoint of the public, to be appointed annually by the Secretary of Education. Said council shall meet for conference once each year at the call of the Secretary of Educa- tion. The members shall serve without pay, but their actual expenses in- curred in attending the conferences called by the Secretary of Education shall be paid by the Department of Education. SEC. 18. That the Secretary of Education shall annually at the close of each fiscal year make a report in writing to Congress giving an account of all moneys received and disbursed by the Department of Education and describing the work done by the department. He shall also, not later than December 1 of each year, make a report to Congress on the administration of sections 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 of this Act, and shall include in said report a summary of the reports made to him by the several States showing the administration of this Act therein, and shall at the same time make such recommendations to Congress as will, in his judgment, improve public education in the United States. He shall also from time to time make such special investigations and reports as may be required of him by the President or by Congress. SEC. 19. That this Act shall take effect upon its passage, and all Acts or parts of Acts in conflict with this Act are hereby repealed. The Publications of the National Education Association From an eight-page leaflet in 1857, which had a circulation of but a few hundred, the proceedings of the National Education Association have grown to a volume of more than a thousand pages with a circulation rang- ing from five thousand to seventy-five hundred. They constitute an eight- foot shelf of educational literature that is unsurpassed for variety, com- prehensiveness, and educational vision. If one wants a unified picture of the development of American education, there is no single source where he will come more nearly to finding it than in this monumental record of sixty- seven years' activities of the greatest educational association in the world. In the early days the publications of the Association were limited to the PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 1857 1 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 81 1858 22 Cincinnati, Ohio --- 62 1859 3 Washington, D. C... 20 1860 4 Buffalo, New York_ 82 1861 No meeting- 1862 No meeting---- . 1863 53 Chicago, Illinois_ 132 1864 63 Ogdensburg, New York. 80 1865 73,4 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 108 1866 8 Indianapolis, Indiana__ 139 1867 No meeting 1868 9 Nashville, Tennessee. 64 1869 10 Trenton, New Jersey. 385 1870 11 Cleveland, Ohio ---------- 2095 ' Issued as an " extra" of the "New York Teacher," Vol. 7, No. 1, October, 1857. 2 This second meeting was referred to as the first anniversary meeting which led to calling the fourth meeting in 1860 the "third" annual meeting. The error was continued each year through 1884. A correction is necessary in all volumes up to and including the one for 1884. The Saratoga Springs meeting for 1885 is correctly reported as the twenty-fifth annual meeting of the Association. * Published by the American Journal of Education including proceedings of 1857, 1858, 1859, and 1860. Paged continuously through the proceedings of the meeting of 1865 . ' Erroneously referred to on title page as fifth annual meeting. Paging of the reprints. The supply of the early Proceedings was soon ex- hausted and to enable new members to complete their sets an arrangement was made to compile the Proceedings from the foundation of the Association in 1857 to the close of the session of 1870. Dr. Henry Barnard began the project, but was not able to complete his purpose. Mr. C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, New York, carried on the project and completed the reprints in 1909. They were bound in paper in separate volumes, but paged continuously, making a total of 937 pages . [1041] 1042 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Program and the Proceedings. In more recent days they have expanded to include the Research Bulletin and numerous committee reports and special bulletins. Departmental publications have been created and within two or three years have become almost as bulky and significant as the pub- lications of the main Association were twenty years ago. In order that there may be in one place a record of the Association's publishing activities and a check list for individuals and libraries wishing to complete their sets, there is on page 1041 as complete a list of the Association's publications as can be compiled from collections and informa- tion at headquarters. Corrections and additions will be welcomed and should be sent to the Director of the Division of Publications, 1201 Six- teenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. ADDRESSES AND JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION " Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 1871 12 St. Louis, Missouri_ 237 1872 13 Boston, Massachusetts 287 1873 14 Elmira, New York 272 187+ 15 Detroit, Michigan 295 1875 16 Minneapolis, Minnesota 195 1876 17 Baltimore, Maryland 308 1877 18 Louisville, Kentucky 288 1878 No meeting ----- 1879 19 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 283 1880 20 Chautauqua, New York 268 plus 111 1881 21 Atlanta, Georgia__ 280 plus 79' JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 1882 22 Saratoga, New York 203 plus 1127 1883 23 Saratoga, New York 129 plus 81 188+ 2+ Madison, Wisconsin 361 plus 678 1885 25 Saratoga Springs, New York _... 551 1886 26 Topeka, Kansas 605 1887 27 Chicago, Illinois 829 1888 28 San Francisco, California . 794 1889 29 Nashville, Tennessee 723 1890 30 St. Paul, Minnesota 929 "In 1870 there were combined with the National Teachers' Association the National Association of School Superintendents and the American Normal School Association to form the National Educational Association. 7 The proceedings of the Department of Superintendence which were published as circulars of information by the Bureau of Education are bound with the JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS but are paged separately. *The second section is the report of the meeting of the National Council of Education. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1043 Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 1891 31 Toronto, Ontario, Canada 892 1892 32 Saratoga Springs, New York 849 Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 18939 Chicago, Illinois. 1006 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 1894 33 Asbury Park, New Jersey 1071 1895 34 Denver, Colorado 1102 1896 35 Buffalo , New York 1087 1897 36 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1132 1898 37 Washington, D. C. 1139 1899 38 Los Angeles, California 1238 1900 39 Charleston , South Carolina_ 809 1901 40 Detroit, Michigan 1034 1902 41 Minneapolis, Minnesota 1021 1903 42 Boston, Massachusetts___ .. 1080 1904 43 St. Louis, Missouri 1003 1905 4+ Asbury Park, N. J. 968 190610 No meeting ---- 949 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Year Volume Place of meeting Number of pages 1907 45 Los Angeles, California 1102 1908 46 Cleveland, Ohio 1251 1909 47 Denver, Colorado 1027 1910 48 Boston, Massachusetts 1124 1911 49 San Francisco, California 1172 1912 50 Chicago, Illinois._ . 1 +27 1913 51 Salt Lake City, Utah 827 1914 52 St. Paul , Minnesota 928 1915 53 Oakland, California 1193 *Proceedings of the International Congress of Education of the World's Colum- bian Exposition-Chicago, Illinois, July 5-8, 1893, under the charge of the Na- tional Educational Association of the United States. This was not counted as a meeting of the National Educational Association and, although the volume is in- cluded as a part of the set of proceedings, it is not assigned a volume number inasmuch as the volume numbers agree with the years of meetings . 1 Fiftieth Anniversary Volume contains the report of the Louisville meeting of the Department of Superintendence and important historical statements . There being no meeting of the Association, this volume was not numbered in the series . 1044 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1916 54 New York City, New York 1112 1917 55 Portland, Oregon 864 1918 56 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 802 1919 57 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 759 1920 58 Salt Lake City, Utah 724 1921 59 Des Moines, Iowa 883 1922 60 Boston, Massachusetts ------- 1511 1923 61 Oakland- San Francisco 1068 LISTS OF MEMBERS AND THE YEARBOOK OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The list of active members as published in the proceedings for 1857 contains forty-three names, representing thirteen States. By 1877 the list had grown to an enrolment of 163 persons, representing twenty-five States and territories. In 1883 there were 280 members, representing twenty-eight States. The president for 1884, Dr. Thomas W. Bicknell. then of Boston, Massachusetts, made a Nation-wide campaign so that the meeting of 1884 at Madison, Wisconsin, was a National meeting in both attendance and program and stands out as one of the great milestones in the development of the Association; 2634 members were enrolled for that year. By 1897 the active membership had increased to over seven thou- sand, representing practically every State in the Union. Beginning in 1895 the list of members by States shows the year in which each person first became a member. By this means educational workers were en- couraged to maintain continuous membership even though they could not attend annual meetings. By means of the one hundred per cent enrol- ment lists published in The Journal, the Association is now encouraging schools to maintain a continuous one hundred per cent membership, as in the earlier day it encouraged individuals to maintain their membership. In 1903, President Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard University, was President of the Association and the meeting was held in Boston. Specia railroad rates were granted to members of the Association and persons not engaged in educational work could obtain these rates by paying two dollars membership at the local ticket office and becoming associate mem- bers. Under these conditions 34,984 memberships, most of them associa tion memberships, were sold for 1903. The list of members does not appear in the Proceedings for that or any succeeding year. Ithadbe come so large that a separate publication, known as the Yearbook, was established. The Yearbook and list of active members usually contains the Constitu tion and calendar of meetings, the list of officers, the reports of the treasurer and board of trustees, the journal of proceedings, the minutes of the board of directors, the minutes of the National Council of Edu PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1045 cation and of the meetings of the various departments, reports of the secretary and other officers, necrology, and a list of life, active, and cor- responding members classified first under States and then under the year in which they became members. There are also statistical tables of mem- bership by States and lists of the Association's publications. The later numbers of the Yearbook were published in the series of the N. Ε. Α. Bulletin. By 1920 the list of members had become so large that it was no longer feasible to publish it and the Yearbook was discontinued. Tables show- ing the membership in the Association by States appeared in The Journal for February, 1922, April, 1922, March, 1923, and April, 1924. Year covered Date published Place of meeting Pages 1904-1905 St. Louis 264 1905-1906 Asbury Park 252 1906-1907 Fiftieth Anniversary 207 1907-1908 Los Angeles 249 December, 1909 Denver 271 December, 1910 December, 1911 San Francisco 337 December, 1912 Chicago 430 December, 1913 February, 1914 Salt Lake City --- _386 December, 1914 St. Paul December, 1915 February, 1916 Oakland 377 December, 1916 February, 1917 New York City 384 December, 1917 February, 1918 Portland, Oregon 405 December, 1918 June, 1919 Pittsburgh 434 THE N. E. A. BULLETIN The N. E. A. BULLETIN was started in April, 1913, as a pocket folder after the manner of a railway time-table. Its form was later changed to a pamphlet six by nine inches, which was continued until December, 1920. For several years it was made up largely of announcements concerning meetings and because of its ephemeral character was not preserved by many libraries . Number Month Year Volume and number Whole number ofpages April 1913 Vol. 1, No. 1 1 12 June 1913 Vol. 1, No. 2 2 16 September 1913 Vol. 2, No. 1 3 32 February AprilHTT December February 1913 1914 1914 1914 Vol . 2, No. 2 Vol. 2, No. 3 Vol. 2, No. 4 Vol. 2, No. 5 4 5 Yearbook 6 16 386 16 16 1046 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Number Month Year Volume and number Whole number ofpages June 1914 Vol. 2, No. 6 8 20 September 1914 Vol. 3, No. 1 9 28 December 1914 Vol. 3, No. 2 10 32 January 1915 Vol. 3 , No. 3 11 24 February 1915 Vol. 3, No. 4 12* Missing April 1915 Vol. 3, No. 5 13* Missing May 1915 Vol. 3, No. 6 14 Proceedings D. of S. 257 June 1915 Vol. 3, No. 7 15 32 September 1915 Vol. 4, No. 1 16 28 December 1915 Vol. 4, No. 2 17 16 January 1916 Vol. 4, No. 3 18 32 February 1916 Vol. 4, No. 4 19 Yearbook 377 1916 Vol. 4, No. 5 20 40 April May 1916 Vol. 4, No. 6 21 Proceedings D. ofS. 204 June 1916 Vol. 4, No. 7 22 40 September 1916 Vol. 5, No. 1 23 16 December 1916 Vol. 5, No. 2 24 16 January 1917 Vol. 5, No. 3 25 32 February 1917 Vol. 5, No. 4 26 Yearbook 384 March 1917 Vol. 5, No. 5 27 16 April 1917 Vol. 5, No. 6 28 32 1917 Vol. 5, No. 7 29 32 June September 1917 Vol. 6, No. 1 30 32 December 1917 Vol. 6, No. 2 31 32 January 1918 Vol. 6, No. 3 32 32 1918 Supplement 24 January February 1918 Vol. 6, No. + 33 Yearbook 405 April 1918 Vol. 6, No. 5 34 32 1918 Vol. 6, No. 6 35 +8 June September 1918 Vol. 7, No. 1 36 16 September 1918 Supplement 16 December 1918 Vol. 7, No. 2 37 16 January 1919 Vol. 7, No. 3 38 1919 Vol. 7, No. 4 39 Yearbook 434 June April 1919 Vol. 7, No. 5 40 32 1919 Vol. 7, No. 6 +1 32 June September 1919 Vol. 8, No. 1 42 40 *Missing from the set at Association Headquarters. Duplicate copies will be welcomed. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1047 Number Month Year Volume and number Whole number ofpages October 1919 Vol . 8, No. 2 43 40 November 1919 Vol. 8, No. 3 44 32 Decernber 1919 Vol. 8, No. 4 45 32 January 1920 Vol. 8, No. 5 46 32 January 1920 Supplement 4 February 1920 Vol. 8, No. 6 +7 40 March 1920 Vol. 8, No. 7 48 24 April 1920 Vol. 8, No. 8 49 32 May 1920 Vol. 8, No. 9 50 32 June 1920 Vol. 8, No. 10 51 16 September 1920 Vol. 9 No. 1 52 20 October 1920 Vol. 9, No. 2 53 24 November 1920 Vol. 9, No. 3 54 16 December 1920 Vol. 9, No. 4 55 16 THE [ PRESENT ] JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The present JOURNAL was established by vote of the Board of Directors at the Salt Lake City meeting in 1920. To avoid confusion with the earlier journal, it continues the volume numbering of the N. E. A. Bulletin beginning with Volume 10 in 1921. The title page and index are bound in the December number each year. The paging below does not include the cover. Number Month Year Volume and number of pages . January 1921 Volume 10, No. 1 16 February 1921 Volume 10, No. 2 38 March 1921 Volume 10, No. 3 24 April 1921 Volume 10, No. 4 2+ May 1921 Volume 10, No. 5 16 June 1921 Volume 10, No. 6 16 September 1921 Volume 10, No. 7 16 October 1921 Volume 10, No. 8 16 November 1921 Volume 10, No. 9 32 December 1921 Volume 10, No. 10 26 January 1922 Volume 11, No. 1 6+ February 1922 Volume 11 , No. 2 6+ March 1922 Volume 11 , No. 3 6+ April 1922 Volume 11 , No. + 6+ May 1922 Volume 11 , No. 5 6+ June 1922 Volume 11 , No. 6 6+ September 1922 Volume 11 , No. 7 6+ October 1922 Volume 11 , No. 8 6+ 1048 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Number Month Year Volume and number ofpages November 1922 Volume 11 , No. 9 64 December 1922 Volume 11, No. 10 64 January 1923 Volume 12, No. 1 64 February 1923 Volume 12, No. 2 64 March 1923 Volume 12, No. 3 64 April 1923 Volume 12, No. 4 64 May 1923 Volume 12, No. 5 6+ June 1923 Volume 12, No. 6 6+ September 1923 Volume 12, No. 7 6+ October 1923 Volume 12, No. 8 6+ November 1923 Volume 12, No. 9 64 December 1923 Volume 12, No. 10 6+ January 1924 Volume 13, No. 1 64 February 1924 Volume 13, No. 2 6+ +9 March 1924 Volume 13, No. 3 April 1924 Volume 13, No. 4 64 May 1924 Volume 13, No. 5 64 June 1924. Volume 13, No. 6 64 September- October 1924 Volume 13, Nos. 7 and 8 64 November 1924 Volume 13, No. 9 6+ December 1924 Volume 13, No. 10 6+ THE [ FORMER ] JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Beginning in 1916, members were given a choice between the bound volume of proceedings and preprints which came out earlier in sections known as "The Journal of the National Education Association." This practice was dropped as the N. E. A. BULLETIN increased in importance. Month Year Volume and number Page numbers September 1916 Vol . 1, No. 1 1-96 October 1916 Vol. 1 , No. 2 97-192 November 1916 Vol. 1 , No. 3 193-288 December 1916 Vol. 1, No. 4 289-384 January 1917 Vol. 1 , No. 5 385-512 February 1917 Vol. 1 , No. 6 513-640 March 1917 Vol. 1, No. 7 641-736 April 1917 Vol. 1, No. 8 737-888 May 1917 Vol. 1 , No. 9 889-984 June 1917 Vol. 1, No. 10 985-1087 September 1917 Vol. 2, No. 1 1-96 October 1917 Vol. 2, No. 2 97-160 November 1917 Vol. 2, No. 3 161-248 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1049 Month Year Volume and number Page numbers December 1917 Vol. 2, No. 4 249-312 January 1918 Vol . 2, No. 5 313-408 February 1918 Vol. 2, No. 6 409-504 March 1918 Vol. 2, No. 7 505-584 April 1918 Vol. 2, No. 8 585-648 May 1918 Vol. 2, No. 9 649-744 June 1918 Vol. 2, No. 10 745-860 September 1918 Vol. 3, No. 1 1-78 October 1918 Vol. 3, No. 2 79-150 November 1918 Vol. 3, No. 3 151-222 December 1918 Vol. 3, No. 4 223-294 January 1919 Vol. 3, No. 5 295-356 February 1919 Vol. 3, No. 6 357-420 March 1919 Vol. 3 , No. 7 421-489 April 1919 Vol. 3, No. 8 491-558 May 1919 Vol. 3, No. 9 559-663 RESEARCH BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The establishment of the Division of Research of the National Educa- tionAssociation has made possible the coördination of research agencies on a scale undreamed of a short time ago. The Division has been able to col- lect and issue facts on education more promptly than any other National agency. In its bulletins these facts have been so organized that educa- tional workers could use them in campaigns for the improvement of edu- cation. The first bulletin is known as Bulletin One of the Research De- partment of the National Education Association; the second as Bulletin Two of the Research Division of the National Education Association. In January, 1923, the Bulletin was entered as second-class matter to be pub- lished five times each year and is sent regularly to all five-dollar members of the Association and to members of the Department of Superintendence. Number Year Month Volume or number Title ofpages 1922 June Bulletin One Facts on the Cost of Pub- 68 lic Education and What They Mean 1922 November Bulletin Two Facts for American Edu- 40 cation Week, December 3-9, 1922 1923 January Vol. I, No. 1 Facts on State Educational 64 Needs 1923 March Vol. I, No. 2 Can the Nation Afford to 72 Educate its Children ? 1050 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Number Year Month Volume or number Title ofpages 1923 (May) ¹ ( Vol. I, No. 3) Teachers' Salaries and Sal- 115 ary Trends in 1923 1923 September Vol. I, No. 4 Five Questions for Ameri- 54 can Education Week, Nov. 18-24, 1923 1923 ( November) 2 Vol. I, No. 5 Facts on the Public School 48 Curriculum 1924 Jan. & March Vol. II, Nos. Current Facts on City 64 1 and 2 School Costs 1924 May Vol. II , No. 3 Teachers' Retirement Al- 32 lowances 1924 September Vol. II, No. 4 Facts on the Public School 40 . for American Education Week, November 17-23, 1924 1924 November Vol. II, No. 5 The Problem of Teacher Tenure MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS Miscellaneous publications of the National Education Association are numerous and their effect on educational practices and progress has been marked. Many of these publications have been reprinted from the Pro- ceedings, others have been published by the United States Bureau of Edu- cation, or by book companies. The following list covers some of the better known reports. It does not pretend to be complete. The committee work of the National Education Association might well be made the basis of a master's or doctor's dissertation . WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS In November, 1924, the Association issued William Torrey Harris; a critical study of his educational and related philosophical views, by John S. Roberts. Cloth, 250 pages, price $2. This book is especially signifi- cant in the light of Dr. Harris's leadership in the Association as President, speaker on programs, and member of notable committees. REPORTS RELATING TO THE CURRICULUM Number Date Title ofpages 1894 Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School 249 Studies, with the reports of the conferences ar- ranged by the Committee. Published by the Am- erican Book Company. 1 Originally issued in July, 1923, as the Report of the Salary Committee, but bound in the Research Bulletin series and since reprinted as Vol. I, No. 3, May, 1923. * Published late (July, 1924) . Does not contain name of month. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1051 Number Date Title ofpages 235 1895 Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education with the reports of subcommittees. Published by the American Book Company. July, 1899 Report of the Committee on College Entrance Re- 188 quirements. (Appears also in Proceedings 1899 ; 632-817. ) 1905 Report of the Committee on Industrial Education 97 in the Schools for Rural Communities. 1912 Final Report of National Committee of Fifteen on 54 Geometry Syllabus . 1914 Report of the Committee on Vocational Education 64 and Vocational Guidance. 1914 Vocational Education, Proposed Terminology, pre- 45 sented by the Committee on Vocational Education and Vocational Guidance. 1916 The Essential Place of Religion in Education. 134 1917 Thrift. 87 1919 Report of the Committee on Superintendents' Prob- 69 lems ( Curriculum ) . 1923 Facts on the Public School Curriculum. ( Noted as 48 Research Bulletin Vol. I, No. 5. ) 1924 The Elementary School Curriculum. ( Noted as Sec- 296 ond Yearbook under the Department of Superin- tendence.) 1924 Health Education. A program for Public Schools 161 and Teacher Training Institutions. Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Educa- tion of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association, Dr. Thomas D. Wood, chairman. REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION The reports of the Association's Committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education have been published by the Government Printing Office and distributed by the United States Bureau of Education. The work of the committee has been carried on by sixteen subcommittees guided by a reviewing committee of twenty-six members under the chair- manship of Clarence D. Kingsley. Bureau of Education Number Bulletin Title of pages 1913, No. 41 The Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 80 tion . Contains preliminary statements by the chairmen of committees 1052 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Bureau of Number Education Bulletin Title ofpages 1915, No. 23 The Teaching of Community Civics 55 1916, No. 28 The Social Studies in Secondary Education 63 1917, No. 2 Reorganization of English in Secondary 181 Schools 1917, No. 49 Music in Secondary Schools 37 1917, No. 50 Physical Education in Secondary Schools 24 1917, No. 51 Moral Values in Secondary Education 37 1918 , No. 19 Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools 29 1918, No. 35 Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education 32 1919, No. 55 Business Education in Secondary Schools 68 1920, No. 1 Problem of Mathematics in Secondary 24 Education 1920, No. 26 Reorganization of Science in Secondary 62 Schools 1920, No. 35 Agriculture in Secondary Schools 32 1921 , No. 5 Part-Time Education of Various Types 22 1922, No. 5 Reorganization of Home Economics in Sec- 38 ondary Schools 1922, No. 23 High School Buildings and Grounds 49 REPORTS RELATING TO TEACHER TRAINING Number Date Title ofpages July 1899 Report of the Committee on Normal Schools . 6+ (Appears also in Proceedings, 1899 ; 836-896 ) 1906 Report of the Joint Committee of the American 71 Library Association and the National Education Association on Instruction in Library Adminis- tration in Normal Schools. (Appears also in Proceedings, 1906 ; 215-281 ) 1907 Report of the Committee of Seventeen on the Pro- 146 fessional Preparation of High School Teachers . (Appears also in Proceedings , 1907 ; 523-668 ) REPORTS RELATING TO SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 1905 Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and +66 Pensions for Public School Teachers in the United States 1913 Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries 328 and. the Cost of Living 1918 Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, 71 Tenure, and Pensions. Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1053 Number Date Title of pages 85 1918 Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions. Pensions for Public School Teachers by Clyde Furst and I. L. Kandel. Published by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, New York City 1919 Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules in the 169 United States, 1918-1919. By E. S. Evenden. (Noted as Commission Series No. 6) 1923 Teachers' Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. 115 (Noted as Research Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 3) 1924 Teachers ' Retirement Allowances. (Noted as 32 Research Bulletin, Vol. II, No. 3 ) 1924 The Problem of Teacher Tenure. ( Noted as Research Bulletin, Vol. II, No. 5 ) OTHER REPORTS 1891 History of the National Education Association 120 plus 21 of the United States, 1857-1891 . Contains classified list of the principal subjects considered in the Volumes of Proceedings of the Association from 1870 to 1891, inclusive; also programs of meetings, including departments, from 1857 to 1891 1905 Report of the Committee on Taxation as related 87 to Public Education 1912 Final Report of the Committee on Uniform 51 Records and Reports 1913 Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical 75 Nomenclature. ( Several times reprinted with a total of fourteen thousand copies) 1918 Report of the Committee on Administrative 16 Legislation COMMISSION SERIES A National Program for Education Statements issued by the Commission on the National Emergency in Education and the Program for Readjustment during and after the War. This Commission, under the chairmanship of Dr. George D. Strayer, laid the foundation for the work of the Legislative Commission. 1054 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Number Date Number Title ofpages 1918 One Statement of the Situation 27 1918 Two Statistical Data relative to the distribu- 16 tion of Federal Grants as proposed by Senate Bill 4987 1918 Three Federal Appropriations for the Prepara- 16 tion of Public School Teachers 1918 Four The Emergency in Rural Education 15 1919 Five A Statement of Policies 4 1919 Six Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules' 169 in the United States, 1918-1919. (Appears also in Proceedings, 1920; 537-702) LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION SERIES 1920 One The Smith-Towner Bill, A Discussion 8 of the Fundamental Principles of the Bill and a Brief History of the Move- ment for the Recognition and En- couragement of Public Education by the National Government, by Hugh S. Magill October 1921 Two Education and the Federal Government, 8 by Hugh S. Magill January 1923 Three The Towner-Sterling Bill, An Analysis 76 of the Provisions of the Bill ; A Dis- cussion of the Principles and Policies Involved ; and a Presentation of Facts and Figures Relating to the Subject CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS ON NATIONAL LEGISLATION These reports are published by the Government Printing Office, but are so closely related to the work of the National Education Association that they are listed here for reference. Some of them are veritable encyclopedias on educational conditions. Date of Bill under Number Hearing Congress consideration Title of pages 1910, Feb. 2, 8, 61st H. R. 12318 An Executive Depart- 61 15, 23 2d Session ment of Education, Hearing before the Committee on Educa- tion, House of Repre- sentatives PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1055 Date of Bill under Number Hearing Congress consideration Title of pages 1918 Dec. 5 65th S. 4987 Department of Educa- 144 1st Session tion, Hearing be- fore the Committee on Education and Labor, United States Senate 1919 July 10, 11, 66th S. 1017 and Education Bill, Joint 162 22 1st Session H. R. 7 Hearings before the Committees on Edu- cation and Labor, Congress of the United States 1921 Jan. 17 66th H. R. 7 Report of the Commit- 12 3d Session tee on Education . (Report No. 1201) 1921 May 18 67th S. 1607 and Department of Public 49 1st Session H. R. 5837 Welfare. Extract from Joint Hearings before the Commit- tees on Education, Congress of the United States, pages 87-135 1924 Jan. 22, 23, 68th S. 1337 To Create a Depart- 402 24, 25 1st Session ment of Education and to Encourage the States in the Promo- tion and Support of Education . Hearings before the Commit- tees on Education and Labor, United States Senate 1056 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Date of Bill under Number Hearing Congress consideration Title ofpages 1924 Jan. 25, 26, 68th S. J. Res . 282 Reorganization of Exec- 140 29 1stSession utive Departments. Extract from Hear- ings before the Joint Committee on the Reorganization of the Administrative Branch of the Gov- ernment, Congress of the United States, pages 489-629 1924 Feb. 20 to 68th H. R. 3923 To Create a Depart- 763 June 4 1st Session ment of Education and to Authorize Ap- propriations of money to Encourage the States in the Promo- tion and Support of Education . Hearings before the Commit- tee on Education, House of Repre- sentatives . OFFICIAL PROGRAMS The official program, which is furnished those who attend the meetings of the Association and the Department of Superintendence, is widely used by publicists wishing to keep in touch with the latest movements in educa- tion. Each convention includes from a dozen to fifty meetings of Depart- ments and allied organizations and the list of speakers often runs into several hundred. For convenient reference the programs for the past seven years are here listed. National Education Association Annual Number Date Convention Meeting place ofpages 1918 56 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania_. 48 1919 57 Milwaukee, Wisconsin_ . 40 1920 58 40 Salt Lake City, Utah_ 1921 59 Des Moines, Iowa___ . 64 1922 60 Boston, Massachusetts 80 1923 61 Oakland- San Francisco 80 1924 62 Washington, D. C 80 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1057 Department of Superintendence Annual Number Date Convention Place of Meeting of pages 1918 48 Atlantic City, New Jersey 40 1919 49 Chicago, Illinois 40 1920 50 Cleveland, Ohio 64 1921 51 Atlantic City, New Jersey 64 1922 52 Chicago, Illinois 48 1923 53 Cleveland, Ohio . 48 1924 54 Chicago, Illinois. 64 PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The elementary principals took the first steps toward organization in a group at the University of Chicago during the last week of July, 1920, first organizing under the name, National Association of Elementary Principals . By act of the Representative Assembly of the National Education Associa- tion at Des Moines in July, 1921, it became a department of the Association . Its early bulletins were circulars. The first two were published at Port Arthur, Texas. Numbers three and four were published at Duluth, Min- nesota. Few copies of them were preserved, although they are counted as the first four numbers of volume one of the series . The yearbooks contain alphabetical lists of members. The Bulletin is sent regularly to all members of the Department who pay annual dues of two dollars in addition to membership in the National Education Associa- tion. Month Year Volume and Number Pages May 1921 Bulletin No. 1 4 June 1921 Bulletin No. 2 4 November 1921 Bulletin No. 3 8 February 1922 Bulletin No. 4 4 May 1922 Vol. 1, No. 5 40 May 1922 Bulletin No. 18 1 +8 May 1922 The First Yearbook " 144 October 1922 Vol. 2, No. 1 40 January 1923 Vol. 2, No. 2 40 April 1923 Vol. 2, No. 3 6+ Bulletin No. 18 of National Education Association Proceedings of the Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals for 1921. It supplements the Association's Proceedings for that year. Subject: The technique of supervision. 1058 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Month Year Volume and Number Pages 1923 Vol. 2, No. 4 336 July (Second Yearbook ) * October 1923 Vol. 3, No. 1 6+ 1924 Vol. 3, No. 2 64 January April 1924 Vol. 3, No. 3 64 July 1924 Vol. 3, No. 4 442 (Third Yearbook) October 1924 Vol. 4, No. 1 6+ THE JOURNAL OF RURAL EDUCATION The Journal of Rural Education is published by the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association, 525 West 120th Street, New York City. Subscription price three dollars ($3) a year. Editor-in-chief, Fannie W. Dunn, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Number Year Month Volume and number ofPages 1921 September Vol. I, No. 1 48 1921 October Vol. I, No. 2 48 1921 November Vol. I, No. 3 48 1921 December Vol. I, No. 4 48 1922 January Vol. I, No. 5 48 1922 February Vol. I, No. 6 48 1922 March Vol. I, No. 7 48 1922 April Vol. I, No. 8 48 1922 May Vol. I, No. 9 48 1922 June Vol. I, No. 10 48 1922 September Vol. II, No. 1 48 H 1922 1922-23 1923 1923 1923 1923 1923 1923 1923 1923 1923 1924 ing movement. 4 October- November December-January February March April May June September October November December January Vol. II , Nos. 2 & 3 Vol . II , Nos . 4 & 5 Vol. II, No. 6 Vol. II, No. 7 Vol. II , No. 8 Vol. II, No. 9 Vol. II, No. 10 Vol. III, No. 1 Vol. III , No. 2 Vol. III , No. 3 Vol . III, No. 4 Vol. III, No. 5 102 92 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 * Subject : The Problem of the elementary school principal in the light of the test- Subject: The status and professional activities of the elementary school principal. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION 1059 Number Year Month Volume and number ofPages 1924 February Vol. III , No. 6 48 1924 March Vol. III, No. 7 48 192+ April Vol. III , No. 8 48 1924 May-June Vol. III, Nos. 9 & 10 96 1924 September Vol. IV, No. 1 48 PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE The Department of Superintendence was organized at Harrisburg, Penn- sylvania, in August, 1865, as the National Association of School Superin- tendents. In 1870 it became a department of the National Education As- sociation. A complete set of its proceedings is not available at headquarters. Beginning in 1871, they are included in the Proceedings of the Association. From 1880 to 1883, inclusive, they were published as a circular of the Bureau of Education, but are bound with the Proceedings of the Associa- tion. Preprints from the Proceedings have often been made for advance distribution. Greatest interest attaches to the publications of the Department since its reorganization in 1920. These publications and the Research Bulletin are sent regularly to members of the Department who pay five dollars ($5.00 ) annual dues in addition to dues in the Association. They are sold to others. The yearbooks contain an alphabetical list of members. Month Year Title Pages February 1922 A Digest of State Building Codes: George M. Hop- kinson, Compiler 23 April 1922 Ideals of Public Education : A preprint from the Pro- ceedings 32 May 1922 Financing Public Educa- tion: A preprint from the Proceedings 47 February 1923 First Yearbook: The Status of the Superintendent 206 May 1923 Official Report : A preprint from the Proceedings 1 ++ February 1924 School Buildings : Report on the Exhibits of 1922-23 39 February 1924 Second Yearbook : The Ele- : mentary School Curricu- lum 296 May 1924 Official Report: A preprint from the Proceedings 160 1060 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHERE THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ARE INDEXED In 1906 there was published an index by authors, titles, and subjects to the publications of the National Education Association for its first fifty years, 1856-1906, compiled by Martha Furber Nelson, 211 pages. There is an index in each Volume of Proceedings. The December number of The Journal for each year includes a title page and index for the year. The current Volume of Proceedings and The Journal are indexed in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. The Association's publications for the school year 1922-23 are listed in the Directors' report, Proceedings, 1923 : 116. A similar list for 1923-24 follows this statement. Number Total When pages Number number Title each copies published pages JOURNAL OF THE N. E. A..... Sept. , 1923-June, 1924 68 1,240,000 84,320,000 1 Addresses and Proceedings .... Dec. , 1923 1084 7,500 8,130,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 1 , No. 3 ... July, 1923 116 10,000 1,160,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 4... Sept., 1923 56 23,000 1,288,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 5 .... Nov. , 1923 48 7,000 336,000 Research Bulletin, Vol. 2, Nos. 1 and 2, Jan. & Mar. , 1924 64 10,000 640,000 Press Reprints from JOURNAL 25.200 Program of Oakland Meeting. July, 1923 80 15,000 1,200,000 Official Manual for Delegates . July, 1923 68 2,075 141,100 Report of the Secretary ... July, 1923 56 2.500 140,000 Report of the Committee on Tenure . July, 1923 8 1,500 12,000 Report of the Committee on Pensions . July, 1923 20 1,500 30,000 Report on Rural Education .. July, 1923 100 1,520 152,000 Report of Trustees .. July, 1923 20 1,500 30,000 Report of the Treasurer ... July, 1923 8 1,200 15,000 Report on Visual Education . July, 1923 12 2,500 30,000 Report on Thrift Education..... July, 1923 8 1,500 12,000 Report of Illliteracy Commission .... July, 1923 4 1,500 6,000 Report of Executive Committee . July, 1923 4 1,200 4,800 Report on Character Education . July, 1923 8 1.500 12,000 Report of Joint Committee on Health Prob- lems in Education . 12 18,000 July , 1923 1,500 Report on Financing Delegates . July, 1923 4 1,200 4,800 Report of the Auditors .. July, 1923 16 1,200 12,000 Report of Classroom Teachers . July, 1923 20 1,200 24.000 Report of the Committee on Resolutions ..... July, 1923 4 1,000 4,000 Report on Elementary Education of Non-Eng- 80 lish Speaking Adults ... July, 1923 1,500 120,000 Education of Mental Defective, the Blind, the Deaf and the Crippled ... July, 1923 92 1,500 138,000 32 3.500 112,000 World Conference on Education ( Manual) July, 1923 World Conference on Education (Program) .... July, 1923 16 3,500 56,000 Report of Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature ( Reprint) Oct. , 1923 76 5,000 380,000 Department of Superintendence, Second Year- book Feb., 1924 300 4,500 1,350,000 Feb., 1924 64 11,000 704,000 Program of Chicago Meeting Official Report of the Department of Superin- 492,000 tendence May, 1924 164 3,000 Bulletin of Department of Elementary School Principals , Vol. 3, No. 1 . Oct., 1923 64 3,000 192,000 Bulletin of Department of Elementary School 3,000 192,000 Principals , Vol. 3, No. 2. Jan. , 1924 64 Bulletin of Department of Elementary School Principals , Vol. 3 , No. 3 . April, 1924 64 3,000 192.000 Yearbook of Department of Elementary School July. 1924 452 4,000 1,808,000 Principals, Vol. 3, No. 4 .... Folder on Education Bill... Dec. , 1923 8 10,000 80,000 Folder on Department of Superintendence, Its 6 60,000 Sept. , 1923 10,000 Aims and Responsibilities ... 16 160,000 Ν. Ε. Α. Booklet of Information . Nov. , 1923 10,000 On to Washington-Leaflet. Nov. , 1923 6 345,000 2,070,000 Fight to Reduce School Privileges . ... Nov. , 1923 4 290,000 1,160,000 Elem. School Prin.-Call to Service . Dec. , 1923 4 40,000 160,000 Who is Supporting the Education Bill and 400,000 Why? Dec., 1923 40 10,000 2,100,000 Membership Literature and Circulars ......... Total. 110,080,000 Fifty Educational Books of 1923 This list was published by the American Library Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1924. The list and notes were prepared by the Youngstown Public Library for the American Library Association . BARNES, I. G. Rural School management. 303 pp . 1923. Macmillan.. $1.60. Details of procedure show the beginner both examples and principles. Covers many varied topics such as: contrast in the opening of urban and of rural schools ; sanitation ; subjects to be stressed ; reducing number of classes ; rural illiteracy and short school terms ; the neighborhood as a source of problems; agencies designed to aid rural teachers. Especially valuable for conciseness and definiteness, well- selected exercises and references, and inspirational tone. BARNES, WALTER. The new democracy in the teaching of English. 95 pp . 1923. Rand, McNally. $ 1.00. An argument for average present-day composition topics, texts for class discus- sion, and books for supplementary reading. These would arouse interest, intel- ligence, and powers of appreciation. Mr. Barnes would not scrap the classics but would add, for comparison, excellent or even mediocre literature if it established points of contact with out-of-school experiences. An interesting contrast to Strat- ton'sbook. BELTING, P. E. The community and its high school. 371 pp. 1923. Heath. $1.80. Describes the high school of the present day in relation to community needs and opportunities. Takes up such topics as the school board, the superintendent, the high school principal and teachers, the dean of girls, improving high school teach- ers in service, high school records, pupil participation and coöperation, extra-cur- ricular activities, the significance of practical arts, development of high school spirit. Nearer to actual high school conditions than the usual books in this field. BOLTON, F. E. Everyday psychology for teachers. 443 pp. 1923. Scrib- ner. $2.50. An eminently readable textbook of educational psychology. Partial contents : successful teaching based on scientific knowledge ; how to study effectively ; in- dividual differences ; heredity and instinct; establishing modes of behavior; fun- damental acquisitions ; learning and expression through play; education of the emotions; motivation and initiative ; memory ; learning through imitation ; imagina- tion in learning and expression ; thinking and learning to think ; measuring mental ability; comparing achievement; prophesying performance ; vocational pyschology. Index. BONSER, F. G. & MOSSMAN , L. C. Industrial arts for elementary schools . 491 pp. 1923. Macmillan. $2.40. The various industrial arts are defined and their significance and purpose pointed out. The bulk of the book consists of suggested courses of study in the industrial arts, classified on the basis of their educational purpose rather than of materials used, and graded by years. Concludes with a brief comprehensive history of this increasingly important field of education. Nearly 300 photographs and drawings from a large variety of sources. [1061] 1062 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BURKE, AGNES, and others. A conduct curricula for the kindergarten and first grade. 123 pp. 1923. Scribner. $1.25. The result of years of study, experiment, and practice in the Horace Mann School of Columbia University. Each subject was studied for desirable habits of behavior to be established. Parallel columns of "typical activities" and "desirable changes in thought, feeling, and conduct," are given for a detailed, carefully planned cur- riculum, based upon modified self-government. CHARTERS, W. W. Curriculum construction. 352 pp. 1923. Мас- millan. $2.00. Part 1 contains a review of the subject, a statement of working principles and procedure. Part 2 is a most valuable detailed report of 56 actual problems in the preparation of various types of courses in all the important subjects. CLEMENT, J. A. Curriculum making in secondary schools. 534 pp. 1923. Holt. $2.00. As a summary of the varied phases of the subject, this book has unusual interest and value. Historical development here and abroad, and the principles and prac- tices now being tried out in secondary schools. The most significant chapter is "Criteria and creeds in curriculum organization." The bibliographies, the " In- formation and Drill Exercises," and the "Practical Questions and Problems," are particularly helpful. COLLINGS, ELLSWORTH. An experiment with a project curriculum. 346 pp . 1923. Macmillan. $2.40. Account of a curriculum based entirely upon the project method. Discussion includes guiding principles, their application in a typical country school, and evalua- tion of results. Exceedingly interesting and valuable for its wealth of carefully developed projects. CUBBERLEY, E. P. The principal and his school. 571 pp. 1923. Houghton. $2.40. Analyzes and discusses in detail the work of a principal in organizing, adminis- tering, and supervising the instruction in an elementary school in a city, town, or county-unit school system. Considers importance of the principalship and the con- stantly growing outside relationships of the school, which a principal must rec- ognize, including the parent- teacher association movement. Will be studied by many teachers for its bearing on their own work. DAVIS, C. O. Junior high school education. 451 pp. 1924. World Book Co. $2.20. An important contribution to the subject, based on study of existing practices in large and small cities in all parts of the United States. Gives history and accom- plishments of junior high schools, also discusses curriculum making, administration, and desirable future development. Very good chapters on the six-three-three plan, typical programs, morals and manners, fine arts and music, social studies, col- lateral activities, outlook for the future. An extensive bibliography. Very readable. DICKSON, V. E. Mental tests and the classroom teacher. 231 pp. 1923. World Book Co. $1.80. Shows why mental tests are needed, what they are like, and how they can be made most useful. Does not present the technique of giving and scoring tests. Some good volved use.onAthe advice in their limitations very of coming good book, tests, and how from the dangers in- to avoid organization for a reputable mental testing. EDUCATIONAL BOOKS IN 1923 1063 DOUGHERTY, M. L. How to teach phonics. 89 pp. 1923. Houghton. $1.20. Inclusive and rich in practical suggestion, and free from faddishness. Prepared with the common reading vocabulary of many books in mind. Purposes: 1. To supply a system of phonics useful with any primary reading book. 2. To provide for a minimum of phonic training for efficiency. 3. To relate the work in phonic analysis directly to the thought-getting process. 4. To help the teacher so to presentthe material that the children will recognize the practical value of its use. ELLIS, D. C. & THORN BOROUGH, LAURA. Motion pictures in education. 284 pp . 1923. Crowell. $2.50. Discusses history and principles of visual education, origin and growth of motion pictures, their value and different methods of using them, how to install apparatus, the kinds of films now available, and where and how they can be obtained. Valu- able practical information interestingly presented. FREEMAN, F. N. & DOUGHERTY, M. L. How to teach handwriting. 305 pp. 1923. Houghton. $1.80. Planned to be usable in the day's work. How children learn to write and scientific methods of teaching writing, based upon experimental studies. The bulk of the book applies this discussion to daily lessons and exercises for grades one to six. Exercises fill particular needs and are related to other school subjects and activities. GATES, A. O. Psychology for students of education. 470 pp . 1923. Macmillan. $2.50. Presents those phases of psychology that have special significance in education, with material which differs widely from the usual textbook. There are no abstract discussions of memory, imagination, judgment, and attention. Complex mental processes receive the greater emphasis throughout. Specialized chapters on in- dividual differences, intelligence, and the measurement and correlation of traits. The chapter on "Intelligence" is a clear and straightforward presentation of a much confused subject. GATES, C. R. Management of smaller schools. 174 pp. 1923. Hough- ton. $1.20. A thoroughly helpful pioneer book in this field where the careers of school super- intendents usually begin. Author presents the fruits of his own varied experience in several small school systems, and also selects what is applicable from the lit- erature of school administration. GESELL, ARNOLD. Pre-school child. 264 pp. 1923. Houghton. $1.90. Points out importance of new child-welfare movement to the school, and ad- vocates a redirected and expanded kindergarten to include work in parental guid- ance and infant hygiene as the basis of primary education. Especially valuable as apioneer book in this field. HANDSCHIN, C. H. Methods of teaching modern languages. 479 pp. 1923. World Book Co. $2.40. Different phases of language teaching are taken up and examples of the most approved methods are given, based on extensive investigations . Concrete sug- gestions for conducting classwork, lists of teaching devices, problems for further study, and syllabi of four-year courses. 1064 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HARTMAN, GERTRUDE. Home and community life. 200 pp. 1923. Dutton. $3.00. The first systematic grouping together of much-wanted supplementary reading material for the elementary curriculum, on such topics as: the story of a pair of shoes, changes in American life since 1800, the farm as the source of most of our food and clothing, how the pioneer family solved the problems of living, the post office, from hand-made to machine-made goods, etc. Arranged in two divisions, How We Live Today, and Social Evolution . An introduction outlines reasons for a curriculum that will explain to the child his social and economic environment. HINES, H. C. A guide to educational measurements. 270 pp. 1923. Houghton. $2.00 . Assists the measurements instructor, the student of measurements, and the class- room teacher in the selection of tests which are most applicable and best adaptable to typical schoolroom needs. Includes intelligence as well as achievement tests, and also the best of the high school tests now available. A special feature is the first section, on statistical methods . HOLLINGWORTH, L. S. Special talents and defects. 216 pp. 1923. Macmillan. $1.60. Experimental studies have proved that individuals differ in their inheritance of special capacities and defects. This book shows the advance that has been made in their detection, and discusses the reasons for differences. It presents in detail what is known today regarding special talents and defects as revealed in teaching the common subjects. LENNES, N. J. Teaching of arithmetic. 488 pp. 1923. Macmillan. $2.00. Probably contains more of the literature of arithmetic teaching, quoted, sum- marized, and carefully discussed than any other book. Part 1: formal discipline, methods of learning and teaching, motivation in the early and grammar grades. Part 2: twenty-five chapters , offering suggestions on teaching the various portions of an eight-year arithmetic course. Four-fifths of the book is written primarily for grammar grade teachers. LINK, H. C. Education and industry. 265 pp. 1923. Macmillan. $2.00. An authority in this field here proposes a plan to train workers and create good spirit in industry. The broadest possible general education of the worker is prescribed, and shop and trade schools of the most modern nature for the exec- utives, foremen, department heads, salesmen, etc., are discussed and compared. Thorough and stimulating, citing many examples to illustrate the points. MCCRACKEN, T. C. & LAMB, H. E. Occupational information in the elementary school. 250 pp . 1923. Houghton. $1.90. First important book on elementary vocational guidance, showing how teachers. from kindergarten up, can use regular subjects to give information on common occupations, develop interests , and shape aptitudes . Discusses methods, such as oral presentation, silent reading, exhibits, slides, filins, visits to places of business , and outlines work from kindergarten to sixth grade. Particularly valuable selected and classified bibliographies of books, pamphlets, slides, films, and teacher aids. MCLAUGHLIN , K. L. & TROXELL, E. Number projects for beginners . 110 pp. 1923.. Lippincott. $1.60. A storehouse of ideas for the arithmetic teacher ; actual examples worked out in several notable schools that are experimenting in this subject. The work was initiated largely by the children. Arranged in easy progression to arouse an interest in the application of arithmetic to everyday experience. EDUCATIONAL BOOKS IN 1923 1065 MCMURRY, C. A. How to organize the curriculum. 358 pp. Macmillan . $2.00. 1923. Ideas, not unrelated facts, give keynote to this stimulating book. Simplify the overloaded curriculum, not by mere elimination, but by grouping vital subject- matter around big central ideas or "life projects," such as the Erie Canal, life history of the oak, the Northwest Territory, civil service reform, the post office, an oil well in Texas, coal, etc. separation of subjects and make Prof all esso McMurrythor contrribu te to wouough ld bre dev pmenntartif dow akelo of icial the necessary large social units. Valuable suggested curriculum for grades four to eight, covers geography, history, science, and literature. MCMURRY, O. L. and others. Teaching of industrial arts . 1923. Macmillan . $2.00. 367 pp . A school plan for the industrial arts worked out through a series of years, utilizing rich and varied experiences in industrial and fine arts and in education. Both the aesthetic and the mechanical aspects of the industrial arts receive adequate attention, always in the light of knowledge of educational processes. Specific examples in the field of woodwork and bookmaking (71 pages on the latter), copiously illustrated with skillful drawings. A delightful and stimulating book . MARTZ , C. E. & KINNEMAN , J. A. Social science for teachers . 340 pp . 1923. Houghton . $ 1.90. Presents in simple form important present-day social problems, describing briefly the great governmental and social institutions , and pointing out their relation to the problem of education for citizenship in a democracy. A well written elementary treatise which fills a recognized gap in teacher's preparation for teaching the new and vital subject of community civics. Lists readings and study topics. MATHEMATICS ASSOCIATION OF ematics in secondary education . AMERICA. Reorganization of math- mouth College, Hanover, N. Η. 652 pp . 1923. J. W. Young, Dart- $1.50. mos importan publication, prompted by a national movement for reform in A t t the teaching of mathematics . The findings represent several years ' work of hundred organizations interested in the subject. Principles and recommendations ; a aims in mathematical instruction; mathematics for years 7, 8 and 9 ; for years . 10, 11, and 12; college entrance requirements ; the function concept ; terms and symbols in elementary mathematics . Chapters on standard tests, the training of teachers , and a long bibliography. MEAD, A. R. Learning and teaching. 277 pp . $2.50. 1923. Lippincott. Elementary psychology for teachers , treating strictly educational problems , such as: measurement of mental functions ; original nature and education ; psychological conditions concerned with high school mathematics, general science, Latin, reli- gious and moral education, reviewing, lesson planning, classroom supervision of teaching, etc. Useful questions, problems , exercises, and bibliographical references for each chapter. Notable for clear thinking and ease of interpretation. Worth reading by every teacher in the city. MIRICK , G. A. Progressive education. 224 pp . $1.90. 1923. Houghton . Aclear, simple exposition of today's scientific spirit and method in education, with emphasis upon the educational significance of modern biology, sociology and psychology. Self- development, creative thinking, ordered freedom, are the central ideas. Illuminating analysis of the value, in relation to such aims , of socialized study and recitation, the problem and the project, development of appreciation , educational measurements, etc., makes possible their application to the work of every teacher . An inspiring conception of the kind of education America needs. 1066 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MONROE, W. S. Introduction to the theory of educational measurements. 364 pp. 1923. Houghton. $2.00. Professor Monroe has done much to develop, standardize and apply educational tests. This book is the outgrowth of an advanced course given to college and graduate students, designed to equip them to make critical studies and estimates of educational tests. It will give to superintendents and others who direct the use of educational tests in our public schools the modern point of view, and will acquaint them with necessary fundamental principles. MOORE, M. E. Parent, teacher, and school. 395. pp. 1923 Mac- millan. $2.00. If a teacher could write a series of newspaper articles for taxpayers and parents about school methods and problems today, the result would be much like this book. Gives the practical facts of public school education in such terms that they may be used by mothers and parent-teachers' associations. Comprehensive and clear. It expresses the point of view concerning the teacher's work commonly held by superintendents, boards of education, and the public, learned by the teacher often as a result of trying experience. Every chapter will throw light on the teacher's problems. A MOTHER'S LETTERS TO A SCHOOLMASTER; with an introduction by J. H. Robinson. 283 pp. 1923. Knopf. $4.00. Peter, aged seven, declined to go to school because he was "so busy finding out things ." From talks with him, the mother derives her plan for a school, like real life, so that a child can learn to think in the familiar terms of food, shelter, cloth- ing, play, behavior, barter, etc. Ingenious and thought-provoking. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . The problem of the elementary school principal. (2d yearbook of the department of elementary school principals. ) 480 pp. 1923. $1.50. Material, drawn from numerous school systems, reflects clearly extent to which the testing movement has affected school administration. Four-fifths of book presents ways, such as speed grouping, classification by promotion age, special classes for failing pupils, additional subjects for bright children, in which schools are modifying their practice as a result of tests. Other chapters discuss results of tests in reading, language, and arithmetic, emphasizing remedial work. NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION. Twenty-second yearbook. Part 1, English Composition. Aims, methods, and measure- ment. 173 pp. $1.00; Part 2, The social studies in the elementary and secondary school. 344 pp . $1.40. 1923. Public School Publish- ing Co .. Organizes and presents newest and best thought on educational problems of today. Part 1 is the most important recent study in the methods of teaching and in measuring composition ability. Includes survey of teachers' theme marking, samples of material, new scales for measurement and directions for their use. Part 2 gives latest thought on curriculum making, advocating systematic inventory of current practices and theories, critical construction from this, and objective analysis and experiment. Interesting papers on : building a fact course in history and geography, by C. W. Washburne ; educational economy in the reorganization of the social studies, by H. C. Hill ; problems of contemporary life as the basis for social studies, by H. O. Rugg; Curriculum making as applied to the economic aspects of life, by H. Harap; and a critical appraisement of proposed reorganiza- tions, by F. M. McMurrу. EDUCATIONAL BOOKS IN 1923 1067 NEUMANN, HENRY. Education for moral growth. 383 pp. 1923. Ар- pleton. $1.60. "The greatest problem for school, home and community today is raised by the moral unenlightenment of quite respectable persons." A forceful plea, not for the teaching of ethics, but for teaching with a planned, vital ethical content, in the public schools. Partial contents : Ethical implications of democracy; con- tributions to America's ideals, including chapters on the Puritan's offering, the tradition of classical culture, the demand for vocational fitness; resources of today and tomorrow; moral values in the various studies; native and acquired promptings. PARKER, S. C. Types of elementary teaching and learning. 585 pp. 1923. Ginn. $2.00.. A very extensive collection of detailed illustrative material showing methods and devices actually used in progressive schools. Contents: Four elementary skills (handwriting, spelling four thousand words, reading, arithmetical calcula- tion) ; four thoughtful processes ( understanding social life, by a liberal elementary education, problem solving, skillful silent reading, practice in communicating ideas ) ; increasing the enjoyment of leisure, ideals. A most valuable book. PATTERSON, A. J. The study of nature. 283 pp. 1923. Public School Publishing Co. A handbook of lessons. Gets to the point with such practical detail that it marks an important step in the teaching of a subject for which there is a growing public demand. Material is chosen from the environment of the children ; outdoors the children must observe plants and animals in their native haunts; indoors they must have objects to handle, to study, and to use in experiments and projects. Health studies are recognized. PHILLIPS, C. A. Modern methods and the elementary curriculum. 389 pp . 1923. Century. $2.00. Surveys the dominant characteristics of children and looks into the way they learn-through motive activity, imitation, association of ideas, and reflective think- ing. Discusses vital problems of social civics and moral instruction. All of this is basis for interesting recommendations on courses of study. Uses the latest con- tributions to elementary school practice from the field of educational psychology and may be read by untrained teachers and members of parent-teacher organi- zations . PINTNER, RUDOLPH. Intelligence testing. 406 pp. 1923. Holt. $2.00 . The first comprehensive textbook on intelligence testing; its history and applica- tion. The best known scales are taken up, discussed and evaluated. Chapters on superior children, the delinquent, the dependent, the foreign born and the in- heritance of intelligence. A readable book for students and for laymen interested in this movement. RUEDIGER, W. C. Vitalized teaching. 110 pp. 1923. Houghton. $1.20. This book attacks vigorously a common failure of teaching, from kindergarten to university, to make what is taught real and actual to the child, not merely a parrot repetition of words . The author's remedy for this verbalism is to make subject matter vital by supplementary reading material and maps, specimens, models, charts, etc., and also through student activities and real experiences. A clear diagnosis with specific suggestions . Rusk, R. D. How to teach physics. 186 pp. 1923. Lippincott. $ 1.80. Would suit physics teaching to the needs of high school pupils, and relate it to life. Defines aims and methods, gives practical suggestions as to subject matter, 1068 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION and features the development method of presenting material. Emphasizes modern pedagogical methods, suitable teaching projects focused on a few fundamental principles, to unify the course. Surveys development of physics and physics teach- ing, with chapters on the meaning of physics and scientific method. SELVIDGE, R. W. How to teach a trade. 111 pp. 1923. Manual Arts Press . $1.00 . Few vocational teachers have had definite training in teaching methods as ap- plied to handwork, and most of this has been theoretical. This book shows how to analyze a trade for teaching purposes, how to arrange the topics and divide them into units of instruction, how to prepare work sheets, to plan and analyze the job itself, and finally how to develop interest, habit and skill. A small book for which there was a great need. Useful also in business and clerical work, where instruction has to be given to employees. STRATTON, CLARENCE. Teaching of English in the high school. 388 pp. 1923. Harcourt. $2.00. Exceedingly thorough analytical discussion of aims, methods and, above all content of high school English courses , marked by an insistence upon a severe, scholarly standard of excellence. Particularly valuable chapters are: aims ; the teaching of prose fiction ; the content of poetry; reading ; judgment, appreciation, criticism, styles; ability to write ; auxiliaries and correlations. WELLING, J. B. & CALKINS, C. W. Social and industrial studies for the elementary grades. 331 pp. 1923. Lippincott. $2.00. No teacher could suffer stagnation with this source book of class material, based on a sensible and versatile imagination. Food, clothing and shelter from past to present, and conditions today, are outlined through the first six grades. Grade 1, The family, Americans today ; Grade II, The family in the group, primitive peoples ; Grade III, The family in the tribe, Hebrews, Egyptians, etc.; Grade IV, The family in an empire, Romans, etc.; Grade V, The family in the community, the town; Grade VI, The family in the nation, modern world, Americans and citizens of other united states. WHEAT, H. G. The teaching of reading. 346 pp. 1923. Ginn. $1.60. A concrete and non-technical treatment of the best thought upon present-day in- struction in reading. Well- rounded discussion of principles. Seven chapters show- ing their detailed application to the work of the classroom in each of the eight grades. It uses effectively the chief results of the recent investigations of reading by Huey, Judd, Gray and others . WOELLNER, F. P. Education for citizenship in a democracy. 252 pp. 1923. Scribner. $1.60. Of great value as an up-to-date, annotated bibliography on citizenship training. Quotes freely the many books about making better citizens to estimate value of existing theories and practices . Discusses practical topics like the value of citizen- ship programs, social activities in the grades, an elementary social science course, and how to teach elementary social science. YOUNG, N. J. & MEMMотт, F. W. Methods in elementary English. 238 pp. 1923. Appleton. $1.20. Many recent English manuals for the elementary grades agree on aims and methods. This new book states clearly their position. "All successful work in English composition, whether oral or written, is based on the formation of correct language habits by daily practice." Thirty-six pages of general suggestions treat the importance of oral composition, child's choice of subject, development of "sentence sense," class criticism, etc. One hundred pages give composition work by grades, applying these aims and methods to each of the first three grades. Eighty pages of language games. BOOKS OF GENERAL INTEREST 1069 SOME 1923 BOOKS OF GENERAL INTEREST BAIKIE, JAMES. Life of the ancient East, being some chapters of the romance of modern excavation. 463 pp. 1923. Macmillan. $4.00. The discovery of the tomb of Tutankahmen gives a timeliness to this authoritative and interesting account of the excavations of recent years in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece. The romance of each excavation and of the archaeologist who di- rected it is given with some detail. The author interprets with authority the mean- ing and historical importance of the priceless relics of antiquity. DRINKWATER, JOHN, ED. The outline of literature. Three volumes. 1923-24. Putnam. $4.50 each. Designed to give a "representative summary" of the great works of literature and to place them in historical perspective. Not intended for the practiced, critical reader, but for those whose knowledge of literature is superficial and poorly organized. The large number of reproductions of well-known works of art adds to the attractiveness and interest. Volume 1 covers the period from the Bible to the Renaissance ; volume 2 from the Renaissance to Byron, Shelley and Keats ; volume 3 recent literature . MONROE, HARRIET, ED. The new poetry . +60 pp . 1923. Macmillan. $2.50. A new edition of this useful and delightful anthology, with many added selec- tions for the past five years. Invaluable for anyone wishing to become familiar with the best recent work in England and America. PUPIN, M. I. From immigrant to inventor. 396 pp . 1923. Scribner. $4.00. The writer, a loyal son of Serbia, who came to this country alone at the age of fifteen, is now widely known as the inventor of the Pupin coil, and as one of America's important contributors to the science of electricity. The account of his early struggles and friendships, his studies here and abroad, his impassioned devotion to science, and above all his affection for his homeland, surpassed only by his enthusiasm and respect for his adopted country, told frankly and with re- freshing earnestness, make this one of the outstanding autobiographies of the year. WILSON, MARGARET. The able McLaughlins. 263 pp. 1923. Harper. $2.00 . Scene is laid in a Scotch community in Iowa just after the Civil War and story deals with the marriage of Wully McLaughlin and the unfortunate Christie McNair. Plot is slight and book is chiefly remarkable for its freshness and orig- inality and for the deftness with which a variety of Scotch characters are drawn, while the touch of broad comedy in Barbara brings welcome relief from the shadow which seems to pervade the whole. Winner of the Harper fiction prize. Index . [Names of authors are set in SMALL CAPITALS ] ABERCROMBIE, JOHN W. National obli- ANIBAL, FRED G. Investigation of dem- gations in education, 823 onstration versus laboratory as a ABRAMS, A. W. Visual instruction in method of teaching natural science, a State school system, 920 771 A brighter future for the rural child Architecture, School, 749 (MRS. KATHERINE M. COOK ) , 721 Arithmetic, Business, 432 Act of incorporation, 1 Arithmetic, Drill in, 564 Address ( CALVIN COOLIDGE) , 213 Arithmetic revision, 311 Address of welcome (JOHN J. TIGERT) , ARNOLD, SARAH LOUISE. Spelling, a 165 vital factor in the curriculum, 946 Administration of a State program of Art in the public schools (P. R. apprentice training in the building SPENCER ) , 940 trades ( L. H. DENNIS) , 1007 ASHBAUGH, E. J. Value and significance Administration of education with the of research in rural education, 656 educative processes, Unifying ( J. M. Athletics, 639, 641, 643, 644 GWINN) , 397 Athletics and their value for citizen- AHLERS, HARRIET. Lesson materials in ship (WILLIAM MILES MALOY), 641 reading and writing for the foreign- Athletics in high school ( SAMUEL M. born illiterate, 576 NORTH) , 644 AITON, MAUDE E. The value of mov- Attitudes of the foreign-born on their ing pictures as an aid to teaching life in America, Some (JULIUS languages and citizenship to adult DRACHSLER ) , 570 foreigners, 966 ATWOOD, WALLACE W. Visual imagery ALASKA, The work of the U. S. bureau in geography, 975 of education in, 355 AVENT, JOSEPH E. Report on summer ALLAN, HAROLD A. Report of business sessions in State teachers' colleges, 383 division, 116 ALLEN, EDGAR F. The education of BAER, JOSEPH A. How to raise the crippled children- abstract, 443 standards of county supervision ALLEN , FLORENCE. Next step in world through a research department, 693 peace, 832 BAGLEY, WILLIAM C. Report of editorial ALLTUCKER, MARGARET M. Coördina- council, 290 tion in part-time education, 380 ; BAKER, FRANK E. The choice of mate- Organizing a high school and classify- rials entering into curricula of teacher ing its pupils so as to serve each training institutions, 62+ equitably, 779 BALCOM, A. G. The preparation of Amalgamation of vocational education teachers in the use of visual aids, 971 organizations ( CHARLES A. BEN- BALLOU, FRANK W. Education in the NETT) , 989 ; ( GEORGE E. MYERS) , Nation's capital, 1713 Junior high 989; ( CARL COLVIN ) , 990 schools in Washington, 416 American education week, 112 BARNES , C. H. School administration in American Legion, 95 St. Louis county, 958 American school citizenship league, 341 BENNETT, CHARLES A. The amalgama- ANDREWS, MRS . FANNIE FERN . Report tion of vocational education organiza- of committee to cooperate with the tions, 989 American school citizenship league, BENNION , MILTON. Report of committee 341 on character education, 278 ; Train- [1071] 1072 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing for citizenship in the senior high BUTTERFIELD, E. W. Modern education, school, 915 960 BENTLEY, J. H. Curriculum practice, 949 BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E. Educational BENTZ, M. S. The superintendent's re- resources of country life, 730 lation to his school directors, 956 BUTTS , FRANCES M. Classroom helps in Better organized curricula ( JESSE H. training a typist, 435 NEWLON ) , 954 By-Laws , 6 Better trained teachers. (EC. HART- WELL) , 953 Calendar of meetings, 17 BEVERIDGE, J. H. Hazards of the super- CAMPBELL, HELEN L. Classroom helps intendency and the next forward steps for the shorthand teacher-abstract, 436 in reducing them, 8643 The high school building, 952 CARLSON, PHILIP E. Report of committee Beverly industrial school ( S. H. CHACE ) , on the problem of retirement allow- 937 ances, 248 BINGHAM, ANNE T. Needs of the high CHACE, S. H. The Beverly industrial school girl and how they are met by school, 937 social and philanthropic organizations, Challenge to American education, The 528 (PAYSON SMITH) , 137 BLAIR, FRANCIS G. Address at the CHAM CHAMBERLAIN, ARTHUR H. Report of Lincoln Memorial, 225 committee on thrift education, 338 BLIGHT, REYNOLD E. The classroom Character training and education, 137, teacher, 498 159 , 278 , 357, 915 Board of directors, Minutes, 90 Character training in the classroom BONSER, F. G. The reorganization of (JEREMIAH E. BURKE) , 915 the curriculum of the elementary Chicago plan, The right relationship schools, 890. of coöperation between the principal Bookkeeping, How to teach, 437 and supervisors, The ( MARGARET Books of general interest, Some 1923, MADDEN ) , 548 1069 Child behavior, Conditioning and re- Books of 1923, Fifty educational, 1061 conditioning-an experimental study BOWMAN, CHARLES E. Business arithme- in ( MARY COVER JONES) , 585 tic from a vocational point of view- Citizen teacher, The (JULIA A. SPOONER), abstract, 432 200 BRADFORD, MARY C. C. Report of com- Citizenship course for naturalization mittee on classroom teachers' prob- classes ( LILLIAN P. CLARK ) , 577 lems, 265 Citizenship, Training for ( MILTON BRIGGS, HOWARD L. Provisions for BENNION) , 915 industrial education in the public City schools and community service schools, 993 (PAUL C. STETSON ) , 925 BRIGOS , THOMAS H. Report of com- City superintendents, discussion ( JOHN mittee on the classification of educa- D. WHITTIER, chairman) , 927 tional material , 336 CLARK, DR. TALLIAFERRO. Nutrition of Budget planning ( O. C. PRATT ) , 952 the school child-abstract, 442 Bulletin, The N. E. A., 1045 CLARK, LILLIAN P. The citizenship BURKE, JEREMIAH E. Character educa- course for naturalization classes, 577 tion, 915 ; Qualities to be possessed by CLARK, MRS . FRANCIS. School music in a superintendent of schools, 947 1836, 1886, 1911, and 1936, 603 BUSH, MABELL G. A rural school com- Classifying high school pupils, 776, 779 munity program, 926 Classroom helps for the shorthand Business arithmetic from a vocational teacher-abstract ( HELFN L. CAMP point of view- abstract (CHARLES E. BELL), 436 BOWMAN) , 432 Classroom helps in training a typist Business English as a part of steno- (FRANCES M. BUTTS ), 435 graphic training-abstract ( S. AU- Classroom teacher, The ( REYNOLD F. GUSTA ΓΑΙΝTOR ), 436 BLIGHT) , 498 INDEX 1073 Classroom teacher sees it, As a ( MARY COUNTS, GEORGE S. The future of the F. MOONEY) , 207 comprehensive high school, 796 Classroom teachers, Department of, County superintendents ; discussion minutes, 460 (CHARLES E. DICKEY, chairman ) , 955 CLEAVER, MRS. JOHN B. The parent- County superintendent's relation to his teacher association in rural schools , teachers ( FERN KENNEDY ) , 956 716 CRABTREE, J. W. Secretary's report, 97 CODY, FRANK . Chairman of the school CRAM, FRED D. Objective studies in and the community group, 925 rural schools, 663 COFFMAN, LOTUS D. Higher education: CRAMPTON, C. WARD. How to reach the new administrative adjustments , 876 ; masses with health education, 980 The obligations of citizenship, 916 CRANDALL, ERNEST L. Report of com- College entrance, 783 , 784 mittee on necrology, 347 ; Visual aids, COLVIN, CARL. The amalgamation of 921 vocational education organizations, Crippled children, The education of- 990 abstract (EDGAR F. ALLEN ) , 443 Commission series, 1053 Curricula of teacher training institu- Committee members, 23 tions, The choice of materials enter- Community service, 925 ing into the ( FRANK E. BAKER ) , 624 Comparison of small and large high Curriculum making, Method of, 940 schools ( JOSEPH ROEMER ) , 702 Curriculum of the standard high school CONDON, RANDALL J. A tribute to (E. E. RAMSEY) , 929 Woodrow Wilson, 838 Curriculum practice (J. H. BENTLEY) , Consolidated and one-teacher schools , 949 667 Curriculum revision, 890, 903 Constitution of the Department of Class- room Teachers , 468 DAVIDSON , WILLIAM M. A tribute to Conventions, Annual, 1056 WARREN G. HARDING, 836 ; Chairman CONVERSE, FRANK E. Experience with of vocational education group, 922 a single salary schedule, 942. DAVIS, MARY DABNEY. The present COOK, MRS. KATHERINE M. A brighter state of progress of the committee future for the rural child, 721 determining "a typical kindergarten COOLIDGE, PRESIDENT CALVIN, Address , day," an index of kindergarten work, 213 590 COOPER, WILLIAM J. Comparison of the Dean of high school girls, 520 6-3-3 plan with the 6-4-2 plan, 947; DEFFENBAUGH, W. S. Shall boards of Improved methods of supervision, 950 education be independent of municipal Coöperation between the principal and government? 740 supervisors-the Chicago plan. The Definite program needed for training right relationship of, 548 teachers in service ( CHARLES A. Coöperation in the continuing program PHILHOWER) , 929 of the committee on health problems DEMING, ROBERT C. Secretary for Im- (JOHN M. DODSON) , 362 migrant Education group, 923 Coordination in part-time education Democracy, 400 (MARGARET M. ALLTUCKER ) , 380 DENNIS , L. H. The administration of Coordination of educational units for a state program of apprentice train- efficiency (M. B. HILLEGAS ) , 931 ing in the building trades, 1007 CORNELL, C. B. Developing the indi- vidual, 941 Dental hygiene in the schools (NILS JUELL), 446 CORNING, Н. М. Organization of curriculum materials, 936 Department of business education, CORSON, DAVID B. Chairman of physical Minutes, 429 and health education group, 917 ; A Department of deans of women, longer school year, 955 Minutes, 500 Country-the economic basis of national Department of educational publications , life, The (C. J. GALPIN ) , 726 program, 537 1074 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociATION Department of elementary school princi- DRACHSLER, JULIUS. Some attitudes of pals, minutes , 545, 552 the foreign-born on their life in Department of superintendence, Publica- America, 570 tions, 1059 Drill in arithmetic ( WILLIAM MAXSON ) , 564 Departments : Business education, 429 ; Classroom teachers, 460; Child DURAND, E. DANA. Teaching worid lygiene, 439; Deans of women, 500 ; economics in high schools-abstract, 430 Educational publications, 537 ; Ele- mentary education, 545 ; Elementary school principals, 545 ; Higher educa- EARLY, J. J. Progress in school adminis- tion, 565 ; Immigrant education, 565 ; tration in small cities, 933 Kindergarten education, 583 ; Music Economics, 430 education, 597 ; Normal schools and Economies in instruction (R. G. JONES ) , 955 teachers colleges, 613 ; Physical and health education, 6373; Rural educa- Economies through organization ( C. W. tion, 651 , 715 ; School administration, WASHBURNE) , 954 139 ; Science instruction, 753 ; Second- EDGERTON, A. H. Present trends and ary education, 775 ; Superintendence, friendly enemies of industrial educa- 803 ; Visual education, 963 ; Voca- tion, 992 tional education, 987 Editorial council, 290 Developing the individual (С. В. Educating the public to higher standards CORNELL) , 941 of textbook making (C. E. DOUGLASS ). D.VER, WILLIAM. The greetings of 537; ( CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS) , 541 Chicago, 821 Education bili, 1033 ; Hearings on, 1054 Devices and methods in natural science Education in the Nation's capital (J. T. SHRINER ) , 768 (FRANK W. BALLOU) , 171 DICK, WILLIAM . Should the school sec- Education week, 95 retary be under the direction of the Educational books, 1061 superintendent ? 750 Educational expenditures considered as Differences in curriculum for grades an investment (E. C. HARTWELL) , 844 Educational fads considered as funda- (JOHN M. FOOTE) , 927 Discussion of the report of the com- mental ( O. L. REID) , 849 mittee on a comparative study of Educational progress, Report on (IDE instruction in consolidated and one- G.SARGEANT ) , 553 Educational resources of country life teacher schools (L. M. FAVROr ) , 667 Divisions at headquarters, 116 ; Busi- (JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH ) , 730 ness, 116 ; Records and accounts, 118 ; Elementary school principals, Depart- Publications, 120 ; Research, 124; ment of, minutes, 545, 552; Publica- Classroom service, 126 ; Legisiative tions, 1057 service, 128 ; Field service, 131 ; EMER ON, WILLIAM R. P. Physical and Administrative service, 132 mental urfitness, in children, 918 DOOSON, JOHN M. Coöperation in the Employment, 791, 792 continuing program of the joint com- Encouragements (WILLIAM MATHER mittee on health problems, 362 LEWIS) , 828 DOHERTI , AGNLS E. Health of the ENGLEMAN, J. O. Report of field serv- teacher, The, 364 ice, 131 DORSEY, SUSAN M. Material for visual English, Business, 436 instruction, 921 ; Relations of the Ethics for teachers, 285 superintendent of schools to the teach- Evening schools in our rural com- ing corps, 869 munities (LILLIA E. JOHNSON ) , 957 DOUGLASS, C. E. Educating the public Executive committee, Minutes of, 79 to higher standards of textbook Executive committee reports for the making, 537 board of directors, 73 DOWNING E. R. Science instruction in Extra- curricula activities, A county-wide some European schools, 772 program of ( O. E. PORF ) , 959 Γ INDEX 1075 Extra-curricula activities, Value of General program, 36 (FRANCIS H. J. PAUL) , 916 General sessions, 137 Geography, 975, 976 FAVROT, L. M. Discussion of the report GERWIG, GEORGE W. Should the school of the committee on a comparative secretary be under the direction of study of instruction in consolidated the superintendent ? 746 and one-teacher schools, 667 Girls' athletics ( ETHEL PERRIN ) , 643 FERGUSON, BERTHA. How high schools GOLDRICH, LEON W. Spiritual values in are coöperating with parents, 502 an educational program for democ- FILLERS, H. D. Method of curriculum racy, 144 making, 940 GOMPERT, WILLIAM H. Outstanding Final report of committee on the teach- essentials of modern school archi- ing of democracy (A. DUNCAN tecture, 749 YOCUM) , 400 GRAVES, FRANK P. Nation and its public Financing the public schools, 470 education, The, 244; Rural education, FINEGAN, THOMAS E. Report of com- 854 mittee on visual education, 295 Greetings of Chicago ( WILLIAM Fiscal support of state teachers' colleges DLVLR) , 821 (F. R. HAMILTON ) , 389 Groups , City, county, and State, 927 FOGHT, HAROLD W. Report of com- GWINN, J. M. Address at the Walter mittee on rural teachers' problems, 269 Reed General Hospital, 239 ; Simi- larities versus differences as bases for FOOTE, JOHN M. Differences in curricu- educational programs, 352 ; Unifying lum for grades , 927 administration of education with the FORBUSH, WILLIAM BYRON . Teaching educative processes, 397 business morals, 157 FORCE, ANNA LAURA. Report of com- HALE, FLORENCE M. The training of mittee on status of American woman teachers for the one-room school, 928 teacher, 370 HAMILTON, F. R. Fiscal support of State Forestry as a tool in vocational educa- teachers' colleges , 389 tion (M. C. MERRILL), 1013 HARDING, WARREN G. Tribute to, 836 FRASER, HELEN. Ideals women should HARMAN , A. F. Leadership, 959 uphold in politics, 508 Harris memorial fund, 114 FREEMAN , FRANK N. The value of HARRIS, WILLIAM T. Book on, 1050 visual aids in education, 918 HARTWELL, E. C. Better trained teach- FRENCH, WILL. Selecting new materials ers, 953 ; Educational expenditures for the school program, 933 considered as an investment, 844; The FROST, NORMAN. Report of the com- mittee on constructive studies, 672 superintendent's responsibility in vo- cational and part-time education, 922 Functions of the representative assembly HARVEY, MARIE TURNER. The Porter (JESSE H. NEWLON ) , 189 school, 674 Fundamentals of character training IHAYS, DUDLEY GRANT. A summary of (EDWIN D. STARBUCK ) , 159 visual viewpoints, 984; value of Future of the comprehensive high visual instruction, 921 school ( GEORGE S. COUNTS ) , 796 Hazards of the superintendency and the next forward step in reducing GALPIN , C. J. The country-the eco- nomic basis of national life, 726 them (J. H. BEVERIDGE ) , 864 Games and health ( ANNE RAYMOND ) , Headquarters staff, 21 453 Health education, 440, 442, 443, 446, GATES, C. R. The small community and 449, 453, 456, 917, 980 the school, 932 ; Vocational education Health education in the schools (E. in small cities, 940 GEORGE PAYNE ) , 917 GECKS, MATHILDE C. Moral and re- Health, Interesting school children in ligious education, 140 (ELTON G. LITTELL) , 440 1076 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1 Health of the teacher, The (AGNES E. better school medical inspection and DOHERTY) , 364 health service, 456 Health problems in education, 274, 361, Humanizing the grade-school curricu 362 lum (E. M. SIPPLE ) , 943 HEFFERAN, MRS.. W. S. How the needs HUNTER, FRED M. Discussion of tenure 1 of the high school girl are being met report, 475 ; Relation of supervision by the parent, 525 to the attainment of the major ob- 1 Higher education, Department of, 565 jectives of elementary education, 903; Higher education: New administrative report of the committee of one hun- adjustments ( Lorus D. COFFMAN ) , dred on the problem of tenure, 251 876 High school building (J. H. BEVERIDGE ) , Illiteracy commission, Report of, 288 952 Illiteracy program, An ( CHARLES High school curriculum, The ( W. L. MCKENNY) , 423 SPENCER) , 929 Immigrant education, 567; Department HILLEGAS, M. B. Coördination of edu- of, minutes, 565 cational units for efficiency, 931 Immigrant education group, Report of History of Association, 182 (A. B. MEREDITH, chairman) , 923 HIXSON, HELEN T. Report of the di- Index of publications of the N. E. A. 1060 vision of records and accounts, 118 HOKE, R. Κ. The plan and cost of Industrial education, 992, 993 operating the schools of Prince George Industrial education, The future of (K. G. SMITH) , 1002 County, Virginia, 711 Intelligence tests, Uses and abuses of HOLLOWAY, H. V. Principles underlying school support, 961 (J. H. RISLEY) , 936 HOLY, T. C: Relation of size to cost of Investigation of demonstration versus operation in certain schools of Iowa, laboratory as a method of teaching 706 natural science (FRED G. ANIBAL), 771 Home for retired teachers, 114 HOPKINS, W. R. The need and hope of JENKS, ALBERT E. Types of important the city, 859 racial information which teachers of HORTON, D. W. The validity and Americanization should possess, 569 future of the 6-3-3 plan, 942 JOHNSON, LILLIA E. Evening schools in HOSIC, JAMES F. Single salary schedule our rural communities, 957 in practice, 371 JONES, BURR F. Vocational training in HOWARD, GEORGE. Problems involved in the elementary school, 928 the administration of State aid for JONES, LLOYD L. Teaching bookkeeping transportation, 689 so as to realize its most important How does the instruction in vocational educational and vocational values,437 schools provide for individual differ- JONES, MARY COVER. Conditioning and ences ? (ROBERT H. RODGERS ) , 996 reconditioning-an experimental study How high schools are coöperating with in child behavior, 585 parents (BERTHA FERGUSON ) , 502 JONES, OLIVE M. The Nation's teachers, 172 How shall we select the subject-matter of the elementary school curriculum ? JONES, R. G. Economies in instruction. (WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK ) , 903 955; Visual instruction in a city How to get the most out of a short school system, 919 course for county superintendents Journal of the National Education Asso- (MAY TRUMPER ) , 685 ciation, present, 1047; former, 1048 How to raise the standards of county JOYCE, DARRELL. Duties of the superin- supervision through a research de- tendent, 946 partment (JOSEPH A. BAER) , 693 JUELL, NILS . Dental hygiene in the How to reach the masses with health schools- abstract, 446 education ( C. WARD CRAMPTON ) , 980 Junior high schools in Washington HOWE, WILLIAM A. What we need for (FRANK W. BALLOU), 416 INDEX 1077 Keeping things checked up (E. B. MCLEAN, FANNIE W. Ways and means SELLEW), 939 of accrediting secondary schools for KENNEDY, FERN. The county superin- university entrance, 784 tendent's relation to his teachers, 956 MACLEAN , MRS. ISABELLE D. The KEPPEL, MARK. Teacher, whither goest Patriotic Education League of Lynn, thou? 470 Mass., 570 KILPATRICK, WILLIAM H. How shall we MCSKIMMON, MARY. Principal, The, 195 select the subject-matter in the MADDEN, MARGARET. The right rela- elementary school curriculum ? 903 tionship of coöperation between the Kindergarten education, Department of, principal and supervisors-the Chi- minutes, 583 cago plan, 548 Kindergarten work, 590, 591 Major objectives of elementary educa- KITSON, HARRY D. What is the place tion ( F. G. BONSER) , 890 ; ( CHARLES of analysis in vocational curriculum- L. SPAIN ) , 897 ; ( W. H. KILPATRICK) , building, 995 903; ( FRED M. HUNTER) , 908 KNOX, MARGARET. Our children's Making the high school a social institu- neglected inheritance, 150 tion (PAUL C. STETSON ) , 951 KRETSINGER, R. W. Selection of essen- Making the high-ways and by-ways real tials of life activities, 934 to children ( ELEANOR B. WATSON ) , 976 MALOY, WILLIAM MILES. Athletics and LANGWORTHY, H. W. Selection of essen- their value for citizenship, 641 tials in desirable ideals, 935 MARRS,, S.. M. N. State school support, Lantern slides, 979 960 La Salle-Peru Bureau of Educational Material for visual instruction ( SUSAN Counsel, 634 M. DORSEY) , 921 Leadership ( A. F. HARMAN ) , 959 MAXFIELD, FRANCIS N. Mental hygiene LEAVITT, FRANK M. Vocational guidance and the school program-abstract, 449 essential in vocational education, 922 MAXSON, WILLIAM. Drill in arithmetic, Legislative commission, 254, 1054 564 Lesson materials in reading and writing MAXWELL, GUY E. Working conditions for the foreign-born illiterate essential to highest efficiency and (HARRIET AHLERS ) , 576 economy, 614 LEW13, E. E. The powers and duties of Medical inspection and health service, the city superintendent, 944 What we need for better schools LEWIS, JOHN W. Score cards for texts (WILLIAM A. HOWE) , 456 in adult immigrant classes, 580 Membership, Former, 1044 LEWIS, WILLIAM MATHER. Encourage- Members of committees, 23 ments , 828 Memorial Continental Hall, Address at Library, The school , 561 (HOMER H. SEERLEY) , 232 Life memberships , 134 Mental hygiene and the school pro- Lincoln Memorial, Address at (FRANCIS gram-abstract ( FRANCIS N. MAX- G. BLAIR) , 225 FIELD), 449 LITTELL, ELTON G. Interesting school MEREDITH, A. B., chairman of immigrant children in health-abstract, 440 education group , 923 Merit ratings of teachers ( E. R. WHIT- MCANDREW, WILLIAM . More encourage- NEY) , 948 ments , 839 MERRIAM, B. J. The superintendent a MCCORMACK, Т. J. A critique of educa- tional method, 627 salesman of education, 944 MACCRACKEN, JOHN H. National learn- MERRILL, M. C. Forestry as a tool in ing and national life, 209 vocational education, 1013 MCDONALD, JEANNETTE. Needs of high Method, A critique of educational ( Т. school girls and how these needs are J. MCCORMACK ) , 627 met by a dean of girls, 520 Method of curriculum making ( H. D. MCKENNY, CHARLES. Illiteracy program, FILLERS) , 940 An, 423 MILLER, ELMER G. The vocational 1078 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION need for business writing in thejunior Necrology, 347 high school and how to meet it, 433 Need and hope of the city, The (W. R. Minutes of Washington convention, 45 HOPKINS) , 859 Modern education (E. W. BUTTERFIELD) , Need of instruments to measure kinder. 960 garten education ( MARY MAUDE MOELLER, H. C. Raising the standards REED) , 591 of county supervision through dem- Needs of high school girls and how onstration teaching, 698 these needs are met by a dean of MOHLER, LOUIS L. The teaching of girls ( JEANNETTE MCDONALD) , 520 music appreciation as a phase of Needs of the high school girl and how modern education, 598 met by the parent ( MRS. W. S. MOONEY, MARY F. As a classroom HEFFERAN ) , 525 teacher sees it, 207 Needs of the high school girl and how MOORE, M. Ε. Parent, teacher, and they are met by social and philan- school, 925 thropic organizations (ANNE T. Moral aims in the training of youth BINGHAM ) , 528 (HENRY NEUMANN ) , 817 NEUMANN, HENRY. Moral aims in the Moral and religious education training of youth, 817 (MATHILDE C. GECKS) , 140 NEWLON, JESSE H. Better organized More encouragements ( WILLIAM curricula, 954; chairman of major MCANDREWS ) , 839 objectives group, 8903 Functions of MORGAN, JOY E. Report of the division the representative assembly, 189 of publications, 120 ; The school New science of public school publicity library, 561 (P. R. SPENCER) , 932 MORRISON, CORA B. Single salary Next step in world peace ( FLORENCE schedules, 480 ALLEN), 832 Moving pictures, 964, 966, 971, 975, 976, Normal schools and teachers' colleges, 980, 982 Department of, minutes, 613 Music appreciation, 598 NORTH, SAMUEL M. Athletics in high Music education, Department of minutes, school, 644 597 NORTON, JOHN K. Recent legislation Music in 1836, 1886, 1911, and 1936, affecting the status of the American School ( FRANCES CLARK) , 603 woman teacher, 377; Report of the MYERS, GEORGE E. Amalgamation of research division, 124 vocational education organizations, Nutrition of the school child (DR. 989 TALLIAFERRO CLARK) , 442 Nation and its public education, The Objective studies in rural schools (FRED (Frank P. GRAVES) , 244 D. CRAM) , 663 Nation's teachers, The (OLIVE M. JONES), 172 Obligations of citizenship (LOTUS D. COFFMAN ) , 916 National cemetery, Gettysburg, Address at the ( FRANK P. GRAVES ) , 244 Officers of departments, 21 National congress of parents and Officers of the Association for 1923-24, teachers, 716 19 ; for 1924-25, 31 National council of education, secre- One-teacher schools, 667 tary's minutes, 350, 394 Orchestra, The organization and conduct National learning and national life of a school ( JAMES F. PRICE) , 603 (JOHN H. MACCRACKEN ) , 209 OREM, NICHOLAS. Rural school athletics, 639 National obligations in education (JOHN W. ABERCROMBIE) , 823 Organization of curriculum materials National program for education, 1053 (H. M. CORNING) , 936 Natural science, 768 Organizing a high school and classify- Natural science, Investigation of dem- ing its pupils so as to serve each onstration versus laboratory as a equitably (MARGARET M. ALLTUCKER), method of teaching, 771 779 ; ( H. B. WILSON ) , 776 INDEX 1079 O'RYAN, JOHN F. Address at the grave Porter school, The ( MARIE TURNER of the unknown soldier, 221 HARVEY) , 674 Our Callureas neglected inheritance Powers and duties of the city superin- (MARGARET KNOX) , 150 tendent (E. E. LEWIS), 944 ; ( FRANK Our national construction program and G.PICKELL) , 945 ; ( DARRELL JOYCE) , its need of mechanics (D. H. SAWYER ) , 946 1008 PRATT, O. C. Budget planning, 952 Outlook for immigrant education from Preparation of teachers in the use of the standpoint of the U. S. Bureau of visual aids (A. G. BALCOM ) , 971 Education (JOHN J. TIGERT) , 567 Present state of progress of the com- Outstanding essentials of modern school mittee determining "a typical kinder- architecture ( WILLIAM H. GOMPERT) , garten day," an index of kindergarten 749 work (MARY DABNEY DAVIS) , 590 Present trends and friendly enemies of Parent, The ( MARGARETTA WILLIS industrial education (A. H. EDGER- REEVE), 192 ΤΟΝ ) , 992 Parent of the high school girl, The, 525 PRICE, JAMES F. The organization and Parents and high school, 502 conduct of a school orchestra, 603 Parent, teacher, and school ( M. Ε. Principal, The ( MARY MCSKIMMON ) , MOORE) , 925 195 Parent-teacher associations in rural Principles underlying school support schools ( MRS. JOHN B. CLEAVER) , 716 (H. V. HOLLOWAY) , 961 Part-time education, 380 Problems involved in the administration Patriotic Education League of Lynn, of State aid for transportation Mass. (MRS . ISABELLE D. MACLEAN ) , (GEORGE HOWARD, JR. ) , 689 570 Progress , Educational, 828 Patriotic pilgrimages' program, 41 ; ad- Progress in school administration in dresses given at, 221 small cities (J. J. EARLY ) , 933 PAUL, FRANCIS H. J. The value of Provisions for industrial education in extra-curricular activities, 916 the public schools ( HOWARD L. PAYNE, E. GEORGE. Health education BRIGGS) , 993 in the schools, 917 Psychiatry clinic, 627 Peace day, 341 Publications, Miscellaneous , 1050 PERRIN, ETHEL, Girls' athletics, 643 Publications of the National Education PHILHOWER, CHARLES A. A definite Association, 1041 program needed for training teachers Publicity, Public school, 932 in service, 929 Physical and health education, Depart- Qualities to be possessed by a superin- ment of, minutes, 637 tendent of schools (J. E. BURKE) , Physical and health education: discus- 947 sion (DAVID B. CORSON, chairman) , 917 Racial information for Americanization Physical and mental unfitness in chil- teachers, 569 dren (WILLIAM R. P. EMERSON ) , 918 Raising the standards of county super- PICKELL, FRANK G. Powers and duties vision through demonstration teach- of the city superintendent, 945 ; Re- ing (H. C. MOELLER) , 698 organizing secondary education, 950 RAMSEY, Ε. Ε. Curriculum of the PITIMAN, M. S. Visiting schools, 957 standard high school, 929 Plan and cost of operating the schools RAYMOND, ANNE. Games and health , of Prince George County, Virginia 453 (R. K. HOKE ) , 711 Politics, Ideals women should uphold in Real greatness of the American Republic, (HELEN FRASER ) , 508 The (HOMER II. SEERLEY) , 232 Politics, Women in, 508, 511 REAVIS, W. C. Secondary school re- PORE, O. E. A county-wide program of organization, 951 extra-curricula activities , 959 Recent legislation affecting the status 1080 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the American woman teacher nomenclature ( JOHN W. WITHERS) , (JOHN K. NORTON ) , 377 337 REED, MARY MAUDE. The need of Report of committee on evaluation of instruments to measure kindergarten instruction of the Department of education, 591 Classroom Teachers (GUY M. REEVE, MARGARETTA WILLIS . Parent, WILSON) , 486 The, 192 Report of committee on health problems REID, O. L. Educational fads considered in education ( Thomas D. WOOD), 274, as fundamental , 849 361 Relation of general to vocational edu- Report of committee on necrology cation (DAVID SNEDDEN ) , 1003 (ERNEST L. CRANDALL) , 347 Relation of size to cost of operation in Report of committee on resolutions, 54 certain schools of Iowa ( T. C. HOLY) , Report of committee on rural teachers' 706 problems ( HAROLD W. FOGHT) , 269 Relation of supervision to the attain- Report of committee on tenure (FRED M. ment of the major objectives of HUNTER) , 251 elementary education (FRED M. Report of committee on the classification HUNTER) , 908 of educational material ( THOMAS H. Relation of the secondary school to BRIGGS) , 336 junior employment ( J. D. STARK) , 792 ; Report of the committee on the problem (MARY STEWART) , 791 of retirement allowances (PHILIP E. Relation of the superintendent of schools CARLSON ) , 248 to the teaching corps ( SUSAN M. Report of the committee on the status DORSEY) , 869 of the American woman teacher Relation of visual aids to educational (ANNA LAURA FORCE) , 370 objectives ( LAURA ZIRBES ) , 964 Report of the committee on the teaching Religious education, 140, 144, 150, 157 of democracy (A. DUNCAN YOCUM ) , 400 Reorganization of secondary education, 1051 Report of committee on thrift education Reorganization of the curriculum of the (ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN ) , 338 elementary schools (F. G. BONSER), Report of committee on visual education 890 (THOMAS E. FINEGAN ), 295 Reorganization of the elementary school Report of committee to coöperate with to meet major objectives ( CHARLESL. the American School Citizenship SPAIN ) , 897 League ( MRS. FANNIE FERN AN- Reorganizing secondary education DREWS ), 341 (FRANK G. PICKELL) , 950 Report of editorial council (WILLIAM C. Report of committee on arithmetic re- BAGLEY) , 290 vision ( GUY M. WILSON) , 311 Report of executive committee for the Report of committee on character edu- board of directors , 73 cation (MILTON BENNION ) , 278 Report of illiteracy commission (CORA Report of committee on classroom teach- WILSON STEWART) , 288 ers' problems (MARY C. C. BRADFORD) , Report of legislative commission 265 (GEORGE D. STRAYER) , 254 Report of committee on code of pro- Report of secretary, 97 fessional ethics for teachers ( MAY Report of treasurer, 68 WADE ) , 285 Report of trustees, 58 Report of committee on constructive Report on immigrant education (ROBERT studies (NORMAN FROST) , 672 C. DEMING ) , 923 Report of committee on coöperation with Report on summer session's in state the world federation of national edu- teachers' colleges ( JOSEPH E. AVENT), cation associations (AUGUSTUS O. 383 THOMAS) , 272 Reports, Curriculum, 1050 Report of committee on educational Reports of committees, 248 INDEX 1081 Reports: Arithmetic revision, 311 ; Rural school demonstration work in character education, 278 ; classroom La Grange and Johnson counties, teachers' problems, 265 ; code of pro- Indiana, and the new division of fessional ethics , 285 ; constructive schoolhouse planning in the State studies, 672; coöperation with world Department of Public Instruction (H. federation of national education asso- L. SMITH) , 515 ciations, 272 ; educational nomen- Rural teachers' problems, 269 clature, 337 ; evaluation of instruction, 486; health problems, 274, 361 ; Safety teaching in our schools (ALBERT necrology, 347 ; resolutions, 54 ; rural W. WHITNEY) , 949 teachers' problems, 269 ; tenure, 251 ; Salary, Single, 371, 377, 480 the classification of educational mate- Salaries, tenure, and pensions, Reports rial, 336; the problem of retirement relating to, 1052 allowances, 2483; the status of the SARGEANT, IDE G. Report on educational American woman teacher, 370 ; thrift progress, 553 education, 338 ; visual education, 295 ; SAWYER, D. H. Our national construc- to cooperate with the American School tion program and its need of Citizenship League, 341 ; editorial mechanics , 1008 council, 290 ; executive committee, 73 ; School administration, Department of, illiteracy commission, 288 ; legislative minutes, 739 commission, 254; secretary, 97 ; treas- School and the community, The ; dis- urer, 68 ; trustees, 58 ; on immigrant cussion, 925 education, 923 ; on summer sessions in School board organization and the State teachers' colleges, 383 ; on the superintendent ( J. W. STUDEBAKER ) , teaching of democracy, 400 882 Representative assembly, Functions of, School boards , 740 189 ; Members of, 1015 ; Minutes of, 45 School health and physical education, Research Bulletin of the National Edu- Department of, Constitution, 647 cation Association, 1049 School library, The (JOY E. MORGAN), Research in rural education, Value and 561 significance of ( E. J. ASHBAUGH ) , 656 School secretary, The, 746, 750 Resolutions, 54 School support, 960, 961 Retirement allowances, 248 School year, A longer (DAVID B. RHODES, SARA L. Tribute to Frederick CORSON) , 955 Douglass made at his home, A, 241 Schoolhouse planning in the State De- Right spirit in character training, The partment of Public Instruction, The (ROBERT H. WRIGHT ) , 917 rural school demonstration work in RISLEY, J. Η. Uses and abuses of La Grange and Johnson counties, intelligence tests, 937 Indiana, and the new division of, RODGERS, ROBERT H. How does the 515 instruction in vocational schools pro- Science for the million (EDWIN E. vide for individual differences ? 996 SLOSSON ) , 754 ROEMER, JOSEPH. A comparison of Science instruction, Department of, small and large high schools , 702 minutes, 753 ROSE, C. E. Teaching foreigners to Science instruction in some European speak English, 938 schools (E. R. DOWNING ) , 772 Rural education, Department of, minutes, Science in the elementary school (HOL- 651, 715; Journal of, 1058 LAND R. SPERRY) , 761 Rural education ( FRANK PIERREPONT Score cards for texts in adult immigrant GRAVES) , 854 classes ( JOHN W. LEWIS ) , 580 Rural school athletics (NICHOLAS SEARSON, J. W. Tentative report of OREM), 639 committee on English, 335 Rural school community program Secondary education, Department of, (MABELL G. BUSH ) , 926 minutes , 775 ; reorganization of, 1051 1082 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Secretary's report, 97 SNEDDEN, DAVID. The relation of gen- SEERLEY, HOMER H. Real greatness of eral to vocational education, 1003 the American Republic, The, 232 Social and philanthropic work with the Selecting new materials for the school high school girl, 528 program ( WILL FRENCH) , 933 SPAIN, CHARLES L. Reorganization of Selection of essentials by desirable the elementary school to meet major ideals ( H. W. LANGWORTHY) , 935 objectives, 897 Selection of essentials of life activities Spelling, a vital factor in the curricu- (R. W. KRETSINGER) , 934 lum ( SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD) , 946 SELLEW, E. B. Keeping things checked SPENCER, P. R. Art in the public up, 939 schools, 940; The new science of Shall boards of education be inde- public school publicity, 932 pendent of municipal government ? SPENCER, W. L. The high school cur- (W. S. DEFFENBAUGH ) , 740 riculum, 929 SHANKLAND, S. D. Report of depart- SPERRY, HOLLAND R. Science in the ment of superintendence and division elementary school, 761 of administrative service, 132 Spiritual values in an educational pro- Shorthand helps, 436 gram for democracy (LEON W. GOLD- Should the school secretary be under RICH), 144 the direction of the superintendent ? SPOONER, JULIA A. Citizen teacher, (GEORGE W. GERWIG) , 746 ; WILLIAM The, 200 DICK) , 750 STARBUCK, EDWIN D. Fundamentals of SHRINER, J. T. Devices and methods in character training, 159 ; Tests and natural science, 768 measurements of character, 357 Similarities versus differences as bases STARK, J. D. The relation of the sec- for educational programs (J. M. ondary school to junior employment, GWINN) , 352 792 SIMPSON, I. JEWELL. What functions of State aid for transportation, 689 a State supervisor of rural schools are State and local support ( MAY TRUMPER), most worth-while ? 680 960 Single salary schedule, Experience with State school support (S. M. N. MARRS) , a ( FRANK E. CONVERSE) , 942 960 Single salary schedule in practice, The State superintendents and commission- (JAMES F. Hosic) , 371 ; ( CORA B. ers : Discussion (J. M. MCCONNELL, MORRISON) , 480 chairman) , 960 SIPPLE, E. M. Humanizing the grade State teachers' colleges, Fiscal support school curriculum, 943 of, 389 Six-four-two plan compared with the Status of teacher, 370, 377 6-3-3 plan ( WILLIAM J. COOPER ) , 947 STEPHENSON, NATHANIEL W. Yale his- Six-three-three plan, The validity and torical films, 982 future of (D. W. HORTON ) , 942 Stereograph, 979 SLOSSON , EDWIN E. Science for the Sterling-Reed bill, 1023 million, 754 STETSON, PAUL C. City schools and Small community and the school (C. R. community service, 925 ; Making the GATES), 932 high school a social institution, 951 SMITH, H. L. The rural school dem- STEWART, CORA WILSON . Report of onstration work in La Grange and illiteracy commission, 288 Johnson counties, Indiana, and the STEWART, MARY. The relation of the new division of schoolhouse planning secondary school to junior employ- in the State Department of Public ment, 791 Instruction, 515 St. Louis county, School administration SMITH, K. G. The future of industrial in (C. H. BARNES ) , 958 education, 1002 STRAYER, GEORGE D. Report of legisla- SMITH, PAYSON . The challenge to Amer- tive commission, 2543; What shallbe ican education, 137 the Nation's part ? 888 INDEX 1083 STUDEBAKER, J. W. School board Tentative report of committee on organization and the superintendent, English ( J. W. SEARSON ) , 335 882 Tenure report, Discussion of (FRED M. Subject matter most vital for the ad- HUNTER) , 475 justment of the non-English speaking Tests and measurements of character woman to American life (ELIZABETH (EDWIN D. STARBUCK) , 357 A. WOODWARD ), 573 Textbook making, Educating the public Summary of visual viewpoints (DUDLEY to higher standards of, 537, 541 GRANT HAYS ) , 984 THALMAN, J. W. The value of teacher Summer sessions, State teachers' colleges, organizations, 949 383 THOMAS, AUGUSTUS O. Report of com- Superintendence, Department of, mittee on coöperation with the world minutes , 803 ; addresses, 817; resolu- federation of national education tions, 813 associations , 272 Superintendent, The, 864, 869 THOMAS, CHARLES SWAIN. Educating Superintendent a salesman of educa- the public to higher standards of text- tion (B. J. MERRIAM ) , 944 book making, 541 Superintendent, Powers and duties of Thrift education, 338 the city, 944, 945, 946 TIGERT, JOHN J. Address of welcome, Superintendent, The ( WILLIS A. SUTTTON ) , 205 165; Outlook for immigrant educa- Superintendent's relation to his school tion from the standpoint of the U. S. directors (M. S. BENTZ ) , 956 Bureau of Education, 567 ; Work of Superintendent's relation to principals the Bureau of Education in Alaska, (A. G. YAWBERG) , 956 The, 355 Superintendent's responsibility in voca- Training for citizenship in the senior tional and part-time education (E. C. high school ( MILTON BENNION ) , 916 HARTWELL) , 922 Training teachers for the one-room Supervision, 908 school ( FLORENCE M. HALE) , 928 Supervision, Improved methods of (W. Training teachers in active service' J. COOPER) , 950 (FLORENCE M. WELLMAN ) , 928 SUTTON, WILLIS A. Superintendent, Transportation, 689 The, 205 Treasurer's report, 68 Tribute to Frederick Douglass made at TAINTOR, S. AUGUSTA. Business English his home, A ( SARA L. RHODES) , 241 as a part of stenographic training- Tribute to Warren G. Harding ( WIL- abstract, 436 LIAM M. DAVIDSON ) , 836 Teacher training, 1052 Tribute to Woodrow Wilson (RANDALL Teacher, whither goest thou ? ( MARK J. CONDON ) , 838 KEPPEL), 470 Teaching bookkeeping so as to realize TRUMPER, MAY. How to get the most out of a short course for county its most important educational and vocational values-abstract ( LLOYD L. superintendents, 685 ; State and local JONES) , 437 support, 960 Teaching business morals ( WILLIAM Trustees' report, 58 BYRON FORBUSH) , 157 Types of important racial information which teachers of Americanization Teaching foreigners to speak English (C. E. ROSE) , 938 should possess (ALBERT E. JENKS ) , 569 Teaching of music appreciation as a phase of modern education (LOUIS L. Typist, Training a, 435 MOHLER) , 598 Teaching world economics in high Unknown soldier, Address at the grave schools- abstract ( E. DANA DURAND ) , of the (MAJOR GENERAL JOHN F. 430 O'RYAN) , 221 1084 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Value of moving pictures as an aid to Washington convention in 1898, 168 teaching languages and citizenship to Washington, D. C., schools, 171 adult foreigners (MAUDE E. AITON ) , WATSON, ELEANOR B. Making the high- 966 ways and byways real to children, 976 Value of teacher organizations ( J. W. THALMAN ) , 949 Ways and means of accrediting second- Value of visual aids in education ary schools for university entrance (FRANK N. FREEMAN ) , 918 (FANNIE W. MCLEAN) , 784; (ARTHUR Value of visual instruction (DUDLEY D. WHITMAN ) , 783 GRANT HAYS ) , 920 WEBER, JOSEPH J. Visual aids, 919 Visiting schools ( M. S. PITTMAN ) , 957 WELLMAN, FLORENCE М. Training Visual aids ( ERNEST L. CRANDALL ) , 921 ; teachers in active service, 928 (JOSEPH J. WEBER) , 919 What functions of a State supervisor of Visual aids in education, Value of rural schools are most worth-while? (FRANK N. FREEMAN ) , 918 (I. JEWELL SIMPSON ) , 680 Visual education, 295, 918, 1003 What is the place of analysis in voca- Visual education, Department of, cational curriculum-building (HARRY minutes , 963 , 987 D. KITSON ) , 995 Visual imagery in geography ( WALLACE What shall be the Nation's part? W. ATWOOD ) , 975 (GEORGE D. STRAYER) , 888 Visual instruction in State school a WHITMAN, ARTHUR D. Ways and system ( A. W. ABRAMS ) , 920 means of accrediting secondary Visual instruction in a city school sys- schools for college entrance, 783 tem ( R. G. JONES ) , 919 WHITNEY, ALBERT W. Safety teaching Vocational education, Department of, in our schools, 949 minutes, 987, 1006 WHITNEY, E. R. Merit ratings of Vocational education in small cities (С. teachers , 948 R. GATES ) , 940 WILSON, GUY M. Report of committee Vocational guidance, 627 on arithmetic revision, 311 ; Report Vocational guidance essential in voca- of committee on the evaluation of tional education ( FRANK M. LEAVITT) , instruction, 486 922 WILSON , H. B. Organizing the high Vocational and part-time education school and classifying its pupils so group, 922 as to serve each equitably, 776 ; chair- Vocational training, 432, 433, 435, 436, man of visual education group, 918 ; 437 Wilson, Woodrow, A tribute to, 838 ; Vocational training in the elementary Pilgrimage to tomb of, 241 school (BURR F. JONES) , 928 WINN, AGNES. Report of the division Vocational need for business writing in of classroom service, 126 the Junior high school and how to WILLIAMS, CHARL ORMOND. Report of meet it, The (ELMER G. MILLER) , 433 legislative service, 128 WADE, MAY. Report of committee on a WITHERS, JOHN W. Report of com- mittee on educational nomenclature, code of professional ethics for teach- 337 ers , 285 Walter Reed Memorial Hospital, Ad- Women in politics (MRS. FRANK M. dress at the (J. M. GWINN ) , 239 WARREN ) , 511 WARREN, MRS. FRANK M. Women in WOOD, THOMAS D. Report of joint committee on health problems in edu- politics, 511 WASHBURNE, C. W. Economies through cation, 274, 361 organization, 954 WOODWARD, ELIZABETH A. Subject mat- ter most vital for the adjustment of Washington addresses, 137 INDEX 1085 the non-English speaking woman to Yale historical films ( NATHANIEL W. American life, 573 STEPHENSON ) , 982 Working conditions essential to highest YAWBERG, A. G. Superintendent's rela- efficiency and economy (GUY E. MAX- tion to principals, 956 WELL) , 614 Yearbook, 1044 World federation of national education YOCUM, A. DUNCAN. Final report of associations, 272 committee on the teaching of democ- World peace, 832 racy, 400 WRIGHT, ROBERT H. The right spirit in character training, 917 ZIRBES, LAURA. 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